Helen Harden

Cambridge IGCSE®

Chemistry
Maths Skills
Workbook
First Edition

C A M B R ID G E
UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cam b r id g e
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Contents

Introduction iv

Chapter 1: Representing values 2

Maths focus 1: Using units 2
Maths focus 2: Understanding very large and very small numbers 6
Maths focus 3: Writing numbers in a required form 11

Chapter 2: Working with data 17

Maths focus 1: Collecting data 17
Maths focus 2: Understanding types of data 22
Maths focus 3: Recording and processing data 25

Chapter 3: Drawing charts and graphs 35

Maths focus 1: Drawing bar charts 35
Maths focus 2: Drawing pie charts 40
Maths focus 3: Drawing line graphs 46

Chapter 4: Interpreting data 63

Maths focus 1: Interpreting charts 64
Maths focus 2: Reading values from a line graph 69
Maths focus 3: Interpreting the shape of line graphs 72

Chapter 5: Doing calculations 85

Maths focus 1: Using basic maths operations in calculations 85
Maths focus 2: Calculating percentages 89
Maths focus 3: Using mathematical formulae in calculations (Supplement) 91
Maths focus 4: Calculating using ratios 98

Chapter 6: Working with shape 106

Maths focus 1: Comparing surface area and volume 106

Additional questions involving several maths skills 114

The Periodic Table 118

Glossary 119
Acknowledgements 121
 Introduction

This workbook has been written to help you to improve your skills in the mathematical
processes that you need in your Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry course. The exercises will

I
guide you and give you practice in:

• representing values
• working with data
• drawing charts and graphs
• interpreting data
• doing calculations
• working with shape.
Each chapter focuses on several maths skills that you need to master to be successful in your
Chemistry course and explains why you need these skills. Then, for each skill, there is a
step-by-step worked example of a question that involves the skill. This is followed by practice
questions for you to try. These are not like exam questions. They are designed to develop your
skills and understanding. They get increasingly challenging. Tips are often given alongside to
guide you. Spaces, lines or graph grids are provided for your answers.
It is best to work through Chapters 1 and 2 early in your course, as they will help to ensure
that you have a secure understanding of number and units, as well as confidence in reading
scales when making measurements. Chapter 3 shows you the skills you need to draw a variety
of different types of chart and graph. These chapters will support you with many practical
activities that you may carry out.
Chapter 4 covers the skills needed to read information from charts and graphs, as well as the
specific graph skills that you will need when studying rates of reaction. Chapter 6 shows you
the mathematics of the ratio of surface area: volume, which will help to explain why changing
surface area affects the rate of reaction.
A few of the maths concepts and skills are only needed if you are following the Extended
syllabus (Core plus Supplement). The headings of these sections are marked ‘Supplement’. In
other areas just one or two of the practice questions may be based on the Supplement syllabus
content, and these are also clearly marked. Most of these are in Chapter 5, which covers the
key calculations needed in chemistry, including the use of moles (Supplement only).
There are further questions at the end of each chapter for you to try, to give you more
confidence in using the skills practised within the chapter. At the end of the book there are
additional questions that may require any of the maths skills from all of the chapters.
You will find a copy of the Periodic Table at the end of the book. You will need this to look up
relative atomic masses for some questions.
Important mathematical terms are printed in bold type and these are explained in the glossary
at the back of the book.
Chapter 1:
Representing values
Why do you need to represent values in chemistry?
■ If you want to communicate measurements in chemistry, you will need to record values that you measure. You must make
sure that another person will be able to understand your measurements, so how you represent them is important. As well
as the numerical value, you must also include the correct unit.
■ In chemistry, you will need to understand numbers that are much larger or much smaller than numbers you maybe used
to working with. Writing these numbers in different ways will make them easier to understand and compare.

Maths focus 1: Using units

All units of measure in general use are based upon Standard International (SI) units.
Table 1.1 shows some SI units that you may meet in chemistry.

Quantity Unit SI abbreviation

length metre m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
amount of substance mole* mol

Table 1.1: SI units for common quantities

. *Supplement only.
TIP In chemistry the SI unit for temperature is the kelvin, but it may be easier to use the Celsius
Remember that a scale, on which the freezing point of water is 0°C and the boiling point of water (at 1
temperature can atmosphere pressure) is 100 °C. This is more useful for many laboratory measurements,
although the kelvin scale is used in more advanced chemistry studies. Note that a
take a negative
temperature difference in kelvin, such as 30 kelvin, is the same as a temperature difference of
value on the
30 degrees on the Celsius scale.
Celsius scale.
v J
What maths skills do you need to be able to use units?
1 Choosing the • Identify the type of quantity that the apparatus measures
correct unit
• Select an appropriate unit for that quantity
2 Writing the unit • Recall or look up the unit symbol
symbol
• Check whether the unit requires index notation, for example,
cm2, cm3
3 Writing symbols • Work out how the quantity is calculated
for derived units
• Write the derived units to be consistent with the calculation
 Chapter 1: Representing values

Q
^ WATCH OUT
'N
Maths skills practice
How does using units help to communicate values measured during
Not all values require chemical reactions?
units. Relative
atomic mass gives
When you are carrying out experimental work in chemistry, it is essential that you use the
appropriate units to record and communicate any measurements you take.
the average mass of
naturally occurring For example, it is meaningless to state the volume of gas produced during a chemical reaction
atoms of an element, simply as ‘16’. Using units clearly specifies the volume measured. For example, a volume of
based on a scale in 16cm3is completely different from a volume of 16 litres. Similarly, recording the mass of
which the carbon-12 product formed in an experiment as ‘3’ means nothing unless you add the correct units, such
as grams. Remember that an amount of 3 g is a thousand times smaller than 3 kg, so it is
atom has a mass
essential to use the correct prefix as well as the correct unit.
of exactly 12 units.
For example, the Most values used in chemistry require units as they are measures of particular quantities,
relative atomic such as length, mass, temperature, time, volume or the amount of a substance.
mass of hydrogen
is 1, meaning that, Maths skill 1: Choosing the correct unit
on average, atoms
of hydrogen have a
It is important that you can name the units commonly used in chemistry measurements.
mass that is — the
12
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
mass of a carbon
atom. This is a ratio
and therefore it
Choose the correct unit of measurement associated with this small beaker.*•
needs no units.
V J

\
LINK
See Chapter 5 for A centimetres B litres C square centimetres D cubic centimetres
more on ratios. Step 1 Identify the type of quantity that the apparatus measures.
v J
A beaker measures volume.
Step 2 Select an appropriate unit for that quantity.

KEY QUESTIONS TO ASK YOURSELF:

Make sure that
the units are
• What units are used to measure this type of quantity?
also appropriate
Volume may be measured in a variety of units including litres (I) or cubic
to the scale on
centimetres (cm3).
the measuring
apparatus. A small • Which units are appropriate for the scale on the measuring equipment?
beaker will not A small beaker will not measure litres. The scale is likely to be in cubic
measure litres. centimetres (cm3).
V_ _ _ J
So appropriate units in this case are cubic centimetres.
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Practice question 1
Draw lines to match each item of measuring apparatus with the appropriate unit of
measurement.

balance cubic centimetres (cm3)

IT ıeasıiring cylinder grams (g)

WATCH OUT
Some unit symbols
tlrermometer cubic centimetres (cm3)
(abbreviated units)
start with a capital
letter. This occurs
when they are
named after a person
who invented them;
for example, the
Celsius temperature
is named after the
ruler degrees Celsius (°C)
Swedish astronomer
1
Anders Celsius, who 1 2 3 4 5 6

developed a similar
temperature scale. g as syringe centimetres (cm)
Most unit symbols ------------------------------------1
start with a lower
1
----------------------------------^
case letter.
Maths skill 2: Writing the unit symbol
Units are not usually written out in full. Each unit has a short form, or abbreviation,
comprising 1-3 letters.
TIP
Some units are Quantity Unit Abbreviation
derived (worked length metres m
out by calculation)
from SI units. mass kilograms kg
time seconds s
temperature degrees Celsius °c
\
LINK amount of substance* mole mol
See Chapter 5. Table 1.2 Abbreviations for some SI units
V J *Supplement only.
 Chapter 1: Representing values

\ Other units are created by inserting a prefix in front of the SI unit. Centimetres are used for
LINK measuring shorter distances than metres, for example: 1cm is---- or 0.01 m.
See Maths focus 2,
Maths skills 3
Some units require index notation. For example:
‘Understanding unit
prefixes’. • Area is always measured in square units (such as m2or cm2), since it is obtained by
V J multiplying two lengths, for example, m x m or cm x cm (think about counting squares
on a grid to find areas).
• Volume is always measured in cubic units (such as m3 or cm3), since it is obtained by
'N multiplying three lengths, for example, m x m x m, or cm x cm x cm (think about
TIP
counting cubes in a cuboid made from unit cubes).
Always remember to
include the correct
index or power
when necessary. It
is incorrect to write
a volume of liquid volume = length x width
as 10cm because (a length) x height (a length)
units of volume are m3
centimetres measure
length.
V

Figure 1.1 Comparing area of a face and volume of a cuboid

WORKED EXAMPLE 2

The length and width of a piece of paper have been measured in centimetres. Write
down the correct unit symbol for its area.
Step 1 Recall or look up the unit symbol.
In this case it is centimetres (cm).
Step 2 Check whether the unit requires index notation.
Area is found by multiplying length by width so it must be measured in
square units.
The unit is square centimetres (cm2).

Practice question 2
Write down the correct unit symbol for each measurement.
a Mass of copper sulfate, measured on a digital balance that measures in grams
b Temperature of water, measured using a thermometer marked in degrees Celsius
c Time taken for a reaction to take place, measured using a stopwatch that displays
seconds
d Length of magnesium ribbon, measured using a ruler marked in centimetres
e Area of floor in a laboratory, where the length and width are measured in metres
f Volume of liquid in a beaker that measures in cubic centimetres
 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Maths skill 3: Writing symbols for derived units

Q - "N
The units for some quantities are derived (based on a calculation) from other units. For
The solidus (/)
example, you can calculate the rate of a reaction by dividing the volume of gas produced by
the time taken, rather like calculating the speed of a car by dividing the distance travelled by
symbol indicates
time taken. If the volume is measured in cubic centimetres and the time in seconds, the units
‘per’, or division.
of rate of reaction are cm3/s (cubic centimetres per second).
V. J

Q WATCH OUT
WORKED EXAMPLE 3

The sym bol/is also You can work out the density of an aluminium cube by dividing its mass (in grams) by
used as a separator its volume (in cubic centimetres).
between a variable Write down the correct derived unit for density.
name and its unit,
Step 1 Work out how the quantity is calculated.
in tables and on
graphs. Here, you The calculation for density is: mass
read the/sign a s ‘in’,
volume
so ‘Temperature /°C ’ Step 2 Write the derived units to be consistent with the calculation.
means ‘temperature The derived units are grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm3).
in degrees Celsius’.

Practice question 3
Write down the correct derived unit for each calculated quantity:
a The rate of a reaction (how fast a reaction takes place), calculated by dividing
the mass of product made (in grams) by the time taken (in seconds)
b The density of a bronze statue, calculated by dividing the mass of the statue
(in kilograms) by its volume (in cubic metres)
c The rate of a reaction, calculated by dividing the volume of gas produced
(in cubic centimetres) by the time taken (in seconds)

Maths focus 2: Understanding very large and very

small numbers
In chemistry you need to understand very large numbers.
In 12 g of carbon there are about 602000000000000000000000 atoms.
You also need to understand very small numbers.
A single carbon atom has a diameter of about 0.00000000017m.
It is very important to use the correct number of zeros. The value of the number depends
upon the place value of the digits. If you use the wrong number of zeros, the value of the
number will change.
However, writing out this many zeros takes a lot of time so very large and very small numbers
are often written using powers of ten instead.
The number of atoms in 12 g of carbon can also be written as 6.02 x 1023.
The diameter of a carbon atom can be written as 1.7 x 10~10m.
Sometimes in chemistry the units are changed for very large and very small numbers by
adding a prefix such as kilo (k) or nano (n). These prefixes replace the power of ten.
So 3 kg = 3 x 103g or 3000 g
 Chapter 1: Representing values

What maths skills do you need to be able to understand very large and
very small numbers?
1 Understanding place value • Compare digits with the highest place value
• Compare digits with the next highest place values
2 Understanding powers of ten • Write out the multiplication
• Calculate the number as it would be written in full
3 Understanding unit prefixes • Write the measurement in terms of a power of ten
• Calculate the number as it would be written in full

Maths skills practice

How does understanding very large and very small numbers help to
improve your understanding of the size and number of different particles?
Some numbers used in chemistry are so large, or so small, that they are difficult to imagine.
Writing these in a clearer way, such as using powers of ten or prefixes, helps to understand
how the size of different particles compare. A particle of PM2.5 ‘particulate’ air pollution has
a diameter of about 2.5 x 10~6m or 2.5 pm, whereas a PM10 particle is about 10 x 10~6m or
10 pm in diameter.
Understanding powers of ten and unit prefixes means that you will instantly know that these
are much larger than a typical atom, which is about 1 x l(p10m in diameter.
Before you can do this, though, it is important that you have a good understanding of place
value in numbers that are written out in full.

Maths skill 1: Understanding place value

The position of a digit in a number determines its place value. The left-most digit in a number
has the highest place value.
For example, the number in Table 1.3 (reading from left to right) is:
three hundred and twenty-three billion, four hundred and fifty-six million, three hundred
and forty-five thousand, six hundred and forty-seven
H u n d re d s Tens of B illio n s , H u n d re d s Te n s of M illio n s , H u n d re d s Tens of Thousands, H u n d r e d s , T e n s , U n it s ,

o f b illio n s , b illio n s , 109 o f m illio n s , m illio n s , 106 of th o u s a n d s , 103 102 101 10°

1 0 11 1 0 10 108 107 th o u s a n d s , 104

105

3 2 3 4 5 6 3

Table 1.3 Place values for large numbers

The decimal fraction in Table 1.4 is one billionth.
Te n th s H u n d re d th s Th o u s a n d th s Ten- H u n d re d - M illio n th s Ten- H u n d re d - B illio n th s

th o u s a n d th s th o u s a n d th s m illio n t h s m illio n t h s

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

Table 1.4 Place values for small numbers

 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

WORKED EXAMPLE 4
TIP
Read the number Find the largest number in the following list.
from left to right. A 7242 519 B 8 143921 C 8 349321 D 924107
The place value of
Step 1 Compare digits with the highest place value.
the first non-zero
number helps you A, B and C all have millions as the highest place value. B and C both have
decide how big the digits showing 8 million, so are larger than A, which has 7 million.
number is. Step 2 Compare digits with the next highest place values.
The next highest place value is hundreds of thousands. B has 1 hundred
thousand but C has 3 hundred thousand. So the largest number is C.

Practice question 4
Circle the largest number in each list.
a 674591 92342 141 294 692 381
b 1943 986 1949789 1942987 1944098
c 0.09 0.12 0.17 0.06
d 0.09 0.015 0.026 0.07
e 0.0000072 0.0000085 0.0000001 0.000000165

o -TIP A Practice question 5

Look for the first Circle the smallest number in each list.
non-zero digit and
a 1232452 123 532 723453 115 362
use place value to
compare numbers. b 0.123451 0.345984 0.135034 0.124093
V. J
c 0.000002234 0.000002 0.0000024 0.00000234
d 234.56 234.25 232.12 232.013 4
e 104985.99 110374.12 104895.99 104895.82

Maths skill 2: Understanding powers often

Powers of 10 are the result of multiplying 10 by itself.
A negative power of any number is the reciprocal of the corresponding positive power.
This means, for example, that 10“' = j - , or 1 + 10 (the reciprocal of 10).
 Chapter 1: Representing values

101= 10 10 1“ p) or 01

102 = 10 X 10 = 100
l0M o i 10 = lio or 1 ~ 10 " 10 = 001
10-5 = 1 = 1
105= 10 X 10 X 10 X 10 X 10 = 100000 10 X 10 x 10 X 10 X 10 100000
= 1 M 0 4- 10 H- 10 -M0 H- 10 or 0.00001
Table 1.5 Powers of ten
Very large and very small numbers are often recorded as multiples of powers of ten. This
saves having to write out lots of zeros.
For example: 4 x 103= 4 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 4000
So multiplying by 103means that you need to multiply by 10 three times.
In general 4 x 10" means that 4 is multiplied by 10 n times.
4x 10> 4x 10 40
4x 102 4x 10 x 10 400
4x 103 4x 10 x 10 x 10 4000
4x 104 4x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 40000
4x 10s 4x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 400000
4x 106 4x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 4000000
Table 1.6 Multiplying by powers of ten
Multiplying a number by a negative power of ten tells you how many times to divide it by ten.
For example: 4 x 10~3= 4 x —— — — = 4 -r 10 -h 10 -M0
F 10 x 10 x 10

WORKED EXAMPLE 5 (POSITIVE POWERS OF TEN)

Write 5 x 105in full.

Step 1 Write out the multiplication.
5 x 105= 5 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10
Step 2 Calculate the number as it would be written in full.
= 5 x 100000
= 500000

Practice question 6
These numbers are expressed as multiples of powers of ten. Write them in full.
a 3 x 103 ......................................................
b 45 x 106 ......................................................
c 4 x 10* ......................................................
d 123 x 1010 ......................................................
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

WORKED EXAMPLE 6 (NEGATIVE POWERS OF TEN)

Write 3 x 10~4 as a decimal.

Step 1 Write out the multiplication.

