INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
CEN-306: FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
by
DR. KAUSTAV CHATTERJEE
PILE FOUNDATIONS – II
Date: 08.04.2020
CONTENTS
• Pile Capacity: Pile Load Test
• Pile Capacity: Dynamic Formulae
• Pile Capacity: Penetration Test
• Negative Skin Friction
• Numerical Problems
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2
Load Test on Piles
Pile load test is the only direct method (in-situ test) for determining the allowable load
on piles. Useful for cohesionless soils.
For cohesive soils, the data from the pile load test should be used cautiously to account
for the disturbance due to pile driving, development of pore water pressure and time
allowed for consolidation settlement.
Tests are of 3 types: Vertical load test (compression); lateral load test and pull out test
(tension).
Vertical load test is carried out to establish load-settlement relationship under
compression and determine the allowable load on pile. The other two tests are carried
out when piles are required to resist large lateral loads and uplift loads.
3
Vertical Load Test on Piles [IS 2911 Part 3 (2013)]
Initial tests and routine tests are usually carried out on piles. Initial tests are carried out
on test piles to estimate the allowable load or predict the settlement at working load.
Routine tests are carried out as a check on working piles and to assess the displacement
corresponding to the working load.
Test pile is a pile which is used only in a load test and does not carry the load from the
superstructure. The minimum test load on such piles should be twice the safe load or the
load at which the total settlement attains a value of 10% of pile diameter in case of
single pile or 40mm in case of pile group.
A working pile is a pile which is driven or cast in situ along with other piles to carry
load from the superstructure. The test load on such piles should be up to 1.5 times the
safe load or up to the load at which total settlement attains a value of 12mm for a single
pile and 40mm for pile group; whichever is earlier.
4
Vertical Load Test on Piles
The safe vertical load on single pile for the initial test should be least of the following:
a) For piles up to and including 600 mm diameter:
1) Two-thirds of the final load at which the total displacement attains a value of
12 mm unless otherwise required in a given case on the basis of nature and type of
structure in which case, the safe load should be corresponding to the stated total
displacement permissible; and
2) Fifty percent of the final load at which the total displacement equal to 10 percent
of the pile diameter in case of uniform diameter piles and 7.5 percent of bulb diameter
in case of under-reamed piles.
b) For piles more than 600 mm diameter:
1) Two-thirds of the final load at which the total displacement attains a value of 18 mm
or maximum of 2 percent pile diameter whichever is less unless otherwise required in a
given case on the basis of nature and type of structure in which case, the safe load
should be corresponding to the stated total displacement permissible; and
5
Vertical Load Test on Piles
2) 50 percent of the final load at which the total displacement equal to 10 percent of
the pile diameter in case of uniform diameter piles and 7.5 percent of bulb
diameter in case of under-reamed piles.
However, routine test shall be carried for a test load of at least 1.5 times the working
load; the maximum settlement at the test load being not greater than 12 mm for piles
diameter up to and including 600 mm and 18 mm or 2 percent of pile diameter,
whichever is less, for piles of diameter more than 600 mm.
The safe vertical load on groups of piles for initial test shall be least of the following:
a) Final load at which the total displacement attains a value of 25 mm unless otherwise
required in a given case on the basis of nature and type of structure; and
b) Two-thirds of the final load at which the total displacement attains a value of 40 mm.
However, routine test on group of piles shall be carried for a test load of at least equal to
the working load; the maximum settlement of the test loading in position being not
exceeding 25 mm.
6
Vertical Load Test on Piles
Duration of Vertical Loading:
Single Pile: Vertical loading on single pile shall be continued till one of the following
takes place:
a) In case of initial load test:
1) Applied load reaches 2.5 times the safe estimated load; or
2) Maximum settlement of pile exceeds a value of 10 percent of pile diameter in case
of uniform diameter piles and 7.5 percent of bulb diameter in case of under-reamed
piles.
b) In case of routine load test:
1) Applied load reaches 1.5 times the working load; or
2) Maximum settlement of pile exceeds a value of 12 mm for piles diameter up to
and including 600 mm and 18 mm or maximum of 2 percent of pile diameter
whichever is less for piles of diameter more than 600 mm
7
Vertical Load Test on Piles
Pile Group: Vertical loading on group of piles shall be continued till one of the
following takes place:
a) In case of initial load test:
1) Applied load reaches 2.5 times the safe estimated load; or
2) Maximum settlement of pile exceeds a value of 40 mm.
b) In case of routine load test:
1) Applied load reaches the working load; or
2) Maximum settlement of pile exceeds a value of 25 mm for piles diameter up to
and including 600 mm and 18 mm or maximum of 2 percent of pile diameter
whichever is less for piles of diameter more than 600 mm
8
Vertical Cyclic Pile Load Test
This test is carried when it is required to separate the pile load into skin friction and
point bearing components on single piles of uniform diameter. The load increment is
applied in increments of 20% of the estimated safe load. Loading and unloading is
carried out alternately at each stage and the elastic rebound in the pile is measured using
dial gauges, each positioned at equal distance around the pile and held by datum bars
resting on immovable supports and 5D away from the test periphery. The loading is
continued upto 2.5times the safe load or until the total settlement at the pile top = 10%
of pile diameter, whichever is earlier.
