Production of Noodles from Wheat Flour Mixed with

Sorghum and Millet and their Nutritional and Sensory

Characteristics

Rawia AlsiddigYosuifAlmahi

B.Sc. (Honor) in Food Science

University of Gezira, (2011)

A Dissertation

Submitted to the University of Gezira in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for Awards of the Degree of Master of Science

in

Food Science

Department of Food Engineering and Technology

Faculty of Engineering and Technology

May, 2018
 Production of Noodles from Wheat Flour Mixed with
Sorghum and Millet and their Nutritional and Sensory
Characteristics

Rawia Alsiddig Yosuif Almahi

Supervision Committee

Name Position Signature

Dr. AzhariSiddeegAbdelwahab Main Supervisor ...................................

.Prof. Ali Osman Ali Co- Supervisor ...................................

Date: May /2018

1
 Production of Noodles from Wheat Flour Mixed with
Sorghum and Millet and their Nutritional and Sensory
Characteristics

Rawia Alsiddig Yosuif Almahi

Examination Committee

Name Position Signature

Prof. Ali Osman Ali Chairperson ……………….

Prof. AlnaeimAbdalla External Examiner ………………..

Dr. Zakaria Ahmed Salih Internal Examiner ………………..

Date of Examination: 9/5/2018

2
DEDICATION

To my
Family
Teachers
Friends
With respect

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Prayers and thanks to Allah, who gave me good health and support to accomplish

this study.

I am grateful thanks to my supervisors: Dr. AzhariSiddeegAbdelwahab and Prof.

Ali Osman Ali who are too patient with me during this study, also for their unlimited

assistance and guide.

Thanks are also extended to our friends and anyone who supported me, emotionally,

Ast. Hassan Ansari and the Staff of Food Analysis Laboratory, Department of Food

Engineering Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Technology.

4
Production of Noodles from Wheat Flour Mixed with Sorghum and Millet and
their Nutritional and Sensory Characteristics
RawiaAlsiddigYosuifAlmahi
Abstract
Wheat flour is widely used in many food industries including noodles,whichisan
important part in the diet of many countries around the world. The objective of this
study was to assess the nutritional and sensory characteristics of wheat-sorghum and
wheat-millet enhanced with guar powder for noodles production. Wheat flour, millets,
Sorghum(Daber), guar, edible oil and custard, were purchased from a local market in
Wad Medani City, and then transferred to the laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of
Engineering and Technology. Wet and dry gluten content in addition to falling number
of wheat flour were determined.The noodles were prepared as Sorghum -noodle and
millet-noodle by mixing wheat flour toSorghum or millet flours to obtain mixture of
10%, 20% and 30% noodles) compared to Nobonoodle. The moisture, ash, protein,
fiber, oil and carbohydrate contents were determined according to the standard methods.
Sodium and calcium were determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy.Sensory
evaluation was performed using Triangle test and then a 10-member (panelists) to
evaluate color, appearance, texture, flavor, taste and overall acceptability. A hedonic
scale of 1 to 9 was used. The result of Falling number of wheat flour was 441, wet
gluten was 32±0.01% and dry gluten was 22±0.3%. As the concentration of millet and
Daber flour increased in the prepared noodles, the moisture, ash, and oil contents
consequently increased, while the case was reversed in carbohydrate and protein
contents. In the millet-noodle, and at the mixture of 10%, 20% and 30%, Na values were
0.23, 0.31 and 0.31 mg/100g, respectively, while were 0.18, 0.24 and 0.25 mg/100g in
Daber-noodle, whereas potassium content, at the same mixtures were 0.25, 0.22 and
0.32 mg/100g, respectively, in the millet-noodle, and 0.20, 0.29 and 0.29 mg/100g,
respectively, in Daber-noodle.It seemed that control-noodle sample was more acceptable
followed by Daber-noodle samples while the millet-noodle samples were the last choice
for the panelists. ANOVA proved that, the different noodle samples were statistically
significant, i.e. some samples are highly preferred by panelists while others are fairly

5
accepted. Further studies considering adding some additives to improve acceptability for
millet-noodle and Daber-noodle should be explored.

6
 ‫إنتاج الشعيرية من دقيق القمح المخلوط مع الذرة والدخن ودراسة خصائصها التغذوية والحسية‬
‫راوية الصديق يوسف الماحي‬

‫ملخص الدراسة‬
‫يستخدم دقيق القمح في مختلف الصناعات الغذائية والتي تشمل الشعيرية‪ ,‬ولذلك تعتبر الشعيرية جزء مهم في غذاء‬

‫العديد من البلدان حول العالم‪ .‬هدفت هذه الدراسة إلي تقييم الخصائص التغذوية والحسية لمزيج القمح والذرة ومزيج‬

‫القمح مع الدخن المعزز مسحوق القوار إلنتاج الشعيرية‪ .‬تم إحضار دقيق القمح‪ ,‬الدخن‪ ,‬الذرة (الدبر)‪ ,‬القوار‪ ,‬زيت‬

‫طعام وكاسترد من السوق المحلي لمدينة ود مدني‪ ,‬ونقلت إلي معمل تحليل األغذية‪ ,‬كلية الهندسة والتكنولوجيا‪ .‬تم‬

‫تحديد الجلوتين الجاف والرطب باإلضافة لرقم السقوط لدقيق القمح‪ .‬تم تحضير شعيرية ذرة وشعيرية دخن بخلط‬

‫دقيق القمح مع نسب مختلفة من الذرة والدخن للحصول علي خليط ‪ %20 ,%10‬و ‪ %30‬ومقارنتها مع شعيرية‬

‫نوبو‪.‬تم أيضاً تحديد الرطوبة‪ ,‬الرماد‪ ,‬البروتين‪ ,‬األلياف‪ ,‬الزيت والكربوهيدرات إعتماداً علي الطرق القياسية‪ .‬تم‬

‫تحديد قيمة الصوديم والبوتاسيوم بطريقة طيفية اإلمتصاص الذري‪ .‬تم إجراء التقييم الحسي بإستخدامإختبار المثلث‬

‫وعشرة (‪ ) 10‬محكمين لتقييم اللون‪ ,‬المظهر‪ ,‬القوام‪ ,‬النكهة‪ ,‬الطعم والقبول العام‪ .‬تم إستخدام مقياس من ‪ 1‬إلي ‪.9‬‬

‫أوضحت النتائج رقم السقوط لدقيق القمح كانت ‪ ,441‬الجلوتين الرطب كان ‪ 0.01±32‬والجلوتين الجاف كان‬

‫‪ .0.3±22‬وكلما زاد تركيز دقيق الدخن أو الذرة في الشعيرية المحضرة تبعاً لذلك يزيد محتوي الرطوبة‪ ,‬الرماد‪,‬‬

‫األلياف‪ ,‬الزيت‪ ,‬بينما الحالة معكوسة بالنسبة لمحتوي الكربوهيدرات والبروتين‪ .‬في شعيرية الدخن‪ ,‬وعند التراكيز‬

‫‪ %20 ,%10‬و ‪ ,%30‬كان الصوديوم ‪ 0.31 ,0.23‬و ‪ 0.31‬مج لكل ‪ 100‬جم‪ ,‬علي التتابع‪ ,‬بينما كانت‬

‫‪ 0.24 ,0.18‬و ‪ 0.25‬مج لكل ‪ 100‬جم في شعيرية الذرة‪ ,‬في حين أن محتوي البوتاسيوم‪ ,‬عند نفس المزيج‬

‫كانت ‪ 0.22 ,0.25‬و ‪ 0.32‬مج لكل ‪ 100‬جم‪ ,‬علي التتابع في شعيرية الدخن‪ ,‬و ‪ 0.29 ,0.20‬و ‪ 0.29‬مج‬

‫لكل ‪ 100‬جم‪ ,‬علي التتابع‪ ,‬في شعيرية الذرة‪ .‬يبدو أن عينة الشعيرية الشاهد كانت األكثر قبوالً ثم عينات شعيرية‬

‫الذرة بينما شعيرية الدخن كانت الخيار األخير للمحكمين‪ .‬أكد إختبار تحليل التباين أن االختالفات بين عينات‬

‫‪7‬‬
‫الشعيرية معتبرة إحصائياً‪ ,‬بمعني أن بعض العينات مرغوبة بشدة للمحكمين بينما العينات األخري مقبولة فقط‪ .‬يجب‬

‫أن تهتم الدراسات الالحقة بإضافة بعض المضافات الغذائية لتحسين قبول شعيرية الدخن والذرة‪.‬‬

‫‪8‬‬
 Table of Contents

Subject Page
Acknowledgements iv
Dedication v
English Abstract vi
Arabic Abstract vii
Table of Contents viii
List of Tables x
List of Figures xi
List of Appendices xii
Chapter One: Introduction 1
Chapter Two: Literature review 3
2.1 Cereals 3
2.2. Dough production 3
2.3. Guar gum 5
2.3.1. Production and trade 5
2.3.2 Chemical composition 6
2.3.3 Solubility and viscosity 6
2.3.4 Thickening 8
2.3.5 Ice crystal growth 8
2.3.6 Manufacturing process 9
2.3.7 Industrial applications 10
2.3.8 Food applications 11
2.3.9 Nutritional and medicinal effects 12
2. 3.10 Allergies 13
2. 3.1.11 Dioxin contamination 13
2.4. Noodles 13
2.4.2 History 14
2.5 Sorghum bicolor 14
2.5.1 Uses 15
2.5.2 Agricultural uses 17

9
2.5.3 Research 18
2.5.4 Genome 19
2.6. Millets 19
2.6.1 Description 19
2.6.2 History 19
2.6.3 Production 20
2.6.4 As a food source 21
2.6.5 Grazing millet 22
2.6.6 Nutrition 23
Chapter Three: Materials and Methods 25
3.1 Materials 25
3.2 Methods 25
3.2.1 Gluten content 25
3.2.2. Falling number 25
3.2.3 Chemical analysis 26
3.2.3.1. Moisture content 26
3.2.3.2. Protein content 26
3.2.3.3. Ash content 27
3.2.3.4. Fat content 27
3.2.3.5. Total carbohydrates 28
3.2.3.6. Minerals 28
3.3. Preparation of noodles 28
3.4 Sensory evaluation 28
3.5 Statistical analysis 28
Chapter Four: Results and Discussion 30
4.1 Falling number 30
4.2 Gluten content 30
4.3 Proximate composition of the prepared noodles 32
4.4 Minerals (Na and K) composition of the prepared noodles 34
4.5 Sensory evaluation of the prepared noodles 34
Chapter Five: Conclusions and Recommendations 37
References 38