3 x IQ-4 = 3 x ■ 1
■=3-10-10-10-10
10 x 10 x 10 x 10
Step 2 Calculate the number as it would be written in full.
= 3 x 0.0001 = 0.0003

Practice question 7
Write each of these negative powers of ten as a decimal.
a 2 x l() • ......................................................
b 34 x 10 6 ......................................................
c 9 x lo • ......................................................
d 43 x |o ' ......................................................

Maths skill 3: Understanding unit prefixes

Very often in science rather than writing a number either in full or using powers of ten, you
can just change the unit by using a prefix.
The prefix tells you the power of ten by which to multiply the measurement to find the full
number.
For example: 7 kg means 7 x 103= 7000 g
Table 1.7 shows some prefixes you should know.

Unit prefix Unit prefix Multiplying Example unit Example unit

symbol factor names symbols
kilo- k 103 kilogram kg
deci- d 10 1 cubic decimetre dm3
centi- c 10-2 cubic centimetre cm3
milli- m 10-3 milligram mg
millimetre mm
micro- p 10-6 microgram hg
nano- n 10~9 nanometre nm

Table 1.7 Prefixes used with common measures

 Chapter 1: Representing values

WORKED EXAMPLE 7
LINK
See Maths skill 2
Write 8 mg without using the prefix.
‘Understanding
powers often’. Step 1 Write the measurement in terms of a power of ten.
V J 8 mg = 8 x 10~3g
Step 2 Calculate the number as it would be written in full.

8 x 10 3 = 8 x —— 1 — — = 8 - 10 + 10 - 10 = 0.008
10 x 10 x 10
So 8 mg = 8x 10 3g = 0.008 g

Practice question 8
Write each measurement without the prefix,
a i 3mg ...........................................
ii 4 fig .........................................
iii 3 kg .........................................
b i 4mm .........................................
ii 2cm .........................................
iii 7nm .............................................
c i 4cm .........................................
ii 2dm .........................................

Practice question 9
Write each measurement without the prefix,
a i 42 mg .........................................
ii 402 pg .........................................
iii 345 kg .........................................
b i 74nm .........................................
ii 7.4 nm .........................................
iii 704 nm .........................................

Maths focus 3: Writing numbers in a required form

Sometimes in chemistry you are required to write a number in a particular form.
When very large or very small numbers are expressed in terms of a power of ten, the
convention is to use a system called standard form or standard index form.
A number in standard form is expressed as a number greater than or equal to 1 but less than
10 multiplied by a power of ten. For example, 54000 can be written as 5.4 x 104. However,
54 x 103is not in standard form because 54 is not between 1 and 10.
The results of calculations should be rounded to an appropriate number of significant figures,
based upon the lowest number of significant figures of the numbers used in the calculation.
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

What maths skills do you need to be able to understand very large and
very small numbers?
1 Writing numbers in • Write the digits as a number that is greater than or equal
standard form to 1 and less than 10
• Work out how many times you have to multiply or divide
the number by 10 to get back to your original number
• Write the number, using the correct power of ten
2 Writing numbers to • Identify the correct number of significant figures
the required number of
• Decide whether to round up or down.
significant figures (sf)

Maths skills practice

How does writing numbers in a required form help communicate chemistry?
Standard form provides a consistent system for communicating and comparing very small
In standard form the and large numbers. The power of ten gives a useful estimate of the size of the number.
decimal point always
comes after the most It is important that all values in chemistry are recorded to an appropriate number of
significant figure.
significant figures. Writing the result of a calculation as 34.938475 cm3when in reality the
V J measurements used in the calculation were only to three significant figures suggests a much
greater degree of accuracy than was actually achieved in the experiment. It is better to write
the number to three significant figures, that is 34.9 cm3.
A
LINK
See Maths skill 2,
Maths skill 1: Writing numbers in standard form
‘Writing numbers to A number in standard form always includes a number that is greater than or equal to 1 and
the required number less than 10 multiplied by a power of ten.
of significant figures So for the number 4060000:
(sf).’
• 4.06 x 106 is correctly in standard form because 4.06 is between 1 and 10.
• 406 x 104 is in index form, but is not in standard form because 406 is greater than 10.

Standard form on your calculator

TIP Calculators do not all work in the same way, so you must make sure you know how
Note that calculators to use yours. This is especially important when you need to enter or read numbers in
differ, so you need to standard form. This may involve using the E key (or the [EE] key).
know the correct key For example, to enter 1.67 x 10”, a typical key sequence would be:
on the calculator that
1.67 Ell
you use.
The screen would show the number as:
ni mu
iu

WORKED EXAMPLE 8

12g of carbon contains 6.02 x 1023carbon atoms.

Use your calculator to work out how many carbon atoms there are in 24 g of carbon.
2 x 6.02 x 1023 = 1.20 x 1024
 Chapter 1: Representing values

WORKED EXAMPLE 9 (LARGE NUMBERS)

Write 5400000 in standard form.

Step 1 Rewrite the non-zero digits as a number that is greater than or equal to 1 and less
than 10.
5.4
Step 2 Work out how many times you have to multiply this number by 10 to get back
to your original number.
5.4 must be multiplied by 10 six times (5.4 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10) to
reach 5400000.
5 4 0 0 0 0 0 . 0

wwwwwvJ
X 10 X 10 X 10 X 10 X 10 x 10
Step 3 Write the number, using the correct power of ten.
5.4 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 5.4 x 106

o -TIP Practice question 10

Write these numbers in standard form.
If there are
significant zeros a 134000 ......................................................
between the digits b 103000 ......................................................
in a number, these
c 120000000 ...........................................................
must appear in the
number written in d 140 ......................................................
standard form, for
Practice question 11
example: 3050000 =
3.05 x 106 Write these values in standard form.
V. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ J a 34000000000000 carbon atoms ......................................................
b 142 000 g ......................................................
c 145 m3 ......................................................
The method for converting very small numbers into standard form is slightly different.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10 (SMALL NUMBERS)

Write 0.0000012 in standard form.

Step 1 Rewrite the non-zero digits as a number that is greater or equal to 1 and less
than 10.
1.2
Step 2 Work out how many times you have to divide this number by 10 to get back to
your original number.
0 . 0 0 0 0 0 1 2
1 . 2

-1 0 -M0 M0 10 10 - 10
Step 3 Write the number, using the correct power of ten.
1
1.2 M 0 M 0 M 0 M 0 M 0 M 0 = 1.2 x = 1.2 x 10-
10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Practice question 12
Write these numbers in standard form.
a 0.0034 ......................................................
b 0.0000054 ......................................................
c 0.000507 ......................................................
d 0.000000009754 ......................................................

Practice question 13
Write these measurements in standard form.
a 0.00000000015m ......................................................
b 0.003 g ......................................................
c 0.000 000023 g ......................................................
d 0.0009 m3 ......................................................

Maths skill 2: Writing numbers to the required number of significant

figures (sf)
The rules for rounding to a given number of significant figures are similar to those for
rounding to the nearest ten or hundred or to a given number of decimal places. The
significant figures in a number are counted from the first non-zero digit.

WORKED EXAMPLE 11

Write 124321 correct to two significant figures.

Step 1 Identify the correct number of significant figures.
The first two significant figures are the first and second digits in the number,
which have the two highest place values. These are the two digits on the left of
the digit to be rounded.
1st sf 2nd sf
\ I
1 2 4 3 2 1
Step 2 Decide whether to round up or down.
Look at the digit in the third significant place.
If there is a zero If it is 0,1, 2, 3 or 4, leave the first two digits as they are and replace all the rest
between non-zero of the digits in the number with zero.
digits, for example, If it is 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9, increase the digit in the second place by 1 and replace all
207224, this counts the rest of the digits in the number with zero.
as a significant
The next digit is 4 so round down, giving 120000.
figure.
v__________ J
 Chapter 1: Representing values

WORKED EXAMPLE 12

Write 0.26793 correct to two significant figures.

Step 1 Identify the correct number of significant figures.
Identify the first two significant figures. The third is the one to be rounded.
1st sf 2nd sf
I I
0. 2 6 7 9 3
Step 2 Decide whether to round up or down.
Look at the digit in the next place.
The next digit is 7 so round up, giving 0.27.

Practice question 14
a There are 423 912 atoms in an amount. Round this to:
i 1 sf ......................................................
ii 3 sf ......................................................
b Round a mass of 0.324 g to:
i 1 sf ......................................................
ii 2 sf ......................................................
c There are 1064126 atoms in an amount. Round this to:
i 2 sf ......................................................
ii 3 sf ......................................................
d Round a mass of 0.407 312 g to:
i 1 sf ......................................................
ii 2sf ......................................................

Further questions
1 Insert the correct unit prefixes (k, m , p, c) into each statement.
Each prefix is used only once.
a The diameter of a gold coin is 3 m.
b The thickness of a gold ring is 3 .... m.
c The mass of a gold bar is 12.4.....g.
d The thickness of gold leaf (sheet) is 0.1 m.
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

2 12 g of carbon is placed in a beaker. This contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms of carbon,

a Another 12 g of carbon is added to the beaker.
Calculate the number of atoms of carbon now in the beaker.
Write this answer in standard form.

b 1.2 g of carbon is added to another beaker.

Calculate the number of atoms in this beaker.
Write your answer in standard form.

3 A student measures a cuboid of aluminium.

a = 2 cm

a Write each length in metres.

b i Calculate the volume of the cube ( «x/ j x c).

ii Write the volume in standard form.

The mass of the cube was measured as 0.054 kg.

c i Calculate the density of the cube (— —ss~
Vvolume,

ii Write the density rounded to one significant figure.

Working with data
Why do you need to work with data in chemistry?
Our understanding of chemistry has been developed through the observation of the world around us.
Two types of data may be collected. In chemistry:
■ qualitative data are often a description of an observation, such as a colour change
■ quantitative data are based on numbers that have been obtained by measurement.
Data measured on a scale are continuous data, but the value of any particular measurement is always an approximation.
Measurements always have a level of uncertainty.

Maths focus 1: Collecting data

You can gather data in different ways. Think about a simple experiment in which marble
chips are added to hydrochloric acid (see Figure 2.1).

dilute
hydrochloric acid
I
Figure 2.1 The reaction of marble chips with dilute hydrochloric acid
You could make careful observations to create a qualitative description of the reaction.
Quantitative data give you more information about the reaction. For example, you could
measure the volume of gas produced every 30 seconds (see Figure 2.2). This numerical data
can be plotted on a graph and used to find patterns and trends in how fast the reaction takes
place.

dilute hydrochloric acid

plus marble chips

Figure 2.2 Measuring the amount of gas produced

Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

What maths skills do you need to collect data?

1 Reading scales • Find the level of the liquid

• Read the largest number before this level on the scale
• Count the small divisions between this and the level of
liquid
• Add the volume shown by the number of small divisions
to the larger number on the scale
2 Recording to the correct • Write down the reading of the scale division that is
number of decimal places exactly at, or just before, the level when reading from
small to large on the scale
• Decide whether the level is nearer the marked scale
division or the half-way point between divisions and
record the number appropriately

Maths skills practice

How does collecting data help to understand reactions?
• Digital measuring equipment, such as a balance, pH meter or temperature probe,
displays the measurement directly. The measurements can give you information about
a reaction at the beginning and at the end, and even how the quantities change during a
reaction.
• Non-digital equipment, such as a thermometer, uses a scale. A scale is made up of equally
spaced divisions with numbers marked at regular intervals. These numbers usually
increase in Is, 2s, 5s or 10s.
The number of decimal places that you use when recording a measurement is important
because it gives information about the level of uncertainty of a measurement. For example,
a temperature recorded with no decimal places (such as 24 °C) indicates greater uncertainty
than a temperature recorded to one decimal place (such as 24.5 °C).
It is essential that you can read a scale carefully so that you are not adding to the uncertainty
of the measurement.
 Chapter 2: Working with data

Maths skill 1: Reading scales

WORKED EXAMPLE 1

The diagram shows part of a 10cm3measuring cylinder. What volume of liquid is

shown on the scale?
— 6

A
TIP — 5
The surface of
Step 1 Find the level of the liquid.
water is curved.
This is called the When reading a volume scale, you should always take the measurement from
meniscus. the bottom of the meniscus, making sure that the surface of the water is at your
J eye level.
Step 2 Read the largest number before this level on the scale.
The largest number on the scale, below the meniscus, is 5.
Step 3 Count the small divisions above this, to the level of liquid.
The meniscus of the liquid is 7 small divisions above 5.
Step 4 Add the volume shown by the number of small divisions to the larger number
on the scale.
Work out what each division represents.
There are ten small divisions between 5 and 6 so each division is equal to 0.1 cm3.
The meniscus of the liquid is 7 small divisions above the 5, so the total volume of
liquid is: 5 + (7 x 0.1) = 5.7
Don’t forget to give the correct units.
The volume is 5.7 cm3.

Practice question 1
What temperature is shown on each thermometer? (All the thermometers are marked in
degrees Celsius, °C,)
a ...........................................................
b ...........................................................
c ...........................................................
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Q WATCH OUT
Practice question 2
What volume of liquid is there in each measuring cylinder?
The scales on
the measuring (All the measuring cylinders are marked in cubic centimetres, cm3.)
cylinders are a ...........................................................
different.
b .........................................

Q WATCH OUT
^
The scale on Practice question 3
a burette is What volume of liquid is shown in each burette? (Both burettes are marked in cubic
numbered from centimetres, cm3)
top to bottom, so
a ...........................................................
the larger numbers
are at the bottom b .........................................
of the scale. You — 21 b — 15
—
must read it in the —
opposite direction
—
from a measuring —
—
cylinder.
V_______________ J =
^m m m â
—

— 22 — 16

Maths skill 2: Recording to the correct number of decimal places

The more accurate a measurement is, the closer it is to the true value. Using a measuring
instrument with greater resolution helps to improve accuracy. There is less uncertainty in
measurements taken with an instrument with better resolution.
The resolution of most thermometers is actually the value of half a division, because this is
the smallest change that can be measured. For a thermometer with divisions marked every
1°C , the resolution is 0.5 °C.
You should therefore record measurements from a thermometer correct to one decimal place
(for example, 24.0 °C not 24 °C). This shows that there is less uncertainty in the measurement
than simply recording the temperature to the nearest whole number (no decimal places).
See Maths focus 3,
Maths skill 3,
‘Recording
processed data to
the correct number
of significant
figures’, p. 31.
 Chapter 2: Working with data

On a burette the smallest divisions represent 0.1 cm3.

Burettes can also be read to the nearest half division (0.05 cm3).
The readings from a burette should be recorded to two decimal places.

— 16 — 16

- j
17.00 cm 3 — 17 ^
I 1 1 1 1

— 18
5

WORKED EXAMPLE 2

Record the thermometer reading to the correct number of decimal places.

Q
WATCH OUT
Step 1 Write down the reading of the scale division that is exactly at, or just before, the
If the reading level is
level when reading from small to large on the scale.
nearer the marked
division, write 0
at the end of the KEY QUESTIONS TO ASK YOURSELF:
number. Remember
• Does the scale read from top to bottom, or bottom to top, of the measuring
to add a decimal
instrument?
point if necessary.
In this case the scale reads from bottom to top. The numbers increase going up the
If the level is nearer thermometer.
the half-way point On a burette the scale reads from top to bottom. The numbers increase going down
between divisions, the burette.
write 5 at the end
• Is the scale division just below or just above the level of the liquid?
of the number.
In this case you need to read the division that is exactly at or just below the level, 24.
Remember to add
a decimal point if On a burette you need to read the division that is exactly at or just above the level of
the liquid.
necessary.
V J
Step 2 Decide whether the level is nearer the marked scale division or the half-way
point between divisions and record the number appropriately.
o -TIP This reading is nearer the half-way point.
Always remember This reading should be written:
to give the correct
units.
24.5 °C
V. J
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Practice question 4
Write down the temperature shown on each thermometer, to the correct number of
decimal places.
a ...........................................................
b .........................................
c ...........................................................

a c 100

90

Practice question 5
Write down the volume shown on each burette, to the correct number of decimal places.
a ...........................................................
b .........................................
c ...........................................................

— 11 b — 27 c — 31

— 12 — 28 — 32

Maths focus 2: Understanding types of data

The design of an experiment influences the type of data produced. Usually there will be one
independent variable that is changed each time, and one dependent variable that is measured
each time the independent variable is changed.
Often, these variables are numerical (the measurements will be written as numbers). Usually
the variable can take on any value, such as when measuring length, temperature or mass.
This is known as continuous data.
"\
On other occasions, measurements are made for a range of different categories, for example,
See Chapter 3,
types of material. The independent variable that is being changed each time in this case is the
type of material. This is not a number and is known as categorical data.
‘Drawing charts
and graphs’. Sometimes an independent variable can only take on certain values. In this case it is known
V J as discrete data. This type of data is less common in chemistry.
 Chapter 2: Working with data

What maths skills do you need to understand different types of data?

