PSYCHO-ANALYTIC THEORY
Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist who founded the psychoanalytic
school of psychology. Freud is best known for his theories of the unconscious mind and the
defense mechanism of repression. He is also renowned for his redefinition of sexual desire as
the primary motivational energy of human life which is directed toward a wide variety of
objects. As well as his therapeutic techniques, including his theory of transference in the
therapeutic relationship and the presumed value of dreams as sources of insight into
unconscious desires.
Freud separated personality into 3 major components. The Id, the Ego, and the Superego. Freud
believed that these forces worked to create a person's behavior. They interact with each other
and eventually determined personality.
• The Id: The id is the very immature component of personality. It operates only on the
pleasure principal with no regard for anything else. One could say that it is completely
instinctual. Freud referred to the id as the reservoir of psychic energy. It only consists
of our basic biological needs. To eat, sleep, defecate, etc... The id is only a primary
process thinker, so it is primitive, irrational, and illogical.
Example: Jack is walking down the street and he is very hungry. He only has an id so
when he sees an apple pie cooling in a window, he takes it for himself.
• The Superego: The superego is our morals, principals, and ethics. It considers the
social standards for social behavior and guides us on what is right and wrong. The
superego begins to develop between 3 and 5 years of age. It is mostly shaped by what
we learn as young children from adults. Eventually we accept this training as a part of
who we are. We put pressure on ourselves to live up to how we think we should behave.
Example: Jack is walking down the street and he is very hungry. He only has a superego
so when he sees an apple pie cooling in a window, he does nothing. His superego tells
him that it is someone's pie and that it is not acceptable to trespass on someone’s
property and take their pie.
• The Ego: The ego is the moderator between the id and the superego. It operates on the
reality principal. It makes the decisions that dictate behaviour. The ego also considers
social realities, norms, etiquette, rules, and customs when it makes a decision on how
to behave. It seeks to delay gratification of the id's urges until appropriate outlets can
be found. It uses secondary process thinking to avoid negative consequences from
society.
Example: Using the examples from above, Jack's ego would tell him that he should not
take the pie from the windowsill, but instead he can buy some pie right up the street at
the local grocery store.
According to Freud the id, ego, and superego all operate across three levels of awareness in the
human mind. They are the conscious, unconscious, and preconscious.
• The conscious: The conscious consists of what someone is aware of at any particular
point in time. It includes what you are thinking about right now, whether it is in the
front of you mind or the back. If you are aware of it then it is in the conscious mind.
Example: Right now as you are reading about Freud you could be thinking about what
is being said in the text and that your eyes are tired from staring at this screen. In the
back of your mind, however, you might be thinking "wow this website is really cool, if
I was a psychology teacher I would give whoever made it an A". Both of these thoughts
occur in the conscious mind.
• The Preconscious: The preconscious contains information that is just below the
surface of awareness. It can be retrieved with relative ease and usually can be thought
of as memory or recollection.
Example: Right now think of your middle name. That is an example of preconscious
memory. Similar example could be what is your mom's birthday, when did it last rain,
and how long does it take to drive to the mall.
• The Unconscious: The unconscious contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are
buried deep in ourselves, well below our conscious awareness. Even though we are not
aware of their existence, they exert great influence on our behavior.
Example: Things in your unconscious would be forgotten negative experiences in your
past, extreme dislike for a parent, or a terrible event that you pushed out of your
preconscious.
The Interaction of the Id, Ego, and Superego
When talking about the id, the ego, and the superego, it is important to remember that these are
not three separate entities with clearly defined boundaries. These aspects are dynamic and
always interacting to influence an individual's overall personality and behavior.
With many competing forces, it is easy to see how conflict might arise between the id, ego, and
superego. Freud used the term ego strength to refer to the ego's ability to function despite these
dueling forces.
A person who has good ego strength can effectively manage these pressures, while a person
with too much or too little ego strength can be unyielding or disruptive.
What Happens If There Is an Imbalance?
According to Freud, the key to a healthy personality is a balance between the id, the ego, and
the superego.7
If the ego is able to adequately moderate between the demands of reality, the id, and the
superego, a healthy and well-adjusted personality emerges. Freud believed that an imbalance
between these elements would lead to a maladaptive personality.