10
 List of Tables

No. Title Page

2.1 Nutritional content in sorghum grains 16

2.2 Nutrient profile comparison of millet 23

4.1 Falling number, wet and dry gluten of wheat flour 30

4.2 Proximate analysis for Millets and Daber Noodles 32

4.3 Minerals (sodium and potassium) in Millets and Daber Noodles 34

4.4 Sensory evaluation of the prepared noodle samples 35

11
 List of Figure

No. Title Page

2.1 Chemical composition of guar gum 6

3.1 Processes for noodle 28

12
 List of Appendices

No. Title Page

1 Statistical analysis of dry sample of noodles 43
2 Statistical analysis of cooked sample of noodles 47

13
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

Wheat flour noodles are an important part in the diet of many Asians. It is believed
that noodles originated in China as early as 5000 BC, then spread to other Asian countries.
Today, the amount of flour used for noodle making in Asia accounts for about 40% of the
total flour consumed. In recent years, Asian noodles have also become popular in many
countries outside of Asia. This popularity is likely to increase. This bulletin is written to
provide information on formulation, processing technologies, and other related aspects of
Asian noodles.Millets are a group of highly variable small-seeded grasses, widely grown
around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Millets are important
crops in the semiarid tropics of Asia and Africa (especially inIndia,Sudan, Mali, Nigeria,
and Niger), with 97% of millet production indevelopingcountries (McDonoug,2000).
Noodles are a staple food in many cultures made from unleavened dough which is
stretched, extruded, or rolled flat and cut into one of a variety of shapes. While long, thin
strips may be the most common, many varieties of noodles are cut into waves, helices,
tubes, strings, or shells, or folded over, or cut into other shapes. Noodles are usually cooked
in boiling water, sometimes with cooking oil or salt added. They are often pan-fried or deep-
fried. Noodles are often served with an accompanying sauce or in a soup. Noodles can be
refrigerated for short-term storage or dried and stored for future use. The material
composition or geocultural origin must be specified when discussing noodles. The word
derives from the German word Nudel (Harper, 2009).
Guar gum, also called guaran, is a substance made from guar a bean which has
thickening and stabilizing properties useful in various industries, traditionally the food
industry and, increasingly, the hydraulic fracturing industry. The guar seeds are dehusked,
milled and screened to obtain the guar gum. It is typically produced as a free-flowing, off-
white powder. It is classed as a galactomannan (Trostle, 2012).
Sorghum bicolor, commonly called sorghum and also known as great millet, durra,
jowari, or milo, is a grass species cultivated for its grain, which is used for food for humans,
animal feed, and ethanol production. Sorghum originated in northern Africa, and is now

14
cultivated widely in tropical and subtropical regions. Sorghum is the world's fifth-most
important cereal crop after rice, wheat, maize, and barley. S. bicolor is typically an annual,
but some cultivars are perennial. It grows in clumps that may reach over 4 m high. The grain
is small, ranging from 2 to 4 mm in diameter. Sweet sorghums are sorghum cultivars that are
primarily grown for foliage, syrup production, and ethanol; they are taller than those grown
for grain (Dillon et al., 2007).
Significance of the research
Guar seeds are rich in protein, which expected to add an increase amount of calories and
biological building units (amino acids). In addition, guar flour is expected to add nutritional
value to the noodles. On the other hand, determination of factors that affect the quality of
composite flour noodles are worthy studying.
Main objective
To assess the nutritional and sensory characteristics of wheat-sorghum (Dabar) and wheat-
millet enhanced with guar flour for noodles production.
Specific objectives
The specific objectives are outlined as follows:
1- To prepare guar flour.
2- To assess the functional properties of guar flour.
3- To determine the dough properties of composite flour.
4- To process the noodles from composite flour by addition of guar flour.
5- To evaluate the nutritional value of processed noodles.
6- To investigate the cooking properties.
7- To evaluate sensory analysis of processed and cooked noodles.

15
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Cereals
Cereal-based foods comprise a substantial portion of the world’s food supply,
despite regional, economical, and habitual differences in consumption. In the human diet,
cereals are considered excellent sources of fiber and nutrients (e.g. starches, proteins,
vitamins, and minerals). In many developing countries, cereals provide as much as 75% of
human dietary energy. In 1992, the U.S. Department of Agriculture emphasized the
importance of cereal-based foods in the human diet by introducing the Food Guide Pyramid.
This graphical guideline organizes foods into five groups and recommends daily
consumption of 6–11 servings of bread, cereals, rice, and pasta (two to three times more
than the number of servings for other food groups), thereby stressing the relative
significance of the grains group. As economical and abundant raw materials, cereals have
long been used for the production of a wide range of food and nonfood products, including
breads, cookies, pastas, breakfast cereals, snack foods, malted cereals, pharmaceuticals, and
adhesives(Eagleset al.,2002).
The improvement and development of cereal products and processes require an
understanding of the impact of processing and storage conditions on the physical properties
and structure of pre- and post-processed materials. In this book, we focus on techniques
used to characterize the influence on the physical properties of cereal flours of several cereal
processing technologies, including baking, pasta extrusion, and high-temperature extrusion,
as well as cookie and cracker production. This text facilitates viewing the impact of various
cereal processing technologies on cereal flours from three complementary perspectives:
Characterization of thermal, mechanical, and structural properties. Establishing quantitative
relationships among the various physical observables and between the physical properties
and the sensory attributes of end products should provide a rapid and objective means for
assessing the quality of food materials, with the overall goal of improving this quality. To
this end, a fourth perspective is also included: namely, sensory end-product attributes of
significance to the consumer (Gonul, 2003).

16
2.2. Dough production
Dough is produced when all the ingredients of the formula, introduced in a desirable
sequence, are mixed together for a certain period of time. The major purposes of mixing are
to blend the ingredients into a quasi-homogeneous mixture, to develop the gluten matrix in
wheat dough, and to incorporate air (Autio and Laurikainen, 1997). In the first step of
mixing, the proteins are hydrated, and then during subsequent mixing they interact with each
other. In addition to protein interaction, other flour components–lipids, salts, none starch
polysaccharides, and starch–also participate in the formation of the gluten matrix. The
viscoelastic properties of dough’s are primarily the result of a continuous protein phase that,
in fully developed dough, surrounds the starch granules. The chemical bonds that stabilize
gluten proteins in bread dough’s are covalent and secondary bonds. The covalent bonds are
disulfide bonds, which form inters-and intermolecular cross bonds in the proteins during
dough formation by the sulfide-disulfide interchange. The secondary bonds are hydrogen,
hydrophilic, hydrophobic, and ionic bonds and polar interactions. If dough is under mixed,
starch and proteins are unevenly distributed, and compact protein masses are stretched out
into sheets during mixing (Autio and Laurikainen, 1997). When dough is over mixed, gluten
proteins become stressed, few disulfide bonds are broken to form thiyl radicals and gluten
proteins are partially depolymerized, resulting in greater solubility and decreased
extractability of lipids. Over mixing usually results in sticky dough, partly because the
mechanical forces applied to the dough decrease the molecular weight of the protein (Autio
and Laurikainen, 1997). Prolonged mixing can enhance the effects of oxidants on
disaggregation of large protein aggregates, probably because of oxidation of more SH
groups. In order dough to obtain the desirable structure, flour should be mixed with the
required amount of water, when the amount of water used is relatively small, the
transformation of starch into gelatin cannot be achieved successfully. As a result, crumb
dries and scrapes easier and stales quicker. On the contrary, when excess water is used, it is
not entirely constrained during starch gelatinization and a certain amount of it remains free
making crumb moist and sticky. The water holding capacity of flour depends on its type,
origin and other properties. Flour that has been properly stored presents better holding
capacity than freshly milled. Mixing conditions are important as well. Mixing should be
quick, homogenous and temperature controlled. After mixing, dough contains occluded gas

17
cells whose diameters are typically in the range of 10–100 mm. The number and size of the
gas bubbles have a great effect on the final bread characteristics (Autio and
Laurikainen,1997). Two requirements for producing high quality loaves: first one is the
dough must have sufficiently large viscosity to prevent the ascent of gas cells, and the
second one it must remain extensible for a long enough time during baking to avoid
premature rupture of membranes between gas cells.
2.3. Guar gum
Guar gum, also called guaran, is a substance made from guar beans which has
thickening and stabilizing properties useful in various industries, traditionally the food
industry and, increasingly, the hydraulic fracturing industry. The guar seeds are dehusked,
milled and screened to obtain the guar gum. It is typically produced as a free-flowing, off-
white powder. It is classed as a galactomannan (Trostle, 2012).
2.3.1. Production and trade
The guar bean is principally grown in India,Pakistan,U.S.,AustraliaandAfrica.India
produces about 2.5 - 3.5 million tons of guar annually, making it the largest producer with
about 80% of world production, while Pakistan produced 250,000 tons of guar in 2013. The
United States has produced 4,600 to 14,000 tonnes of guar over the last 5 years. The world
production for guar gum and its derivatives is about 1.0 Million tonnes. Industrial guar gum
accounts for about 70% of the total demand.
In 2012 guar prices increased by 900-1000%. At its peak it reached to $28000 per
ton. However later stabilized to $8000 per ton. 2013 was a strong year for guar sowing and
production in India. The total sowing area rose by 21% in 2013 to reach 10.6 million
acres. Rajasthan, Haryana, and Gujarat – the three key guar-producing states – exceeded the
sowing area by their respective agriculture departments. Non-traditional guar cultivators in
other Indian states also showed keen interest in the crop in 2013 (Indian Guar, 2014).
2.3.2 Chemical composition
Chemically (Figure, 2.1), guar gum is a polysaccharide composed of
thesugarsgalactose and mannose. The backbone is a linear chain of β 1,4-linked mannose
residues to which galactose residues are 1,6-linked at every second mannose, forming short
side-branches. Guar gum has the ability to withstand temperatures of 80 °C in 5 minutes
(Indian Guar, 2014).