1 Identifying the independent • Identify the variable that was changed during the
and dependent variables experiment (the independent variable)
• Identify the variable that was measured each time
(the dependent variable)
2 Distinguishing categorical, • Decide whether the independent variable is recorded
continuous and discrete data as words or numbers
• Decide whether numerical data can take on any value

Maths skills practice

How does understanding different types of data help to decide what type
of graph to draw?
There are different types of data:
• Some data can be sorted into categories (groups) but the categories cannot be easily
ordered, for example, the names of materials. This is known as categorical data.
• Sometimes the numerical data can take any value within a certain range, for example, the
temperature of an object. This is continuous data.
• Discrete data occur where the data can only take certain values, for example, the numbers
of protons in an atom can only be whole numbers.
If the independent variable is categorical, present it on a bar chart. Label the categories of the
independent variable along the horizontal axis. 2:

Always represent continuous data in a line graph, because the points between the plotted
data also have values.
The independent variable should always be plotted on the horizontal axis, and the dependent
variable on the vertical axis.

o - Maths skill 1: Identifying the independent and dependent variables

TIP
If a measurement
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
is made at regular
time intervals, then
the independent
Read the experiment description below. Write down the independent variable and the
dependent variable.
variable is time.
V J A student adds some marble chips to hydrochloric acid and measures the temperature
every 30 seconds for 5 minutes.
Step 1 Identify the variable that is changed each time (independent variable).
The student measures the temperature every 30 seconds, so the independent
The independent variable is time.
variable does Step 2 Identify the variable that is measured each time the independent variable is
not have to be a changed (the dependent variable).
number. It could be
The student measures the temperature every 30 seconds, so the dependent
the type of metal.
variable is temperature.
V J
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Practice question 6
A student carries out four different experiments. Read the experiment description and write
down the independent and dependent variables for each.
Sometimes a
description of an a A student adds 10cm3of acid, 1cm3at a time, to a beaker containing an alkali. She uses a
experiment gives pH meter to measure the pH each time.
the units but not
the name of the
variable. You need
to remember that b She then carries out another experiment and adds some marble chips to a flask containing
measuring in cubic acid. She measures the mass every 30 seconds for 5 minutes.
centimetres (cm3)
means that the
variable is volume
or that measuring c For her third experiment the student adds sodium thiosulfate to hydrochloric acid and
in grams (g) means times how long it takes for the solution to turn cloudy. She repeats this at four different
that the variable is temperatures.
mass.

d Finally the student uses pH paper to test five different types of substance.

Practice question 7
A scientist finds the temperatures at which elements with different atomic numbers melt. In
this experiment what is:
a the independent variable b the dependent variable?

Maths skill 2: Distinguishing categorical, continuous and discrete data

WORKED EXAMPLE 4

Read the experiment description below. Write down whether the independent variable
is categorical, continuous or discrete.
A student adds some marble chips to hydrochloric acid and measures the temperature
every 30 seconds for 5 minutes.
Step 1 Decide whether the independent variable is recorded as words or numbers.
If it is recorded in words, then the data are categorical.
In this case the data are numerical so a further decision needs to be made.
Step 2 Decide whether the numerical data can take on any value.
The independent variable is time. This is recorded in numerals and can take
on any value. This is because, even though the student has chosen to measure
every 30 seconds, the values in between have meaning.
The independent variable is therefore continuous.
(If numerical data cannot take on any value they are discrete data.)
 Chapter 2: Working with data

Practice question 8
Read the experiment descriptions in Practice questions 6 and 7 again. Write down whether
each independent variable is categorical, continuous or discrete.

Maths focus 3: Recording and processing data

Data alone cannot help you to understand chemistry. Recording data helps to communicate
measurements clearly to other people. It also helps you to process the data, for example,
using maths to calculate the mean and other quantities.
Recording data clearly in a table makes it easier to plot a graph, and this helps you to identify
any patterns or trends in the data.

Figure 2.3 Unorganised data

Figure 2.3 shows data recorded in an unorganised way. The units are not used consistently 2!
and the measurements are not presented in order.

1 1
Temperature Time
°C s

20 10

30 40

40 59

50 90

Figure 2.4 Organised data

Figure 2.4 shows the data recorded in a table. The units are the same throughout and the
measurements are presented in a systematic way. This makes it easy to see a pattern in the
data. As the temperature increases, the time increases.

What maths skills do you need to record and process data?

1 Drawing tables • Work out how many columns and rows you need
• Draw up the table
• Add a heading to each column
• Add the values of the independent variable
2 Drawing tables to help • Work out how many extra columns you need
process data
• Draw the table, as described in Maths skill 1
 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

3 Recording processed data • Use a calculator to complete any calculations

to an appropriate number
• Note the smallest number of significant figures that
of significant figures
occurs in the data
• Round the calculated values to this number of
significant figures

Maths skills practice

How does recording and processing data help understand chemistry?
Drawing up a clear table helps to present information about different substances so that their
properties can be compared.
Using a table also helps to organise data, making it easier to plot a graph, which in turn
makes it easier to identify patterns and trends.
Processing data to work out the mean helps you to ensure there is less uncertainty in
the data.

Maths skill 1: Drawing tables

Record the independent variable in the left-hand column of a table and the dependent
variable in the right-hand column.
For categorical data, add words to the table in the left-hand column and add any numerical
data for the dependent variable in the right-hand column.
:6 For continuous and discrete data the independent variable is numerical. The values can be
written in the left-hand column before the experiment begins.
You can also use a table to record qualitative data. In this case, record your observations in
the right-hand column.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5

A student pours 20 ml of hydrochloric acid into a polystyrene cup and measures its
temperature. She then adds a small piece of magnesium ribbon.
The student takes the temperature every 10 seconds for one minute.
Draw a table to record her data.
Step 1 Work out how many columns and how many rows she needs in her results table.
She needs two columns, one for the independent variable and one for the
dependent variable.
The student measures the temperature at 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 seconds
(1 minute), so she needs a header row plus 7 more rows in the table.
Step 2 Draw up the table.
Step 3 Add the headings to each column.
The independent variable is time, with its unit s (for seconds), so the left-hand
column heading is ‘Time/s’.
The dependent variable is temperature, with its unit °C (for degrees Celsius), so
the right-hand column heading is ‘Temperature/°C’.
 Chapter 2: Working with data

WATCH OUT Step 4 Add the values of the independent variable to the left-hand column.
Always remember The values of the independent variable are written out before the experiment
to separate the starts.
name of the
variable and its unit Time Temperature
symbol with a/. s °C
This can be called a 0
slash, slant, solidus 10
or stroke. 20
30
40
TIP 50
Adding the unit 60
1
symbol to the
column headings
means that you Practice question 9
don’t have to Draw a table to record the data for each experiment.
write it after each
a A student adds 6 cm3of acid, 1cm3at a time, to a beaker containing an alkali. He uses a
number.
pH meter to measure the pH each time.

pH has no units
because the pH
scale is logarithmic,
and this is beyond
the requirements of
this book.

b A student adds some marble chips to a flask containing acid. She measures the mass in
grams (g) every 30 seconds for 3 minutes.
 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

c A student adds sodium thiosulfate to hydrochloric acid (10 °C) and times, in seconds, how
long it takes for the solution to turn cloudy. She repeats this at 20 °C, 30 °C and 40 °C.

d A student uses pH paper to test five different types of substance, A-E.

18

Maths skill 2: Drawing tables to help process data

Sometimes you need to apply mathematical processing to the data you collect, for example:
• You may need to calculate the mean for each set of repeated data.
• You may have measured the mass and volume of different metals in order to calculate
the density.
Recording both the raw data and processed data in a well-organised table can help to make
calculations easier.
 Chapter 2: Working with data

WORKED EXAMPLE 6

A student times how long it takes 0.5 g of small marble chips to react with 25 cm3
of acid. He repeats the experiment two more times until he has a set of three
measurements.
He then carries out three similar experiments with medium marble chips, and another
three experiments with large marble chips.
Draw up the table that he could use to record these results and calculate the mean.
Step 1 Work out how many columns are needed.
The student needs one column for the independent variable (size of marble
chip) plus three columns for the dependent variable (time in seconds), because
he needs to include the results of the three experiments for each chip size. He
also needs an extra column to record the mean that he calculates.
So, in total the student needs five columns in his table.
Step 2 Draw the table, as described in Maths skill 1.
Work out how many rows the student needs.
The student is testing three sizes of marble chip so after the header row he
needs three more rows.
Add the heading to each column.
The independent variable is the size of the marble chips. This does not have a unit.
There are three columns for the dependent variable (Time/s). This needs one
overall heading above and three separate column headings: Test 1, Test 2,
Test 3 below.

Test 1 Test 2 Test 3

The column on the right of the table should have the heading ‘Mean’, with the
correct unit symbol (the same as the dependent variable) of s for seconds.
Add the values of the independent variable that are going to be tested to the
left-hand column. In this case the independent variable is categorical, so the
words ‘small’, ‘medium’ and ‘large’ need to be added.
Time
Size of marble chip s Mean/s
Test 1 Test 2 Test 3
small
medium
large
 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Practice question 10
Draw up the table for each student’s experiment described below.
a A student adds sodium thiosulfate solution to hydrochloric acid at 20 °C and measures
the time it takes for the solution to turn cloudy. He carries out the experiment two more
times. He then carries out the experiment three times at 30 °C and three times at 40 °C.

b Another student is finding out the density of four pieces of metal (copper, iron aluminium
o - and tin). She finds the volume and mass of each piece of metal and records these in a
TIP table. She then works out the density, using the formula:
The order of
mass
columns can help density = ---------
with calculations.
volume
Put the columns
in the order that
the numbers will
be used in the
calculation.
V___ _ _____ J

Maths skill 3: Recording processed data to the correct number

of significant figures
When you carry out a calculation with experimental data, the number of significant figures in
LINK your answer should be the same as the smallest number of significant figures used in the data
See Chapter 1 for values. Your calculated answer should not seem to show more accuracy than occurs in the
more on significant original measurements.
figures. However, there are other factors that can result in uncertainty. Random errors often occur
when you are carrying out an experiment. Working out the mean of repeated measurements
reduces uncertainty due to random errors.
Repeat results that are close together indicate that the data are precise. However, even
if results are in close agreement this does not necessarily mean that the data values are
accurate. There could be a systematic error that is making all the data slightly too large or
too small. An example of a systematic error could be a zeroing error on a balance.
 Chapter 2: Working with data

WORKED EXAMPLE 7
LINK
See Chapter 1,
A student measures the volume of carbon dioxide produced during a reaction.
Maths focus 3,
Maths skill 2, Calculate the mean volume of the three measurements. Record your answer to an
‘Writing numbers to appropriate number of significant figures.
the correct number
of significant
Volume
cm3
figures (sf)’.
T e s ti Test 2 Test 3
22.4 22.2 21.8

Q --------
WATCH OUT
Step 1 Use a calculator to complete any calculations.
Calculate the mean:
If you have more
22.4 + 22.2 + 21.
than one set of = 22.1333
measurements
(for example, Step 2 Note the lowest number of significant figures in the data.
mass and volume),
remember to use Each measurement has three significant figures.
the number of Step 3 Round the calculated values to this number of significant figures.
significant figures
22.1 cm3
in the data value
that has the
smallest number of
significant figures. Practice question 11 3
a A student used a burette to measure the volume of acid required to neutralise an alkali.
She carried out the experiment three times. Calculate the mean result of the three
experiments. Record the mean to an appropriate number of significant figures.
TIP Volume
A reading that cm3
is very different
Test 1 Test 2 Test 3
to the others
it is called an 20.05 20.10 19.95
outlier. If you can
explain why the
measurement is
so different (for b A student times how long it takes for a reaction to form 20 cm3of hydrogen gas.
example, due to It takes 16 seconds.
an error in the volume
Calculate the mean rate of reaction:
experiment) then it time
should be ignored
when calculating
the mean. c A student measured how much the mass decreased during a reaction. The reaction took 10s.
J
The loss of mass was 1.24g. Calculate the mean rate of reaction: maSS
time
 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Further questions
1 A student investigated the density of three lumps of metal.
First she used a balance to find the mass of each lump of metal.
Then she added 5.0 cm3of water to a measuring cylinder. She then dropped a lump of iron
into the measuring cylinder and noted the new volume.
The change in volume was equal to the volume of the lump iron.
She recorded the mass and new volume in a table. She then calculated the volume of each
lump and the density of each.
a Draw up a table for the student to record her measurements and calculations.
The measuring cylinder and digital balance readings are shown below. Record the
measurements in the table.

iron aluminium copper

— 10

33.9 g

b Calculate the density of each metal and record in the table to an appropriate number
of significant figures.
 Chapter 2: Working with data

2 The temperature was measured during two different reactions. Each experiment was
carried out three times.

Reaction 1: Copper sulfate solution + zinc powder

a Record the maximum temperature measurements in the table below.

Experiment Thermometer diagram Maximum temperature Temperature change

of solution °C
°C
1 40

35
|

-1P 30

2 ]— 40

— 35

1i 30

3 — 40

35
I

4P 30

b The temperature of the solution was 23 °C at the start. Calculate the temperature
change for each experiment and record this in the table.
 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

c Calculate the mean change for the copper sulfate + zinc reaction, giving your answer
to an appropriate number of significant figures.

Reaction 2: Potassium nitrate + water

Test Maximum temperature of solution Temperature change

°C °C
1 20.5 -2.5
2 20.0 -3.0
3 19.0 -4.0

d Calculate the mean change for the potassium nitrate + water reaction to an appropriate
number of significant figures.

I
Drawing charts and graphs
Why do you need to draw charts and graphs in chemistry?
Using charts and graphs makes it easier to compare data values and to look for patterns. This sort of visual display is less useful if
you want to share the actual values. A table is better for this.

Types of graph used in chemistry

You can use different types of graph or chart to represent data. The most common types that you are likely to need in chemistry are:
■ barcharts ■ pie charts ■ line graphs.

\
Maths focus 1: Drawing bar charts
LINK A bar chart is useful for comparing categorical data. If the independent variable is not numerical
See Chapter 2, you should always use a bar chart. Discrete data are also usually shown on a bar chart.
Maths focus 2 For example, the bar chart shown in Figure 3.1 makes it easy to compare the main uses of
‘Understanding water in a UK home.
types of data’.
V J The vertical axis
shows the range
A title shows clearly
what the bar chart is
of values
showing

The height of each

bar shows the value
for each category
K
In algebraic graphs
showing a relation
between two
variables, x and y,
the horizontal axis is
generally the x-axis
and the vertical
axis is generally
they-axis. It is
common practice
to use these terms The horizontal axis
to describe the axes shows the categories
in any graph. In this
Each axis has a label,
case, the horizontal including units if Type of water usage
axis shows types of needed
water usage and the
Figure 3.1 The features of a bar chart
vertical axis shows
the volume of water The graph paper you will use most often will be made
used. up of large, medium and small squares, as shown in
Figure 3.2.
V____________ J Each large square is divided into four medium-sized
squares, and each of these medium squares comprises a
grid of 25 small squares. Figure 3.2 Typical graph paper
 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

What maths skills do you need to draw a bar chart?

1 Choosing a suitable • Find the maximum value needed on the vertical axis
scale for the vertical
• Choose a scale that is easy to read and takes up at least half
axis
of the available space
2 Drawing the bars • Draw and label the axes
• Use the vertical scale to work out the heights of the bars
• Draw bars with the same width, leaving a small gap
between them

Maths skills practice

How does drawing a bar chart help you understand patterns in the
o - properties of the elements?
TIP
Each chemical element has different properties. You can look up data about the elements,
Always round to such as melting point, boiling point or density. Drawing a bar chart of this data makes it
the nearest whole easier to compare these properties and to see any trends or patterns.
number.
V. J Maths skill 1: Choosing a suitable scale for the vertical axis

WORKED EXAMPLE 1

Table 3.1 shows the densities of different metal elements (rounded to one decimal place).

Element Density
If you need to draw
g/cm3
a bar graph to show
negative values you aluminium 2.7
must use the same
The data are to be shown on a bar chart.
copper 8.9
scale for the positive Which scale should be used for the vertical axis?
iron 7.9
and negative parts
of the axis. gold 19.3
v J Table 3.1 Densities of different metal elements
Assume the grid supplied for the bar chart has a height of 5 large squares.
Step 1 Find the maximum value needed on the vertical axis.
The largest density value is 19.3 g/cm3. Rounding this up to the nearest whole
The scale on an number gives a maximum value of 20 g/cm3on the vertical axis.
axis tells you how
Step 2 Choose a scale that is easy to read and takes up at least half the available space.
much each square
on the graph paper Scale: Largest value that Do data Does scale take up
represents. It makes 1 large square = can be plotted values fit? over half of the grid?
the values easier to
1g/cm3 5 g/cm3 no -
read if the side of
each large square 2 g/cm3 10g/cm3 no -
represents a value of 5 g/cm3 25 g/cm3 yes yes
1,2,5 or a multiple
often of these (10,
Therefore 1 large square = 5 g/cm3is a suitable scale.
20,50 or0.1,0.2,0.5). You can use the symbol = to mean ‘represents’.
V. J
 Chapter 3: Drawing charts and graphs

Practice question 1
The data in Table 3.2 show the melting points of some Group 1 alkali metal elements,
rounded to two significant figures.

Element Melting point

See Chapter 1, °C
Maths focus 3 for sodium 98
more on significant
potassium 64
V.
figures.
J rubidium 39
caesium 29
Table 3.2 Melting points of some Group 1 alkali metal elements
a Complete the table below to suggest three possible scales for a grid that has a height of
3 large squares.

Scale: Largest value that Do data Does scale take up over

1 large square = can be plotted values fit? half of the grid?

2°C
20 °C
40 °C
b What is the best scale for the axis?

Practice question 2
The data in Table 3.3 show the melting points of some elements in the third period (row) of
the Periodic Table, rounded to two significant figures.

Element Melting point

°C
sodium 98
magnesium 650
aluminium 660
silicon 1407
Table 3.3 Melting points of some elements in the third period of the Periodic Table
What is the best scale to use for the axis if the grid supplied has a height of 8 large squares?
1 large square = ...........................°C
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Maths skill 2: Drawing the bars

WORKED EXAMPLE 2

The data in Table 3.4 show the densities of three different elements, rounded to one
decimal place. Draw a bar chart to compare these densities.

Element Density
g/cm3
aluminium 2.7
magnesium 1.7
lithium 0.5
Table 3.4 Densities of three different elements
Step 1 Draw and label the axes.
Remember that the categories (elements) go on the horizontal axis and the
density is on the vertical axis.
The vertical axis should have a scale of 1 large square = 1g/cm3.
Step 2 Use the vertical scale to work out the heights of the bars.