For example, an individual with an overly dominant id might become impulsive,
uncontrollable, or even criminal. Such an individual acts upon their most basic urges with no
concern for whether their behaviour is appropriate, acceptable, or legal.
On the other hand, an overly dominant superego might lead to a personality that is extremely
moralistic and judgmental. A person ruled by the superego might not be able to accept anything
or anyone that they perceive to be "bad" or "immoral."
Conclusion
Freud's theory provides one conceptualization of how personality is structured and how the
elements of personality function. In Freud's view, a balance in the dynamic interaction of the
id, ego, and superego is necessary for a healthy personality.
While the ego has a tough job to do, it does not have to act alone. Anxiety also plays a role in
helping the ego mediate between the demands of the basic urges, moral values, and the real
world. When you experience different types of anxiety, defense mechanisms may kick in to
help defend the ego and reduce the anxiety you are feeling.
LEARNING THEORY
Learning theory describes how students receive, process, and retain knowledge
during learning. Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior
experience, all play a part in how understanding, or a world view, is acquired or changed and
knowledge and skills retained.
BF Skinner’s Behavioural Approach:
Behavioural and learning approaches to personality focus on the outer person. To a strict
learning theorist, personality is simply the sum of learned responses to the external
environment. Internal events such as thought, feelings and motivations are ignored.
Learning theorists say that personality is best understood by looking at the most influential
learning theorists. BF Skinner personality is a collection of learned behaviour pattern.
Similarities in responses across different situations are caused by similar patterns of
reinforcement that have been received in such situations in past.
If I am sociable both at parties and meetings, it is because I have been reinforced previously
for displaying social behaviour not because I am fulfilling some unconscious wishes based on
experiences during my childhood or because I have an internal trait of sociability.
Theorists like Skinner are interested in modifying behaviour in many ways. Their view is that
humans are infinitely changeable if one is able to control and modify the patterns of behaviour.
Other theorists would view behaviour as stable and unyielding can be changed and ultimately
improved.
Albert Bandura’s Learning Approach:
Unlike other learning approaches to personality social cognitive approaches emphasize
thoughts, feeling, expectations and values in determining personality.
According to Albert Bandura, one of the main proponents of this point of views, people are
able to foresee the possible outcomes of certain behaviours in a given setting without actually
having to carry them out. This takes place mainly through the mechanism of observational
learning viewing the actions of others and observing the consequences.
For instance, children who view of the consequences of the model’s behaviour are seen to be
positive. If on the other hand, the model’s aggressive behaviour has resulted in no
consequences or negative consequences, children are considerably less likely to act
aggressively according to social cognitive approaches. Personality thus develops by repeated
observation of the behaviour of others.
Bandura places particular emphasis on the role played by self-efficacy and learned expectation
that one is capable of carrying out a behaviour of producing a desired outcome. Self-efficacy
underlies people’s faith in their ability to carry out a particular behaviour, the greater a person’s
sense of self-efficacy, the more persistent he or she will be and the more likely it is that the
individual will be successful.
Bandura's key contribution to learning theory was the idea that much learning is vicarious. We
learn by observing someone else's behavior and its consequences, which Bandura called
observational learning. He felt that this type of learning also plays a part in the development of
our personality.
Social cognitive approaches are distinctive in their emphasis on the reciprocity between
individuals and their environment. Not only is the environment assumed to affect personality
but people’s behaviour and personalities are assumed to “feedback” and modify the
environment which in this affects behaviour in a web of reciprocity.
The five educational learning theories.
• Cognitive learning theory.
The cognitive learning theory looks at the way people think. Mental processes are an important
part in understanding how we learn. The cognitive theory understands that learners can be
influenced by both internal and external elements. Cognitivism, as suggested by the name,
focuses on cognitive processes of the mind such as thinking, memory, recall, and problem-
solving. Similar to behaviorism, cognitivism is about learning via association; however, the
emphasis is placed on internal processing rather than the external environment.