18
Figure 2.1 Chemical composition of guar gum.

19
2.3.3 Solubility and viscosity
Guar gum is more soluble than locust bean gum, as it has moregalactosebranch
points. Unlike locust bean gum, it is not self-gelling. However, either borax or calcium can
cross-link guar gum, causing it to gel. In water, it isnonionicandhydrocolloid. It is not
affected by ionic strength or pH, but will degrade at extreme pH and temperature (e.g. pH 3
at 50 °C). It remains stable in solution over pH range 5-7. Strong acids cause hydrolysis and
loss of viscosity, and alkalies in strong concentration also tend to reduce viscosity. It is
insoluble in most hydrocarbon solvents. The viscosity attained is dependent on time,
temperature, concentration, pH, rate of agitation and practical size of the powdered gum
used. The lower the temperature, the lower the rate at which viscosity increases and the
lower the final viscosity. Above 80°, the final viscosity is slightly reduced. Finer guar
powders swell more rapidly than coarse powdered gum (Chaplin, 2012).
Guar gum shows a clear low shear plateau on the flow curve and is strongly shear
thinning. The rheology of guar gum is typical for a random coil polymer. It does not show
the very high low shear plateau viscosities seen with more rigid polymer chains such as
xanthan gum. It is very thixotropic above 1% concentration, but below 0.3%, the thixotropy
is slight. Guar gum shows viscosity synergy with xanthan gum. Guar gum and micellar
casein mixtures can be slightly thixotropic if a biphase system forms (Chaplin, 2012 and
Lynn, 2006).
2.3.4 Thickening
Guar gum is economical because it has almost eight times the water-thickening
potency of cornstarch - only a very small quantity is needed for producing sufficient
viscosity. Thus, it can be used in various multiphase formulations: as an emulsifier because
it helps to prevent oil droplets from coalescing, and/or as a stabilizer because it helps to
prevent solid particles from settling. Guar gum is a viscosifier with very favorable
rheological properties. It has a really useful ability to form breakable gels when cross-linked
with boron. This makes it extremely valuable for hydraulic fracturing.

20
 Fracking entails the pumping of sand-laden fluids into an oil or natural gas reservoir
at a high pressure and flow rate. This cracks the reservoir rock and then propels the cracks
open. Water alone is too thin to be effective at carrying proppant sand, so guar gum is one of
the ingredients added to thicken the slurry mixture and improve its ability to carry proppant.
There are several properties which are important 1. Thixotropic: the fluid should be
thixotropic, meaning it should gel within few hours. 2. Gelling and degelling: The desired
viscosity changes over the course of a few hours. When the fracking slurry is mixed, it
needs to be thin enough to make it easier to pump. Then as it flows down the pipe, the fluid
needs to gel up to support the proppant and flush it deep into the fractures. After that
process, the gel has to break down so we can flow back and recover the fracking fluid, but
leave the proppant behind. This requires a chemical process which produces then breaks the
gel cross-linking at a predictable rate. Guar + boron + proprietary chemicals can accomplish
both of these goals at once (Chaplin, 2012).
2.3.5 Ice crystal growth
Guar gum retards ice crystal growth nonspecifically by slowing mass transfer across
the solid/liquid interface. It shows good stability during freeze-thaw cycles. It is therefore
used in egg free ice cream. Guar gum has synergistic effects with locust bean gum
and sodium alginate. May be synergistic with xanthan: together with xanthan gum, it
produces a thicker product (0.5% guar gum / 0.35% xanthan gum), which is used in
applications such as soups, which do not require clear results.
Guar gum is a hydrocolloid, which is particularly useful for making thick pastes
without forming a gel, and for keeping water bound in a sauce or emulsion. Guar gum can
be used for thickening cold and hot liquids, to make hot gels, light foams and as an emulsion
stabilizer. Guar gum can be used for cottage cheeses, curds, yogurt, sauces, soups and frozen
desserts. Guar gum is also a good source of fiber with 80% soluble dietary fiber on a dry
weight basis (Chaplin, 2012).
2.3.6 Manufacturing process
Depending upon the requirement of end product, various processing techniquesare
used. The commercial production of guar gum normally uses roasting, differential attrition,
sieving, and polishing. Food-grade guar gum is manufactured in stages. Guar split selection
is important in this process. The split is screened to clean it and then soaked to prehydrate it

21
in a double-cone mixer. The prehydrating stage is very important because it determines the
rate of hydration of the final product. The soaked splits, which have reasonably high
moisture content, are passed through a flaker. The flaked guar split is ground and then dried.
The powder is screened through rotary screens to deliver the required particle size. Oversize
particles are either recycled to main ultra fine or reground in a separate regrind plant,
according to the viscosity requirement (Ashford, 2011).
This stage helps to reduce the load at the grinder. The soaked splits are difficult to
grind. Direct grinding of those generates more heat in the grinder, which is not desired in the
process, as it reduces the hydration of the product. Through the heating, grinding, and
polishing process, the husk is separated from the endosperm halves and the refined guar split
is obtained. Through the further grinding process, the refined guar split is then treated and
converted into powder. The split manufacturing process yields husk and germ called “guar
meal”, widely sold in the international market as cattle feed. It is high in protein and
contains oil and albuminoids, about 50% in germ and about 25% in husks. The quality of the
food-grade guar gum powder is defined from its particle size, rate of hydration, and
microbial content (Ashford, 2011).
Manufacturers define different grades and qualities of guar gum by the particle size,
the viscosity generated with a given concentration, and the rate at which that viscosity
develops. Coarse-mesh guar gums will typically, but not always, develop viscosity more
slowly. They may achieve a reasonably high viscosity, but will take longer to achieve. On
the other hand, they will disperse better than fine-mesh, all conditions being equal. A finer
mesh, such as a 200 mesh, requires more effort to dissolve. Modified forms of guar gum are
available commercially, including enzyme-modified, cationic and hydropropyl guar
(Ashford, 2011).
2.3.7 Industrial applications
 Textile industry – sizing, finishing and printing
 Paper industry–improved sheet formation, folding and denser surface for printing
 Explosives industry– as waterproofing agent mixed with ammonium nitrate,
nitroglycerin, etc.
 Pharmaceutical industry– as binder or as disintegrator in tablets; main ingredient in
some bulk-forming laxatives

22
  Cosmetics and toiletries industries–thickener in toothpastes, conditioner in
shampoos(usually in a chemically modified version)
 Hydraulic fracturing Shale oil and gas extraction industries consumes about 90% of
guar gum produced from India and Pakistan (Ram, 2012).
Fracturing fluids normally consist of many additives that serve two main purposes,
firstly to enhance fracture creation and proppant carrying capability and secondly to
minimize formation damage. Viscosifiers, such as polymers and crosslinking agents,
temperature stabilizers, pH control agents, and fluid loss control materials are among the
additives that assist fracture creation. Formation damage is minimized by incorporating
breakers, biocides, and surfactants. More appropriate gelling agents are linear
polysaccharides, such as guar gum, cellulose, and their derivatives.
Guar gums are preferred as thickeners for enhanced oil recovery (EOR). Guar gum and
its derivatives account for most of the gelled fracturing fluids. Guar is more water-soluble
than other gums, and it is also a better emulsifier, because it has more galactose branch
points. Guar gum shows high low-shear viscosity, but it is strongly shear-thinning. Being
non-ionic, it is not affected by ionic strength or pH but will degrade at low pH at moderate
temperature (pH 3 at 50 °C). Guar's derivatives demonstrate stability in high temperature
and pH environments. Guar use allows for achieving exceptionally high viscosities, which
improves the ability of the fracturing liquid to transport proppant. Guar hydrates fairly
rapidly in cold water to give highly viscous pseudoplastic solutions of, generally, greater
low-shear viscosity than other hydrocolloids. The colloidal solids present in guar make
fluids more efficient by creating less filter cake. Proppant pack conductivity is maintained
by utilizing a fluid that has excellent fluid loss control, such as the colloidal solids present in
guar gum.
Guar has up to eight times the thickening power of starch. Derivatization of guar
gum leads to subtle changes in properties, such as, decreased hydrogen bonding, increased
solubility in water-alcohol mixture, and improved electrolyte compatibility. These changes
in properties result in increased use in different fields, like textile printing, explosives, and
oil-water fracturing applications (Ram, 2012).

23
2.3.8 Food applications
The largest market for guar gum is in the food industry. In the US, differing
percentages are set for its allowable concentration in various food applications. In Europe,
guar gum has EU food additive code E412. Xanthan gum and guar gum are the most
frequently used gums in gluten-free recipes and gluten-free products (FDA.gov, 2008).
 In baked goods, it increases dough yield, gives greater resiliency, and improves texture
and shelf life; in pastry fillings, it prevents "weeping" (syneresis) of the water in the
filling, keeping the pastry crust crisp. It is primarily used in hypoallergenic recipes that
use different types of whole-grain flours. Because the consistency of these flours allows
the escape of gas released by leavening, guar gum is needed to improve the thickness of
these flours, allowing them to rise as normal flour would.
 In dairy products, it thickens milk, yogurt, kefir, and liquid cheese products, and helps
maintain homogeneity and texture of ice creams and sherbets. It is used for similar
purposes in plant milks.
 For meat, it functions as a binder.
 In condiments, it improves the stability and appearance of salad dressings,
barbecue sauces, relishes, ketchups and others.
 In canned soup, it is used as a thickener and stabilizer.
 It is also used in dry soups, instant oatmeal, sweet desserts, and canned fish in sauce,
frozen food items, and animal feed.
 The FDA has banned guar gum as a weight loss pill due to reports of the substance
swelling and obstructing the intestines and esophagus (Lewis, 1992).

2.3.9 Nutritional and medicinal effects

Guar gum, as a water-soluble fiber, acts as a bulk-forming laxative, so is claimed to
be effective in promoting regular bowel movements and relievingconstipationand chronic
related functional bowel ailments, such asdiverticulosis,Crohn's disease, colitis and irritable
bowel syndrome.
Several studies have found significant decreases in human serum cholesterol levels
following guar gum ingestion. These decreases are thought to be a function of its high
soluble fiber content (Brown et al., 1999).

