Week 2 (1883)

Psychology refers to the scientific study of the mind and behavior. Psychology also uses the
scientific method to observe behavior and the mind.

Wilhelm Wundt, the first person to be referred to as a psychologist and credited as one of
the founders of psychology, wanted to study the human mind like it was any other subject. He was
on the side that psychology is the scientific study of conscious experience. He used “introspection”
which is examining one's own conscious experience objectively. Ironically, introspection is very
subjective. He researched the individual parts of the brain. In his book Volkerpsychologie he wrote
about voluntarism, the idea that people have conscious will. Wundt had a laboratory at the
University at Leipzig in which he used stimuli and a button to study reaction time. Then Edward
Titchner, a student of Wundt, came along to develop structuralism. Structuralism is the contents of
mental processes rather than their function. Structuralism is the same as Wundt’s principles.
William James, the other founder of psychology, was introduced to Darwin’s theory of
natural selection and took it as an explanation of an organism's adapted characteristics and
behavior. He introduced the idea of functionalism, the study of the function of behavior in the
world. Contrary to Wundt’s focus on individual parts of a whole in structuralism, functionalism
focuses on the whole instead of individual parts. He believed that the whole function was more
important and telling than the individual pieces. He also used introspection while also using
recording devices, examinations of concrete products of mental activities, anatomy, and physiology
to make it less subjective.
The psychologist Sigmund Frued introduced the psychoanalytical theory which involved the
unconscious. Psychoanalytic theory is the focus on the role of the unconscious as well as childhood
experiences affecting a person’s life. He believed that most “problems” developed from the
unconscious mind and that humans have feelings and urges that we are unaware of. He thought that
if he learned about someone’s unconscious he could find out the solution to the problems. He also
believed the unconscious mind could be unlocked by dream analysis, word association, and “seemingly
innocent” slips of the tongue. Freud mostly studied hysteria and neurosis. Hysteria was mostly
diagnosed in women who exhibited emotional and physical symptoms. Hysteria is no longer
considered an illness. Freud’s type of psychology dominated the field of psychology for a long time.
Many therapists strongly believe in this method of psychology and that childhood experiences have
a big effect on a person.
Wetheimer, Koffka, and Köhler were all gestalt psychologists. They follow the idea that
even though a sensory experience can be broken into individual parts the whole usually has more
meaning in response to perception. Gestalt psychology contradicts with Wundt’s ideas and is about
the inner experience of the mind.
Pavlov studied conditioned reflex using classic conditioning, when an animal or human
developed a reflex in response to a stimulus and was conditioned over time to have a reflex
introduced to a different stimulus in relation to the other one. Basically, conditioning an animal or
human to associate something that they have a reflex to and something that they don’t and then
condition them so whenever they see the latter they give the response to the first because they
know it will come as well. Pavlov’s experiment was very famous for conditioning dogs with bells.
Watson focused on observable behavior because he thought objective analysis of the mind was
impossible. He also wanted to control behaviors. Skinner, famous for his Skinner box, focused on
reinforcement and punishment’s effect on driving behavior. Skinner’s box had buttons and lever(s)
that a mouse could press to make a reinforcement or punishment happen with correlating lights.
Another main point of the box is that it cuts off external factors. This branch of psychology is
called behaviorism. Behaviorism also led to the studying of how environmental factors affect the
mind/human behavior. Behaviorism researched mostly animals because they thought that animal
behaviors are applicable to human behavior.
Maslow proposed a hierarchy for the motivations behind humans' wants and needs. Once you
acquire the needs at the bottom, you work your way up to the top to reach self-actualization. He
believed once basic human needs (survival) were met then the higher needs would become the
motivators. Rogers believed the type of psychologist people need is one of positive reinforcement.
If you give people unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy they can work through
their problems. This is humanism which is the type of psychology that emphasizes that all humans
have innate good.
Noam Chomsky, an American linguist, didn’t like behaviorism and thought it was “short-
sighted”. He thought psychology had to incorporate mental function again. Then psychology began to
be more involved with cognitive sciences like linguistics, computer science, anthropology, and
neuroscience. This was called the ‘Cognitive Revolution’.
Psychology, like most sciences, had a male-dominated field for a long time. Specifically white
males, which, in a science where culture makes a difference in the research, isn’t good. Women,
people of color, and queer people had trouble getting into the field for a long time. Until 1990,
psychology had very few women involved which, funnily enough, they so eloquently named
“womanless” I found that hilarious because the book then told me what womanless meant. It was a
real thinker. Naomi Weisstein stimulated a feminist revolution by writing an artical about how
sexist the field was. Margaret Floy Washburn was the first woman with a doctoral degree in
psychology. Mary Whiton Calkins never gained a degree. Mary Cover Jones unconditioned fear which
is pretty cool. Inez Beverly was the first African American woman to get a degree in psychology.
Martha Bernan was the first latina to get a psychology degree.
Culture is understudied in psychology even though it has a large impact on individuals and
social psychology. Multicultural psychology is the study of different cultures/races in a country
while cross-cultural psychology is between different countries. Mamie Phipps Clark and her husband
Kenneth Clark studied African American children and doll preference which was helpful in a
desegregation court case. Francis Cecil Sumner was the first African American to receive a PHD
for psychology in the United States.
The American Psychology Association (APA) is the largest organization of psychologists in
the world. It’s mission is to learn more about psychology for the betterment of society. There are
56 divisions of psychology in the APA. Members of the APA vary from students to people with
multiple degrees. Stanley Hall was the first president of the APA. The Association of Psychological
Science (APS) was founded in 1988 because of disagreements between APA members. The goal of
the APS is to extend the science part of psychology.
Biopsychology explores how biology affects behavior. Many psychologists want to
understand the relation between the nervous system and behavior. People from other fields help in
biopsych research which is often referred to as neuroscience. Research of biopsych extends to
sensory and motor systems, sleep, drug use and abuse, ingestive behavior, neurodevelopment,
plasticity of the nervous system and how psychological disorders relate to biology.
Evolutionary psychology focuses on the ultimate biological causes of behavior impacted by
genetics. Evolutionary psychology relates to Charles Darwin’s theories that behaviors should be
adaptive. And if we are subject to natural selection our behaviors therefore should also be
adaptive. Any anatomical characteristic (behavior) is an adaptation to the environment. Environment
can be physical or social because of its ties to survival. However, it’s very difficult to prove a
behavior naturally selected because it can also be considered cultural. Because of that, most
evolutionary psychologists were okay with just assuming that it is true. It’s also hard to guess at
the social conditions at the time to determine human behavior.
Sensation and perception are the complex understanding and the psychological aspects
about where we put our focus. Like if we hear music, can smell cake, and are crossing a street, what
are we gonna focus on?
Cognitive Psychology is understanding the mind and mental processes that underlie behavior.
studying cognition and thoughts and their relationship to our experiences and actions. Cognitive
science was made to cover the interdisciplinary research of cognitive psychology.This field includes
problem solving, languages, and memory.
Developmental psychology is the study of development (changes in cognitive skills, moral
reasoning, social behavior, and other psychological attributes) across a lifespan. Early developmental
psychologists focused on more changes in reaching adulthood which showed the psychological
differences in social capacity, physical, and cognitive ability. Research by Jean Piaget showed that
young children don’t have object permanence (knowing something still exists even if you can’t see it.
The study of elderly people has increased recently because more people are having longer lifespans
so there is more to study.
Personality psychology focuses on the patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each
individual unique. Research focusing on identifying personality traits can be used to determine how
someone will behave in any given situation. Gordon Allport contributed to early theories of
personality. He tried to explain personality as developing from their given perspective. The Big
Five/Five Factor model included conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and
extraversion. Freud and Maslow also contributed to early ideas of personality.
Social psychology is how we interact with and relate to others. Research can include
prejudice, attraction, how we resolve interpersonal conflicts, and how we would describe our
behavior compared to how we would describe other’s behavior. It also includes how being among
other people affects how we can change our behavior. Stanley Milgram was an American
psychologist who did a study on Nazis. He asked why they would torture people and they answered
that they did it because they were told to. They didn’t accept that people would inflict pain on
others just because they were told to. They did an experiment with actors and shocks which led to
them finding that two-thirds would have inflicted pain on others just because they were told to by
an authority figure. I told my brother about this experiment and he called it a “sheep-shepard
mentality” . I think that sums it up pretty well.
Industrial-Organizational psychology is about theories, principles, and research in industrial
and organizational settings. These psychologists are seeked out by businesses to find out who to
hire to make their workforce more efficient.
Health psychology is how health is affected by the interaction of biological, psychological,
and social factors.
Sport and Exercise psychology is the psychological aspects of sport performance, like
motivation, performance anxiety, and the effects of sports on mental and emotional wellbeing. This
branch of psychology also includes how mental and physical interact during demanding conditions.
Clinical psychology is about the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders or
problematic behaviors. Clinical psychology is usually what people think of when they hear psychology.
Clinical psychology is more of an applied field. Counseling psychology focuses on emotional, social,
vocational, and health outcomes of people who are typically considered psychologically healthy.
Freud and Rogers were both very influential in this field and many psychologists still follow their
ideas.
Forensic psychology is basically psychology used in the justice system. They are often used
as expert witnesses and are called on for advice. They also give evidence with psychological context
and assist in picking jurors. Very few psychologists become forensic psychologists.