Plato and Descartes are two of the first philosophers that focused on cognition and how we as
human beings think. Many other researchers looked deeper into the idea of how we think,
spurring more research. Jean Piaget is a highly important figure in the field of cognitive
psychology, and his work focuses on environments and internal structures and how they impact
learning. The cognitive theory has developed over time, breaking off into sub-theories that
focus on unique elements of learning and understanding. At the most basic level, the cognitive
theory suggests that internal thoughts and external forces are both an important part of the
cognitive process. And as students understand how their thinking impacts their learning and
behavior, they are able to have more control over it.
In contrast to behaviorism, associations are based on creating links between new
understandings and prior knowledge. Cognitivism also differs from behaviorism by
acknowledging that learners process and encode information in different ways. Social
Cognitive Theory (SCT) is a major stand of cognitivism that asserts that observing others,
especially one’s peers, is the most effective form of knowledge acquisition. So how do we
translate cognitivism in the classroom? Collaborative problem-solving, discussion-based
activities, and peer-to-peer teaching are ideal activity formats that enable social interactions
that enhance learning. To support the creation of mental associations, it is important that
information is chunked into groups, and discrete segments of knowledge are linked together.
In order to further knowledge associations, be sure to tie theory back to real-world examples.
Other methods of association might include using mnemonics, analogies, or visual cues.
The cognitive learning theory impacts students because their understanding of their thought
process can help them learn. Teachers can give students opportunities to ask questions, to fail,
and think out loud. These strategies can help students understand how their thought process
works, and utilize this knowledge to construct better learning opportunities.
• Behaviorism learning theory.
Behaviorism is a pedagogical theory that defines learning as a process of knowledge
acquisition that takes place through observation (i.e., based on objectively quantifiable
events rather than introspective psychology).
The behaviorism learning theory is the idea that how a student behaves is based on their
interaction with their environment. It suggests that behaviors are influenced and learned from
external forces rather than internal forces. Psychologists have been working on the idea of
behaviorism since the 19th century. Behavioral learning theory is the basis for psychology that
can be observed and quantified. Behaviorism confirms that learning is strengthened through
repeated action, and therefore, having a systematic routine where knowledge is revisited
repeatedly will undoubtedly reinforce learning.
Positive reinforcement is a popular element of behaviorism—classical conditioning observed
in Pavlov’s dog experiments suggests that behaviors are directly motivated by the reward that
can be obtained.
Feedback is also an important component of behaviorism, especially when it is used as a
form of positive reinforcement. In order to strengthen positive associations with learning,
the timing of the feedback matters. Behaviorists would argue that for feedback to be an
effective form of association, it should be immediate—something that becomes much more
achievable in the microlearning context when students receive instant rewards for correctly
completing tasks or frequently logging in. It is, however, important to note that the
behaviorist school of thought is almost entirely dependent on teacher/instructor input and
views the learner as a passive recipient of information.
Pavlov's Dogs
Like many great scientific advances, Pavlovian conditioning (aka classical conditioning) was
discovered accidentally.
During the 1890s, Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov was researching salivation in dogs in
response to being fed. He inserted a small test tube into the cheek of each dog to measure saliva
when the dogs were fed (with a powder made from meat).
Pavlov predicted the dogs would salivate in response to the food placed in front of them, but
he noticed that his dogs would begin to salivate whenever they heard the footsteps of his
assistant who was bringing them the food.
When Pavlov discovered that any object or event which the dogs learned to associate with food
(such as the lab assistant) would trigger the same response, he realized that he had made an
important scientific discovery. Accordingly, he devoted the rest of his career to studying this
type of learning.
• Constructivism learning theory.
The constructivism learning theory is based on the idea that students actually create their own
learning based on their previous experience. Constructivism is a student-centered learning
theory that is based on cumulatively building understandings from students’ prior
experiences and knowledge. In other words, to continue the construction analogy, learning
becomes a process of constructing new knowledge on the foundation of what is already
known. Essentially, it places learning in a familiar context and aims to translate abstract
theories into relatable concepts.
Students take what they are being taught and add it to their previous knowledge and
experiences, creating a unique reality that is just for them. This learning theory focuses on
learning as an active process, personal and unique for each student. Constructivist-based
learning is always relevant.