To work out the value of each small square, divide the value of a large square
by 10 (the number of tiny squares along one side of a large square).
■y^g/cm3= 0.1 g/cm3
Step 3 Draw the bars with the same width, leaving a small gap between them.

Pencil and ruler used

to mark heights of
bars.

The bars have the

same width.

There are gaps

between the bars.

aluminium magnesium lithium

Element

Figure 3.3 Densities of three different elements

 Chapter 3: Drawing charts and graphs

Practice question 3
Draw a bar chart to compare the densities of three of
Element Density
the Group 1 alkali metals as shown in Table 3.5.
g/cm3
lithium 0.53
sodium 0.97
potassium 0.86
a Draw and label the axes on the grid below. The
vertical axis should have a scale of 1 large Table 3.5 Densities of three Group 1
alkali metals
square = 0.2g/cm3.

b What does each small square on this axis represent?................................

c Draw the three bars on your chart.

Practice question 4
Draw a bar chart to compare the boiling points of five noble gases, as shown in Table 3.6.

Element Boiling point

°C
neon -246
argon -186
krypton -152
xenon -108
radon -62
Table 3.6 Boiling points of five noble gases
 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Q WATCH OUT
a Draw and label the axes on the grid below. The vertical axis should have a scale of
1 large square = 50 °C.
When the vertical
axis includes
negative values,
it should extend
below the
horizontal axis.

Q WATCH OUT
N

The larger the

magnitude of the
negative number,
the further down
the axis it should
be plotted.
V J

■0

You may need to

round your data
values, depending
b What does each small square on the vertical axis represent?
upon the scale of
your axis.
V_____________ J c Draw the five bars on your chart.

Maths focus 2: Drawing pie charts

In chemistry, pie charts are less commonly used than bar charts. This is partly because they
are not suitable for showing direct measurements of a dependent variable for different values
of an independent variable.
However, a pie chart is useful when comparing proportions or percentages that make up a
whole. Each of the separate categories within the data is represented by a sector of the circle.
For example, the pie chart in Figure 3.4 shows the percentages of different gases in the
air. Note that it has been drawn with the largest component starting at the top and being
measured clockwise. This is a useful convention to follow.
 Chapter 3: Drawing charts and graphs

| nitrogen
[] oxygen

Ü ar§on
~] carbon dioxide

Figure 3.4 Percentages of different gases in the air

Not all percentage data can be shown in a pie chart. For example, the graph in Figure 3.5
shows the percentages of students who have used different types of transport to school
during one week,

TIP
A radius is a
straight line from
the centre of walk cycle car bus train
Transport
the circle to the
circumference, or Figure 3.5 How students came to school last week
edge, of the circle. The percentages do not add up to 100 because some students may have used more than one
type of transport during the week. The data were not all collected on one day but over a week
so, for example, some students may have walked on some days and cycled on others. This
type of percentage data cannot be presented in a pie chart.
The percentages of all the categories shown on a pie chart must add up to 100%.
What maths skills do you need to draw a pie chart?
The total angle at 1 Converting • Multiply each percentage by 3.6° (see Tip for explanation)
the centre of a full percentages to angles
circle is 360°. • Check that the angles add up to 360°
1% is equal to 2 Drawing sectors • List the percentages in order, from largest to smallest
1 hundredth of a
whole turn. • Draw a circle with a vertical line (radius) upward from the
centre
So, 1% is
represented • Use a protractor to measure and mark the first angle, then
draw the first line
• Move your protractor around so that it lies on this new line
before measuring next angle (repeat)
 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Maths skills practice

How does drawing a pie chart help to understand the composition of
different alloys?
o - An alloy is formed by mixing two or more molten metals, then allowing them to cool. The
TIP
composition of this mixture is crucial in determining the properties of this mixture. The sectors
Sometimes you on a pie chart give a clear visual comparison of the percentages of each metal in the alloy mixture.
may need to
round the angles Maths skill 1: Converting percentages to angles
to the nearest
whole degree. It is WORKED EXAMPLE 3
important to check
that the angles still The alloy brass has a typical composition of 70% copper and 30% zinc.
add up to 360 °C. What angles should each sector be on a pie chart to show this?
Step 1 Multiply each percentage by 3.6°.

Q WATCH OUT
\ Metal
x 3.6
Percentage Angle
O
Check the form %
of the data that copper 70 252°
you are given

o
O
OO
and remember zinc 30
to convert them Step 2 Check that the angles add up to 360°.
into percentages
252° + 108° = 360°
if they are not
already in that
format. A pie chart
shows a category
Practice question 5
as a percentage The alloy bronze has a typical composition of 90% copper and 10% tin.
of the whole. Pie
What should the sector angles be on a pie chart to represent this?
charts cannot be
used to display Complete the table.
data that have not Metal Percentage Angle
been changed into % 0
percentages (or
copper 90
fractions).
V J tin 10

0 TIP
Practice question 6
The alloy stainless steel has a typical composition of 74% iron, 18% chromium and 8% nickel.
If you want to
calculate the
What should each sector angle be on a pie chart to represent this?
angles without Complete the table.
using a calculator,
remember that Metal Percentage Angle Angle rounded to nearest whole number
o o
every 10% is %
represented by 36° iron 74
in the pie chart.
chromium 18
50% is 180° and
25% is 90°. nickel 8
Total angle 360°
 Chapter 3: Drawing charts and graphs

Maths skill 2: Drawing sectors

WORKED EXAMPLE 4

Amalgum is an alloy that can be used in dental fillings. Its composition is shown in
Table 3.7.

Metal Percentage Angle

o
%
mercury 50 180
silver 25 90
copper 10 36
tin 15 54

Table 3.7 Composition of amalgum

Draw a pie chart to show the composition of amalgum (with the sectors arranged in order
of size).
Step 1 List the percentages in order, from largest to smallest.
mercury 180°
silver 90°
tin 54°
copper 36°
Step 2 Draw a circle plus a vertical line (radius) from the centre.

Mark a point at the top of the circle and draw the first line vertically from the
centre to this point (the radius).
Step 3 Use a protractor to measure and mark the first angle, then draw the
first line.
To do this, place your protractor so that the base line of the protractor (the line
through 0/180 at both ends, and the centre) lies along the vertical line and the
centre of the protractor is over the centre of the circle.
Measure and mark your first angle (180°). Be sure to choose the correct scale on
the protractor.
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Place your ruler so that it aligns with the centre of the circle and your angle
mark and draw in the radius.

Step 4 Move your protractor around so the base line lies on this new line and the
centre is over the centre of the circle before measuring the next angle.
Mark the angle and draw the radius to complete the second sector.
Move your protractor around so that it lies on this new line and line up the
centre of the protractor with the centre of the circle.
Measure and mark your next angle and draw the radius. Repeat the previous
process until you have drawn all the sectors.
As a check, measure the final angle to make sure it is correct (in this case 36°).

TIP
Yourfinal pie chart
should include
either labels or a
colour key. | m erciin.

□ silver
tin
copper
 Chapter 3: Drawing charts and graphs

Practice question 7
White gold is an alloy. Its composition is shown in Table 3.8.

Metal Percentage Angle

o
%
gold 75 270
palladium 10 36
nickel 10 36
zinc 5 18
Table 3.8 Composition of white gold

o - A Draw a pie chart to show the composition of white gold.

TIP
When the angle is
greater than 180°,
subtract it from
360° and measure
anticlockwise.
V

Practice question 8
Solder used to be an alloy of tin with lead but modern solder has a different composition, as
shown in Table 3.9.

Metal Percentage Angle

o
%
tin 90 324
silver 5 18
copper 5 18

Table 3.9 Composition of solder

Draw a pie chart to show the composition of solder.
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Maths focus 3: Drawing line graphs

There are two types of line graph:
• a point-to-point line graph
• a best-fit line graph.
In a point-to-point line graph, the plotted points are all connected (point to point). In this
type of graph you assume that each plotted point shows the actual values of the data at
that moment. In chemistry, as for other graphs, the independent variable (generally time)
is plotted on the horizontal axis and the dependent variable is plotted on the vertical axis.
Readings are taken over a series of time intervals. There is often no linear relationship
between the independent and dependent variables. The points do not lie in a straight line,
they may even appear to go up and down. The lines between plotted points may not be used
to read off values between them.
For example, the point-to-point line graph in Figure 3.6 shows levels of NOx (nitrogen oxides)
in a city recorded at 2-hourly intervals.

Figure 3.6 A point-to-point line graph showing levels of NOv(nitrogen oxides) at different times in a city
In the second type of graph, the relationship between the dependent and independent
TIP variables is shown by a best-fit line.
A best-fit line may It is assumed that the actual values lie on this line (or curve) even if the actual measured
be a straight line or values do not, because of measurement errors.
a curved line.
In chemistry lines (or curves) of best fit are used to plot data relating to rates of reaction.
This is the type of line graph that you will usually need to draw. However, you may see a
point-to-point line graph used, for example, to show air pollution measurements at different
times in a city as above.
 Chapter 3: Drawing charts and graphs

This graph in Figure 3.7 shows how mass varies with volume for aluminium. The graph is
drawn as a best-fit line because the measured values do not lie exactly on the line, due to
uncertainties in the measurements. The best-fit line is closer to the true values.
12

10

or

0
0 1 2 3 4
Volume/cm3

Figure 3.7 The relationship between mass and volume of aluminium

The graph in Figure 3.8 shows the volume of hydrogen produced every minute during a
reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid. The points clearly form a curve but
do not lie exactly on the curve. A curved line of best fit gives a better indication of the
true values.

Always think about

the chemistry
behind the graph.
This graph must
have a curved
line of best fit
because there is a
maximum volume
of hydrogen that
can be produced.
A straight line of
best fit would be
incorrect.
Figure 3.8 The volume of hydrogen produced over time during a reaction between magnesium and
V ________J hydrochloric acid

0 LINK
What maths skills do you need to draw a line graph?

Lines of best fit are 1 Choosing which • Identify the independent and dependent variables
discussed further variable goes on
• Name the variable that goes on each axis
which axis
in Chapter 4, Maths
focus 2 ‘Reading 2 Drawing the axes • Select an appropriate range and scale for each axis
values from a line
• Draw the axes and mark the scales
graph’.
J • Label each axis with the correct variable and its units
 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

3 Plotting the data • Find the values of a pair of measurements on the axes
points • Find the intersection and mark with a dot
• Either draw a small circle around this dot or mark a small
cross with the centre exactly over the dot
4 Using a ruler to draw • Place a transparent ruler roughly in line with the points
a best-fit line • Adjust the ruler to ensure a best-fit line
• Draw the line carefully - use a sharp pencil
5 Drawing a best-fit • Picture the shape of the curve
curve freehand • Practise drawing the curve
• Draw the curve using a sharp pencil

TIP Maths skills practice

You can use How does drawing a line graph help to interpret experimental data?
coordinate
A line graph is a good way to examine the relationship between the independent and dependent
notation to
variables. For example, a straight line of best fit through the point where the axes cross
describe any point
and both values are zero shows that the dependent variable is directly proportional to the
in terms of the independent variable. A curved line of best fit might show when a reaction stops and no more
values on the axes. product is made. You can find out more about what the shape of a graph tells you in Chapter 4.
The origin, where
both values are
8
zero, is written Maths skill 1: Choosing which variable goes on which axis
as (0,0). The first
number in the WORKED EXAMPLE 5
brackets gives the
value along the A student measures the masses of different volumes of aluminium.
horizontal axis, the Which variable should be shown on which axis?
second number
gives the value up Step 1 Identify the independent and dependent variables.
the vertical axis. If KEY QUESTIONS TO ASK YOURSELF:
it helps, you can
remember this as • Which variable is changed each time?
‘along the corridor The volume is changed each time, so this is the independent variable.
and up the stairs’.
• Which variable is measured each time?
The mass is measured each time, so this is the dependent variable.

Step 2 Name the variable that goes on each axis.

The independent variable (volume) goes on the horizontal axis.
The dependent variable (mass) does on the vertical axis.
 Chapter 3: Drawing charts and graphs

\ Practice question 9
LINK
A student measures the volume of hydrogen produced every minute during a reaction.
A method for
choosing a scale Which variable should be shown on which axis?
was explained in should be on the horizontal axis,
Maths Focus 1
‘Drawing bar
should be on the vertical axis.
charts’, Maths
skill 1: ‘Choosing a Practice question 10
suitable scale for
A student reacts hydrochloric acid with sodium thiosulfate and times how long it takes
the vertical axis’.
for the resulting solution to turn cloudy. She then repeats the experiment with different
V J concentrations of hydrochloric acid.
Which variable should be shown on which axis?
should be on the horizontal axis,
The scale of an should be on the vertical axis.
axis tells you how
much each square
Maths skill 2: Drawing the axes
on the graph paper
represents. The
values are easier WORKED EXAMPLE 6
to read if each
large square has a A student measures the mass of different volumes of copper. This is her results table.
value of 1,2,5 or a
multiple often of Volume Mass
these (10,20,50 or cm3 g
0.1, 0.2,0.5). O O
v J
1 9

2 21
O -
TIP 3 30
Each axis should
take up over half the 4 35
size of the grid you Draw suitable axes for a line graph to show these data values.
have available.
V J Assume that the grid provided is 2 large squares wide and 4 large squares in height.
Step 1 Select an appropriate range and scale for each axis.
The horizontal axis needs to take a range from 0 to 4 cm3so a scale of
1 large square = 2 cm3would fit this range.
As the independent
A range of Og to 40 g would fit on the vertical axis where each large square
variable was represents 10 g.
measured every
lc m 3it is sensible
to mark every
medium square.
V J
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Scale: 1 large Largest value that Do data Does scale take up over
square = can be plotted* values fit? half of the grid?

5g 20 g No
10g 40 g Yes Yes

Step 2 Draw the axes and mark the scales.

TIP
Draw the axes at right angles to each other, crossing at the origin, and of the
Avoid scales that
right length to fit in the range of data.
make the values
hard to plot or read. Mark the scale with small, neat lines (called pecks or ticks) and number them.
Step 3 Label each axis with the correct variable and its units.
Write the labels in the form variable/units.
 Chapter 3: Drawing charts and graphs

Practice question 11
The masses of different volumes of caesium are shown in Table 3.10.
Volume Mass
cm3 g
0 0
1 1.9
2 3.8
3 5.7
4 7.6
Table 3.10 Masses of different volumes of caesium

Draw suitable axes for a line graph to show these data values.
Assume that the grid provided is 2 large squares wide and 8 large squares in height.
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Practice question 12
The masses of different volumes of lithium are shown in Table 3.11.
Volume Mass
cm3 g
0 0
1 0.6
2 1.0
3 1.6
4 2.2
5 3.0
Table 3.11 Masses of different volumes of lithium
Draw suitable axes for a line graph to show these data values.
 Chapter 3: Drawing charts and graphs

WORKED EXAMPLE 7

Maths skill 3: Plotting the data points

A student measures the masses of different volumes of copper. Her data are shown in
the table below.
Plot her data points on a grid with the axes drawn earlier in Worked Example 6,
TIP Maths skill 2.
To find the values
Volume Mass
you need to work
cm3 g
out the value of
0 0
a small square.
This is equal to the 1 9
value of a large 2 21
square divided by 3 30
10. In this example, 4 35
one tiny square
along the vertical Step 1 Find the values of a pair of measurements on the axes.
axis is equal
Find the value of each independent variable on the horizontal axis and the
toI0 = lg. corresponding value of the dependent variable on the vertical axis.
10
Step 2 Find the point where they coincide and mark with a dot.
To do this, track vertically upwards from the value on the horizontal axis and
horizontally across from the value on the vertical axis. Mark a small dot where
the tracks intersect.
Step 3 Either draw a small circle around this dot or mark a small cross with the centre
exactly over the dot.
Repeat for the remaining points.
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Practice question 13
The masses of different volumes of caesium are shown in Table 3.12.
Plot the data points on the axes that you drew in Maths skill 2, Practice question 11

Volume Mass
cm3 g
0 0
1 1.9
2 3.8
3 5.7
4 7.6
Table 3.12 Masses of different volumes of caesium

Practice question 14
The masses of different volumes of lithium are shown in Table 3.13.
Plot the data points on the axes that you drew in Maths skill 2, Practice question 12

Volume Mass
cm3 g
0 0
1 0.6
2 1.0
3 1.6
4 2.2
5 3.0
Table 3.13 Masses of different volumes of lithium
 Chapter 3: Drawing charts and graphs

Maths skill 4: Using a ruler to draw a best-fit line

WORKED EXAMPLE 8

The graph in Figure 3.9 shows the masses of different volumes of copper. Draw a line of
best fit.

Volume / cm3
Figure 3.9 Masses of different volumes of copper
Step 1 Place a transparent ruler roughly in line with the points.
Think about whether the line should pass through the origin (0, 0). Does it
make sense?
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Step 2 Adjust the ruler to ensure a best-fit line.

Adjust the position of the ruler until there are roughly the same number of
points, evenly spread, above and below the line. Sometimes a point does not fit
the pattern. It is an outlier. Outliers should be ignored when drawing a line of
best fit.

Volume/cnr'

Step 3 Draw the line carefully - use a sharp pencil.

Practice question 15
The graph below shows the masses of different volumes of lead. Draw a line of best fit.
60

50 -

40

I 30-

20

10

2 3 4
Volume/cm3
 Chapter 3: Drawing charts and graphs

Practice question 16
The graph below shows the masses of different volumes of iron. Draw a line of best fit.
40

30

to

0 1 2 3 4 5
Volume/cm3

Maths skill 5: Drawing a best-fit curve freehand

WORKED EXAMPLE 9

The graph below shows the volume of hydrogen produced each minute when
magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid. Draw a best-fit curve.