Week 3 (1456)
To start, you need a good hypothesis. A hypothesis has to be testable, a question we can
contest. Scientists gain objective understanding through systematic scientific research.
Scientists want to understand the world, and more specifically, psychologists want to
understand the world’s behaviors. They want to understand the behavior and how cognitive and
physiological may affect behavior. Evidence is made to support claims. Empirical is founded in
objectivity, tangible evidence that can be observed again and again.
Behavior is observable and the mind is not. Facts are observable realities and opinions are
personal judgements. You can find reasoning for behavior in many different ways, one being simply
asking “Why?”
Deductive reasoning starts with a hypothesis that is used to reach logical conclusions.
Basically, guessing then using that as evidence to prove something else. Kind of an overstatement
but it’s the basis. Inductive reasoning starts with information then making a hypothesis from that.
Inductive and deductive reasoning make a loop of hypotheses and information. A theory is a well-
developed idea to explain something. A hypothesis is a prediction on what will happen if our idea is
correct. Being falsifiable means it can be proved wrong. Freud’s theories aren’t falsifiable which
caused the question to whether or not his theories are true.
The scientific method goes: theory, generate hypotheses, collect data, analyze data,
summarize and report findings. Then one of two things happens, the theory is confirmed or it isn’t
and you modify your theory and generate a new hypothesis.
Case studies focus on observation and get a lot of information but they aren’t as applicable
to the population because they use a smaller sample size. Generalizing is applying specific research
to a larger crowd, usually the population. Case studies provide information in relation to a case
which can make their practical applications limited because of the hyper-specific data. Surveys are
good for collecting data over larger study-groups but they rely on self-reported data and gather
limited information. Using existing records can be inexpensive and can help with a variety of
questions but with it you have no control over what was recorded. So hypotheses in that research
method are made to fit the data they have. Those methods are correlational, and correlational data
can’t be used to make a cause-and-effect claim. Correlational research can find a relationship
between two variables but the on;y way to prove it is to use an experiment.
Naturalistic observation is observing in a natural environment. You can go about that many
ways but the main one is to try and blend in. A big problem with naturalistic observation and self-
reporting is people change their behavior, especially if they know they’re being watched. They may
change their behavior to match with others, they may just lie, they might change their answers so
they look good, for whatever reason they could be inaccurate. Jane Goodall is a famous naturalistic
observer who studied chimpanzees. She, however, named the chimpanzees which led to the
questioning whether or not her observations were objective. Watching subjects when they are
unaware makes most of the data unquestionably valid and realistic. The problem with this type of
observation is that you have no control over whether or not you’ll have something to observe.This
type of observation also takes a lot of resources and dedication, not to mention luck. Structured
observation is when you observe a set of tasks and what happens. Observer bias is when the
observer/researcher skews information, intentionally or not, so it fits their expectations. Inter-
rater reliability is when more than one researcher observes to check consistency.
Surveys are a list of questions to be answered, they are easy to distribute, take a short
amount of time, and are easy to use on a large scale. Larger samples are better because they can
more accurately represent diversity in a population. A sample is a group of people that are of
interest (usually a small amount of a population, an overall group of interest). In contrast with case
studies, you lose depth on the individual. Again, self-reporting isn’t that reliable.
Archival research is using past records to data to find patterns or trends. Researchers who
use this method never interact with participants. This method also poses the problem of
inconsistencies between sources and the researchers having no control over what was collected.
Longitudinal research is a data-gathering process over a long period of time. Longitudinal
research is often used for disease study. It usually can also be generalized. On the downside, there
is a lot of time investment for both the researcher and participants. Along with that, attrition
rates, the amount of people who leave the study mid-way through, which most researchers expect.
Cross-sectional research is comparing different “segments” of the population at the same time.
Correlation means there is a relationship between two or more variables and when one
variable changes so does the other. Negative correlation is when the two variables have different
trends, one variable increases the other decreases. Positive correlation is when two variables follow
the same trend, when one increases the other increases, or when one decreases the other
decreases. A correlation coefficient is a number between 1 and -1. The closer the number is to 0
the less of a correlation. Respectively, the closer the number is to -1 or 1 the higher the
correlation. If the number is positive then the correlation is positive, if the number is negative then
the correlation is negative.
Correlation does not equal causation. Correlation is all about cause and effect. There may be
a confounding variable, a variable that was not measured that is the cause for the correlation
between the two variables where there is none.
Illusory correlation is believing there is a relationship between two things where there isn’t.
Confirmation bias is finding information to support our belief.
One may conduct an experiment to prove a cause-and-effect relationship/causality.
Experimental group is the group being tested for a different outcome. Contrarily, the
control group is the one that has no changes made to it for comparison. Operational definition is a
description of variables and a summary which must be understandable so most people can interpret
it and repeat it. Experimenter bias is someone who skews the experiment data (like an algebra
learning study with someone who already knows algebra). A single-blind study is when the
participants don’t know if they’re in the control or experimental group. A double-blind study is when
both researchers and participants don’t know who is in which group. This is used because of the
placebo effect which can cause a bias that could skew results. Like if the researcher expects you to
feel frustrated then they might interpret you as being frustrated rather than tired.
The independent variable is controlled by the experimenter. The dependent variable is what
is used to measure the effect the independent variable has.
Participants are subjects of research. Most participants are college students, but they
don’t really fully encompass the whole population. Generally, that makes the data limited and hard to
generalize. Random assignment is done by using software that randomly assigns the sample
participants to the experimental or control group.
An issue that can be presented is if the researcher cannot control the independent variable
then it becomes quasi-experimental and unable to make a cause-and-effect claim.
When interpreting the results, many researchers use statistical analysis which determines
how likely a relationship is due to chance, making the relationship void. It also interprets if there is
actually a relationship or difference between groups.
When reporting research the APA tells you how to write a paper that can be submitted for
a scientific journal. Peer-review is, at its simplest, when other scientists check your work. Peer-
reviewed articles are usually aimed at professionals or scholars who are also involved in research.
 Reliability is the ability to consistently provide the same results. Even if you can do that, it
still doesn’t make it correct.
An Institutional Review Board (IRB) reviews if an experiment is ethical or not. Informed
consent when you tell the participants potential risks, implications of the research, and involvement
is voluntary, and that they can stop at any point. For an experiment involving minors they must get a
signature from the parent or legal guardian.
Deception is not telling the whole sky so they can still research objectively. Afterwards,
they are debriefed on the whole thing.
Animal experimentation is when animals are used to replace a human in what would be an
unethical experiment. They must also minimize the pain and distress of animals. The Institutional
Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) is made up of administrators, scientists, veterinarians, and
community members. You must gain their approval in order to do animal research.