9
Vertical Cyclic Pile Load Test
10
Vertical Cyclic Pile Load Test
When a pile is loaded by an axial load Q at the ground level, the load is initially
distributed as friction load within a certain length of the pile s measured from the top.
As the load is increased greater lengths of the pile shaft is involved in mobilizing the
frictional resistance to resist the applied load. At a certain stage of loading when the full
length of the pile develops frictional resistance, a part of the load is transferred to the
soil at the base as point load. With increase in load at the top after this stage, both
frictional and point loads increases. However the frictional load attains a maximum
value (Qf) at a certain load level and will no longer increase with increase in vertical
load at pile top. But the point load (Qp) keeps on increasing till it fails in shear.
According to Van Veele (1957) the point load increases linearly with elastic
compression of the soil at the base. This principle is used in separating the frictional
component from the point load.
11
Settlement from Pile Load Test
The total settlement of a pile obtained from a pile load test comprises of 2 components:
Elastic settlement (Se) and Plastic Settlement (Sp); S = Se + Sp
Elastic settlement is due to elastic recovery of the pile material and elastic recovery of
the soil at the base of the pile (S’e). In case of cyclic loading it is easy to obtain the
elastic and plastic settlement at every stages of loading.
When the load acting on the pile is greater than a particular value Qs, a part of the load
will be transferred to the soil at the pile base and the rest to the soil around the pile. The
load transferred to the base will compress the soil at the base of the pile.
Q = (Qf) + (Qp)
Total settlement of the pile S at any loading Q is written as:
S = Δl + Sb
Δl is compression of the pile and Sb is compression of the soil at the base
12
Settlement from Pile Load Test
Sb = S’e + S’b
S’e & S’b is the elastic and plastic compression of the soil at the base
S = Δl + S’e + S’b
Se + Sp = Δl + S’e + S’b
S’e = (Sp - S’b) + Se - Δl
The elastic compression of the soil at the base can be computed if the other 4
parameters are unknown. Sp and Se are obtained from the cyclic pile load test. S’b is one
component of total plastic settlement (Sp) and the other component is plastic settlement
of pile material (which is considered negligible).
Sp = S’b
l
Q Q f / 2 L Q:Total load on the pile
Qf: Frictional load
Hence: S’e = Se – Δl
AE
13
Settlement from Pile Load Test
How to obtain Qp and Qf ? The problem doesnot have any direct solution. The
following indirect procedure hence is applied:
1. Assume there is no compression in the pile (Δl=0), a graph is plotted between total
elastic recovery (S’e) and load at the pile top. Here S’e = Se
2. Draw a straight line parallel to the straight portion of the curve. This will divide the
load into two parts and approximate values of point resistance and skin friction
resistance is determined.
3. Using the value of skin friction resistance for different load levels, the values of Δl
is calculated and the corresponding values of (S’e).
4. A new curve II is plotted between (S’e) and corresponding load Q.
5. A new straight line is drawn parallel to straight portion of curve II and the entire
procedure is repeated to obtain curve III. The process is repeated till accurate values of
Qp and Qs are obtained.
14
Vertical Cyclic Pile Load Test (IS 2911 Part 4: 2013)
I.S: 2911 (Part 4)-2013 recommends
factors of safety 2 and 2.5 on the
ultimate values of skin friction
resistance and point resistance,
respectively. Hence, the allowable load
on the pile may be obtained by adding
Qf /2 and Qb/2.5, where Qf and Qb
correspond to the values corresponding
to a load causing a total settlement of
one-tenth of the pile diameter.
The settlement required to cause
ultimate point resistance is greater than
that required to cause ultimate skin
resistance.