40
< X

30 1....

X
20

10 4-j—

0 1 2 3 4 5
Time/min
 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Step 1 Picture the shape of the curve.

Look at the graph and try to
picture the shape of the curve
formed by the points. Think about
whether the curve should pass
through the origin (0, 0).
Ignore any outliers.
Step 2 Practise drawing the curve.
Using a sweeping movement of the
hand (with the wrist or elbow as a
pivot), practise drawing a smooth
curve without marking the paper.
Make sure the points are
distributed roughly evenly on either
side of the curve, along its whole
length.
Step 3 When you are sure of where you
want the curve to go, move your
hand with the sweeping movement
that you practised and (using a
sharp pencil) draw the curve.

I.8
I

Practice question 17
Hydrogen peroxide (H20 2) gradually decomposes (slowly breaks down) into water and
oxygen. This can be speeded up by the addition of a catalyst.
The graph shows the volume of oxygen produced every 10 seconds when a catalyst is added to
hydrogen peroxide.
 Chapter 3: Drawing charts and graphs

Draw the best-fit curve.

Q--------- \
WATCH OUT Time/s
It is important to
choose the correct Practice question 18
range of the vertical A beaker containing hydrochloric acid is placed on a balance and some marble chips are
axis of the graph. added. The mass is recorded every minute and the data plotted on the graph below.
In this case the axis
Draw a curved line of best fit.
starts at 25.0g. If
the range is too
large the shape of
the curve may not
be clearly seen.
V J +

© -
TIP
The zig-zag on the
bottom of the vertical £
axis indicates that the
scale does not start
at zero. 1 2 3 4
V J Time/min
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Further questions
1 The elements in Group 6 of the Periodic Table can all form compounds with hydrogen.
a i Use the data below to draw a bar chart comparing the melting points of these
hydrogen compounds.

Compound Melting point

°C
h 2o 0
h 2s -85
H,Se -60
H2Te -49

ii Use the data below to draw a bar chart to compare the boiling points of the same
compounds.

Compound Boiling point

°C
H20 100
h 2s -61
H2Se -41
H2Te -2
 Chapter 3: Drawing charts and graphs

b i Which element does not fit the pattern of melting points and boiling points of
Group 6?

ii Explain why not fitting this pattern is critical for life on Earth.

2 The data below show the percentage of copper in three different types of copper mineral.
Each mineral is made of a different compound of copper and sulfur.
a Complete the table below to show the percentage of sulfur in each mineral.

Ore Percentage of copper Percentage of sulfur

(rounded to nearest whole number)
Covellite, CuS 67
Chalcocite, Cu2S 80
Digenite, Cu9S5 78

b Draw a pie chart to show the percentage composition of the ore with the greatest
percentage of copper.
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

c Explain which type of chart is best for comparing the percentage of copper in the ores.

3 The maximum mass of a salt that dissolves in 100 g of water is called its solubility.
Solubility changes with temperature. This can be seen clearly on a line graph,
a Draw axes and plot points to show the data below.

Temperature Solubility of copper sulfate

°C in lOOg water
g
0 14
10 17
20 21
30 30
40 29
50 32
60 42
70 47
80 56

b Draw a line or curve of best fit. (Circle any anomalous results.)

Interpreting data
Why do you need to interpret data in chemistry?
Collecting data during an experiment is meaningless unless you interpret it, to find out what it means.
It is much easier to identify patterns and relationships between variables if you plot the data as a chart or graph.

Types of graph used in chemistry

Bar charts help you to compare the values of the different categories of the data.

Figure 4.1 A bar chart

Pie charts give a visual comparison of the percentages of the different categories that make
up the whole. 6

Figure 4.2 A pie chart

A line graph can show you more about the relationship between variables (how the variables
are connected).
Some variables in chemistry may have a linear relationship. Points along a best-fit line are
closer to the true values than the points plotted from the measured values. Usually the line
LINK passes through the origin, where the axes cross and the value of both variables is zero, but it
See Chapter 3, does not have to.
Maths focus 3,
‘Drawing line
graphs’ for more on
best-fit lines and
curves.
V________________ ✓
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Not all variables have a linear relationship. Some may form a curved line when plotted on a
graph. A best-fit curve is drawn instead of a best-fit line.

Figure 4.4 A best-fit curve

Maths focus 1: Interpreting charts

Bar charts and pie charts show categories of data, but in different ways.
The heights of the bars on a bar chart represent the values of the categories of data.
The bar chart in Figure 4.5 compares the energy produced (per gram) when burning different
types of fuel.

Figure 4.5 Energy produced from different types of fuel

 Chapter 4: Interpreting data

The sectors on a pie chart allow you to compare the percentages of the whole represented by
each category of data.
The pie chart in Figure 4.6 shows the percentages of different types of gas in Earth’s atmosphere.

| nitrogen
] oxygen
| argon
^ carbon dioxide

Figure 4.6 Percentages of gases in the Earth’s atmosphere

What maths skills do you need to interpret charts?

1 Interpreting the heights of • Identify any patterns
bars on a bar chart
• Work out the scale on the vertical axis
• Compare the height of the bars numerically
2 Comparing sizes of sectors on • Estimate percentages shown for the larger sectors
a pie chart
• List the categories included in the smallest sector

Maths skills practice

How does interpreting charts help you to compare environmental data?
Charts can be used to display a wide range of data that can help you to make decisions about
how to reduce negative impacts on the environment.
A bar chart can be used to compare categories, such as the quantities of different types of
material that are recycled or the numbers of cars produced that use different fuels.
Bar graphs are also useful for showing trends over a number of years.
Pie charts can help you to compare percentages and answer questions such as:
‘Of all the waste that is recycled, what percentage is made of plastic? What percentage is card?’
or, ‘Of all the cars produced, what percentage are diesel? What percentage are petrol?
What percentage are electric?’

Maths skill 1: Interpreting the heights of bars on a bar chart

WORKED EXAMPLE 1

The bar chart in Figure 4.7 shows the percentage of each type of waste that is recycled,
a Describe any patterns shown in the bar chart,
b Find the highest and lowest percentage recycled.
 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

c Calculate the difference between the highest and lowest percentage recycled.
WATCH OUT
A bar chart to show the percentage of different types
In this example, of waste that are recycled
the percentages
cannot be shown
on a pie chart. They 90 -
do not add up to
100% because they 80
are percentages of
different categories
of waste materials.

steel cans aluminium glass bottles plastic

cans and jars bottles
Type of waste

Figure 4.7 Waste that can be recycled

Step 1 Identify any patterns.
TIP a In this bar chart, the two bars for steel cans and aluminium are roughly
Trends are more equal and show roughly twice the percentage of glass bottles and jars or
likely to appear in plastic bottles (which are about the same). The bar chart does not show a
barcharts where trend in terms of a steady increase or decrease, but this is to be expected
the categories with categorical data like this.
are based on Step 2 Work out the scale used on the vertical axis.
years, because
b The scale used is one large square for every 20%.
these barcharts
show changes Step 3 Compare the height of the bars numerically.
overtime. For The category of waste with the highest percentage recycled is shown by the
example, changes tallest bar (steel cans) and that with the lowest percentage by the shortest
in pollution levels bar (plastic bottles). Tracking across horizontally from the top of each bar
over a century. to read the value on the vertical axis (on the left) shows that the highest
percentage recycled is 70% (of steel cans). The lowest percentage is 32%
(plastic bottles).
c The difference between the highest and lowest percentages recycled is
70 - 32 = 38%. This shows that another 38% of plastic bottles need to be
recycled in order to match recycling levels of steel cans.
 Chapter 4: Interpreting data

Practice question 1
The bar chart in Figure 4.8 shows the total numbers of electric and hybrid cars produced
each year.
a Describe any patterns shown in the bar chart.

b Find the highest and lowest numbers of cars produced.

c Calculate by how much the number of cars produced increased from 2010 to 2014.

60000

50000
I

1
40000
6

30000

20000

0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Year
Figure 4.8 The total numbers of electric and hybrid cars produced each year

Maths skill 2: Comparing sizes of sectors on a pie chart

It helps if you can easily recognise key percentages as fractions of a whole circle, see
Table 4.1.

1 1 1 3 1 1
4 3 2 4 10 20

© 1 D0 © ©
25%
i

50% 75% 10% 5%

©
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

WORKED EXAMPLE 2

The pie chart in Figure 4.9 shows the percentages of water in different types of
water-based environment found on Earth.
a Identify the type of environment that holds the largest percentage of water,
b Estimate the percentage of water found as this type.

TIP c List the types of environment where the smallest percentages of water are found.
Categories
with very small I ice and snow

percentages are | lakes

often combined | soil moisture
into one sector
| swamps and marshes
because the
rivers, biological and
angles required atmospheric water
are too small to be
drawn clearly. The Figure 4.9 Percentages of water in different water-based environments
categories should
Step 1 Find the category represented by the largest sector.
be identified in the
key or labelled. a The largest sector is ‘ice and snow’.
Step 2 Estimate the percentage represented by the largest sector.
b The percentage of ‘ice and snow’ is just under 75%.
Step 3 Find the category represented by the smallest sector.
c The smallest sector includes rivers, biological water and atmospheric water.

Practice question 2
The pie chart in Figure 4.10 shows the percentages of water contained in different types of
freshwater environment.
a Identify the environment that holds the largest percentage of fresh water.

b Estimate the percentage of fresh water found in this environment type.

c Identify the type of environment where the smallest percentage of fresh water is found.

ice caps and glaciers

’| groundwater
surface water

Figure 4.10 Percentages of water in different freshwater environments

 Chapter 4: Interpreting data

Maths focus 2: Reading values from a line graph

When you draw a line graph you use a fixed set of data. Once you have drawn the best-fit line
or curve you can work out values between your data points. For example, if you measured
the mass of a substance with volume 1cm3, 2 cm3, 3 cm3and 4 cm3then you can use the graph
to find out the mass of the same substance with volume 1.5cm3. This is called interpolation.
Suppose you need to find out a value such as the mass for 6cm3, which lies outside the range
of those that have been measured, then you need to extend or extrapolate the graph. It is easy
to extend a best-fit line and then read off the values, as before. This is called extrapolation.

What maths skills do you need to read values from a line graph?
1 Interpolating line graphs • Start with the known independent value, read up to
the best-fit line, then across to the dependent axis
• Start with the known dependent value, read across to
the best-fit line, then down to the independent axis
2 Extrapolating line graphs • Place a ruler along the line and draw the extension
• Use the extended line to find values beyond those
actually measured

Maths skills practice

How does reading values from a graph help to interpret data about rates
6!
of reaction?
Data from an experiment investigating the rate of formation of a product (or loss of a reactant)
during a reaction often show a non-linear relationship. This makes it more difficult to
determine mathematically values that have not been directly measured. However, it is easy to
read values off the graph once a curve of best fit has been drawn.

Maths skill 1: Interpolating line graphs

WORKED EXAMPLE 3

The graph below shows the masses of different volumes of lead. Use the graph to find:
a the mass of 2 cm3of lead
b the volume of 50 g of lead.
 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

To find a missing
value for the
independent variable,
start with the known
dependent variable,
read across to the
best-fit line, then
down to the
independent axis
It is often more
accurate to read
a value from the
best-fit line than
from a data point
that lies above or
below the line, as
the best-fit line
‘smooths out’ To find a missing
value for the
inaccuracies in the dependent variable,
measurements. start with the known
V J independent value,
read up to the
best-fit line, then
across to the
dependent axis

3
o Volume /cm3

Reading from the graph:

a the mass of 2 cm3 of lead is 22 g
b the volume of 50 g of lead is 4.5 cm3

Practice question 3
The graph
below shows
You can read
the volume
values from a
of hydrogen
curved line in
produced
exactly the same during a
way as for a reaction
straight line. between
V J hydrochloric
acid and
magnesium.

Time/min
 Chapter 4: Interpreting data

Use the graph to find:

a the volume of hydrogen produced after 0.5 minutes
b the volume of hydrogen produced after 1.5 minutes
c the time taken to produce 30 cm3of hydrogen
d the time taken to produce 34 cm3 of hydrogen.

Maths skill 2: Extrapolating line graphs

WORKED EXAMPLE 4

The graph below shows the masses of different volumes of iron,

a What is the mass of 7 cm3of iron?
b What is the volume of 45 g of iron?
Step 1 Place a ruler along the line and draw the extension.
Step 2 Use the extended line to find values beyond those actually measured.
Reading from the extended graph:
TIP
a a volume of 7 cm3of iron has a mass of 53 g
Line graphs can also
be extrapolated to b a mass of 45 g of iron has a volume of 6 cm3
find smaller values.

Volume of iron/cm3
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Practice question 4
The graph shows the masses of different volumes of copper. Use it to find:
a the mass of 5 cm3of copper
b the mass of 6 cm3of copper
c the volume of 50 g of copper

Volume/cm3

Maths focus 3: Interpreting the shape of line graphs

A line graph can give you information without referring to the numbers on the axes.
The shape of a graph shows you the relationship between the variables on the horizontal axis
and the vertical axis.
The gradient (slope) of a line graph can have a scientific meaning, such as the rate of a reaction.
The gradient of a straight-line graph is constant. If you need a numerical value for the gradient
of a straight-line graph, you can use values from the graph to calculate it.

Figure 4.11 The gradient of a ramp

The slope of the straight ramp in Figure 4.11 remains the same.
 Chapter 4: Interpreting data

The gradient of a curved line graph changes.

Figure 4.12 The gradient of a hill

The slope of the hill in Figure 4.12 changes from A to C. The gradient at point A is greater
than the gradient at point B.
At the top of the hill (point C) the ground is flat, so the gradient is zero.
By looking at how the gradient changes at different places on a curved line graph, you can
find out and describe how this quantity changes at different points; for example, how a rate of
A rate of change is reaction changes with time.
a measure of how
quickly a variable What maths skills do you need to interpret the shape of line graphs?
changes. For
example, a rate of 1 Recognising the shape of • Categorise the relationship from the shape of the graph,
reaction could be the graph as directly proportional, inversely proportional or neither
determined by how state if the graph reaches a maximum or minimum.
much the volume 2 Interpreting the changing • Describe how the gradient (slope) changes at different
of a gaseous gradient of a curve points on a curved line graph
product increases
• Link the gradient to a meaning in chemistry
each minute.
V____________ J 3 Calculating the gradient of • Select two clear points along the line
a straight-line graph
• Draw a right-angled triangle in which the line
between these points forms the hypotenuse
• Use the triangle to calculate the gradient.
gradient - change in vertical value
change in horizontal value

Maths skills practice

How does recognising the shape of the graph give more information about
See Chapter 2, the relationship between experimental variables?
Maths focus 2,
Line graphs produced from experimental data show the independent variable on the
Maths skill 1,
horizontal axis and the dependent variable on the vertical axis.
‘Identifying the
independent If the line on the graph is sloping upwards (as in Figure 4.13) this tells you that as the value of
and dependent the variable on the horizontal axis increases, the value of the variable on the vertical axis also
variables’.
increases (a positive relationship).
V. J
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

If the line slopes d o w n w a rd s (as in Figure 4.14) then as the variable on the horizontal axis
increases, the variable on the vertical axis d ec re a ses (a negative relationship).

Figure 4.14 A negative relationship

If the relationship is linear it can be written in the form y = m x + c where y is the dependent
variable on the y-axis, x is the independent variable on the x-axis, m is the gradient (slope)
and c is the y-intercept (where the line crosses the y-axis).

Figure 4.15 The ^-intercept

This intercept is the value of the dependent variable when the value of the independent
variable is zero (see Figure 4.15). For example, it could be the temperature of the reactants at
the start of a reaction.
If the graph is a straight line passing through the origin (the intercept is 0) then the variables are
said to be d ire ctly p ro p o rtio n a l, as in Figure 4.16. This means if a value of the variable on one
axis is doubled then the value of the variable on the other is also doubled. In this case y = m x .

Figure 4.16 A directly proportional graph

If the graph is a curve, you can see that its gradient is
continually changing, so the relationship between the
variables is not linear.
If the variables are inversely p ro p o rtio n a l, as in Figure 4.17,
then if the variable on one axis doubles the variable on
the other axis halves. This is shown by a special type
of curved graph, which approaches the axes but n ever
re a ch e s either of them.

Figure 4.17 An inversely

proportional graph
 Chapter 4: Interpreting data

Some graphs show neither direct nor inverse proportionality, but they can still give you
information about the variables, such as whether the variable on one axis is increasing or
decreasing when the variable on the other axis increases.
If the steepness of a curved graph reduces so that the line becomes horizontal, this tells you
that a maximum (or minimum) value is reached (see Figure 4.18).

Figure 4.18 Graphs showing a) the maximum and b) the minimum values

Maths skill 1: Recognising the shape of the graph

WORKED EXAMPLE 5

The graph below shows how the volume of hydrogen produced in a reaction changes
over time.

75

Match the graph to the description of the relationship between variables that it shows.
Tick the correct one.
A The volume of hydrogen is directly proportional to time.
B Volume and time show a negative relationship.
C The volume of hydrogen reaches a maximum value. /
 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

KEY QUESTIONS TO ASK YOURSELF:

• Is the graph a straight line?

The graph is not a straight line, which shows that the relationship is not linear. This
means that the variables cannot be directly proportional.
• Does the graph show an increase in the dependent variable as the independent
variable increases?
The graph shows an increase over time so the variables do not show a negative
relationship.
• Does the graph become horizontal?
The line on the graph becomes horizontal so it shows that the volume of hydrogen
reaches a maximum.

Practice question 5
For each graph, choose two statements from the table below that correctly describe the graph.