24
 Guar gum has been considered of interest in regard to both weight loss and diabetic
diets. It is a thermogenic substance (Brown and Livesey, 1994). Moreover, its low
digestibility lends its use in recipes as filler, which can help to provide satiety, or slow the
digestion of a meal, thus lowering the glycemic index of that meal. In the late 1980s, guar
gum was used and heavily promoted in several weight-loss drugs. The US Food and Drug
Administration eventually recalled these due to reports of esophageal blockage from
insufficient fluid intake, after one brand alone caused at least 10 users to be hospitalized,
and a death. For this reason, guar gum is no longer approved for use in over-the-counter
weight loss drugs in the United States, although this restriction does not apply to
supplements. Moreover, a meta-analysis combining the results of 11 randomized, controlled
trials found guar gum supplements were not effective in reducing body weight (Pittler,
2001).
Guar gum, though, is also capable of reducing the absorbability of dietary minerals
(other than calcium), when foods or nutritional supplements containing them are consumed
concomitantly with it, but this is less of a concern with guar gum than with various insoluble
dietary fibers.
Some studies have found guar gum to improve dietary glucose tolerance (Daumerie
and Henquin, 1982). Research has revealed the water-soluble fiber in it may help people
with diabetes by slowing the absorption of sugars by the small intestine. Although the rate
of absorption is reduced, the amount of sugar absorbed is the same overall. This may help
diabetic patients by moderating glucose "spikes". Guar-based compounds, such
ashydroxypropyl guar, have been in artificial tears to treat dry eye (Pucker et al., 2016).
2. 3.10 Allergies
Some studies have found an allergic sensitivity to guar gum developed in a few
individuals working in an industrial environment where airborne concentrations of the
substance were present. In those affected by the inhalation of the airborne particles, common
adverse reactions were occupational rhinitis and asthma.
Soy protein occurs as an impurity in manufactured guar gum, and can make up as
much as 10%. The guar gum can therefore adversely affect those with sensitivity to soy. A
few individuals are allergic to guar gum and experience reactions such as flushing, itchiness
and diarrhea. Consumption for allergic individuals over time is also known to cause small

25
sores or lesions as well as chronic diarrhea (IBS). Manufacturers and suppliers will
sometimes substitute guar Gum, xanthan gum and cellulose gum in formulations, without
changing product labels. Often, blends of all these ingredients are sold as cellulose gum. If
allergic to guar gum, the most common foods to suspect contamination from are frozen
dairy/ice treats, soft cheeses (cream cheese, ricotta), salad dressing and baked goods
(AllergyNet, 2013).
2. 3.1.11 Dioxin contamination
The European Commission issued a health warning to its member states after high
levels of dioxins were detected in a food additive - guar gum - used as thickener in small
quantities in meat, dairy, dessert or delicatessen products. The source was traced to guar
gum from India that was contaminated withpentachlorophenol,a pesticide no longer in use.
PCP contains dioxins as contamination.Dioxins damage the human immune system (WHO,
2010).
2.4. Noodles
Noodles are a staple food in many cultures made from unleavened dough which is
stretched, extruded, or rolled flat and cut into one of a variety of shapes. While long, thin
strips may be the most common, many varieties of noodles are cut into waves, helices,
tubes, strings, or shells, or folded over, or cut into other shapes. Noodles are usually cooked
in boiling water, sometimes with cooking oilorsaltadded. They are often pan-fried or deep-
fried. Noodles are often served with an accompanying sauce or in a soup. Noodles can be
refrigerated for short-term storage or dried and stored for future use. The material
composition or geocultural origin must be specified when discussing noodles. The word
derives from the German word Nudel(Harper, 2009).
2.4.2 History
The origin of noodles is Chinese. The earliest written record of noodles is found in a
book dated to the Eastern Han period (25–220) (Roach, 2005). Noodles, often made from
wheat dough, had become a staple food for the people of the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220
CE) (Sinclair and Sinclair, 2010).
A Nature article claimed the oldest evidence of noodle consumption was from 4,000
years ago in China (Roach, 2005). In 2005, a team of archaeologists reported finding an
earthenware bowl that contained 4000-year-old noodles at the Lajia archaeological

26
site. These noodle were said to resemble lamian, which are a type of Chinese noodle that is
made by repeatedly pulling and stretching the dough by hand. Analyzing the
husk phytoliths and starch grains present in the sediment associated with the noodles, it was
determined that the noodles were made from millet, identified as belonging
to Panicummiliaceum and Setariaitalica specifically (Lu et al., 2005). However, looking at
the production process of making noodles from millet; other researchers determined that it is
not feasible to stretch millet dough into noodles, concluding that the analyzed husk
phytoliths and starch grains did not originate from the noodles that were found. They also
criticized the sampling method (as the samples found in the sediment may not represent the
composition of the noodles), the morphological observations of the starch granule samples
(as it is contradictory to the preparation of noodles in traditional Chinese cooking), and the
exclusion of wheat and barley as components (as morphological changes during the cooking
process causes difficulty in observation, and the cultivation of wheat and barley has a long
history in the Yellow River basin) (Geet al., 2011). It has also been noted that millet dough
cannot be hand pulled into noodles, as the absence of glutenin millet causes the dough to be
not elastic and thus not malleable (Sabban, 2012).
2.5Sorghum bicolor
Sorghum bicolor, commonly called sorghum and also known as great millet, durra,
jowari, or milo, is a grass species cultivated for its grain, which is used for food for humans,
animal feed, and ethanol production. Sorghum originated in northern Africa, and is now
cultivated widely in tropical and subtropical regions. Sorghum is the world's fifth-most
important cereal crop after rice, wheat, maize, and barley. S. bicolor is typically an annual,
but some cultivars are perennial. It grows in clumps that may reach over 4 m high. The grain
is small, ranging from 2 to 4 mm in diameter. Sweet sorghums are sorghum cultivars that
are primarily grown for foliage, syrup production, and ethanol; they are taller than those
grown for grain (Dillon et al., 2007). S. bicolor is the cultivated species of sorghum; its wild
relatives make up the botanical genus Sorghum. The leading producers of sorghum bicolor
in 2011 were Nigeria (12.6%), India (11.2%), Mexico (11.2%), and the United States (10%)
(Jeri et al., 2013). Sorghum grows in a wide range of temperature, high altitudes, and
toxicsoils and can recover growth after some drought (Dillon et al., 2007). It has four
features that make it one of the most drought-resistant crops:

27
  It has a very large root-to-leaf surface area ratio.
 In times of drought, it will roll its leaves to lessen water loss by transpiration.
 If drought continues, it will go into dormancy rather than dying.
 Its leaves are protected by a waxy cuticle.
Richard Pankhurst reports that in 19th-century Ethiopia, durra was "often the first crop
sown on newly cultivated land", explaining that this cereal did not require the thorough
ploughing other crops did, and its roots not only decomposed into a good fertilizer, but they
also helped to break up the soil while not exhausting the subsoil (Pankhurst, 1968).
2.5.1 Uses
Sorghum is cultivated in many parts of the world. In the past 50 years, the area
planted with sorghum worldwide had increased 66%. In many parts of Asia and Africa, its
grain is used to make flat breads that form the staple food of many cultures. The grains can
also be popped in a similar fashion to popcorn. The nutritional contents (Table, 2.1) were
reviewed by National Research Council (1996).
The species can be used as a source for making ethanol fuel, and in some
environments may be better than maize or sugarcane, as it can grow under harsher
conditions. It typically has protein levels enabling dependent human populations to subsist
on it in times of famine, in contrast to regions where maize has become the staple crop. It is
also used for making a traditional corn broom (Holzwart, 2008).
In China, sorghum is known as gaoliang, and is fermented and distilled to produce one
form of clear spirits known as baijiu of which the most famous is Maotai (or Moutai).
Sorghum was ground and the flour was the main alternative to wheat in northern China for a
long time. In India, where it is commonly called jwaarie, jowar, jola, or jondhalaa, sorghum
is one of the staple sources of nutrition. An Indian bread called bhakri, jowar roti,
or joladarotti, is prepared from this grain. In some countries, sweet sorghum stalks are used
for producing biofuel by squeezing the juice and then fermenting it into ethanol. Texas A
and M University in the United States is currently running trials to find the best varieties for
ethanol production from sorghum leaves and stalks in the USA (Tamu.edu, 2007).

28
Table 2.1 Nutritional content in sorghum grains

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 1,418 kJ (339 kcal)
Carbohydrates 74.63 g
Dietary fiber 6.3 g
Crude Fat 3.30 g
Crude Protein 11.30 g

Source: National Research Council, 1996

29
 In Korea, it is cooked with rice, or its flour is used to make cake called susubukkumi.
In Australia, South America, and the United States, sorghum grain is used primarily for
livestock feed and in a growing number of ethanol plants. In Central America, tortillas are
sometimes made using sorghum. Although corn is the preferred grain for making tortillas,
sorghum is widely used and is well accepted in Honduras. White sorghum is preferred for
making tortillas (FAO, 2017).
In several countries in Africa, including Zimbabwe, Burundi, and Mali, Burkina
Faso, Ghana, and Nigeria, sorghum of both the red and white varieties is used to make
traditional opaque beer. Red sorghum imparts a pinkish-brown colour to the beer. Sorghum
is one of a number of grains used as wheat substitutes in gluten-free recipes and products
(FAO, 2017).
2.5.2 Agricultural uses
It is used in feed and pasturage for livestock. Its use is limited, however, because the
starch and protein in sorghum is more difficult for animals to digest than the starches and
protein in corn, Research is being done to find a process that will predigest the grain. One
study on cattle showed that steam-flaked sorghum was preferable to dry-rolled sorghum
because it improved daily weight gain. In hogs, sorghum has been shown to be a more
efficient feed choice than corn when both grains were processed in the same way.
The introduction of improved varieties, along with improved management practices,
has helped to increase sorghum productivity. In India, productivity increases are thought to
have freed up six million hectares of land. The International Crops Research Institute for the
Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in collaboration with partners produces improved varieties of
crops including sorghum. Some 194 improvedcultivars of sorghum from the institute have
been released (Ogbaga et al., 2014).
2.5.3 Research
Research is being conducted to develop a genetic cross that will make the plant more
tolerant to colder temperatures and to unravel the drought tolerance mechanisms, since it is
native to tropical climates (Ogbaga et al., 2014). In the United States, this is important
because the cost of corn was steadily increasing due to its usage in ethanol production for
addition to gasoline. Sorghum silage can be used as a replacement of corn silage in the diet
for dairy cattle. Other research has shown that a timely harvest of sorghum is essential for a

