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1. Objectives of the Course, Mission,
Vision, and Goals
2. Orientation and Overview of the
Course (definition, importance,
variables).
3. Measures of Central Tendency
(mean, median, mode, and their
Prof. JANUARIO FLORES JR. properties).
4. Measures of Variability (measures 7. Significance of the difference of two
of variability, range, variance, statistics of independent samples.
standard deviation, computation, 8. Linear Correlation and Regression.
and interpretation). 9. Chi-square.
5. Normal Curve and Normal 10. Simple Analysis of Variance.
Distribution (properties).
11. Multivariate Correlation and
6. Hypothesis Testing and Types of Regression.
Statistical Tests.
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The word statistics has two meanings. The second meaning of statistics refers to the field
In the more common usage, statistics refers to or discipline of study.
numerical facts.
The numbers that represent the income of a Statistics is the study of how to collect,
family, the age of a student, the number of organize, analyze, and interpret
graduate students currently enrolled in doctorate
programs, and the starting salary of a typical numerical information from data.
college graduate are examples of statistics in this
sense of the word
o Every day we make decisions that may be
Statistics is the science of collecting, personal, business related, or of some other kind.
analyzing, presenting, and interpreting o Usually these decisions are made under
conditions of uncertainty.
data, as well as of making decisions based
on such analyses. o Many times, the situations or problems we face in
the real world have no precise or definite
solution.
o Statistical methods help us make scientific and
intelligent decisions in such situations.
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• Decisions made by using statistical Statistics has two aspects: theoretical and applied.
methods are called educated guesses.
Theoretical or mathematical statistics deals with the
development, derivation, and proof of statistical
• Decisions made without using statistical (or
theorems, formulas, rules, and laws.
scientific) methods are pure guesses and, hence,
may prove to be unreliable.
Applied statistics involves the applications of those
theorems, formulas, rules, and laws to solve real-
world problems.
The purpose of collecting and analyzing data is • Effective interpretation of data (inference) is
to obtain information. based on good procedures for producing data
and thoughtful examination
Statistical methods provide us tools to obtain of the data.
information from data.
Statistical methods enable us to look at information • The goal of statistics is not to perform numerous
from a small collection of people or items and calculations using the formulas, but to gain an
make inferences about a larger collection of understanding of your data.
people or items.
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Procedures for analyzing data, together with rules Broadly speaking, applied statistics can be
of inference, are central topics in the study of divided into two areas:
statistics.
descriptive statistics
We should also focus on understanding both the
and
suitability of the method and the meaning of the
result. inferential statistics.
Descriptive statistics involves methods of
organizing, picturing, and summarizing
information (such as tables, graphs and
summary measures) from samples or
populations.
Inferential statistics consists of methods that use
sample results to help make decisions or
predictions about a population.
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While descriptive statistics summarize the While descriptive statistics can only summarize a
characteristics of a data set, inferential sample’s characteristics, inferential statistics use
statistics help you come to conclusions and make your sample to make reasonable guesses about the
predictions based on your data. larger population.
When you have collected data from a sample, you With inferential statistics, it’s important to use
can use inferential statistics to understand the larger random and unbiased sampling methods. If your
population from which the sample is taken. sample isn’t representative of your population, then
you can’t make valid statistical inferences.
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For example: Another example:
We may make some decisions about the We may want to find the starting salary of a
political views of all college and university typical college graduate. To do so, we may select
students based on the political views of 1000 2000 recent college graduates, find their starting
students selected from a few colleges and salaries, and make a decision based on this
universities. information.
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Individuals are the people or objects included in
the study.
A variable is a characteristic of the individual to be
measured or observed.
A quantitative variable has a value or numerical A population consists of all elements that are being
measurement for which operations such as addition studied.
or averaging make sense. A sample is a subset of the population.
A qualitative variable describes an individual by
placing the individual into a category or group,
such as male or female.
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A census is a sample of the entire population. In population data, the data are from every
individual of interest.
When we collect information on all elements of the
target population, it is called a census.
In sample data, the data are from only some of the
individuals of interest.