Teachers can utilize constructivism to help understand that each student will bring their own
past to the classroom every day. Teachers in constructivist classrooms act as more of a guide
to helping students create their own learning and understanding. They help them create their
own process and reality based on their own past. Constructivism provides an alternative to
teacher-directed curriculum design by essentially allowing student experiences to dictate the
direction of learning. Because constructivist-oriented learning revolves around the
understandings and experiences of the students, it is inherently a dynamic and ever-changing
process
This is crucial to helping many kinds of students take their own experiences and include them
in their learning.
• Humanism learning theory.
Humanism is very closely related to constructivism. Humanism approaches learning and
education with a growth mindset. Similar to constructivism, humanism is a school of
educational thought that is inherently student-centered. Humanistic education derives many
of its values from the intellectual movement of the seventeenth century, where philosophes
such as Voltaire (1642-1778) believed that humans were born with innate potential.
Humanism directly focuses on the idea of self-actualization. Everyone functions under a
hierarchy of needs. Self-actualization is at the top of the hierarchy of needs—it is the brief
moments where you feel all of your needs are met and that you’re the best possible version of
yourself. Everyone is striving for this, and your learning environment can either move toward
meeting your needs or away from meeting your needs.
Humanistic education, therefore, focuses on fostering individual potential and personal
growth. Humanism tends to be even more individual-focused than constructivism, with an
emphasis placed on choice and autonomy. Educators adopting a humanist approach aim to
foster self-directed learning among students, in the belief intrinsic motivation to learn comes
from this. In order to support self-directed learning, teaching students how to learn becomes
a key priority. Along the same lines, humanist educators believe that learners should be
given opportunities to evaluate their own learning, whether that be through formalized self-
assessment or descriptive, reflective journaling.
It is important to note that unlike most other schools of thought, humanism gives equal
weight to the cognitive (knowledge) and affective (feeling) domains, which not only impacts
what and how content is conveyed, but also how outcomes are measured. A humanistic
education aims to redefine what traditional academic success looks like. When it comes to
measuring student outcomes, humanistic educators take a more holistic view in that they
view emotions, moral understandings, and knowledge as equally important outcomes in a
learning experience, and therefore, tend to avoid traditional grading.
Teachers can create classroom environments that help students get closer to their self-
actualization. Educators can help fulfill students’ emotional and physical needs, giving them a
safe and comfortable place to learn, plenty of food, and the support they need to succeed. This
kind of environment is the most conducive to helping students learn.
• Connectivism learning theory.
Connectivism is one of the newest educational learning theories. Connectivism is inherently
a future-focused learning theory. It is a relatively recent pedagogical view that takes into
account the changing nature of knowledge acquisition in our digital age. In contrast to
constructivism, which revolves around what a learner already knows, connectivism
pinpoints what a learner needs to know, and targets the learning at a relevant time of need.
It focuses on the idea that people learn and grow when they form connections. This can be
connections with each other, or connections with their roles and obligations in their life.
Hobbies, goals, and people can all be connections that influence learning. While connectivists
generally believe that expanding knowledge is ultimately more important than taking into
account prior knowledge, connectivism allows learners to situate new knowledge within
existing schemas of understanding. Similar to humanism, connectivism empowers students
to make their own learning decisions. Students are aided in this process by technology,
which assists in threading together different strands of knowledge.
Connectivism mirrors our ever-changing digital landscape in that it is forever changing and
never static. According to Siemens (2004), a core principle of connectivism is that ‘learning
and knowledge rest in diversity of opinions.’ Connectivist educators aim for precision in
breaking up content into discrete segments in the form of short strategic bursts of learning,
very much in line with the science of microlearning. Reflective of continuous
learning cultures in corporate environments, connectivism recognizes that learning is a
continual lifelong pursuit.
Teachers can utilize connectivism in their classroom to help students make connections to
things that excite them, helping them learn. Teachers can use digital media to make good,
positive connections to learning. They can help create connections and relationships with their
students and with their peer groups to help students feel motivated about learning.