Week 4 (1904)
Genetic code is what makes us unique, it’s what makes us have different reactions to
diseases and what makes us look and act differently. Chromosomes are long strips of genetic
material (DNA). DNA makes up genes, specifically genes that control certain physical
characteristics. Gene variation comes from alleles, specific variations of a gene. There are
recessive and dominant alleles that are portrayed by lowercase and capitalized letters. Although,
there are also polygenic traits that have more deciding factors, like height or skin color. In which
case, the punnett square isn’t as useful.
Mutation is a permanent and sudden change in a gene. Many types of mutation are deadly or
harmful. Natural selection states those that are best adapted for their environment will survive
and reproduce, and those that are not, won’t. For natural selection to occur, there must be
variability in the genes so they have different adaptations to the environment. Diversity allows for
adaptability to the environment (an advantage for those who survive and reproduce (genetic
transmission)). Epigenetics is how a genotype can be expressed as different phenotypes. Genotypes
are traits that might be inherited. Phenotype is traits that are actually inherited. Like the genotype
would be BB and the phenotype would be brown eyes. Pairing of recessive genes can cause a genetic
disorder, like phenylketonuria (PKU), a condition in which you lack an enzyme that converts harmful
amino acids. Untreated PKU can lead to deficits in cognitive function, seizures, and an increased
risk of psychiatric disorders.
Range of reaction is genetic boundaries, our placement within them is determined by
environmental effects and interactions. Genetic environmental correlation is how our environment
affects our gene expression and our genes’ influence on our environment.
Identical twins are developed from one fertilized egg while fraternal twins that come from
two different eggs.
 The nervous system is made up of two types of cells: glia/glial cells and neurons. Neurons
are interconnected information processors that are essential for the tasks of the nervous system.
Glial cells are the building pieces of the nervous system, they help neurons line up with each other,
insulate neurons, transport nutrients and waste, and mediate immediate immune response. Glial cells
line up neurons so they can communicate with each other. Neurons are made up of axons, the soma-
cell body, dendrites, terminal buttons, neurotransmitters, and the semi-permeable membrane. The
soma-cell body, is as it says, it’s the body of the neuron. Inside of the cell body is the nucleus. The
axon is an extension of the soma, they can be an inch or several feet long. Dendrites are branches
of the soma that are input points for signals from other neurons. Terminal buttons are at the ends
of dendrites, they contain synaptic vesicles which house neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are
the chemical messengers of the nervous system. Neurons have a semi-permeable membrane which
allows smaller and chargeless molecules to pass through it.