30
safe feed product. The plants need to be harvested during the time when the plant's total
moisture content is between 63 and 68%, to prevent lodging. Approximately, this is when
the grain reaches the "soft dough" stage. More research has found that sorghum has higher
nutritional value compared to corn when feeding dairy cattle and the type of processing is
also essential in harvesting the grain's maximum nutrition. Feeding steam-flaked sorghum
showed an increase in milk production when compared to dry-rolling. When a grain is
steam-flaked, it is cooked slightly, which makes certain nutrients more available to be
digested (Brouk and Bean, 2010).
Additional research is being done on sorghum as a potential food source to meet the
increasing global food demand. Sorghum is resistant to drought- and heat-related stress. The
genetic diversity between subspecies of sorghum makes it more resistant to pests and
pathogens than other less diverse food sources. In addition, it is highly efficient in
converting solar energy to chemical energy, and also in use of water. All of these
characteristics make it a promising candidate to help meet the increasing global food
demand. As such, many groups around the world are pursuing research initiatives around
sorghum (specifically Sorghum bicolor): Purdue University,HudsonAlpha Institute for
Biotechnology, Danforth Plant Science Center,and the University of Nebraska, among
others (Purdue.edu, 2017).
Another research application of sorghum is as a biofuel. Sweet sorghum has a high
sugar content in its stalk, which can be turned into ethanol. The biomass can be burned and
turned into charcoal, syn-gas, and bio-oil.
2.5.4 Genome
The genome of Sorghum bicolor was sequenced between 2005 and 2007 (Paterson et
al., 2009).
2.6.Millets
Millets (Oxford Dictionaries, 2017) are a group of highly variable small-seeded
grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human
food. Millets are important crops in the semiarid tropics of Asia and Africa (especially in
India, Mali, Nigeria, and Niger), with 97% of millet production in developing countries. The
crop is favored due to its productivity and short growing season under dry, high-temperature
conditions (McDonough et al., 2000).

31
 Millets are indigenous to many parts of the world (FAO, 1995). The most widely
grown millet is pearl millet, which is an important crop in India and parts of Africa (FAO,
1996). Finger millet, proso millet, and foxtail millet are also important crop species. Millets
have been important food staples in human history, particularly in Asia and Africa. They
have been in cultivation in East Asia for the last 10,000 years (Lu et al., 2009).
2.6.1 Description
The minor millets have been consumed since the beginning of the ancient
civilizations of the world. Generally, the millets are small-grained, annual, warm-weather
cereals belonging to grass family. They are highly tolerant of drought and other extreme
weather conditions and have a similar nutrient content to other major cereals (McDonough
et al., 2000).
2.6.2 History
Foxtail Millet is known to have been the first domesticated millet. Chinese legends
attribute the domestication of millet to Shennong, the legendary Emperor of China (Yang,
2005). Similarly, millets have been mentioned in some of the oldest extant Yajurveda texts,
identifying foxtail millet (priyangava), Barnyard millet (aanava) and black finger millet
(shyaamaka), indicating that millet consumption was very common, pre-dating to 4500 BC,
during the Indian Bronze Age. Specialized archaeologists called palaeoethnobotanists,
relying on data such as the relative abundance of charred grains found in archaeological
sites, hypothesize that the cultivation of millets was of greater prevalence in prehistory than
rice (Manjul, 2006), especially in northern China and Korea. Millets also formed important
parts of the prehistoric diet in Indian, Chinese Neolithic and Korean Mumun societies.
Broomcorn (Panicummiliaceum) and foxtail millet were important crops beginning in the
Early Neolithic of China. For example, some of the earliest evidence of millet cultivation in
China was found at Cishan (north). Cishan dates for common millet husk phytoliths and
biomolecular components have been identified around 8300–6700 BC in storage pits along
with remains of pit-houses, pottery, and stone tools related to millet cultivation. Evidence at
Cishan for foxtail millet dates back to around 6500 BC (Lu et al., 2009). A 4,000-year-old
well-preserved bowl containing well-preserved noodles made from foxtail millet and
broomcorn millet was found at the Lajia archaeological site in China (BBC News, 2005).

32
 Palaeoethnobotanists have found evidence of the cultivation of millet in the Korean
Peninsula dating to the Middle Jeulmun pottery period (around 3500–2000 BC). Millet
continued to be an important element in the intensive, multicropping agriculture of the
Mumun pottery period (about 1500–300 BC) in Korea (Crawford and Lee, 2003). Millets
and their wild ancestors, such as barnyard grass and panic grass, were also cultivated in
Japan during the Jōmon period sometime after 4000 BC.
Asian varieties of millet made their way from China to the Black Sea region of
Europe by 5000 BC (Lawler, 2009). The cultivation of common millet as the earliest dry
crop in East Asia has been attributed to its resistance to drought (Lu et al., 2009), and this
has been suggested to have aided its spread (Lawler, 2009).
2.6.3 Production
Pearl millet is one of the two major crops in the semiarid, impoverished, less fertile
agriculture regions of Africa and Southeast Asia (Baltensperger, 2002). Millets are not only
adapted to poor, droughty, and infertile soils, but they are also more reliable under these
conditions than most other grain crops. This has, in part, made millet production popular,
particularly in countries surrounding the Sahara in western Africa.
India is the world's largest producer of millet. In the 1970s, all of the millet crops
harvested in India were used as a food staple. By the 2000s, the annual millet production
had increased in India, yet per capita consumption of millet had dropped by between 50% to
75% in different regions of the country. As of 2005, most millet produced in India is being
used for alternative applications such as livestock fodder and alcohol production. Indian
organizations are discussing ways to increase millet use as food to encourage more
production; however, they have found that some consumers now prefer the taste of other
grains (Basavaraj, 2010).
In 2010, the average yield of millet crops worldwide was 0.83 tonnes per hectare.
The most productive millet farms in the world were in France, with a nationwide average
yield of 3.3 tonnes per hectare in 2010 (FAOSTAT, 2013).
2.6.4 As a food source
Millets are major food sources in arid and semiarid regions of the world, and feature
in the traditional cuisine of many others. In western India, sorghum (called jowar, jola,
jonnalu, jwaarie, or jondhahlaa in Gujarati, Kannada, Telugu, Hindi and Marathi languages,

33
respectively; mutthaari, kora, or panjappullu in Malayalam; or cholam in Tamil) has been
commonly used with millet flour (called jowari in western India) for hundreds of years to
make the local staple, hand-rolled (that is, made without a rolling pin) flat bread (rotla in
Gujarati, bhakri in Marathi, or roti in other languages). Another cereal grain popularly used
in rural areas and by poor people to consume as a staple in the form of roti. Other millets
such as ragi (finger millet) in Karnataka, naachanie in Maharashtra, or kezhvaragu in
Tamil, "ragulu" in Telugu, with the popular ragirotti and Ragimudde is a popular meal in
Karnataka. Ragi, as it is popularly known, is dark in color like rye, but rougher in texture
(FAO, 1995).
Millet porridge is a traditional food in Russian, German, and Chinese сuisines. In
Russia, it is eaten sweet (with milk and sugar added at the end of the cooking process) or
savoury with meat or vegetable stews. In China, it is eaten without milk or sugar, frequently
with beans, sweet potato, and/or various types of squash. In Germany, it is also eaten sweet,
boiled in water with apples added during the boiling process and honey added during the
cooling process.Per capita consumption of millets as food varies in different parts of the
world with consumption being the highest in Western Africa. In the Sahel region, millet is
estimated to account for about 35 percent of total cereal food consumption in Burkina Faso,
Chad and the Gambia. In Mali and Senegal, millets constitute roughly 40 percent of total
cereal food consumption per capita; while in Niger and arid Namibia it is over 65 percent.
Millet is also an important food item for the population living in the drier parts of many
other countries, especially in eastern and central Africa, and in the northern coastal countries
of western Africa. In developing countries outside Africa, millet has local significance as a
food in parts of some countries, such as China, India, Burma and North Korea (FAO, 1995).
The use of millets as food fell between the 1970s and the 2000s, both in urban and
rural areas, as developing countries such as India have experienced rapid economic growth
and witnessed a significant increase in per capita consumption of other cereals (Basavaraj,
2010). People affected by gluten-related disorders, such as coeliac disease, non-celiac gluten
sensitivity and wheat allergy sufferers (Ludvigsson et al., 2013; Mulder et al., 2013 and
Volta et al., 2015), who need a gluten-free diet, can replace gluten-containing cereals in
their diets with millet (Rai et al., 2014). Nevertheless, while millet does not contain gluten,
its grains and flour may be contaminated with gluten-containing cereals (Saturni et al.,

34
2010andKoerner et al., 2013). It is a common ingredient in seeded bread. Millets are also
used as bird and animal feed.
2.6.5 Grazing millet
In addition to being used for seed, millet is also used as a grazing forage crop.
Instead of letting the plant reach maturity it can be grazed by stock and is commonly used
for sheep and cattle. Millet grows rapidly and can be grazed 5–7 weeks after sowing, when
it is 20–30 cm high. The highest feed value is from the young green leaf and shoots. The
plant can quickly come to head, so it must be managed accordingly because as the plant
matures the value and palatability of feed reduces.
Compared to forage sorghum, which is grown as an alternative grazing forage,
animals gain weight faster on millet and it has better hay or silage potential, although it
produces less dry matter. Lambs do better on millet compared to sorghum (Collett, 2004).
Millet does not contain prussic acid which can be in sorghum. Prussic acid poisons animals
by inhibiting oxygen utilization by the cells and is transported in the blood around the body
— ultimately the animal will die from asphyxia (Robson, 2013). There is no need for
additional feed supplements such as Sulphur or salt blocks with millet.The rapid growth of
millet as a grazing crop allows flexibility in its use. Farmers can wait until sufficient late
spring/summer moisture is present and then make use of it. It is ideally suited to irrigation
where livestock finishing is required (Lonewood, 2013).
2.6.6 Nutrition
In a 100 gram serving, raw millet provides 378 calories and is a rich source (20% or
more of the Daily Value, DV) of protein, dietary fiber, several B vitamins and numerous
dietary minerals, especially manganese at 76% DV. Raw millet is 9% water, 73%
carbohydrates, 4% fat and 11% protein (Table, 2.2; USDA National Nutrient Database,
2015).The following table shows the nutrient content of millet compared to major staple
foods in a raw form. Raw forms, however, are not edible and cannot be fully digested. These
must be prepared and cooked as appropriate for human consumption. In processed and
cooked form, the relative nutritional and anti-nutritional contents of each of these grains are
remarkably different from that of raw forms reported in this Table (2.2). The nutritional
value in the cooked form depends on the cooking method.