15
Elastic Settlement of Piles
If a pile is subjected to a vertical working load Qw, the total elastic settlement of the pile
Se = se(1) + se(2) + se(3)
se(1) : Elastic settlement of pile
se(2) : settlement of pile caused by the load at the pile tip
se(3) : settlement of pile caused by load transmitted along the pile shaft
If the pile material is assumed to be elastic , the deformation of the pile shaft can be
evaluated in accordance with the fundamental principles of mechanics:
se (1)
Q
wp Qws L Qwp: load carried at the pile point under working load conditions
Qws: load carried by frictional resistance under working load conditions
Ap E p Ap: cross sectional area of the pile
Ep: modulus of elasticity of the pile material; L : length of the pile
ξ : A factor considering the distribution of skin friction resistance along
the pile shaft. ξ = 0.5 for parabolic and uniform distribution and 0.67
for triangular distribution
16
Elastic Settlement of Piles
• The settlement of a pile caused by the load carried at the pile point is:
se( 2)
qwp D 1 2 I wp D: diameter of pile
qwp: point load per unit area at the pile point = Qwp/Ap
Es Es: modulus of elasticity of soil at or below the pile point
μ : Poisson’s ratio of soil
Iwp: influence factor = 0.85
• The settlement of the pile caused by the load carried by the pile shaft is given by:
p: perimeter of pile
se(3)
Qws D 1 I ws 2
L : length of pile
L
pL Es Iws: influence factor = 2 0.35
D
17
Dynamic Formulae
Dynamic analysis aims at establishing a relationship between pile capacity and the
resistance offered to driving with a hammer. This is appropriate for piles penetrating soils
such as sands and hard clays that will not develop pore water pressures during installation.
In saturated fine-grained soils, high pore pressures develop due to vibration caused by
driving; in such cases, the predicted capacities from dynamic analysis will be different from
the value attained after the dissipation of excess pore pressures.
The loading and failure produced by driving with a hammer occurs in a fraction of a second,
whereas in the structure the load is applied over a fairly long period. A fixed relation
between dynamic and long-term capacity can exist only in a soil for which shear strength is
independent of the rate of loading. This is nearly true in the case of dry sand and also in
medium dense wet sand with coarse grains. In clays and in loose fine-grained saturated
soils, the strength depends upon the rate of shear; in such soils, dynamic analysis of pile
capacity cannot be valid.
18
Dynamic Formulae
Engineering News Formula:
The ‘Engineering News’ formula (Wellington, 1886) was derived from observations of
driving of timber piles in sand with a drop hammer. The general form of this equation is as
follows:
Wh H
Qup
s C
where, s = final penetration (set) per blow. It is taken as average penetration per blow for
the last 5 blows or 20 blows depending on whether the hammer is a drop hammer
or steam hammer,
C = empirical constant (representing the temporary elastic compression of the helmet, pile
and soil)
Wh = weight of pile hammer; H = height of fall of hammer, Qup = ultimate capacity of the pile
This is a dimensionally correct equation—H, s and C should be in the same units.
Then the units of Qup will be those of Wh.
19
Dynamic Formulae
Engineering News Formula:
A factor of safety of 6 was introduced to make up for any inaccuracies arising from the
use of arbitrary values for the constant, while arriving at the allowable load on the pile.
Wh H
Qap
6s C
The value of C (in cm) is taken as 2.5 for drop hammer, and 0.25 for steam hammer.
500Wh H 500Wh H
Drop Hammer: Qap ( kN ) Steam Hammer: Qap ( kN )
3s 25 3s 2.5
where H and s are respectively in metres and millimetres, and Qap in the same units as Wh.
Wh aP H
For double acting steam hammers: Qap
6s 2.5
where, Wh = weight of hammer (N), a = effective area of piston (mm2), p = mean effective
steam pressure (N/mm2), H = height of fall of hammer (metres), s = final penetration of pile
per blow (mm), Qap = allowable load on the pile (kN).
20
Dynamic Formulae
Modified Hiley Formula:
This takes into account various energy losses during pile driving in a realistic manner.
Wh Wh
Qup
c c1 c2 c3
S S
2 2
Qup =
21
Dynamic Formulae
Modified Hiley Formula:
22
Dynamic Formulae
Modified Hiley Formula:
Here, C = C1 + C2 + C3
C1 = temporary compression of dolly and packing = 1.77Qup /A
where the driving is without dolly or helmet and cushion about 2.5 cm thick,
C1 = 9.05Qup /A
where the driving is with short dolly up to 60 cm long helmet and cushion up to 7.5 cm thick.
C2 = temporary compression of pile = 0.657QupL /A
C3 = temporary compression of ground = 3.55Qup /A
L = length of pile in metres, A = area of cross-section of pile in cm2.
This is applicable for friction piles.
23
Dynamic Formulae
Modified Hiley Formula:
24
Penetration Tests
Cone Penetration Test [IS 2911 Part 1 Section 1 (2010)]:
When full static cone penetration data are available for the entire depth, the following
correlation may be used as a guide for the determination of ultimate load capacity of a pile.
qc0 = average static cone resistance over a depth of 2D below the pile tip, in kPa;
qc1 = minimum static cone resistance over the same 2D below the pile tip, in kPa;
qc2 = average of the envelope of minimum static cone resistance values over the length of
pile of 8D above the pile tip, in kPa;
D = diameter of pile shaft.