The synaptic cleft is the small space between neurons that neurotransmitters transfer
through to send signals. Neurotransmitters meet receptors of other neurons where they receive
signals from. Receptors fit specific neurotransmitters. There are usually more neurotransmitters
than receptors, so the extra neurotransmitters either break down, drift away, or go through
reuptake. Reuptake is when excess neurotransmitters are taken back into the neuron from which
they came.
On some axons, glial cells form a myelin sheath which is a fatty substance that insulates the
axon, making the signal travel faster. Gaps in the myelin sheath are called the Nodes of Ranvier
(which personally sounds like a DnD campaign). Diseases that cause a loss of the myelin can cause
seizures, exaggerated reflexes, and some severe cognitive deficits.
Extracellular and intracellular fluid surround the neuron. Extra and intracellular fluid are
kept separate and have opposite charges. Membrane potential is the difference in charges over the
membrane, providing the energy for the signal. The charge of the fluids comes from dissolved
charged ions. The ions typically gather on the in/outside of the neuron. Sodium is more
concentrated on the outside so it’s more likely to travel to the inside. Potassium is the opposite.
Action potential is the electrical signal that typically moves from the cell body to the axon
to the axon terminals. The threshold of excitation is kind of like a marker, when the marker is met
then action potential begins. Resting potential is when the neuron is in its resting state. When a
neuron receives signals at the dendrites, from the neurotransmitters, the gates open. The inside of
the cell is slightly negative so when the sodium gates open and the sodium ions go into the cell, it
makes it slightly positive. If that positive energy is enough and the threshold of excitation is met,
the neuron becomes active and the action potential begins. Peak action potential is the huge spike
of positive in the membrane potential, once the peak is hit then the sodium gates close and the
potassium gates open. After peak action potential, the neuron repolarizes (with the potassium
traveling outside). After repolarization is hyperpolarization, which is when the charge becomes
more negative than the resting potential. It then levels out to resting potential.
 When the electrical signal is traveling on the axon, it jumps across the nodes of ranvier
raising the charge past the threshold of excitation, which then makes it reach action potential and
continues until it reaches terminal buttons.
Biological perspective is the focus on psychological disorders that are associated with
imbalances. Those disorders can be treated with psychotropic medication, medication to restore
neurotransmitter balance. Agonists enhance or strengthen neurotransmitters at the receptor site,
making them last longer in the synaptic cleft, making them last longer which is more effective.
Antagonistic drugs block/impede neurotransmitters at their job. Many psychoactive drugs aren’t
completely effective and have many significant negative side effects. With that, their results vary
dramatically.
The central nervous system (CNS) is the brain and the spinal cord. The peripheral nervous
system (PNS) connects the CNS to the rest of the body. The PNS is made up of bundles of axons
(nerves) that carry messages between the CNS and the rest of the body. The somatic nervous
system is in charge of conscious and voluntary activities. There are motor and sensory neurons,
motor neurons carry information from the CNS to the muscles while sensory neurons carry sensory
information to the CNS. Sensory neurons are afferent (moving to the CNS) and motor neurons are
efferent (moving away from the CNS). The autonomic nervous system controls internal organs and
glands (involuntary). The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for stressful situations.
The parasympathetic nervous system returns the body to normal after stress. Homeostasis is when
the body is at optimal levels.
The spinal cord is a relay station for the brain. The tip of the spinal cord sonnets to the
brain and controls basic processes of life. At each vertebrae, there is a segment of the spinal cord
that branches out to different parts of the PNS. Some sensory messages don’t need to get all the
way to the brain for a response, they are immediate reflexes. An injured spinal cord causes
paralysis from where it’s injured down. Neuroplasticity is changes in the neurons like new neurons
being birthed, getting rid of damaged synapses, and changes in glial cells.
The cerebral cortex is the brain. The cerebral cortex has gyri, folds on the brain, and sulci,
grooves in the gyri. Gyri and sulci help to distinguish between the parts of the brain. The
longitudinal fissure is the big groove in the middle that divides the brain into its two hemispheres.
The left brain controls the right side of the body and the right brain controls the left. Laterization
is evidence of specialized function in the hemispheres, The left hemisphere is more specialized in
memory, selective attention, and positive emotions. The right hemisphere is more specialized in
pitch-perception, arousal, and negative emotions. The hemispheres interact to produce behavior.
The corpus callosum is a band of neural fibers between the two hemispheres that allows them to
communicate.
The forebrain is the largest part of the brain, it includes the two hemispheres, the cerebral
cortex, the thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and limbic system. The vertebral cortex is
involved in higher level processes like consciousness, thought, emotion, reasoning, language, and
memory. The frontal lobe is involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and languages. The
forebrain contains the motor cortex (which involves, planning, controlling, and coordinating
movement), the prefrontal cortex (higher cognitive functioning), and the Broca’s area (language
production). The parietal lobe is involved in processing sensory information and the somatosensory
cortex (which processes sensory information as well). The temporal lobe is involved in hearing,
memory, emotion, and some language. In the temporal lobe is the auditory cortex, which processes
auditory information, and Wernicke’s area, which is important for speech comprehension. The
optical lobe is the primary visual cortex which interprets visual information. All senses are routed
through the thalamus, it acts as a sensory relay. The limbic system processes emotion, memory, and
smell. So smell can evoke emotional responses that other senses can’t. The limbic system is made up
of the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the hypothalamus. The hippocampus is involved in memory
and learning. The amygdala is involved in experience of emotion and emotional ties to memories. The
hypothalamus is involved in homeostatic processes. The midbrain contains the substantia nigra and
ventral tegmental area (VTA) which both contain cell bodies that produce dopamine and both are
critical for movement. They also involve reward, mood, and addiction. The hindbrain contains the
medulla and pons (which are in the brainstem), and the cerebellum. The medulla controls automatic
processes of the autonomic nervous system. The pons connects the hindbrain to the brain. The
cerebellum receives messages from muscles, tendons, joints, and structures in the ear which control
balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills.
Computerized tomography (CT) scans, is an x-ray on a body part of the brain. Positron
emission tomography (PET) scans are when you are given an injection which tracks brain activity
through monitoring blood flow. PET scans were replaced with fMRI because PET’s involved exposing
the brain to radiation and aren’t completely accurate. Sometimes people get a PET and CT scan so
they can better understand the brain’s condition. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is that big
machine with a magnetic field which uses hydrogen atoms to determine the location of signals which
are interpreted by a computer. Function magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a lot like an MRI but
it tracks blood flow and oxygen levels over time. An electroencephalogram (EEG) measures the
brain’s electrical activity with electrodes placed on the head.
The endocrine system is made up of glands that produce hormones. Hormones must bind to
receptors to send their signal. They are also secreted into the bloodstream and affect any cells
that contain receptors for them. Hormones take effect slower but are longer lasting. Hormones are
controlled from interactions between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland
acts closely with the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is referred to as the ‘master gland’ because
its messenger hormones control the other hormones (growth hormones, endorphins, fluid regulating
hormones). Thyroid gland is in charge of growth hormones, metabolism, and appetite. The adrenal
glands are in charge of stress-response hormones. The pancreas regulates blood sugar levels.
Diabetes is caused by the pancreas not creating enough insulin. The gonads are in charge of sexual
hormones.
Week 5: Chapter 4 (1151)
Consciousness is when we are aware of our internal and external stimuli. External stimuli are
outside of the body, like the heat from the sun or sound, while internal are inside the body, like hunger
or emotions. Wakefulness is sensory awareness, thought, and behavior. There are other states of
consciousness that aren’t quite awake or asleep, like daydreaming or intoxication. We spend ⅓ of our
lives asleep.
Biological rhythms are biological cycles controlled by internal rhythms, like a menstrual
cycle. A circadian rhythm is a biological rhythm that takes place over a 24-hour period. The sleep
cycle, which is related to the light-dark cycle of the environment, is an example of circadian
rhythm. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), located in the hypothalamus, acts as the brain’s clock.
That clock is based on light-sensitive neurons on the eye (retina) which allows the SCN to be lined
up with the outside world. Sleep-wake cycles are regulated by melatonin (created on the pineal
gland) and are stimulated by dark and inhibited by light. Chronotype refers to the differences
between individuals’ circadian rhythms.
Sleep regulation is switching between sleep and wakefulness. Jet lag is when your circadian
rhythm isn’t aligned with the environment. Insomnia is difficulty falling and remaining asleep for
three days of the week. Rotating shift work is a work schedule that changes from early to late on a
daily/weekly basis. This schedule can make it hard for the body to have a functional circadian
rhythm. Although circadian rhythms can be restored, disruptions in circadian rhythms have negative
effects on the body.
Sleep debt is the accumulation of lost sleep chronically. When you have sleep debt, you get
decreased levels of alertness and mental deficiency. Sleep deprivation or having sleep debt can
make you unable to stay awake when you are inactive, inability, and impairments in cognitive and
motor function. Staying awake for more than 48 hours can make you hallucinate. Sleep deprivation
can also increase risk of health problems.
Meta-analysis is a study that uses research from other studies.
Sleep rebound is when you miss sleep, your body will compensate for it by attempting to get
you to sleep more. The hypothalamus contains the SCN and other nuclei that work with the
thalamus to regulate slow-wave sleep. The pons acts in REM sleep (rapid eye movement). Sleep is
also associated with hormones being secreted and regulated. Melatonin, follicle stimulating,
luteinizing, and growth hormone are associated with sleep. Sleeping more can help with lowering
stress levels, maintaining a healthy weight, improving mood, increasing motor coordination, memory
formation, and other cognitive benefits. Optimal sleep also impacts capacity for creative thinking,
language learning, processing emotional information, and inferential judgements.
Stage one through three sleep are all NREM (non-REM) sleep.
Stage one sleep is the transitional stage between being awake and sleeping. During this
stage the body slows down heart rate and respiration. Alpha waves are relatively slow and low
frequency and are associated with stage one sleep. These waves are the same as being awake but
really relaxed. As stage one sleep goes on, there is an increase in theta waves that are lower
frequency and higher amplitude than alpha waves.
 Stage two sleep is mostly theta waves, this stage of sleep is similar to stage one but there
are also spindles and k-complexes. Sleep spindles are sudden and rapid bursts of higher frequency
brain waves. K-complexes are very high amplitude patterns that are (sometimes) responses to
environmental stimuli.
Stage three sleep is characterized by low frequency but high amplitude delta waves. During
stage three sleep, heart rate and respiration are really slow.
REM sleep is similar to being awake. It is associated with paralysis of the muscles other
than circulatory and respiratory. People deprived of REM sleep experience REM rebound with
homeostasis. So, your body will try to achieve REM sleep more if you lack it. REM sleep is the sleep
stage in which dreaming occurs.
Dreams have different meanings in different cultures and ime periods. Manifest content is
what is actually happening in the dream while latent content is a hidden meaning. If you dream of
your teeth falling out, manifest content would tell you that you are scared of your teeth falling out
and latent content would tell you that it is related to anxiety.
Freud tied most dreams to sexual desire. Jung believed that dreams were insight into the
collective unconscious. The collective unconscious is the idea that shares these universal archetypes
that can explain the meaning behind dreams. Cartwright believed dreams reflected life and what’s
happening currently in their life. Hobson thought that dreams are not meaningful and instead was
just the brain trying to interpret neurons during by synthesizing the neural activity during REM
sleep.
Lucid dreaming is when there are wake aspects to sleeping. Basically, you are aware you are
dreaming and so you can control the content of your dreams.
Insomnia is the most common sleeping disorder and is characterized by not being able to
fall/stay asleep often. Cognitive-behavioral therapy is a type of psychotherapy that focuses on
cognitive and problem behaviors.
Parasomnia is a group of sleeping disorders that involve motor activity. Parasomnias can
occur during REM and NREM sleep.
Sleepwalking, or somnambulism, is a parasomnia. Sleepwalking is when someone who is asleep
does complex behaviors, like walking or driving. Treating sleepwalking with drugs had a variety of
results when breathing problems were treated, sleepwalking also decreased.
RBD, REM sleep behavior disorder, is when during REM sleep, muscle paralysis doesn’t occur.
During REM sleep there is high physical activity, especially during nightmares. RBD is often
associated with neurodegenerative diseases and is used in diagnosis.
Restless leg syndrome is when you experience discomfort in the legs when inactive. You can
stop the pain by moving, but moving makes it difficult to sleep.
Night terrors occur during NREM sleep. People affected by night terrors typically scream
or try to escape . Night terrors usually remain untreated.
Sleep apnea is when breathing stops for 10-20 seconds during sleep, typically when in a
period of arousal. It is common in overweight people and is associated with loud snoring. People who
have sleep apnea usually feel increased fatigue. There are two types of sleep apnea: obstructive and
central. Obstructive apnea is when the airways are blocked, prevsleepenting air from getting to the
lungs. Central sleep apnea is when the brain tells you to stop breathing. Sleep apnea is treated with
a CPAP, continuous positive airway pressure. Which is a mask that goes over the nose and mouth
that forces airways to remain open by pumping air through.
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is when an infant stops breathing during sleep and
dies. It is associated with smoking in the house, hyperthermia and premature birth.
People affected with narcolepsy fall asleep at inopportune moments. It is associated with
cataplexy which is a lack of muscle tone. Narcolepsy is triggered by high arousal.