35
Table 2.2 Nutrient profile comparison of millet

Crop/Nutrient Protein( Fiber(%) Ash(%) Iron Calcium

%) (mg) (mg)
Pearl millet 10.6 1.3 2.3 16.9 38
Finger millet 7.3 3.6 2.7 3.9 344
Foxtail millet 12.3 8 3.3 2.8 31
Proso millet 12.5 2.2 1.9 0.8 14
Kodo millet 8.3 9 2.6 0.5 27
Little millet 7.7 7.6 1.5 9.3 17
Barnyard millet 11.2 10.1 4.4 15.2 11
Rice 6.8 0.2 0.6 0.7 10
Wheat 11.8 1.2 1.5 5.3 41

Source: USDA National Nutrient Database (2015).

36
 CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Materials

Wheat flour,millets,Sorghum bicolor (Daber), guar, edible oil and custard, were
purchased from a local market in wad Medani City, Gezira State, Sudan, and then
transferred to the laboratory of food analysis, Department of Food Engineering and
Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, University of Gezira, Sudan. All other
chemicals and reagents were of the highest grade commercially available.
3.2 Methods
3.2.1 Gluten content
Wet gluten content was determined by washing the flour sample by a salt solution to
remove the starch and other soluble from the sample. The residue remaining after washing
was the wet gluten. This determination was adapted according to the AACC (2010). A 10g
sample was weighed and placed into the glutmatic washing chamber on top of the polyester
screen. The sample was mixed and washed with 2% salt solution (NaCl) for 5 minutes. At
the end of the wash cycle, the wet gluten was removed from the washing chamber, placed in
the centrifuge holder, and centrifuged. The residue retained on top of the screen and through
the screen was weighed to get total gluten. Wet gluten content results were expressed as a
percentage on 14% moisture basis. It was then dried in a heater to give the dry gluten.
Calculation of wet, dry, and gluten index was as follows:
Wet gluten % (from total protein) = (total gluten (g)/ sample weight (g)) × 100.
Dry gluten % (from total protein)= (weight of dry gluten (g)/ sample weight (g) ×100.
3.2.2. Falling number
Falling number method determines alpha – amylase activity using the starch in the
sample as substrate. The method of falling number weight 7.0gof the flour and added 25 ml
distilled water and fit a rubber stopper onto the tube and mix to obtain a homogenous
suspension, remove the stopper and the place the viscometer stirrer. Scarping in to the
suspension any flour adhering to the walls of the tube. The tube with stirrer into the boiling
water bath within 20 seconds after mixing swing the motor unit immediately into its

37
working position above the viscometer tube and viscometer. The apparatus has built in
functions to carry out the test automatically from now on. The red light and bumper
indicates the conclusion of the test. Swing back the motor unit by releasing the lever at back.
The beeper stops and the cuter show the falling number value remote the viscometer tube
wash the tube and stirrer. Read the falling number from the cuter display.
3.2.3 Chemical analysis
3.2.3.1. Moisture content
Moisture determination was conducted using the AOAC (2000). Disposable
aluminum weighing dishes, (<50 mm diameter and <40 mm deep) which had been
numbered, dried in the oven for 30 minutes, cooled in a desiccator and weighed again were
used. A two-g sample were weighed out and repeated in triplicate. Using tongs, aluminum
weighing dishes containing the samples were placed in an air-drying oven at 130° C for
about one hour. The samples were removed and placed in a desiccator to cool for 30 minutes
and reweighed. The moisture content was calculated according to the following equation:

Moist Sample Weight W1-W2

Moisture Content= × 100
Moist samples weight

Where:
W1= weight of dish and dry sample.
W2=weight of dish.

3.2.3.2. Protein Content

Protein content was determined according to Kjeladahel method described by
(AOAC, 1990). Two grams of each samples were placed in digestion flask (500 ml), KSO4
was added to it. Then 25 ml of concentrated sulfuric acid was added and the content was
heated in fume cupboard until a clear solution were obtained (2-3 hours) and left to cool
before those antidumping granules was added. The digested samples were poured in a
volumetric flask (100 ml) and diluted to 100 ml with distilled water. Five ml were distilled
using 10 ml of 40% NaOH, 25 ml of boric acid with drops of methyl red were placed in a
conical flask. Distillation of the reaction mixture liberated ammonia and reacted with boric

38
acid, changing the color from red to light greenish blue. Excess alkali was then titrated using
0.1 N hydrochloric acid, until color changed to light purple. The titration reading was
reported. The protein content was determined by multiplying the percentage nitrogen by
empirical factor 6.66; as follow:
dilution factors
N% = Volume of HCl ×N×14× × 100
1000 ×weight of sample

Protein % = N% × 6.66
Where: 14 = the molecular weight of nitrogen
N = Normality of acid of HCl.
3.2.3.3. Ash content
The ash content was determined according to the AOAC (2000) using muffle
furnace. Four grams of the sample were weighed and repeated in triplicate into porcelain
crucibles, which have been ignited, cooled in a desiccator and weighed and placed in a cool
electric muffle furnace. The temperature was 540°C overnight for complete ashing. The ash
crucibles were transferred directly into a desiccator, then cooled for 30 minutes and weighed
immediately. The ash was determined by calculation and expressed as percentage using the
equation:
Total ash (%) = Ash weight × 100
Sample weight
3.2.3.4. Fat content
The fat content was determined according to the AOAC (2000) with some
modification. Oil was extracted by petroleum ether (PE) on a Goldfish extractor. Samples of
2g from each noodle mixture(in triplicate) were wrapped in filter paper and placed in a
cellulose thimble condenser. 150 ml of PEsolvent was added to the weighed Goldfish
beakers. The extraction was carried out for 5 hours until all the soluble components of the
sample were removed. Burners were allowed to cool for 30 minutes then the beakers were
moved to a tray, covered with evaporation-type watch glass, and set in a hood to allow all
PT to evaporate overnight. The air oven removed the traces of solvent at 130° C for 15
minutes; cooled in a desiccator for 30minutes and re-weight. The fat content was calculated
according to the following equation:

39
 Crude fat% = Weight of oil extracted × 100
Weight of sample
3.2.3.5. Total carbohydrates
The amount of carbohydrates was calculated by difference. The values refer to “total
carbohydrate by difference” that is, the sum of the figures for moisture (MC%), protein (PC
%), fat (FC %), and ash (Ash %) are subtracted from 100.
Total Carbohydrate % = 100 – [MC% + PC% + FC% + Ash C%].
3.2.3.6. Minerals
According to AOAC (2000), samples were dried and ashed at 525oC for 4 hours. The
ash was dissolved in (1 ml hydrochloric acid +3 ml distilled water) and a few drops of nitric
acid, brought to a final volume of 250 ml with distilled water and filtered. Sodium and
calcium were determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy.
3.3. Preparation of noodles
The noodles were prepared (Figure, 3.1) as Daber-noodle and millet-noodle
compared to “Nobo” noodle as control. The basic processing steps for noodles involve
mixing 450 g, 400 g and 350 g of wheat flour to 50, 100 and 150, respectively,of Daber or
millet flours (to obtain mixture of 10%, 20% and 30% noodles, respectively) in addition to
guar gum (0.5 g), custard (small spoon),20 ml groundnut oil, and 250 ml water.Mixtures
were then sheeted to dough into a specified thickness and slitting into noodle strands.
Noodle drying was achieved by air drying that takes 5-8 hours
3.4 Sensory evaluation
Sensory evaluation was performed using Triangle test through a questionnaire
(Appendix, 1) and then a 10-member (panelists) to measure color, appearance, flavor, taste
and overall acceptability.A hedonic scale of 1 to 9 was used; 1: extremely bad, 2: very bad,
3: bad, 4: fairly bad, 5: satisfactory, 6: fairly good, 7: good, 8: very good, 9: excellent
3.5 Statistical analysis
The analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to examine the significant level
in all parameters measured. (SPSS) test was used to separate between the means. All
analyses were performed in triplicate (n = 3). The level of significance was 0.005.

40
 Wheat -Sorghum +Peanut+ Guar flour +Water

Mixing /Blending

Kneading / Sheeting

Resting

Cutting

Drying

Noodles

Cooking

Figure 3.1 Noodle processing procedure

41
 CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Falling number

As shown in Table 4.1, the falling number of wheat flour was 441 second. The
falling number of wheat flour in this study was lower than the falling number of wheat flour
obtained by Mariam et al., (2009) which was 536.4. Also, the falling number of wheat flour
was lower than that obtained in the study ofSalimet al., (2005) which was 521 second.
4.2 Gluten content
The results of gluten content of wheat flour were shown in Table 4.1, for wet gluten
and dry gluten of wheat flour were 32+0.01% and 22+0.3% (from total protein),
respectively. These results were higher than that reported by Huebner and Rothfus, (1968)
who concluded that dry gluten from different cultivars of hard wheat ranged between 9 to
11%.
Gluten can be defined as a composite of storage
proteinstermedprolaminsandglutelins and stored together with starch in
theendosperm(whichnourishes the embryonic plant during germination) of variousgrass-
relatedgrains (Payne, 2012).
Gluten is found in wheat, barley, rye, oat, related species and hybrids (such
asspelt, khorasan, emmer, einkorn, triticale, kamut, etc.) and products of these (such
as malt). Gluten is appreciated for its viscoelastic properties. It gives elasticity
todough,helping it riseandkeeps its shape and often gives the final product a chewy texture
(Shewryet al., 2002).