I
'6

A As the variable on the horizontal axis B As the variable on the horizontal axis
increases, the variable on the vertical increases, the variable on the vertical
axis increases. axis decreases.
C The variables are directly proportional. D The variables are inversely proportional.

E The graph reaches a maximum value. F The graph approaches a minimum value.
 Chapter 4: Interpreting data

Maths skill 2: Interpreting the changing gradient of a curve

How does interpreting the gradient of a curved graph help to understand
rates of reaction?
Interpreting the gradient of a curved graph can help to tell the ‘story’ of a reaction in terms
of how the rate changes as the reaction progresses.
The rate of reaction at any time during the reaction is equal to the gradient of the graph at
that point.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6

The graph below shows the volume of hydrogen produced as the reaction progresses.
Describe how the graph shows how the rate of reaction changes during a reaction
between magnesium and hydrochloric acid.

TIP
Imagine the curve
represents a hill and
that you are walking
up the hill. Think
about where the
slope is steeper and
where it is less steep.
__________ J
Step 1 Describe how the gradient (slope) changes at different points on the graph.
The gradient of the graph is greatest at the start of the reaction. The gradient
gradually decreases until about 4 minutes. Then the graph becomes horizontal,
which means it has zero gradient.
Step 2 Link the gradient to a meaning in chemistry.
This means that the rate of reaction is fastest at the start and then gradually
decreases until by 4 minutes the reaction stops.
 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Practice question 6
The graph shows how the overall mass changes as a reaction between marble chips and
hydrochloric acid progresses. Describe how the graph shows the way the rate of reaction changes.
o -TIP "N

If you are asked

when a reaction
stops, find the point
on the graph where
the curve becomes
horizontal. This is
where the gradient,
and therefore the
rate of reaction, is
zero. Then read this
time from the scale.
v _________________ y

I
'8

Maths skill 3: Calculating the gradient of a straight-line graph

How does calculating the gradient of a straight-line graph help to
calculate a physical property?
The density of a substance is equal to the mass of a sample divided by its volume:
, . mass
density = —:-----
volume
The gradient of a graph is equal to the vertical change divided by the horizontal change.
This is the same as the change in vertical values divided by the change in horizontal values.
It is important to ,. ^ vertical change change in vertical values
gradient = -— :------ , --g—
learn what the horizontal change change in horizontal values
gradient of certain
The gradient of a graph of mass (vertical axis) against volume (horizontal axis) is equal to the
graphs drawn in
density.
chemistry actually
represents in real life. ,. , change in mass ,
gradient = ------- ------------- = density
V____________ J change in volume
 Chapter 4: Interpreting data

Plotting several experimental measures on a graph and drawing a best-fit line should mean
that your calculated density is closer to the true value than if you used an individual pair
of measurements.

WORKED EXAMPLE 7

This graph shows the mass of lead plotted against the volume of lead. Calculate the
gradient of the best-fit line on this graph, to find the density of lead.

V o lu m c / c n i'

Step 1 Select two clear points along the line.

Ensure that the distance between the points is at least half the length of the full
line.
The first point is at 1cm3and 11 g.
The second point is at 5 cm3and 56 g.
Step 2 Draw a right-angled triangle in which the line between these points forms the
hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle).
See graph.
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Step 3 Use the triangle to calculate the gradient:

vertical change change in mass

gradient =
horizontal change change in volume
The units for the _ 5 6 - 11 _ 45
gradient should be 5 -1 4
based on the units
for mass divided by = 11.3
the units for volume. Remember to add in the correct units.
11.3g/cm3
This is equal to the density of lead, which can be checked by referring to a data table.

Practice question 7
Calculate the gradient of the best-fit line on this graph, to find the density of copper.

Volume/cm3
 Chapter 4: Interpreting data

Practice question 8
Use this graph to calculate the density of iron.

Volume of iron/cm3

Further questions
1 The bar chart shows the melting points of the Group 1 elements.
200

Li Na K Rb
Group 1 element
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

a i From the graph find the melting point of lithium (Li) to the nearest 5 °C.

ii Calculate the difference in melting points between lithium and potassium (K).

b i Describe the pattern shown by the graph.

ii Use the pattern to estimate the melting point of rubidium (Rb).

c If cut, lithium and sodium do not stay shiny for long. This is because they react with
oxygen in the air to form lithium oxide and sodium oxide.
The pie charts below show the percentages (by mass) of lithium in lithium oxide and
sodium in sodium oxide.
i Use the pie chart below to estimate the percentage (by mass) of lithium in
lithium oxide.

] lithium
] oxygen

ii Use the pie chart below to estimate the percentage (by mass) of sodium in
sodium oxide.

[] sodium

□ oxygen
 Chapter 4: Interpreting data

2 The graph below shows the maximum mass of sodium nitrate that dissolves in 100 g of
water at different temperatures. This is called its solubility.
a i Interpolate the graph to find the solubility of sodium nitrate at a temperature of 15 °C.

ii Extrapolate the graph to find the solubility of sodium nitrate at 60 °C.

b 50 g of sodium nitrate is added to 100 g of water and the water is then gradually warmed.
Use the graph to find the temperature at which the sodium nitrate was fully dissolved.
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

3 Hydrogen peroxide decomposes (breaks down) to form water and oxygen. A catalyst
increases the rate of this reaction.

The graph shows the volume of oxygen produced at different times during a reaction,
a Describe the relationship between the volume of oxygen produced and time.

b The gradient of the graph shows the rate of reaction,

i Use this to work out the units of the rate of reaction.

ii Describe how the rate of reaction changes during the reaction.

c Use the graph to find:

i the volume of oxygen produced after 30 seconds
ii the final volume of oxygen produced.................
iii the time taken for the reaction to finish..............
Chapter 5:
Doing calculations
Why do you need to do calculations in chemistry?
You can find out lots of information about a chemical reaction by making observations. However, visual observations are
qualitative. This means that they do not give you any numerical information about a reaction.
Calculations are used in quantitative chemistry to work out numerical information about a reaction, for example, the mass of
a product that will be made or the mass of reactants needed to make a particular quantity of a product. Some calculations use
data from the Periodic Table.
Other calculations use mathematical formulae that link different variables used in chemistry.

Maths focus 1: Using basic maths operations

in calculations
Many calculations in chemistry can be carried out using the four basic maths operations:
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
The challenge when answering a chemistry question is:
• first to write the correct calculation to find the answer
• then to carry out the calculation in the correct order.
8
Often, you will need to look up the values that are needed for the calculation in the Periodic
Table. This means that you need to be able to combine your understanding of chemistry with
your mathematical skills.
For example, if you want to work out the number of neutrons in an atom of lithium
you first need to understand how to calculate the number of neutrons. This requires
understanding of chemistry.
number of neutrons = nucleon (mass number) - atomic number
Then you need to look up the values in the Periodic Table.
Nucleon (mass) number of lithium = 7
Atomic number of lithium = 3
Finally, you substitute these values into your calculation.
Number of neutrons = 7 - 3 = 4
This last stage requires maths skills. This calculation was very simple but many chemical
calculations use more than one maths operation, often involving brackets, so it is very important
to remember the correct order in which operations and brackets should be carried out.
 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

What maths skills do you need to calculate using basic

mathematical operations?
1 Working out the correct calculation • Write down the calculation in terms of the
TIP
elements, compounds, atoms or molecules
Use BIDMAS to involved
help remember
• Look up the values needed for the calculation
the correct order
of mathematical • Substitute the values into your planned
operations: calculation

Brackets, Indices • Remember to use brackets if necessary

(powers), Division, 2 Using the operations in the correct • Use BIDMAS to help remember the correct
Multiplication, order to calculate the answer order of mathematical operations:
Addition, - complete calculations in brackets
Subtraction
- carry out any multiplication or division
- complete any addition or subtraction

Maths skills practice

How does using basic mathematical operations in calculations help to find
the relative formula mass of a compound ?
The relative formula mass (Mr) of a compound is the sum of the relative atomic masses (Ar) of
the atoms shown in one formula unit of the compound.
6
To calculate relative formula mass it is important that you understand what the letters and
numbers mean in a chemical formula.
The letters show the element symbol for each type of atom that makes up the compound.
Each new symbol starts with a capital letter.
The small numbers (subscripts) tell you how many of that type of atom there are in each
formula unit of the compound (see Figure 5.1).
Element Element
symbol symbol
I------------- 1 I------------- 1

Ca Cl,
/
1 is never
\Subscript
written number

Figure 5.1 The use of subscripts in a chemical formula

Before you work on your maths skills, check that you understand chemical formulae
Remember that correctly. Cover up the right-hand column in Table 5.1 and test yourself.
where there are
Chemical formula Atoms (or ions)
brackets in a
chemical formula HC1 1 x H, 1 x Cl
the number of all CO, 1 x C, 2 x 0
atoms (ions) shown h 2so 4 2 x H, 1 x S,4 x O
inside the brackets Mg(OH)2 1 x Mg, 2 x O, 2 x H
are multiplied by
the small number Table 5.1 Some chemical formulae
outside the brackets.
v J
 Chapter 5: Doing calculations

Maths skill 1: Working out the correct calculation

G) \
WATCH OUT WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Relative atomic mass
and relative formula Write down the calculation required to find the relative formula mass (Mr) of
mass compare calcium hydroxide.
masses and have no
units. They give the
The chemical formula for calcium hydroxide is Ca(OH)2.
mass relative to a Step 1 Write down the calculation in terms of the elements, compound, atoms or
carbon-12 atom. ions involved.
v _____ s You need to understand the chemistry in order to write the calculation.
Mr is calculated from relative atomic masses (Ar).
You need to use the chemical formula of the compound to work it out.
Remember to use Mr of Ca(OH)2 = Ar of Ca + (Ar of O + Ar of H) x 2
brackets where where Ar is relative atomic mass.
necessary.
Step 2 Look up the values needed for the calculation.
v
These values may be provided in the questions or you may need to look them
up in the Periodic Table.
Ar of Ca = 40 ,4,. of O = 16 /lr o f H = l
Step 3 Substitute the values into your planned calculation.
Mxof Ca(OH)2 = 40 + (16 + 1) x 2
87
Practice question 1
For each compound, write down the correct calculation for the relative formula mass,
a Ca(OH)2

b CaC03

c HNO,

d MgS04

e KMn04

f Mg(N03)2

g (NH4)2S04
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Maths skill 2: Using the operations in the correct order to calculate

the answer

WORKED EXAMPLE 2

Calculate Mrof Ca(OH)2

Mrof Ca(OH)2= 40 + (16 + 1) x 2
Now follow the rules of BIDMAS.
Step 1 Complete any calculations in brackets.
Mrof Ca(OH)2 = 40 + (16 + 1) x 2
= 40 + 17 x 2
Step 2 Carry out any multiplication or division.
= 40 + 34
Step 3 Complete any addition or subtraction.
= 74

Practice question 2
For each compound, calculate the relative formula mass. Make sure that you carry out the
operations in the correct order. (You may use the calculations that you completed in Practice
question 1.)
a Ca(OH)2

b C aC 03

c HNO,

A MgS04
's
TIP
Inside brackets,
e K M n04
operations must
still be used in the
correct order so
f Mg(NOj)2
multiplication and
division must come
before addition and
subtraction. g (NH4)2S 04
 Chapter 5: Doing calculations

Maths focus 2: Calculating percentages

Percentages are commonly used in everyday life. If you take a test you may be given your
result as a percentage.
90 marks.
‘Per cent’ means ‘out of 100’, so a score of 90% means that you got----
100
You can still get a percentage score for a test even if the test does not contain exactly 100 marks.
For example, a class is set a chemistry test where the maximum mark is 25.
To find the percentage for each student the teacher must first divide their score by 25 to find
out what fraction of the available marks they earned.
Then, to find the percentage, she must multiply the fraction by 100.
Divide score by total score Multiply fraction by 100

Name Score Score/25 Percentage

24
Yeasmin 24 96%
25
23
Brandon 23 92%
25

What maths skills do you need to calculate percentages?

1 Using available values to • Write down the percentage calculation
calculate the percentage
• Look up the values needed for the calculation and
find the totals
• Calculate the percentage, using the operations in the
correct order.

Maths skills practice

How does calculating percentages help you to compare the proportion of
atoms of each element in a compound?
A chemical formula shows the relative number of atoms in one formula unit of the compound.
For example, in water (H20), for every 2 hydrogen atoms there is 1 oxygen atom. In terms of
the number of atoms, oxygen makes up a third of the compound.
However, the atoms have very different relative atomic masses. The relative atomic mass of
hydrogen is only 1. The relative atomic mass of oxygen is 16 times greater, so the percentage
by mass of oxygen in water is very different. It is 89% (to two significant figures).
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

WORKED EXAMPLE 3

Calculate the percentage by mass of oxygen in water.

Step 1 Write down the percentage calculation.
, „ . total mass of oxygen
percentage by mass of oxygen in water = -------------------------x 100
Mt water
Step 2 Look up the values needed for the calculation and find the totals.
To find the percentage mass you need to know the At of each element in the
compound.
Ar: H = 1.0 Ar: O = 16
LINK The chemical formula shows only one O atom, so the total mass of the element
See Maths focus 1, is the same as its relative atomic mass (16).
‘Using basic
The total mass of the compound equals the Mxof H20 which is: 2 x 1 + 16 = 18
maths operations
in calculations’ Step 3 Calculate the percentage, using the operations in the correct order.
V J
KEY QUESTIONS TO ASK YOURSELF:

• How can I write out the calculation to make it easier?

The way you write out the calculation can make it easier to calculate correctly.
If you write 16 +18 x lOOyou need to remember to use BIDMAS and work from left to
1
right, but writing the calculation in the form — x ioo makes the order of calculation
much clearer.
See Chapter 1, Maths
focus 3, Maths skill 2, — X ioo = 88.88
18
‘Writing numbers to
the required number • To how many significant figures should I record the answer?
of significant Relative atomic mass in your Periodic Table is given to two significant figures, so the
figures (sf)’ percentage by mass should not be written to more significant figures than this.
V J This is 89% to two significant figures.

9 —

To find the
Practice question 3
For each element, calculate the percentage by mass of calcium carbonate.
percentage by mass
of hydrogen in water,
The chemical formula of calcium carbonate is CaC03.
first find the mass of a Ca
hydrogen atoms (H)
in the compound
(1.0+ 1.0 = 2) then b C
divide by the relative
molecular mass (Mr)
of the compound. c O

— x 100 = 11%
18
to two significant
figures
J
 Chapter 5: Doing calculations

Practice question 4
Calculate the percentage by mass of:
a N in HN03

b Mg in MgS04

c Mg in Mg(N03)2

d N in (NH4)2S04

Maths focus 3: Using mathematical formulae

in calculations (Supplement)
2
A mathematical equation, such as y = —, shows the relationship between variables. It allows
you to use the values of two or more variables to calculate an unknown variable.
What happens if you know the variable on the left-hand side but you do not know one of the
variables on the right-hand side? You need to rearrange the equation so that the variable you
want to find is on the left-hand side. 9:
An equation remains true, provided that the same mathematical action is applied to both sides.

When you are manipulating or rearranging a mathematical equation, you can use the fact
that —= 1 to cancel some variables. Suppose that the unknown variable was z.
z
y X
xz
Multiplying both sides by x gives: xy = —
The xs on the right-hand side cancel, leaving xy = z
Then all you have to do is to swap sides to give z = xy.
A mathematical equation that shows the relationship between physical quantities is
called a formula.

This method or rearranging will work with a mathematical formula of the same form as the
2
mathematical equation y - —, for example:
mass
number of moles = ----;---------
molar mass
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

What maths skills do you need to use mathematical formulae

in calculations?
1 Substituting values into a • List the variables and select the correct mathematical
mathematical formula formula to calculate the unknown
• Write down the values of the known variables and
their units
• Substitute the values and units into the mathematical
formula and calculate the unknown.
2 Rearranging a • Write down the mathematical formula and decide if it
mathematical formula
is in the form z = xy or y - ^
• Identify which variable you are trying to find, and
rearrange the mathematical formula to put it on the
left-hand side

Q WATCH OUT
• Substitute the values and units and calculate
the unknown
3 Carrying out a multi-step • Select the correct mathematical formula to calculate
number of moles calculation using two the unknown, rearrange if necessary
mass
mathematical formulae
molar mass • Substitute values and identify any further unknowns.
Make sure the mass • Select a mathematical formula that could let you
is in grams (g) and calculate this unknown
the molar mass
• Substitute values into the second formula and calculate
is in grams per
mole (g/mol). • Put the calculated value back into the first formula

Q WATCH OUT
Maths skills practice
How does using a mathematical formula in calculations help you to find
number of moles
volume
out about the amount of a substance?
molar volume If you weigh out the relative atomic mass of an element, in grams, it will contain
Make sure the 6.02 x 1023 atoms.
volume is in cubic
This very large number is known as Avogadro’s constant and represents 1 mole of the element.
decimetres (dm3).
1dm3= 1000 cm3so to Similarly, the relative formula mass of a compound in grams contains 1 mole of formula
convert from cm3into
units (or molecules).
dm3divide by 1000. The mass of 1 mole is known as the molar mass and has units of grams per mole (g/mol).

a WATCH OUT
Mathematical formulae are very useful when calculating the amount of a substance. If you
already know the number of moles, you can rearrange the mathematical formulae to find
other quantities such as volume or mass.
mass allows you to calculate the number of moles in a
concentration The formula number of moles = --------------
number of moles molar mass
given mass of a compound.
volume
Make sure that volume
The formula number of moles = allows to you calculate the number of moles
the volume is in molar volume
cubic decimetres in a given volume of a gas.
(dm3) and the number of moles „ , ,
The formula concentration -------------------- allows you to calculate the concentration
concentration is in volume
moles/dm3.
of a solution.
 Chapter 5: Doing calculations

Maths skill 1: Substituting values into a mathematical formula

WORKED EXAMPLE 4

How many moles of calcium carbonate are there in 0.3 kg of calcium carbonate?
The molar mass of calcium carbonate is 100 g.
Step 1 List the variables and select the correct mathematical formula to calculate the
unknown.
Your list of variables should also include the unknown.
The variables in the question are mass in grams and molar mass in g/mol. The
unknown is the number of moles.
Select the correct mathematical formula to calculate the unknown.

number of moles = maSS

Mt
Step 2 Write down the values of the known variables and their units.
Remember to convert any inconsistent units.
Mass has been given as 0.3 kg.
Multiply by 1000 to convert kg to g (300 g).
Step 3 Substitute the values and units into the mathematical formula and calculate
the unknown.
9:
number of moles = ------------
100 g/mol
- 3 mol

Practice question 5
TIP How many moles of each compound are there in:
If you are not given a 10 g of magnesium oxide (MgO)
the Mr, remember
that you can
calculate it from the b 285 g of magnesium chloride (MgCl2)
chemical formula
and the relative
atomic masses c 10g of calcium carbonate (CaC03)
which you can find in
the Periodic Table.
d 34 g of ammonia (NH3)

e 1.8 kg of water (H20)?

Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Practice question 6
The molar volume of a gas is 24 dm3. How many moles are there in:
a 36 dm3 of oxygen

b 3 dm3 of carbon dioxide

c 12dm3of nitrogen

d 6000cm3of helium

e 300 cm3of oxygen?

Practice question 7
What is the concentration of:
a 0.5 moles of hydrogen chloride (HC1) in a final volume of 1dm3

b 0.5 moles of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in a final volume of 0.5 dm3

c 1 mole of hydrogen chloride (HC1) in a final volume of 2 dm3

d 0.5 moles of potassium hydroxide (KOH) in a final volume of 500 cm3

e 0.5 moles of sulfuric acid (H,S04) in a final volume of 250 cm3?

 Chapter 5: Doing calculations

Maths skill 2: Rearranging a mathematical formula

You can use the methods in Table 5.2 to rearrange mathematical formulae to find any one of
the three variables.
Mathematical formula What do you want to find? How to do it
(the unknown variable)
y —XZ y Multiply z by x
y = xz z (one of the two numbers Swap sides to get xz = y.
multiplied together)
Then divide both sides by x (as it is
y
the other part of xz) to get z = —.

z y Divide z by x.
y =-
X
z Z Multiply both sides by x to get
y =- xy = z.
X
Swap sides to get z = xy.
z X Multiply both sides by x to get
y =- xy = z.
X
Then divide both sides by y to get
z
X - —.
y
Table 5.2 Methods to rearrange mathematical formulae

WORKED EXAMPLE 5

What is the volume of 0.25 moles of carbon dioxide?

molar volume = 24dm3/mol

Step 1 Write down the mathematical formula and decide if it is in the form y - xz or
z
y =-

The formula is: number of moles = - volume

molar volume
This has the form y = —.
Step 2 Identify which variable you are trying to find and rearrange the mathematical
formula to put it on the left-hand side.
_ Cvolum g^ _CD
moles y =
molar volume
Multiply both sides by x to get xy = z
Swap sides: z = xy
volume - moles x molar volume
Step 3 Substitute the values and units and calculate the unknown,
volume = 0.25 moles x 24dm3/moles
= 6 dm3
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Practice question 8

Useful mathematical formulae

mass
number of moles = ■
molar mass Mr
volume (in dm3)
number of moles -
molar volume (24 dm3)
number of moles
concentration =
volume (in dm3)

Rearrange the appropriate mathematical formulae from the box above to calculate:
a the volume of 2 moles of carbon dioxide (molar volume is 24 dm3)

b the mass of 0.5 moles of calcium carbonate (CaC03)

c the number of moles of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in 0.25 dm3of a solution with
concentration 0.1 mol/dm3

d the volume of solution with concentration 0.5 mol/dm3that contains 0.04 moles of sodium
hydroxide (NaOH).

Practice question 9
a Given that 36 g of water (H20) contains 2 moles of water, show that the Mr of water is 18.

b Given that 2 moles of helium occupy 48 dm3, show that the molar gas volume is 24 dm3.

Maths skill 3: Carrying out a multi-step calculation using two

TIP mathematical formulae
Some chemistry
questions refer WORKED EXAMPLE 6
to more than one
substance, so it is Calculate the concentration of a solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) that contains 5 g
helpful to record of NaOH in a final volume of 250 cm3.
a variable as
Step 1 Select the correct mathematical formula to calculate the unknown
concentration of (rearrange if necessary).
NaOH or volume of
HCl in order to keep The variables (including any unknowns) in the question are
track of what the concentration of NaOH (unknown)
values mean.
mass of NaOH = 5g
volume of solution = 250 cm3or 0.25 dm3
 Chapter 5: Doing calculations

Therefore a suitable mathematical formulae to calculate the unknown is

,,, number of moles of NaOH
concentration of NaOH = ---------- ------- ;------ ---------
volume in dm3
Step 2 Substitute values and identify any further unknowns.
number of moles of NaOH
concentration of NaOH =
0.25
Number of moles of NaOH is still unknown.
Step 3 Select a mathematical formula that could let you calculate this unknown.
mass of NaOH
number of moles of NaOH = -
Mr of NaOH
Step 4 Substitute values into the second formula and calculate the additional
unknown.

number of moles of NaOH = = 0.125 moles

40
Step 5 Put the calculated value back into the first formula.
number of moles of NaOH 0.125
concentration of NaOH =
0.25 0.25
= 0.5mol/dm3

Practice question 10
Calculate the mass of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) needed to make a volume of 0.02 dm3of
solution with concentration 0.2mol/dm3. Mr of NaOH = 40 K
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Practice question 11
A reaction produces 0.6 g of carbon dioxide. Calculate the volume of gas produced.

* TIP
Remember that the
Mrof a compound can
be calculated from
its chemical formula
and data from the
Periodic Table.

Maths focus 4: Calculating using ratios

A ratio shows the size or quantity, a, of one thing compared to the size or quantity, b, of
another thing. It is written in the form a :b.
In Figure 5.2 the ratio of apples to bananas is 1:2. For every 1 apple there are 2 bananas.

Figure 5.2 A ratio of 1:2

Figure 5.3 shows more fruit. The ratio this time is 3:6. For every 3 apples there are 6 bananas.

OOÖ
Figure 5.3 A ratio of 3:6
Ratios are usually written in their simplest form. If the numbers on both sides of a ratio are
divided by the same number (a common factor) then the ratio is still true.
In this case, dividing both sides of the ratio 3:6 by 3 gives a ratio of 1:2. So the ratio in
Figure 5.3 is equivalent to the one in Figure 5.2. For every 1 apple there are still 2 bananas.
Suppose you were asked to work out how many bananas there would be if there were 7
apples. This would be tricky to work out from the second ratio 3:6. Simplifying the ratio to
1:2 makes the calculation easier.
If both sides of a ratio are multiplied by the same number then the ratio remains true.
 Chapter 5: Doing calculations

So to answer the problem, the ratio 1:2 needs to be multiplied on both sides by 7, giving 7:14.
The answer is that if there are 7 apples there will be 14 bananas.
Ratios are very important in chemistry, as they are the basis for both chemical formulae and
Remember that balanced chemical equations.
the number 1 is not
written in chemical In a chemical formula the small numbers (subscripts) show the number of atoms (or ions) of
formulae or
each element in the formula unit of a compound.
chemical equations. Magnesium oxide (MgO) has a ratio of Mg ions: O ions of 1:1.
V J Magnesium chloride (MgCl2) has a ratio of Mg ions: Cl ions of 1:2.
>v The large numbers in a chemical equation show the ratio of the substances reacting.
TIP
For example, the balanced chemical equation:
In a balanced
chemical equation 2Mg + O, 2MgO
the large numbers This shows that magnesium reacts with oxygen molecules in a ratio of 2:1.
show the ratio in
which substances What maths skills do you need to calculate using ratios?
react and are
formed. This is called 1 Using ratio to work out • Use the balanced chemical equation to write
the stoichiometry of reacting masse down the ratio of reactants to products
the equation. • Use the ratio and relative formula masses to
L J work out the reacting masses
• Calculate the reacting mass required or formed
by the given quantity of reactant or product
In chemical formulae 2 Using ratio and moles to work out • Use the balanced chemical equation to write
and balanced reacting masses (<Supplement) down the ratio of reactants to products
chemical equations • Calculate the number of moles of reactant (or
the number 1 is not product) in the question
shown.
• Use the ratio to work out the number of moles of
V_______________y
product formed (or reactant required)
• Convert the number of moles of product
(or reactant) into a mass

Maths skills practice

How does using a ratio in calculations help you to work out
chemical quantities?
In a balanced chemical equation the large numbers show the ratio in which elements and
compounds react and are produced.
Using relative atomic mass and relative formula mass, it is possible to work out the mass of
product produced by a given mass of reactant. You can also work out the reverse, the mass of
reactant required to make a particular mass of product.
You can also calculate reacting masses using the mathematical formula:
, _ , mass
\ number ol moles = --- :----------
molar mass
LINK
See Maths focus 2, In real life the actual amount of product (yield) may be lower than the calculated amount.
The calculated mass of product is referred to as the theoretical yield:
‘Using percentages
to calculate’. actual mass of product x„ jyy
tnn
VL- J percentage yield =
theoretical yield of product
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Maths skill 1: Using ratio to work out reacting masses

WORKED EXAMPLE 7

What mass of carbon dioxide is produced by 30 g of carbon?

C + 02^ co2
Step 1 Use the balanced chemical equation to write down the ratio of reactants
to products.

o-TIP
It may help to circle the reactant and product of interest in the question.
© + O,
The question does
not ask about 0 2, so The ratio C : C 02is 1:1.
this can be ignored. Step 2 Use the ratio and relative formula masses to work out the reacting masses.
J
Relative atomic mass of C is 12.
Relative formula mass of C 02is 44.
TIP This means that 12g of carbon reacts to produce 44 g of carbon dioxide.
To find the mass Step 3 Calculate the reacting mass required or formed by the given quantity of
of product formed reactant or product.
by a given mass of
Divide by the relative atomic (or relative formula) mass of the reactant to
reactant:
convert the ratio to the form 1: b.
- divide by the
mass of the — g of C produces — g of CO,
reactant to 12 12
convert the ratio Multiply both sides by the mass of reactant in the question.
to the form 1 :b
- j| x 30 g of C produces | | x 30 g of CO,.
- multiply both
sides by the mass So 30g of C produces 110g of C 02.
of reactant in the
question.

Practice question 12
When copper carbonate is heated it decomposes to form copper oxide and carbon dioxide.
CuC03-» CuO + CO,
a Calculate the relative formula masses of CuC03, CuO and C 02.

b Calculate the mass of copper oxide formed from 31 g of CuC03.

c Calculate the mass of C 02formed from 31 g of CuC03.

 Chapter 5: Doing calculations

Practice question 13
Magnesium reacts with oxygen to form magnesium oxide.
2Mg + 0 2-» 2MgO
a What mass of magnesium oxide is produced by 0.96 g of magnesium?

b What mass of magnesium is required to produce 0.2 g of magnesium oxide?

TIP
To find the mass of
reactant required
to make a given
quantity of product:
- divide by the
mass of the
Practice question 14
product to Nitrogen reacts with hydrogen to produce ammonia.
convert the ratio
N2 + 3H2-» 2NH3
to the form a : 1
a What mass of ammonia is produced by 0.7 g of nitrogen?
- multiply both
sides by the mass
of product in the
question.
V ______ )
b What mass of hydrogen is required to produce 0.17 g of ammonia?

Maths skill 2: Using ratio and moles to work out reacting masses
(Supplement)

WORKED EXAMPLE 8

What mass of carbon dioxide is produced by 30 g of carbon?

c + o2-» co2
Step 1 Use the balanced chemical equation to find the ratio of reactants to products.
(c> o 2 -<ca)
The ratio C :C 02is 1:1.
This ratio tells you that 1 mole of carbon produces 1 mole of carbon dioxide.
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Step 2 Calculate the number of moles of reactant (or product) in the question.

Use the formula number of moles = ----,maSS---- to work out the number of
molar mass
moles of reactant in the question.
number of moles of carbon = ----m- - s---- = ^
molar mass 12
Step 3 Use the ratio to work out the number of moles of product formed
(or reactant required).
30 moles of carbon dioxide are produced.
The ratio is 1:1 so —

Step 4 Convert the number of moles of product (or reactant) into a mass,
mass of C 02= number of moles C 02 x molar mass of C 02

= nog

Practice question 15
When copper carbonate is heated it decomposes to form copper oxide and carbon dioxide.
CuC03- » CuO + CO,
a Calculate the relative formula masses of CuC03, CuO and C 02.

b Calculate the mass of copper oxide formed from 372 g of CuC03.

c Calculate the mass of C 02formed from 372 g of CuC03.

 Chapter 5: Doing calculations

Practice question 16
Sulfur reacts with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide.
S + 0 2—> SO:
a What mass of sulfur dioxide is produced by 3.2 g of sulfur?

b What mass of sulfur is required to produce 3.2 g of sulfur dioxide?

Practice question 17
Nitrogen reacts with hydrogen to produce ammonia.
N2+ 3H2-> 2NH,
a What mass of ammonia is produced by 21 g of nitrogen?

103

b What mass of hydrogen is required to produce 0.34 g of ammonia?

 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Further questions
1 Blue copper sulfate crystals are a hydrated form of copper sulfate. They contain water
molecules. White anhydrous copper sulfate contains no water.
a i Calculate the relative formula mass of anhydrous copper sulfate with chemical
formula CuS04

ii Calculate the relative formula mass of hydrated copper sulfate with chemical
formula CuS04-5H20.

b Calculate the percentage by mass of water in hydrated copper sulfate.

2 Nitrogen fertilisers are made up of compounds containing nitrogen. Nitrogen is

important for plant growth.
a Calculate the percentage by mass of nitrogen in each of these fertilisers,
i ammonium nitrate, NH4N 0 3

ii ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2S04

104

iii urea, CO(NH2)2

b Ammonium nitrate is produced by the reaction between ammonia and nitric acid.
NH3(g) + H N03(aq) -> NH4N 03(aq)
Calculate the mass of ammonia required to produce 50 kg of ammonium nitrate.
 Chapter 5: Doing calculations

3 A blast furnace is used to extract iron from iron oxide. (Supplement)

Fe20 3(s) + 3CO(g) -> 2Fe(s) +3C02(g)
a Calculate the number of moles of iron oxide in 16 kg.

b i Use the chemical equation to work out how many moles of iron are produced by
16kg of iron oxide.

ii Calculate the mass of iron produced.

c During the process carbon dioxide is produced as a waste product.

i Calculate the number of moles of carbon dioxide produced by 16 kg of iron oxide.

ii Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide produced (molar volume = 24 dm3).

105
4 A student pipettes 25 cm3 of 0.1 M of sodium hydroxide into a flask and adds indicator.
(Supplement)
She adds hydrochloric acid from a burette until the indicator changes colour. She repeats
this process three times.
The mean volume of hydrochloric acid that she adds is 15.6 cm3.
The chemical equation for the reaction is:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) -> NaCl(aq) + H20(1)
a Calculate the number of moles of sodium hydroxide in the flask.

b Use the chemical equation to work out how many moles of hydrochloric acid the
sodium hydroxide reacts with.

c Calculate the unknown concentration of hydrochloric acid in the burette.

Chapter 6:
Working with shape
Why do you need to work with shape in chemistry?
In chemistry you need to be able to understand and compare surface areas, or surface area to volume ratios of solid samples of
a material. Usually this material will be an irregular shape, but learning about regular 3D shapes is a good way to improve your
understanding of these ideas.

Maths focus 1: Comparing surface area and volume

The surface area of a solid is the total area of its surfaces. You can calculate the surface area
of a geometrically regular shape by adding the areas of all its faces.
The surface area of a solid increases if the solid is broken up, as more surface is exposed.
The surface area:volume ratio is a useful way to compare the amount of exposed surface
for each unit of volume. It is important that the surface area and volume are given in the
same basic unit. Unlike ratios in maths, the surface area: volume ratio does have a unit. For
example the ratio of cm2: cm3has units of /cm (per centimetre).

What maths skills do you need to be able to compare surface

area and volume?
l Calculating surface area • For an individual regular 3D shape:
- count the faces of each shape
- calculate the area of each face
- calculate the total area of all faces
• If a shape is cut into smaller shapes, find the total surface
area of all the shapes
2 Comparing the surface • Calculate the total surface area
area to volume ratio
• Calculate the total volume
• Write the full surface area:volume ratio
• Write the surface area:volume ratio as a single number

Maths skills practice

How does comparing surface area and volume help to explain
differences in rates of reaction?
Many chemical reactions involve a solid reactant. Only the particles on the outside of the
solid come into contact with the other reactant(s), therefore the greater the surface area, the
faster the rate of reaction.
For example, when reacting marble chips and then the same mass of powdered marble
with hydrochloric acid, the same mass (and therefore the same volume) of marble has very
different surface areas.
You can say that the powdered marble has a higher surface area: volume ratio because the
exposed surface area is greater for the powdered marble than for the marble chips, for each
unit of volume.
 Chapter 6: Working with shape

Figure 6.1 The rate of reaction of 1g of marble powder (in the left-hand beaker) with hydrochloric
acid is much faster than with 1g of marble chips (in the right-hand beaker)

Maths skill 1: Calculating surface area

WORKED EXAMPLE 1

Calculate the surface area of a cubic sodium chloride crystal with sides of length 2 mm
(see Figure 6.2).
Remember that
units of area are
a
squared units. Figure 6.2 A sodium chloride crystal
V_______________ ) Step 1 Count the faces.
Since the crystal is a cube it has 6 square faces.
Step 2 Calculate the area of each face.
LINK
See Chapter 1, Each face is a square of side 2 mm. The area of each square face is 2 x 2 = 4 mm2
Maths focus 1, Step 3 Calculate the total area of all faces.
Maths skills 2
Total area = 6 x area of square face
‘Writing the unit = 6x4

I symbol’.
J = 24 mm2
 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Practice question 1
Calculate the surface area of a cubic crystal of iron sulfide with sides of length 3mm.