Week 6 (1169)

Sensation is when sensory information is detected by sensory receptors. The conversion of

sensory information in cells into action potential is called transduction. Absolute threshold is the
minimum amount of stimulus needed to be detected half of the time. Things presented under the
absolute threshold are subliminal. Subliminal messages are received but we aren’t aware of it.
Although research shows that we respond and follow subliminal messaging, outside of a laboratory
that subliminal messaging is usually not detected. Just noticeable difference (jnd) or difference
threshold is how much difference in stimuli needed to recognize the difference in a situation. Like,
how we can see a flashlight is on in a dark room but it might be harder to tell or seem dimmer in a
lighter situation.
Perception is how the mind interprets the sensory information it receives. Bottom-up
processing is when we sense some form of stimuli then we interrogate it. So, when you notice
something unintentionally because it got your attention is bottom-up processing. Top-down
processing is when our experience and expectations affect how we recognize stimuli. Top-down
processing is more about looking for something. Sensory adaptation is the stopping of perception
when becoming accustomed to it. Attention affects what is sensed, so it can limit or expand what
we notice. Inattentional blindness is when focusing on something, you miss other details. Signal
detection theory is when you expect a stimulus so you can detect it more or even notice it when it’s
not there. Perception can affect our beliefs, values, prejudice, expectations, and life experiences. A
Müller-Lyer illusion uses perspective most Westerns are familiar with which makes them believe
that one line is longer when, in reality, they are the same length. Those who fall for the illusion are
just accustomed to corners that protrude or concave which makes them think the same thing is
happening. Personality also might have an effect on perception.
Amplitude is the distance from the middle of a wave to the crest or trough. The crest is
the highest point of the wave while the trough is the lowest. Wavelength is the distance between
crests. The volume of a sound is associated with its amplitude. Higher amplitude means louder
sounds.
Frequency is the amount of waves in a certain amount of time. Frequency is often
represented as hertz (Hz). Lower frequencies have longer wavelengths while shorter wavelengths
have higher frequencies. The frequency of sound is often associated with pitch. High frequency
sounds are high in pitch.
The audible range of sounds is between 20 and 20000 Hz. Humans are most sensitive to
sounds in the middle of that range. Volume is usually measured in decibels (dB). A typical
conversation is about 20 dB while a rock concert is about 120 dB.
One-third of hearing loss is from exposure to loud noises. The louder the noise, the less
amount of time needed for it to cause damage. The threshold of pain is about 130 dB.
Timbre refers to the purity of a sound.
The visible spectrum refers to the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that humans can
see. The electromagnetic spectrum refers to all electromagnetic radiation. The human visible
spectrum is measured between 380 to 740 nanometers. One nanometer is a billionth of a meter.
The human visible spectrum is in relation to the ROYGBIV scale (red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
indigo, violet). As you go from left to right on the ROYGBIV scale, the wavelengths get shorter and
more difficult to see.
Light waves travel across the cornea then into the eye through the pupil. The cornea is the
transparent layer on the eye, it protects the inner ee from the world. The pupil is an opening in the
eye that light passes through, The pupil will change its size according to lighting. In low light
situations will make the pupil expand/dilate and high exposure situations will make the pupil
contract. The pupil will expand in low light so it can absorb more light, doing the opposite in high
exposure situations. The pupil’s size is controlled by the muscles connected to the iris, the colored
part of the eye. Once through the pupil, the light crosses the lense. The lense is a curved,
transparent structure that changes shape to aid in focusing light reflected from near or far
objects. In someone with 20/20 vision, the lense should reflect light to the fovea, a small
indentation in the back of the eye The fovea is part of the retina, the light-sensitive lining of the
eye. The fovea contains densely packed photoreceptor cells. Photoreceptor cells are sensitive to
acute detail, give spatial resolution, and they pick up color. Rods are another type of photoreceptor
that work well in low-light conditions. Rods lack spatial resolution and the ability to detect color
but they are very helpful in low-light situations, perception of movement, and peripheral vision. In a
bright environment, cones dominate vision, in darker environments, rods dominate vision. The
transition between low-light and high, where our eyes adjust, is where our eyes are switching
between rods and cones. Light blindness is when rods can’t change their light detection into nerve
impulses very well, so you have trouble seeing in low-light conditions. Rods and cones are connected
to ganglion cells. Ganglion cells come together and exit the back off the eye which forms the optic
nerve. The optic nerve carries visual information from the retina to the brain. Both optic nerves
carry information gathered from their visual field which is made up of both of their visual
information. When the optic nerve goes to the brain it goes through the optic chiasm. The optic
chiasm is a cross between the two optic nerves as they go to their opposing hemisphere. In that
respective hemisphere, the optic nerve brings the information to the occipital lobe.
We have a blindspot but we do not notice because the brain fills in the gap.
Trichromatic color theory is a theory that states all colors can be made of three colors
(red, green, and blue). One of the cones in each eye can see one of those colors. The opponent-
process theory states that cones will be excited by one olor and inhibited by another. This theory
implies an after image which describes the continuation of visual sensation after we stop looking at
it. These theories can coincide with each other when they are applied to different parts of the
nervous system.
The ability to perceive things around us spatially (3D) is depth perception. Binocular cues is
the use of both eyes to make an image. Binocular disparity is the slightly different views that each
eye sees. Monocular cues is when you see depth in a 2D image. Linear perspective is when we see
two lines that seem to converge as they get further away.
The outer ear is made up of the pinna, the auditory canal, and the tympanic membrane. The
pinna is the outer outer ear that is visible. The tympanic membrane is also known as the eardrum.

Week 7: Chapter 6 (1020)