42
Table 4.1 Falling number, wet and dry gluten of wheat flour

Parameters Value

Falling number 441±0.03

Wet gluten (%) 32±0.01%

Dry gluten (%) 22±0.30%

Values are means ± standard deviations of 3 determinations (percentages are from total
protein).

43
4.3 Proximate composition of the prepared noodles
The moisture content of the noodles millet and which have been added millets 10%,
20% and 30% were3.7 %, 4.5% and 8.3%, respectively, while those of Daber-noodles were
5%, 5.6% and 8.6%, respectively (Table 4.2). These results showed that, as the
concentration of millet and Daber flour increased in the prepared noodles, the moisture
content consequently increased.
The ash content in millet-noodle were 4.9%, 4.96% and 4.96%, while those of
Daber-noodle were 0.3%, 0.3% and 0.5%, respective for the concentration of 10%, 20% and
30%. The increase in the ash content did not exceed 0.06% in millet-noodle and 0.2% in the
Daber-noodle.
The protein content corresponding to concentrations of 10%, 20% and 30% were
14.65%, 14.12% and 13.68% in millet-noodle, while they were 14.63%, 14.26% and
13.89%, in Daber-noodle. This result proved that, as the concentration of millet and Daber
flour increased in the prepared noodles, the protein content also increased.
The fat content in millet-noodles at concentration of 10%, 20%, and 30% were 1.5%,
1.6% and 1.9%, respectively. The corresponding fat contents in Daber-noodle were 0.9%,
1.3% and 1.7%, respectively. There were an obvious increase in the oil contents in the
prepared noodles as the concentration of millet and Daber flour increased.
The fiber content in millet-noodles at concentration of 10%, 20%, and 30% were
0.2%, 0.5% and 0.9%, respectively. The corresponding fiber contents in Daber-noodle were
0.1%, 0.3% and 0.7%, respectively. The obvious increase in the fiber contents were
correlated to the increase of the millet and Daber flour in the noodles.
Carbohydrates content at the mixture of 10%,20% and 30% were 75.14%, 74.32%
and 70.26%,in millet-noodle and were 79.07%, 78.24% and 74.61%, in Daber-noodle,
respectively. The obvious decrease in the carbohydrate contents were correlated to the
increase of millet and Daber flour in the prepared noodles.
In millet, protein content was 10.6%, fiber was 1.3% and ash content was 2.3
(USDA National Nutrient Database, 2015) while sorghum contain 6.3% fiber, 3.3% fat,
11.3% protein and 74.6% carbohydrates (National Research Council, 1996).

44
Table 4.2 Proximate analysis for millets and Daber Noodles

% Moisture Ash Protein Fiber Oil

M D M D M D M D M D

10 3.7 5 4.9 0.3 14.65 14.63 0.2 0.1 1.5 0.9

20 4.5 5.6 4.96 0.3 14.12 14.26 0.5 0.3 1.6 1.3

30 8.3 8.6 4.96 0.5 13.68 13.89 0.9 0.7 1.9 1.7

M = Millet-noodle
D = Daber-noodle

45
4.4Minerals (Na and K) composition of the prepared noodles
Sodium (Na) and potassium (K) content (in mg/100g)in the prepared millet-noodle
and Daber-noodle were presented in Table (4.3).At the mixture of 10%, 20% and 30%, Na
was 0.23, 0.31 and 0.31, respectively,in the millet-noodle, while were 0.18, 0.24 and 0.25,
respectively, in Daber-noodle. Concerning potassium content,at the mixture of 10%, 20%
and 30%, it were 0.25, 0.22 and 0.32, respectively, in the millet-noodle, while it were 0.20,
0.29 and 0.29, respectively, in Daber-noodle.
The mineral contentsareusually associated with the ash content Michealet al., (2013).
4.5 Sensory evaluation of the prepared noodles
Sensory mean scores of control, millet-noodle (10%, 20% and 30%), and Daber-
noodle (10%, 20% and 30%)were presented in Table (4.4). All evaluated characters (color,
texture, flavor, appearance, taste and overall acceptability) ranged between 8.40 – 8.80
(judged between very good and excellent). The sensory evaluation of millet-noodle revealed
that, the mixture of 10% scored between 5.50 (color) to 7.10 (taste) and the mean overall
acceptability of 6.10 (about fairly good), while the mixture of 20% scoredbetween 5.80
(color) to 7.20 (taste and flavor) and the mean overall acceptability of 6.40 (about fairly
good), whereas the mixture of 30% scored between 6.00 (texture and appearance) to 7.00
(flavor and taste) and the mean overall acceptability of 6.30 (about fairly good).
The sensory evaluation of Daber-noodle revealed that, the mixture of 10% scored
between 6.10 (flavor) to 6.80 (taste) and the mean overall acceptability of 6.70 (nearly
good), while the mixture of 20% scored between 6.40 (texture and taste) to 7.00 (flavor) and
the mean overall acceptability of 7.00 (good), whereas the mixture of 30% scored between
6.80 (color) to 6.80 (appearance and taste) and the mean overall acceptability of 6.30 (about
fairly good).
It seemed that control-noodle sample was more acceptable than the other samples
followed by the Daber-noodle samples while the millet-noodle samples were the last choice
for the panelists.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that, the judge of the panelists for the
different noodle samples were statistically significant (P<0.005), indicating that, some
samples are highly preferredby panelists while others are fairly accepted.

46
Table 4.3 Minerals (sodium and potassium) in Millets and Daber Noodles

% Na K

M D M D

10 0.23 0.18 0.25 0.20

20 0.31 0.24 0.22 0.29

30 0.31 0.25 0.32 0.29

M = Millet-noodle
D = Daber-noodle

47
Table (4.4) Sensory evaluation of the prepared noodle samples

Sample N Color Texture Flavor Appearance Taste Overall

Control 10 8.60 8.50 8.70 8.60 8.80 8.40
Millet 10% 10 5.50 6.20 700 6.30 7.10 6.10
Millet 20% 10 5.80 6.30 7.20 6.20 7.20 6.40
Millet 30% 10 6.20 6.00 7.00 6.00 7.00 6.30
Daber 10% 10 6.30 6.50 6.10 6.50 6.80 6.70
Daber 20% 10 6.70 6.40 7.00 6.90 6.40 7.00
Daber 30% 10 5.80 6.60 6.50 6.80 6.80 6.30

ANOVA
Character SS df MS F Sig.
Color Between 65.09 6 10.85 4.27 0.001
Texture Groups 42.57 6 7.10 4.78 0.000
Flavor 39.54 6 6.59 4.46 0.001
Appearance 45.77 6 7.63 4.41 0.001
Taste 35.57 6 5.93 5.07 0.00
Overall 37.37 6 6.23 3.92 0.002

48
 CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions
1) Falling number of wheat flour was 441, wet gluten was32±0.01% and dry gluten
was22±0.3%
2) As the concentration of millet and Daber flour increased in the prepared noodles, the
moisture, ash, and oil contents consequently increased, while the case was reversed in
carbohydrate and protein contents.
3) In the millet-noodle, and at the mixture of 10%, 20% and 30%, Na were 0.23, 0.31
and 0.31, respectively, while were 0.18, 0.24 and 0.25 in Daber-noodle,while
potassium content, at the same mixtures were 0.25, 0.22 and 0.32, respectively, in the
millet-noodle, and 0.20, 0.29 and 0.29, respectively, in Daber-noodle.
4) It seemed that control-noodle sample was more acceptable than the other samples
followed by the Daber-noodle samples while the millet-noodle samples were the last
choice for the panelists. ANOVA proved that, the different noodle samples were
statistically significant, i.e. some samples are highly preferred by panelists while
others are fairly accepted.

5.2 Recommendations
1- Further studies should concern adding some additives to improve acceptability for
millet-noodle and Daber-noodle.
2- Other available materials (e.g. other varieties of sorghum or millet) should not be
ignored in the trials for preparation of local noodles.

49
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Yang, L. (2005). Handbook of Chinese Mythology. New York: Oxford University
Press. p. 198. ISBN 978-0-19-533263-6.

55
 Appendices

Appendix 1 Statistical analysis of the sensory evolution of dry sample of noodles

Descriptive
95% Confidence Interval for Mean
N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum
color 1 10 8.6000 .69921 .22111 8.0998 9.1002 7.00 9.00
2 10 5.5000 1.90029 .60093 4.1406 6.8594 3.00 8.00
3 10 5.8000 1.75119 .55377 4.5473 7.0527 3.00 8.00
4 10 6.2000 1.61933 .51208 5.0416 7.3584 3.00 8.00
5 10 6.3000 1.41814 .44845 5.2855 7.3145 3.00 8.00
6 10 6.7000 1.70294 .53852 5.4818 7.9182 4.00 9.00
7 10 5.8000 1.75119 .55377 4.5473 7.0527 3.00 9.00
Total 70 6.4143 1.80573 .21583 5.9837 6.8448 3.00 9.00
texture 1 10 8.5000 .52705 .16667 8.1230 8.8770 8.00 9.00
2 10 6.2000 1.03280 .32660 5.4612 6.9388 5.00 8.00
3 10 6.3000 1.25167 .39581 5.4046 7.1954 4.00 8.00
4 10 6.0000 1.49071 .47140 4.9336 7.0664 4.00 8.00
5 10 6.5000 1.71594 .54263 5.2725 7.7275 4.00 9.00
6 10 6.4000 .96609 .30551 5.7089 7.0911 5.00 8.00
7 10 6.6000 1.17379 .37118 5.7603 7.4397 5.00 8.00
Total 70 6.6429 1.40430 .16785 6.3080 6.9777 4.00 9.00
appearance 1 10 8.6000 .51640 .16330 8.2306 8.9694 8.00 9.00
2 10 6.3000 1.49443 .47258 5.2309 7.3691 4.00 8.00
3 10 6.2000 1.22927 .38873 5.3206 7.0794 4.00 8.00
4 10 6.0000 1.49071 .47140 4.9336 7.0664 4.00 8.00
5 10 6.5000 1.71594 .54263 5.2725 7.7275 4.00 9.00
6 10 6.9000 1.28668 .40689 5.9796 7.8204 4.00 8.00
7 10 6.8000 1.13529 .35901 5.9879 7.6121 5.00 8.00
Total 70 6.7571 1.49817 .17907 6.3999 7.1144 4.00 9.00
overall 1 10 8.4000 .69921 .22111 7.8998 8.9002 7.00 9.00
2 10 6.1000 1.66333 .52599 4.9101 7.2899 4.00 8.00
3 10 6.4000 1.50555 .47610 5.3230 7.4770 4.00 8.00
4 10 6.3000 1.05935 .33500 5.5422 7.0578 5.00 8.00
5 10 6.7000 1.15950 .36667 5.8705 7.5295 5.00 8.00
6 10 7.0000 1.15470 .36515 6.1740 7.8260 5.00 8.00
7 10 6.3000 1.33749 .42295 5.3432 7.2568 4.00 8.00
Total 70 6.7429 1.41099 .16865 6.4064 7.0793 4.00 9.00