The Department of Agriculture is conducting a
study of ready-to-harvest pineapples in an
A parameter is a numerical measure that describes experimental field.
an aspect of a population. (a) The pineapples are the objects (individuals) of the
study. If the researchers are interested in the
A statistic is a numerical measure that describes an individual weights of pineapples in the field,
aspect of a sample. then the variable consists of weights. The
weights could be measured to the nearest
ounce or gram. Weight is a quantitative variable
because it is a numerical measure.
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If weights of all the ready-to-harvest pineapples We have categorized data as either qualitative or
in the field are included in the data, then we have a quantitative.
population. The average weight of all ready-to-harvest
pineapples in the field is a parameter. Another way to classify data is according to one of
the four levels of measurement.
These levels indicate the type of arithmetic that is
appropriate for the data, such as ordering,
taking differences, or taking ratios.
The nominal level of measurement applies to data The interval level of measurement applies to data
that consist of names, labels, or categories. that can be arranged in order. In addition,
There are no implied criteria by which the differences between data values are
data can be ordered from smallest to largest. meaningful.
The ratio level of measurement applies to data that
The ordinal level of measurement applies to data can be arranged in order. In addition, both
that can be arranged in order. However, differences between data values and ratios of
differences between data values either cannot data values are meaningful.
be determined or are meaningless.
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Most of the time surveys are conducted by
using samples and not a census of the
population.
Three of the main reasons:
• Time
• Cost
• Impossibility of conducting a census
Time Time
• In most cases, the size of the population is quite
large. Consequently, conducting a census takes
In fact, because of the amount of time needed to
a long time, whereas a sample survey can be
conduct a census, by the time the census is
conducted very quickly.
completed, the results may be obsolete.
• It is time-consuming to interview or contact
hundreds of thousands or even millions of members
of a population.
• On the other hand, a survey of a sample of a few
hundred elements may be completed in much less
time.
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Cost
The cost of collecting information from all
members of a population may easily fall outside Impossibility of Conducting a Census
the limited budget of most, if not all, surveys.
Consequently, to stay within the available
resources, conducting a sample survey may be
the best approach.
In statistics, we generally want to study a
population. You can think of a population as a
collection of persons, things, or objects under study. Because it takes a lot of time and money to
examine an entire population, sampling is a
very practical technique.
To study the population, we select a sample. The
idea of sampling is to select a portion (or subset)
of the larger population and study that portion (the
sample) to gain information about the population.
Data are the result of sampling from a population.
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• In presidential elections, opinion poll samples of
1,000–2,000 people are taken. The opinion poll is A simple random sample of n measurements from a
supposed to represent the views of the people population is a subset of the population selected
in the entire country. in a manner such that every sample of size n
from the population has an equal chance of
• Manufacturers of canned carbonated drinks take being selected.
samples to determine if a 8 ounce can contains 8
ounces of carbonated drink.
Random sampling: Use a simple random sample from the Systematic sampling: Number all members of the population
entire population. sequentially. Then, from a starting point selected at
random, include every kth member of the population in
Stratified sampling: Divide the entire population into distinct the sample.
subgroups called strata. The strata are based on a
specific characteristic such as age, income, education Cluster sampling: Divide the entire population into pre-
level, and so on. All members of a stratum share the existing segments or clusters. The clusters are often
specific characteristic. Draw random samples from geographic. Make a random selection of clusters.
each stratum. Include every member of each selected cluster in the
sample.
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Multistage sampling: Use a variety of sampling methods to A sampling error is the difference between the
create successively smaller groups at each stage. The result obtained from a sample survey and the
final sample consists of clusters.
result that would have been obtained if the
whole population had been included in the
Convenience sampling: Create a sample by using data from
survey.
population members that are readily available.
A sampling error is the difference between The sampling error occurs because of chance, and it
measurements from a sample and cannot be avoided.
corresponding measurements from the
respective population. It is caused by the fact A sampling error can occur only in a sample survey.
that the sample does not perfectly represent It does not occur in a census.
the population.
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From now on please use this email in your
A nonsampling error is the result of poor sample communications, inquiries and submissions:
design, sloppy data collection, faulty
measuring instruments, bias in questionnaires,
and so on.
[email protected] 14