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that comes from

experience. Reflexes are motor or neural reactions to specific stimuli in the environment .
Instincts, on the other hand, are triggered by a broader range of events, involve the whole
organism, higher brain centers, and are usually more complex behaviors. Contraction of the pupil in
bright light is a reflex, migration is an example of instinct. Reflexes and instincts don’t have to be
learned. Learning, reflexes, and instincts are all for adaptation to the environment. Learning
involves a complex interaction between the conscious and unconscious. Associative learning is when
you find a connection between events or stimulants that occur together in the environment.
Observational learning is the imitatio of what is seen/heard/noticed but not experienced, like a
mockingbird or picking up words that you hear without being taught.
Pavlov did his research in classical conditioning. Pavlov was a physiologist who was studying
the digestive system when he stumbled on the psychological effects of his experiment. An
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus that elicits a response (reflexively). An unconditioned
response is a natural/unlearned reaction to said stimulus. Neutral stimulus (NS) are stimulants that
don’t elicit a natural/reflexive response. A conditioned stimulus is a stimulus that elicits a response
after continually being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
Higher order conditioning/second order conditioning is when associating the conditioned
stimulus to another neutral stimuli, making it another conditioned stimulus. It’s hard to achieve
anything higher than second order conditioning. Acquisition is the initial period of learning, there is
usually an interval between the conditioning periods (could be seconds or years). Taste aversion is
when several hours pass between the food (CS) and the illness (UCS) which makes you feel sick
when you again experience the CS. The taste aversion response could be evolutionary, coming from
distincting poisonous things from edible foods. In experiments, this response only occurred in taste
and not in other senses. Extinction is when the conditioned response decreases after the
unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented with the conditioned stimulus. So, when the
conditioned response weakens or is “eliminated” because there is an absence of the UCS.
Spontaneous recovery is the quick return of the conditioned response with the conditioned stimulus.
Stimulus discrimination is when you can tell the difference between similar stimuli and the
conditioned stimulus. Stimulus generalization is a lack of stimulus discrimination, it is when you have
a conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.
Watson thought that behavior could just be studied as stimulus-response reaction. This
process eliminated the recognition of internal processes. Pulled straight from Pavlov, Watson
continued his study in conditioning of reflexes but with human emotions. Watson did the “Little
Albert” experiment in which he successfully produced a phobia (Little Albert’s formed phobia of
furry things).
Operant conditioning is when organisms learn to associate a behavior with its consequences.
Compared to classical conditioning, the stimulus occurs after rather than before, as to increase or
dissipate behaviors. Skinner, famous for the Skinner box, realized that classical conditioning was
limited to using reflexive behaviors. Skinner was a strong believer in radical behaviorism, which is
that all behaviors simply come from stimulus-outcome associations. He said behavior is motivated by
the consequences that come after. That statement is based on the law of effect. The law of effect
says that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated while the
opposite with unpleasant consequences. This law was first proposed by Thorndike.
Positive means to add while negative means to take away. Reinforcement is always going to
mean to increase the behavioral response and punishment is always going to mean to decrease the
behavior. Shaping is reinforcing and narrowing down the reinforcements (using the reinforcements
more exclusively) until the desired behavior is reached. A primary reinforcer is something that
doesn’t need to be taught to be wanted, like food, water, etc. A secondary reinforcer is something
that leads to a primary reinforcement, like money or positive messages. Sometimes tokens are used
as secondary reinforcers so they can be achieved only after a number of things are done.
Continuous reinforcement is when reinforcement is presented every time. Partial reinforcement is
only reinforcing the behavior part of the time.
A fixed interval reinforcement schedule is when reinforcement is given at a predictable
time. A variable interval reinforcement schedule is delivered at unpredictable times. A fixed ratio
reinforcement schedule is when reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of
responses. A variable ratio reinforcement schedule is when reinforcement is given at an
unpredictable number of responses. In other reinforcement schedules, extinction happens quickly
but in variable ratio it happens slower. So, variable ratio is the most productive while fixed interval
is the least productive and easiest to extinguish.
 While Skinner thought the mind was unknowable and therefore should not be studied.
Tolman thought otherwise, he believed that learning could occur without reinforcement. He sent
rats through a maze to find the end and they developed a cognitive map. A cognitive map, just as it
sounds, is a mental picture of the maze (or something else). Then he put cheese at the end and the
rats who didn’t receive reinforcement found the end just as fast as those who were always being
reinforced with cheese. That is called latent learning, in which behavior isn’t observable until reason
to exhibit it.
Observational learning is learning by watching and copying. The ones who do the behavior
that is going to be imitated are called models. The steps to modeling: First, pay attention to the
model. Second, be able to reproduce the behavior. Lastly, be motivated to do the behavior. You
could experience vicarious reinforcement or punishment. Vicarious reinforcement is when you see
the model get reinforced for their behavior so you would want to do it. Vicarious punishment is
when you see the model get punished for the behavior so you would feel less motivated to do it.
Bandura did a study on whether children will copy aggressive behaviors. His study concluded
that they copied both aggressive and positive behaviors.

Week 8: Chapter 7 (983)

Cognition is an umbrella term for thinking and it includes processes that deal with problem
solving, perception, knowledge, judgment, language, and memory. Cognition is an essential part of
human consciousness but not all cognition is conscious.

Cognitive psychology studies how people think. It attempts to explain why things are
happening. They study it by observing interactions in humans (not necessarily with other humans).
They also try to measure different types of intelligence as well as how we organize thoughts and
information.

Concepts are groupings of associations generated by observing and categorizing to make a

whole picture. Prototypes are examples (typically the one you've come into contact with first or the
most). Natural concepts are experienced through direct (like touching snow) and indirect (learning
about it) contact. An artificial concept is a concept built on an understanding of what the concept
should be, like squares always have four equal sides.

Schema is a mental construct of related concepts. Schematas are methods of organizing

information. Role schema is making assumptions about someone by their role, it is basically
stereotyping. Event schema is a group of behaviors that feel like routine.

Language is a communication system. Language is used through people and is used to spread/deliver
information. A lexicon is a vocabulary/the words in a language. Grammar are rules used for language,
like punctuation or tense. Phonemes are units of sound. Morphemes are the basic/base/smallest
pieces of words, like the morphemes understand and able make understandable. Semantics are how
we go about words meaning something. Syntax is how words are organized in sentences to be
understood. Language is acquired easiest when young and the ability to take on new languages
diminishes with age. Babies usually gain some understanding of language and can distinguish
different traits of the language (and in reference to other languages) even with no understanding
as to what it means. Overgeneralization is when someone is still learning a language they know rules
but may not be aware of the exceptions (“s” comes after nouns to make them plural, fish becomes
fishes). Overgeneralization is just assuming rules always apply.

Language came up in this chapter because it could have to do with how we form concepts.
What language we speak could affect how we perceive things and what patterns of thought we go
through.

Problem-solving strategies are, as the name implies, methods to fix something. There are different
types of strategies with different action plans. Trial and error is the method of attempting
different things until eventually one works. An algorithm is step by step instructions. Algorithm
examples are instructional manuals, like how to build your Soho desk. Heuristic method is when you
work backwards, starting with the result and trying to find the process that it took to get there. In
the heuristic method, mental shortcuts are often used.

A mental set is when you continue to try and solve something that has worked before but isn’t
anymore/in the moment. Functional fixedness is when you can’t see something being used for
anything other than its intended purpose. Confirmation bias is when you only pay attention to the
things that support what you already believe. Hindsight bias is when after the fact, you believe the
outcome was predictable. Representative bias is stereotyping. Availability heuristic is when an
example is in front of you, you base decisions off of it whether or not it’s accurate.

Crystalized intelligence is when we have acquired knowledge and we can reach it when needed. Fluid
intelligence is being able to see complex connections and problem solving.

The triarchic theory of intelligence, from Sternberg, says that there are three types of
intelligence: practical, analytical, and creative. Practical intelligence is application of knowledge in
the real world and common sense. Analytical intelligence takes a more academic approach by
analyzing, judging, and collating. Creative intelligence is about coming up with new solutions.
The multiple intelligences theory, which came from Gardener, says that everyone has at least eight
intelligences. Typically, you are better in some and lack in others. The eight intelligences are
linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily kinesthetic, spatial, intrapersonal, interpersonal, and
naturalist. Supposedly, knowing what type of intelligence you are skilled in should help you decide
your career. Interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence are often combined to make emotional
intelligence. Emotional intelligence is in reference to social skills. Cultural intelligence is knowing to
respect other cultures.

Divergent thinking when you come up with something different, something that isn’t known.
Convergent thinking is when you remember or reference something that is already known to be an
answer.

IQ stands for intelligence quotient. IQ doesn’t have a specific definition, it is what IQ

tests test for but there isn’t a set principle for what exactly that is. Only professionals trained in
psychology can give out IQ tests. Standardization means that the range of scores is consistent.
Norming is when the same test is given to different people to compare age groups.