56
 ANOVA

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

colour Between Groups 65.086 6 10.848 4.274 .001

Within Groups 159.900 63 2.538

Total 224.986 69

texture Between Groups 42.571 6 7.095 4.781 .000

Within Groups 93.500 63 1.484

Total 136.071 69

appearence Between Groups 45.771 6 7.629 4.405 .001

Within Groups 109.100 63 1.732

Total 154.871 69

overall Between Groups 37.371 6 6.229 3.924 .002

Within Groups 100.000 63 1.587

Total 137.371 69

color

Subset for alpha = 0.05

VAR0000
1 N 1 2
2 10 5.5000
3 10 5.8000
7 10 5.8000
4 10 6.2000
5 10 6.3000
6 10 6.7000
1 10 8.6000
Sig. .147 1.000

57
 ANOVA

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

colour Between Groups 65.086 6 10.848 4.274 .001

Within Groups 159.900 63 2.538

Total 224.986 69

texture Between Groups 42.571 6 7.095 4.781 .000

Within Groups 93.500 63 1.484

Total 136.071 69

appearence Between Groups 45.771 6 7.629 4.405 .001

Within Groups 109.100 63 1.732

Total 154.871 69

overall Between Groups 37.371 6 6.229 3.924 .002

Within Groups 100.000 63 1.587

Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are

displayed.

texture

Subset for alpha = 0.05

VAR0000
1 N 1 2
4 10 6.0000
2 10 6.2000
3 10 6.3000
6 10 6.4000
5 10 6.5000
7 10 6.6000
1 10 8.5000
Sig. .345 1.000

58
 appearance

Subset for alpha = 0.05

VAR0000
1 N 1 2
4 10 6.0000
3 10 6.2000
2 10 6.3000
5 10 6.5000
7 10 6.8000
6 10 6.9000
1 10 8.6000
Sig. .188 1.000
Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are
displayed.

overall

Subset for alpha = 0.05

VAR0000
1 N 1 2
2 10 6.1000
4 10 6.3000
7 10 6.3000
3 10 6.4000
5 10 6.7000
6 10 7.0000
1 10 8.4000
Sig. .169 1.000

59
Appendix 2 Statistical analysis of the sensory evolution of cooked sample of noodles

Descriptive
95% Confidence Interval for Mean
N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum
colour 1 10 8.7000 .48305 .15275 8.3544 9.0456 8.00 9.00
2 10 7.1000 1.19722 .37859 6.2436 7.9564 5.00 8.00
3 10 6.9000 1.37032 .43333 5.9197 7.8803 5.00 9.00
4 10 5.8000 .63246 .20000 5.3476 6.2524 5.00 7.00
5 10 6.7000 1.05935 .33500 5.9422 7.4578 5.00 8.00
6 10 7.0000 .81650 .25820 6.4159 7.5841 6.00 8.00
7 10 7.2000 1.22927 .38873 6.3206 8.0794 5.00 9.00
Total 70 7.0571 1.26130 .15075 6.7564 7.3579 5.00 9.00
texture 1 10 8.2000 1.54919 .48990 7.0918 9.3082 4.00 9.00
2 10 6.8000 1.22927 .38873 5.9206 7.6794 5.00 8.00
3 10 6.9000 .87560 .27689 6.2736 7.5264 5.00 8.00
4 10 7.1000 .99443 .31447 6.3886 7.8114 5.00 8.00
5 10 7.2000 1.22927 .38873 6.3206 8.0794 4.00 8.00
6 10 7.0000 1.05409 .33333 6.2459 7.7541 5.00 8.00
7 10 6.7000 1.41814 .44845 5.6855 7.7145 4.00 9.00
Total 70 7.1286 1.25018 .14942 6.8305 7.4267 4.00 9.00
flavour 1 10 8.7000 .48305 .15275 8.3544 9.0456 8.00 9.00
2 10 7.0000 1.41421 .44721 5.9883 8.0117 4.00 9.00
3 10 7.2000 1.13529 .35901 6.3879 8.0121 5.00 9.00
4 10 7.0000 1.33333 .42164 6.0462 7.9538 5.00 9.00
5 10 6.1000 1.59513 .50442 4.9589 7.2411 2.00 7.00
6 10 7.0000 1.24722 .39441 6.1078 7.8922 4.00 8.00
7 10 6.5000 .97183 .30732 5.8048 7.1952 5.00 8.00
Total 70 7.0714 1.38649 .16572 6.7408 7.4020 2.00 9.00
appear 1 10 8.7000 .48305 .15275 8.3544 9.0456 8.00 9.00
ance
2 10 6.7000 1.63639 .51747 5.5294 7.8706 3.00 8.00
3 10 7.3000 1.15950 .36667 6.4705 8.1295 5.00 9.00
4 10 6.5000 1.08012 .34157 5.7273 7.2727 5.00 8.00
5 10 6.9000 1.10050 .34801 6.1127 7.6873 4.00 8.00
6 10 7.1000 .99443 .31447 6.3886 7.8114 6.00 9.00
7 10 6.6000 1.77639 .56174 5.3292 7.8708 4.00 9.00
Total 70 7.1143 1.37833 .16474 6.7856 7.4429 3.00 9.00
taste 1 10 8.8000 .42164 .13333 8.4984 9.1016 8.00 9.00
2 10 7.1000 .87560 .27689 6.4736 7.7264 6.00 8.00
3 10 7.2000 1.31656 .41633 6.2582 8.1418 5.00 9.00
4 10 7.0000 1.41421 .44721 5.9883 8.0117 5.00 9.00
5 10 6.8000 .91894 .29059 6.1426 7.4574 5.00 8.00
6 10 6.4000 .96609 .30551 5.7089 7.0911 5.00 8.00
7 10 6.8000 1.31656 .41633 5.8582 7.7418 5.00 9.00
Total 70 7.1571 1.25843 .15041 6.8571 7.4572 5.00 9.00
overall 1 10 8.4000 .96609 .30551 7.7089 9.0911 6.00 9.00
2 10 7.6000 1.07497 .33993 6.8310 8.3690 6.00 9.00
3 10 7.5000 1.08012 .34157 6.7273 8.2727 5.00 9.00
4 10 7.0000 1.05409 .33333 6.2459 7.7541 6.00 9.00
5 10 7.2000 1.47573 .46667 6.1443 8.2557 5.00 9.00
6 10 6.8000 .63246 .20000 6.3476 7.2524 6.00 8.00
7 9 6.8889 1.96497 .65499 5.3785 8.3993 4.00 9.00
Total 69 7.3478 1.28138 .15426 7.0400 7.6556 4.00 9.00

60
 ANOVA

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

colour Between Groups 44.571 6 7.429 7.178 .000

Within Groups 65.200 63 1.035

Total 109.771 69

texture Between Groups 15.143 6 2.524 1.715 .132

Within Groups 92.700 63 1.471

Total 107.843 69

flavour Between Groups 39.543 6 6.590 4.460 .001

Within Groups 93.100 63 1.478

Total 132.643 69

appearance Between Groups 34.086 6 5.681 3.690 .003

Within Groups 97.000 63 1.540

Total 131.086 69

taste Between Groups 35.571 6 5.929 5.068 .000

Within Groups 73.700 63 1.170

Total 109.271 69

overall Between Groups 18.263 6 3.044 2.021 .076

Within Groups 93.389 62 1.506

Total 111.652 68

color
Duncan
Subset for alpha = 0.05
VAR0000
1 N 1 2 3
4 10 5.8000
5 10 6.7000 6.7000
3 10 6.9000
6 10 7.0000
2 10 7.1000
7 10 7.2000
1 10 8.7000
Sig. .052 .337 1.000
Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.

61
Texture
Subset for alpha = 0.05
VAR0000
1 N 1 2
7 10 6.7000
2 10 6.8000
3 10 6.9000
6 10 7.0000
4 10 7.1000 7.1000
5 10 7.2000 7.2000
1 10 8.2000
Sig. .429 .059
Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.

flavor
Subset for alpha = 0.05
VAR0000
1 N 1 2
5 10 6.1000
7 10 6.5000
2 10 7.0000
4 10 7.0000
6 10 7.0000
3 10 7.2000
1 10 8.7000
Sig. .080 1.000
Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.

appearance
Subset for alpha = 0.05
VAR0000
1 N 1 2
4 10 6.5000
7 10 6.6000
2 10 6.7000
5 10 6.9000
6 10 7.1000
3 10 7.3000
1 10 8.7000
Sig. .215 1.000
Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.

taste
Subset for alpha = 0.05
VAR0000
1 N 1 2
6 10 6.4000
5 10 6.8000
7 10 6.8000
4 10 7.0000
2 10 7.1000
3 10 7.2000
1 10 8.8000
Sig. .154 1.000

62
flavor
Subset for alpha = 0.05
VAR0000
1 N 1 2
5 10 6.1000
7 10 6.5000
2 10 7.0000
4 10 7.0000
6 10 7.0000
3 10 7.2000
1 10 8.7000
Sig. .080 1.000
Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.

overall

Subset for alpha = 0.05

VAR0000
1 N 1 2
6 10 6.8000
79 6.8889
4 10 7.0000
5 10 7.2000 7.2000
3 10 7.5000 7.5000
2 10 7.6000 7.6000
1 10 8.4000
Sig. .213 .050
Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.

63