25
Penetration Tests
Cone Penetration Test [IS 2911 Part 1 Section 1 (2010)]:
Ultimate skin friction resistance can be approximated to local side friction (fs), in kPa,
obtained from static cone resistance as given in Table below:
26
Penetration Tests
Cone Penetration Test [IS 2911 Part 1 Section 1 (2010)]:
The correlation between standard penetration resistance, N (blows/30 cm) and static cone
resistance, qc, in kPa as given in Table below may be used for working out the end-bearing
resistance and skin friction resistance of piles. This correlation should only be taken as a
guide and should preferably be established for a given site as they can substantially vary
with the grain size, Atterberg limits, water table, etc.
27
Penetration Tests
Standard Penetration Test [IS 2911 Part 1 Section 1 (2010)]:
The correlation suggested by Meyerhof using standard penetration resistance, N in saturated
cohesionless soil to estimate the ultimate load capacity of driven pile is given below. The
ultimate load capacity of pile (Qu), in kN, is given as:
For non-plastic silt or very fine sand the equation has been modified as:
The first term gives the end-bearing resistance and the second term gives the frictional
resistance.
where, N = average N value at pile tip; NOTE: The end-bearing
Lb = length of penetration of pile in the bearing strata, in m; resistance should not exceed
D = diameter or minimum width of pile shaft, in m; 400NAp
Ap = cross-sectional area of pile tip, in m2;
N = average N along the pile shaft;
As = surface area of pile shaft, in m2
28
Negative Skin Friction
‘Negative skin friction’ or ‘down drag’ is a
phenomenon which occurs when a soil layer
surrounding a portion of the pile shaft
settles more than the pile. This condition
can develop where a soft or loose soil
stratum located anywhere above the pile tip
is subjected to new compressive loading. If a
soft or loose layer settles after the pile has
been installed, the skin-friction-adhesion
developing in this zone is in the direction of
the soil movement, pulling the pile
downward. Extra loading is thus imposed on
the pile. Negative skin friction may also
occur by the lowering of ground water
which increases the effective stress inducing
consolidation and consequent settlement of
the soil surrounding the pile.
29
Negative Skin Friction
It is necessary to subtract negative skin friction force from the total load that the pile can
support. In such a case the factor of safety will be modified as follows:
• Factor of safety = (Ultimate pile load capacity) / (Working load + Negative skin friction force)
Sometimes this may also be written as
• Factor of safety = (Ultimate pile load capacity - Negative skin friction force) / Working load
Values of negative skin force are computed in just the same way as positive skin friction.
For cohesive soils: Qnf PDn c
where, Qnf = negative skin friction force on the pile,
P = perimeter of the pile section,
Dn = depth of compressible layer settling in relation to the pile
c = unit cohesion of soil layer which is setting.
30
Negative Skin Friction
For cohesionless soils: 1
Qnf PDn2K tan
2
where, Qnf = negative skin friction force on the pile,
P = perimeter of the pile section,
Dn = depth of compressible layer settling in relation to the pile
γ = unit weight of soil in the compressible zone,
K = earth pressure coefficient (Ka < K < Kp),
δ = angle of wall friction (φ/2 < δ < φ)
Sometimes negative skin friction may develop even in the zone of the fill, if the fill itself
is settling under its self-weight.
When a large magnitude of negative skin friction force is anticipated, a protective sleeve or
coating may be provided for the section that is embedded in the settling soil. Skin friction is
thus eliminated for this section of the pile and a down drag is prevented.
31
Numerical Problem: 1
A timber pile was driven by a drop hammer weighing 30 kN with a free fall of 1.2 m. The
average penetration of the last few blows was 5 mm. What is the capacity of the pile
according to Engineering News Formula?
Solution:
500Wh H
Allowable load on the pile for drop hammer, Qap ( kN )
3s 25
H being in metres and s being in mm.
Wh = 30kN, H = 1.2m, s = 5mm
Solving, Qap = 200kN
32
Numerical Problem: 2
33
Solution:
34
Numerical Problem: 3
A circular pile is having diameter of 0.305m. It is passing through a compressible soil layer
having depth 2m. For the fill that is above the water table, γf = 16kN/m3, φ’ = 32°, δ ‘ = 0.6 φ’.
Compute the total drag force.
Solution:
1
Negative skin friction force on the pile, Qnf PDn2K tan
2
P = 3.142d = 0.958m
Dn = 2m
K = 1-sin φ’ = 0.47
δ ‘ = 0.6 x 32 = 19.2°
Qnf = 5.02kN
35