The Flynn Effect is when the following generation has a higher IQ than the preceding. A bell curve
is a type of chart that follows the shape most things land in the middle (like a bell) and tapers out
on both ends. Representative samples are samples that accurately represent the population.
Standard deviations are a normal distribution away from the mean.

When studying IQ, some psychologists thought it could be related to genetics. Range of reaction is
saying that there is a certain amount of wiggle room (potential) from where genetics could lead
based on the environment. A study showed that high stress limits IQ development.

Dysgraphia is a learning disability that makes it difficult to write legibly. Dyslexia is the most
common learning ability and it makes it difficult to process letters. Those who are affected by
dyslexia can get words mixed up in sentences, letters flipped, and mixed up letters. Dyscalulia is
difficult with processing arithmetic/numbers.
Week 9: Chapter 8 (1005)
Memory is the set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information. Encoding is
inputting information into the brain. When we receive information and label/code it. Automatic
processing is encoding space, time, frequency, and meaning of words. This happens subconsciously
for the most part, thus “automatic”. Effortful processing is encoding content/context. Semantic
encoding is associated with words, visual encoding has to do with visual information, and acoustic
encoding is when we encode sounds and particular words. Acoustic encoding is like when we learn
things through songs. It’s easier to remember low-imagery words because you don't have to think
that hard about it to come up with images rather than with conceptual and abstract words that are
high-imagery. Self-reference is when it’s easier for us to remember things because we relate it to
ourselves or when it’s personal.

Storage is the creation of a permanent record of information. According to the Atkinson and
Shiffrin model, sensory input goes to sensory memory which goes to short-term memory which goes
to long-term memory. If the transfer of information to the next memory doesn’t occur the
information is lost. Sensory memory is of brief sensory events.

Short-term memory (STM) is temporary storage. Long-term memory is memory from the
STM that has been rehearsed. The process of going from the short-term to the long-term memory
is rehearsal. Active rehearsal is when you repeat things. Short-term memory is limited to five to
nine items with the most common being seven. Short-term memory lasts for about 15-30 seconds.
Memory trace decay is when you start having trouble remembering things (about 18 seconds).
Retroactive interference is when new information interrupts the memory of old information.
Proactive interference is when old information interrupts the memory of new information.

Long-term memory (LTM) in contrast to short, is believed to be unlimited. Long-term memory is

everything that you remember beyond a few minutes ago. A semantic network is a grouping of
concepts.

Explicit memory is things we are consciously trying to remember. Episodic memory is when memory
about things about things we have experienced personally. Semantic memory is memory of facts.

Implicit memory is the memory that we acquire unconsciously. An example is how to do things or
unspoken rules that we pick up on.

Remembering is called retrieval. The first type of retrieval is recall which is when you can
remember something without cues to what it is. The second type is recognition which is when you
identify things that you have already learned after seeing them again. The last type is relearning
which, just as it sounds, is when you learn something again. It’s usually quick to remember something
again.

Lashley believed there to be an engram in the brain. An engram is a neuron that is the physical
representation of a memory. Lashley also came up with the equipotentiality hypothesis which
suggests that if one part of the brain that is involved in memory gets damaged then another part
will make up for it. Lashley found no actual evidence of an engram.

The amygdala regulates emotions and deals with stress hormones. That means that the amygdala is
involved in memories that have emotional attachments. Memories from the amygdala can be
processed deeper than normal memories.

The hippocampus is involved in spatial memory and normal recognition. Damage to this area makes us
unable to form new memories.

Epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, and acetylcholine are neurotransmitters involved in the
memory.

Arousal theory says that stronger emotions create stronger memories and weaker emotions yield
weaker memories.

Flashbulb memory is the clear recollection of important events.

Amnesia is the loss of memory that comes from disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma.
Anterograde amnesia is when you can’t remember new information. Retrograde amnesia means you
can’t remember things that happened before the incident that caused the amnesia. Construction
refers to the creation of new memories. Reconstruction is when you remember old memories.

When misinformation is presented it can affect someone’s memory of an event, this is referred to
as suggestibility.

Misinformation effect paradigm is when after being exposed to additional information someone may
misremember an event. False memory syndrome is the recollection of false autobiographical
memories. Forgetting is a loss of long-term memories. Encoding memory is a failure to encode some
information because it’s not strictly necessary (like what the face of a nickel looks like, instead we
remember that a nickel is thicker than other coins, silver, and that it has a smooth outer surface.
According to Schacter, there are seven sins of memory. There are three types of sins of memory:
forgetting, distortion, and intrusion. The first sin, transience, is when memories fade over time.
The second sin is absentmindedness, when there is a lapse in memory because of breaks in attention
or putting focus elsewhere. The third, blocking, is that tip-of-the-tongue feeling when the memory
is there but you can’t remember it. The fourth, misattribution, a distortion type, is when you
confuse the source of information. So you would think that something happened with someone it
didn’t happen with. The fifth sin is suggestibility. The sixth sin is when we change our memories to
line up with our biases. The three biases are stereotypical, egocentric, and hindsight bias.
Stereotypical bias is bias of a gender or race. Egocentric bias is when we enhance our memories to
make ourselves look better (this one is really dependent on the person and their self-esteem).
Hindsight bias is when we remember things that didn’t happen but we think they did because it
would confirm their beliefs. The seventh and last sin is the inability to forget things that we don’t
want to remember.

Memory-enhancing strategies are used to, obviously, help you remember things. A memory enhancing
strategy is rehearsal, which is repetition of something to help you remember (like typing the
correct way to spell repetition until you don’t have to think about it too hard). Chunking is another
type of memory-enhancing strategy that divides the information into manageable pieces which
makes it easier to remember.

Week 10: Chapter 9 (1069)

Developmental psychology studies how people change over time. Physical development is
bodily growth. Cognitive development is growing skills of the brain. Instead of developing skills in
the mind, psychological development is about development of personality, social skills, and emotions.
The normative approach is considered normal development. The normative approach is
defined by developmental milestones such as walking, crawling, or speaking. The milestones are
approximate times/ages that children should reach a step in their development.
There are a few issues with developmental psychology, like, is development continuous or
discontinuous? If development is continuous then it would happen gradually and consistently, on the
other hand, if development is discontinuous then it would happen suddenly and with unique stages.
Does development follow one or many courses? Is there one set course that every person should
follow or is it different? This issue should also address the issue of what factors affect how people
develop and how much effect they have. Some theories say that all people follow the same
developmental course. There is evidence that across the world a lot of developmental milestones
are in about the same place. However, there are some outliers that are incredibly different. Nature
versus nurture? This question has been discussed in the psychology world for a long time and is still
ongoing. Nature refers to the biological aspects while nurture refers to the environment in which
they are raised. The issue being: which has more control over development?
Freud developed the psychosexual theory which stated that personality develops through
early childhood. He thought that development was discontinuous and that we all pass through a
series of stages and if we lack proper nurturing of them then we become fixated on them. The
stages are all correlated to one of the five erogenous zones (according to Freud) which are oral,
anal, phallic, latnecy, and genital. Freud believes that a child’s urges (pleasure-wise) are based on
those urges. Many psychologists believe that Freud’s theory of psychosexual development still
stands and could explain how children’s cognition is formed. The majority of the takeaway is that
personality at least partially comes from childhood experience.
Psychosocial development theory was created by Erikson. Erikson believed that development
comes from social nature and that it occurs through the entirety of life. This theory says that how
we interact with others affects our sense of self, which Erikson called ego identity. Erikson said
that we go through eight stages from infancy to late adulthood. At each stage there is a conflict
that we need to solve, if we don’t then it leads to feelings of inadequacy. Completing the stage’s
conflict will make us healthy and competent.
Between birth and being one-year-old we experience trust versus mistrust which is when we
need our basic needs met. From ages 1-3, we are presented with the conflict of autonomy or shame
and doubt. We want autonomy and if we don’t get some independence at that age it will lead to low-
self esteem. From years 3-6 we have to solve initiative or guilt, gaining initiative gives us self-
confidence. Ages 7-11 we solve industry versus inferiority, we gain pride and competence from this,
if not, we gain a feeling of inadequacy. From 12-18 years old we have identity against role confusion
which is when we decide what and who we want to be. Then, in early adulthood (20-40), we go
through intimacy or isolation, which is where we need to have a strong sense of self before we can
have intimate relationships. In middle adulthood (40 to mid-60’s) we have generativity versus
stagnation which is just about contribution to society. Failure in middle adulthood leads to no
motivation for productivity, self-improvement, and little connection with others. Then, in the final
stage, late adulthood (mid-60’s to death), we go through integrity or despair. This is when we feel a
sense of failure or satisfaction with the life we have experienced.
Jean Piaget is a stage theorist and he focused on children’s cognitive growth. He believed
that thinking is a central part of development and that children are naturally inquisitive. He said
that there is a distinctive change between how people think and act that comes with age
(discontinuous development). Children form schemata so they can understand the world around
them. Assimilation is when new information is added to schemata. Accommodation, on the other
hand, is when a schemata is changed to follow new information that is presented.
 Jean Piaget also had his own stages of development starting with sensorimotor. The
sensorimotor stage takes place from birth to two-years-old and when in that stage the world is
experienced through senses and actions. In the sensorimotor stage the children don’t have object
permanence and they experience it when with strangers. The next stage, preoperational, is from
two to seven-years old, is when a child can use words and images to represent things. They lack
logical reasoning and usually do pretend play, are having language development, and they have
egocentrism. In the preoperational stage they don’t understand that other people experience
differently and have different opinions. After that is the concrete operational stage, from seven to
eleven-years-old, children have gained more understanding of conceptual thinking, metaphors, and
simple math. They have trouble with math transformations and conservation. They also don’t
understand reversibility: the ability to change something and change it back to its original state
afterward. Then the last stage of development: from eleven-years-old to adulthood, is the formal
operational stage where they can utilize formal operations and abstract reasoning. From this age, it
is hard to understand abstract logic and moral reasoning. However, in this stage egocentrism may
reappear.
Many psychologists have put Piaget’s developmental theory under a light, suggesting that
the stages may happen earlier or that the development is more continuous that he describes.
Piaget’s stages end at formal operational, but many psychologists believe there to be another stage
that comes after: the postformal stage. The postformal stage is when decision-making is based on
the situation and circumstances as well as emotions and contextual factors that are used in adult
life. In the postformal stage, they have already made a great amount of choices in their lives so
they can recount their past decisions to assist new problem solving. Adults can also distinguish the
difference between problems in situations, such as a solution to a problem with a peer may not work
out the same way with their parents.

Week 11: Chapter 10 (1012)

Motivation is wants or needs that make you do something. Motivation is kind of the
reasoning behind why you want to do something. Intrinsic motivation is motivation caused by internal
factors. Extrinsic motivation is the opposite of intrinsic and causes motivation by external factors.
Typically, our motivation is caused by both external and internal factors. Motivation can change
over time (intrinsic to extrinsic, etc.). Like wanting to do something for school and then realizing
you actually like doing it.
James thought motivation was caused by instincts. Drive theory says that deviations from
homeostasis are main causes for motivation and that habits play a role in how our behaviors go. The
Yerkes-Dodson theory states that more difficult tasks are easier/done better when you have a
lower-medium arousal level, and the opposite of simple tasks, which are easier/done better when
you have a higher-medium arousal level. Too much arousal can cause anxiety and too little arousal
can make you bored or apathetic, either can be a hindrance to your motivation and performance of
the task.
Bandura says that self-efficacy plays a big part in motivation of behavior. Self-efficacy is
one’s own belief in their ability to do a task. Bandura was really saying that it is a I-think-I-can
situation. Some theorists believe that motives are needs for achievement, affiliation, and intimacy.
Maslow came up with the hierarchy of needs. The hierarchy of needs is are levels with
needs in each of them and sequentially you are going to be motivated to get the next thing once you
finish the ones that came before. The hierarchy of needs starts with physiological (basic human
needs), then to security (safety and money), social, esteem, and ends with self-actualization (inner
fulfillment). Any level cannot be reached if you don’t finish the levels that came before and self-
actualization, the highest level, is the hardest to reach and few people actually get that far. Maslow
said that his hierarchy is completed slowly over a lifetime.
Satiation is being full food-wise and is usually where hunger (the motivation to eat) ends.
So, when you eat food, it goes to your gastriell tract and releases a satiety hormone (leptin) that
tells your body that you have enough food. Set-point theory states that genetically you have a
approximate predetermined weight that you can try to change but will eventually end up back at
your set point.
Overweight is when people are higher than what is considered healthy for their height using
BMI. Obese is being much higher weight than what is considered healthy using BMI. Morbid obesity
is when someone’s weight severely affects their health. BMI (body mass index) has/is widely used
across most of the world to determine a healthy weight, but BMI is inaccurate and fails to account
for body frame, genetics, and muscle mass. BMI has been called into question quite a bit but they
still use the BMI system.
Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder in which someone eats copious amounts and then
attempts to make up for it by vomiting, laxatives, or excessive exercise. Bulimia is associated with a
lot of health risks, including tooth decay, kidney failure, and heart failure. Binge eating disorder is
generally overeating without trying to compensate, and instead have feelings of guilt and regret.
Anorexia is starvation and excessive exercise in order to keep a healthy weight.
Emotion is a subjective state of being that we call “feeling”. Emotions come from
experience, expression, cognitive appraisal, and physiological responses. Those are the components
of emotion. Children experience emotion much faster and shorter than adults because they haven’t
fully developed their myelin sheath so their neural activity isn’t complete.
There are many theories on what order and steps emotion happens through. The James-
Lange theory says that first we are triggered by arousal, then we experience something
physiological, and then we feel the emotion that comes with arousal. The Cannon-Bard theory says
that arousal occurs and that causes the physiological and emotion to happen at the same time, but
individually. The Schachter-Singer Two-factor theory states that arousal happens first, then we
experience a physiological reaction and with that a cognitive label (what emotion our body assigns
the physiological reaction) and therefore we experience the emotion. Lazarus’ cognitive-mediational
theory says that we experience the arousal, then we have an appraisal of the arousal, and then we
experience something physiological. Zajonc said that emotions are felt separately or before our
interpretation of them. So, we would have a physiological reaction, like (as in the textbook) jumping
at the sound of a loud noise, then realizing that you felt scared (or you thought that you were
scared) and that’s what you said your reaction was. Zajonc also believed in “gut feeling” wherein you
might already be able to tell if we like or dislike something immediately. Ledoux, in contrast to all of
the other theories, believes that there are some emotions that don’t require cognition. His studies
concluded that cognition can either go from just the thalamus to the amygdala or from the
thalamus to the cortex to the amygdala. When it processes through the cortex, we process our
emotions which has cognition involved. The other path goes straight to the amygdala which is faster
and doesn’t necessarily require cognition.
A polygraph is a lie detector test that measures how someone is physiologically while asking
them questions. The use of a polygraph tells us that most people will have a physiological reaction
when being untruthful.
Sexual orientation is the way someone identifies (who they are sexually attracted to).
Kinsey did research on sexuality, in which he made a scale on either end was homosexuality (same-
sex) or heterosexuality (female and male). There was also bisexual in which someone felt emotion to
the both male and females. Gender identity refers to what gender someone identifies as, whether
that be what they were assigned at birth or not. Transgender hormone therapy is a way to get
change your body to look like a different sex, by taking either estrogen or testrogen, and/or having
surgery to reassign their sex.