Practice question 2
Calculate the surface area of an octahedral diamond crystal.
Each face has an area of 4 mm2.

.08

Figure 6.3 An octahedral diamond

Practice question 3
o-TIP Calculate the surface area of a cylinder of chalk with diameter 0.5 cm and length 10cm.
To calculate the
area of the circular
face use nr2(where
ris the radius).
The value of n (pi)
may be found by
using then key on a
calculator.
J
 Chapter 6: Working with shape

The circumference is the length of the perimeter of the circle and is equal to nd or 2nr.

TIP
To calculate the
area of the curved
face, imagine
unwrapping it to
make a rectangle so
the area is equal to

length of the
cylinder x Practice question 4
circumference of
A cube-shaped block of aluminium measures 1cm x 1cm x 1cm.
the circular face
V__________ J a Calculate the surface area of the block.

b The block is then cut into 8 equally sized cubes each measuring 0.5cm x 0.5cm x 0.5 cm.

Calculate the new surface area.

Maths skill 2: Comparing the surface area to volume ratio

WORKED EXAMPLE 2

Compare the surface area: volume ratio of a 2 cm x 2 cm x 2 cm cube with the surface
area: volume ratio when it is broken up into eight 1cm x 1cm x 1cm cubes.
TIP /
The volume of a / /
cube is equal to its
length cubed.
1cm j

2 cm

Consider the 2 cm x 2cm x 2cm cube.

The 2 cm x 2 cm x 2 cm cube:
Step 1 Calculate the total surface area.
Surface area = 6 x 2 x 2
= 24 cm12
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

o- TIP
Step 2 Calculate the total volume.
Volume = 23= 8 cm3
Remember that Step 3 Write the full surface area:volume ratio.
units of volume are
24:8
cubed units.
V____________ ) Step 4 Write the surface area: volume ratio as a single number with a unit.
24 cm2
= 3/cm
'N 5cm
LINK
The eight 1 cm x 1 cm x 1cm cubes:
See Chapter 1, Maths
focus 1, Maths skills 2 Step 1 Calculate the total surface area.
‘Writingthe unit Total surface area = 8 x 6 x 1
symbol’.
V____________ J
= 48 cm2
Step 2 Calculate the total volume.

Q ------------------------- v
WATCH OUT
Total volume = 8 x l3
= 8 cm3
The base unit for the Step 3 Write the full surface area: volume ratio.
volume should be
48:8
the same as for the
surface area to make Step 4 Write the surface area: volume ratio as a single number.
the ratio valid. For 48 cm2
example, if surface = 6/cm
8 cm3
area is in m2then the
volume should be Breaking the cube apart has increased the surface area: volume ratio from 3/cm to 6/cm.
in m3.
V__________ J
Practice question 5
Compare the surface area: volume ratio of a 3 cm x 3 cm x 3 cm cube with the surface
area: volume ratio when it is broken into separate 1cm x 1cm x 1cm cubes.
 Chapter 6: Working with shape

Practice question 6
a Work out the surface area:volume ratio of:
i one 4cm x 4cm x 4cm cube

ii eight 2cm x 2cm x 2cm cubes

iii sixty-four 1cm x 1cm x 1cm cubes

b Explain the difference in surface area:volume ratio of the answers to part a.

11

Further questions
1 A student places a stick of chalk into a beaker then carefully pours in dilute hydrochloric
acid until the chalk is completely covered. She then carefully breaks a second stick of
chalk into four equal-sized pieces, places them in a new beaker and adds the same volume
of acid.
Each stick of chalk was 8 cm long with a diameter of 0.5 cm.
Experiment 1 Experiment 2
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

Show mathematically why the reaction in the second experiment happened slightly more
quickly than in the first.

2 Catalysts are used to increase the rate of reaction. In order to work, the catalyst must
come into contact with the reactant. Some catalysts are layered onto another surface.
The greater the surface area available, the more reactant can come into contact with the
catalyst and the faster the reaction.
Some catalyst supports have a 3D honeycomb structure. If the block contained no
honeycomb structure the catalyst would need to coat the inside faces of one large rectangular
block. Instead the catalyst coats the inside of each hexagonal tube in the structure. Gases
pass though these hexagonal tubes allowing the catalyst to catalyse any reactions.

Figure 6.4 This honeycomb structure is coated with a catalyst, which can interact with gases as
they pass though
Each hexagonal tube has sides of length 0.5 cm and the length of the tube is 25 cm.
0.5 cm

Figure 6.5 One hexagonal tube of the honeycomb structure

 Chapter 6: Working with shape

a Calculate the surface area inside one hexagonal tube.

b The block contains 100 hexagonal tubes. Calculate the total surface area inside
the block.

c The top of the block is a 10cm x 10cm square. Calculate the volume of the block.
10cm

Figure 6.6 The dimensions of the block

d Calculate the surface area:volume ratio of the block.

e Compare the surface area: volume ratio of the block containing a honeycomb
structure to that of a hollow block, 10cm x 10cm x 25 cm.
 Additional questions involving
several maths skills
All exam-style questions and sample answers in this title were written by the authors.
In examinations, the way marks are awarded may be different.
1 Marble is made of the compound calcium carbonate. It reacts with hydrochloric acid
producing carbon dioxide gas.
calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid —>calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide
CaCOj(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> CaCl2(aq) + H,0(1) + C 0 2(g)
a Use the relative atomic masses listed below to calculate the relative formula mass of
i calcium carbonate

ii carbon dioxide

Relative atomic mass

Ca 40
C 12
O 16

14 b Work out how many grams of carbon dioxide will be produced with these starting
quantities of calcium carbonate.
i lOOg

ii lOg

iii 5g

c A student measures the total mass of some marble chips (calcium carbonate) and a
flask containing hydrochloric acid.
She then adds the marble chips to the flask and measures the total mass every minute.
The mass gradually decreases as carbon dioxide gas is released.
Calculate the loss of mass after each minute of the reaction. Record your answers in
the table below.
Loss of mass at a given time = mass at the start - mass at that time

Time Total mass Loss of mass

g g
0 (Start) 79.4
1 78.9
2 78.3
3 78.2
4 77.7
5 77.5
A 7 7
 Additional questions involving several maths skills

d Use the axes below to plot a graph to show the loss of mass over time.
2.0 ■

1.5

l.o

0.5

0.0 -----1-----
2 3 4
Time/min

e Look at the shape of the graph.

i Name the feature of the graph that shows the rate of reaction.

ii Describe how the rate of reaction changes.

iii Use the graph to work out approximately when the reaction stopped.

2 Vinegar is a solution of ethanoic acid in water. A student carried out an experiment to

find the concentration of ethanoic acid in a sample from a bottle of vinegar.
First the student added 25.0 cm3of vinegar to a conical flask and added a few drops of
indicator.
Next, she gradually added sodium hydroxide from a burette to the flask until the vinegar
was exactly neutralised. She then carried out the experiment two more times.
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

a Use the burette diagrams to record the volumes of sodium hydroxide added from the
burette.
Experiment Burette diagram Volume of sodium hydroxide added /cm3
1

— 23

2 — 22

— 23

3 — 22

— 23

b Calculate the mean volume of sodium hydroxide added.

c The concentration of the sodium hydroxide was known to be 1mol/dm3.

i Rearrange the formula below so that moles is on the left-hand side.
moles
concentration = -------------------
volume (in dm3)

moles =

ii Use the rearranged formula to calculate the number of moles of sodium hydroxide
that were added from the burette. The concentration of sodium hydroxide was
1mol/dm3.
Number of moles of sodium hydroxide = .................................................................
 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills

resolution The smallest change in a value that can be

percentage A fraction expressed out of 100, e.g. — =
observed on a measuring instrument
rounding Expressing a number as an approximation, with
perpendicular At 90° to, or at right angles to
fewer significant figures, for example, 7.436 rounded to
pie chart A circular chart that is divided into sectors which two significant figure is 7.4, or rounded to three significant
represent the relative values of components: the angle of figures it is 7.44
the sector is proportional to the value of the component scalar A variable that has size (magnitude) only
positive relationship When one variable increases as the
scale A set of marks with equal intervals, for example on a
other increases graph axis or a measuring cylinder;
power A number raised to the power 2 is squared (e.g. x 2);
or, on a scale diagram, the ratio of a length in the diagram
a number raised to the power 3 is cubed (e.g. x 3); and so on to the actual size
power of ten A number such as 103or 1(H
scale diagram A diagram in which all lengths are in the
precise Close agreement between several measured values same ratio to the corresponding lengths in the actual
obtained by repeated measurements. The precision of a object (to the same scale)
single value can be indicated by the number of significant scientific notation Another term for standard form
figures given in the number; for example 4.027 has greater
precision (is more precise) than 4.0 significant figures The number of digits in a number, not
including any zeros at the beginning; for example the
processed data Data produced by calculation using raw
number of significant figures in 0.0682 is three
experimental data
sine Mathematical function of an angle, abbreviated to sin
product The result of multiplying two or more values
standard form Notation in which a number is written as
qualitative data Data that are descriptive and not numerical
a number between 1 and 10 multiplied by a power of 10;
quantitative data Data that are numerical for example 4.78 x 109; also called scientific notation or
o standard index form
radius The distance from the centre of a circle (or sphere)
to the circle (or sphere surface) standard index form Another term for standard form
random error Measurement error that varies in an surface area The total area of surface of a three-
unpredictable way from one measurement to the next dimensional object
range The interval between a lowest value and a highest systematic error Measurement error that results when
value, for example of a measured variable or on the scale measured values differ from the true value by the same
of a measuring instrument amount each time a measurement is made; this may occur,
for example, when a balance reads 0.02 g with no mass on it
rate A measure of how much one variable changes relative
to another variable; usually how quickly a variable trend A pattern shown by data; on a graph this may be
changes as time progresses shown by points following a ‘trend line’, the best estimate
of this being the best-fit line
ratio A comparison of two numbers or of two
measurements with the same unit; the ratio of A to B can uncertainty Range of variation in experimental results
because of sources of error; the true value is expected to
be written A :B or expressed as a fraction — be within this range
B
raw data Data collected by measurement or observation unit A standard used in measuring a variable, for example
the metre or the volt
rearrange To manipulate an equation mathematically so
that the unknown value can be calculated; also termed unit prefix A prefix (term added to the front of a word)
‘change the subject' added to a unit name to indicate a power of 10 of that unit,
e.g. 1 millimetre = 10~3metre
reciprocal 1 divided by a value; for example the reciprocal
vector A variable that has a magnitude (size) and a direction
of A is —
A volume A measure of three-dimensional space (measured
in cubic units e.g. cm3or m3)
Glossary

accuracy How close a value is to the true value formula An equation that shows the relationship
between variables
angle A measure of the amount of turn between two
adjoining or intersecting lines; this may be determined, in gradient The slope (steepness) of a line on a graph; it
degrees, using a protractor is calculated by dividing the vertical change by the
horizontal change
anomalous result One of a series of repeated experimental
results that is much larger or smaller than the others independent variable Variable in an investigation that is
changed by the experimenter
area A measure of the size of a surface (measured in
square units, for example cm2or m2) index A small raised number that indicates the power; for
example, the index 4 here shows that the 2 is raised to the
axis A reference line on a graph or chart, along which a
power 4, which means four 2s multiplied together:
distance scale represents values of a variable
24 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2
bar chart A chart with separated rectangular bars of equal
width; the height (or length) of a bar represents the value intercept The point at which a line on a graph crosses one
of the variable of the axes; usually refers to the intercept with the vertical
axis
best-fit line A straight line or a smooth curve drawn on a
graph that passes through or close to as many as possible interpolate On a graph, to estimate the value of a variable
of the data points; it represents the best estimate of the from the value of the other variable, using a best-fit line;
relationship between the variables. on a scale, to estimate a measurement that falls between
two scale marks
BIDMAS ‘Brackets, Indices, Division/Multiplication,
Addition/Subtraction)’, which is the order in which intersect Where two lines on a graph meet or cross one
mathematical operations are done in a multi-step calculation another
categorical data Data that can be grouped into categories inverse sine The sin*1function: the angle whose sine has a
(types) but not ordered
given value; for example if sin 0 = y , then 0 = sin*1y = 30°
circumference The distance around a circle
continuous data Data that can take any numerical value inversely proportional The relationship between two
within a range variables such that when one doubles, the other halves
control variable Variable that is kept constant in an line graph A graph of one variable against another where
investigation the data points fall on or close to a single line, which may
be straight, curved, or straight-line segments between
coordinates Values that determine the position of a data points, depending on the relationship between the variables
point on a graph, relative to the axes
linear relationship A relationship between two variables
decimal place The place-value position of a number after a that can be represented on a graph by a straight line
decimal point; the number 6.357 has three decimal places
magnitude The size of something
dependent variable The variable that is measured or
observed in an investigation, when the independent mean An average value: the sum of a set of values divided
variable is changed by the number of values in the set
diameter A straight line connecting two points on a circle meniscus The curved surface of a liquid in a tube or cylinder
(or sphere) that passes through the centre negative relationship When one variable decreases as the
directly proportional The relationship between two variables other increases
such that when one doubles, the other doubles; the graph of order of magnitude Approximate size of a number,
the two variables is a straight line through the origin often given as a power of 10; for example, the order of
discrete data Data that can take only certain values magnitude of 2700 is 103
equation A mathematical statement, using an equals sign, origin The point on a graph at which the value of both
showing that two expressions are equal variables is zero and where the axes cross
estimate (Find) an approximate value outlier A value in a data set, or point on a graph, that is
considered unusual compared with the trend of other values
extrapolate Extending the line of best fit on a graph
beyond the range of the data, in order to estimate values parallelogram A four-sided figure with two pairs of equal
~ ~ ^ + ^ vırVti/-»!-» q re * r y c ır a llf » !
 Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Maths Skills
n>
~a
n>
o
Q.
Croup
1 II Ill n*
IV V VI V II V III /0
1 2
0)
H He
H y d ro g e n H e liu m
1 4 fD
3 4 a
a =atomic lum ber 5 6 7 8 9 10

Li Be Key X X =atomic sym bol B c N 0 F Ne

L it h iu m B e r y lliu m B o ro n C arb o n N itr o g e n O xygen
b =relative atom ic mass
F lu o r in e Neon
7 9 b 11 12 14 16 19 20
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Na Mg A/ Si P s Cl Ar
S o d iu m M a g n e s iu m A lu m in iu m S ilic o n Ph o sp h o ru s S u lf u r C h lo r in e A rg o n
23 24 27 28 31 32 3 5 .5 40
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
P o t a s s iu m C a lc iu m S c a n d iu m T it a n iu m V a n a d iu m C h r o m iu m M an gan ese Iro n C o b a lt N ic k e l Copper Z in c G a lliu m G e r m a n iu m A r s e n ic S e le n iu m B r o m in e K ry p to n
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 64 65 70 73 75 79 80 84
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

Rb Sr Y It Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
R u b id iu m S t r o n t iu m Y t t r iu m Z ir c o n iu m N io b iu m M o ly b d e n u m T e c h n e tiu m R u t h e n iu m R h o d iu m P a lla d iu m S ilv e r C a d m iu m In d iu m T in A n t im o n y T e llu r iu m Io d in e Xenon
85 88 89 91 93 96 - 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
55 56 57 * 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86

Cs Ba La Hf Ta w Re Os ir pt Au Hg 17 Pb Bi Po At Rn
C a e s iu m B a r iu m L a n th a n u m H a f n iu m T a n ta lu m T u n g ste n R h e n iu m O s m iu m In d iu m P la tin u m G o ld M e rc u ry T h a lliu m Lead B is m u t h P o lo n iu m A s ta tin e Radon
133 137 139 179 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209 209 210 222
87 88 89 t 104 105 1 06 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118

Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds «g Cn Uut n Uup Lv Uus Uuo

F r a n c iu m R a d iu m A c t in iu m R u t h e r fo r d iu m D u b n iu m S e a b o r g iu m B o h r iu m H a s s iu m M e it n e riu m D a r m s t a d t iu m R o e n t g e n iu m C o p e r n ic iu m U n u n t r iu m F le r o v iu m U n u n p e n t iu m L iv e r m o r iu m U n u n s e p t iu m U n u n o c t iu m
223 226 227 261 262 263 264 265 268 281 273 - - - - - - -

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71

*58-71 Lanthanoid series Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

C e r iu m Prase o d ym iu m N e o d y m iu m P r o m e t h iu m S a m a r iu m E u r o p iu m G a d o lin iu m T e rb iu m D y s p r o s iu m H o lm iu m E r b iu m T h u liu m Y tte r b iu m L u t e t iu m
1 40 141 144 145 150 152 1 57 159 163 165 167 169 173 175
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 1 00 101 102 103

t90-103 Actinoid series Th Pa u Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

T h o r iu m P r o t a c t in iu m U r a n iu m N e p t u n iu m P lu t o n iu m A m e r ic iu m C u r iu m B e r k e liu m C a lif o r n iu m E in s t e in iu m F e r m iu m M e n d e le viu m N o b e liu m L a w r e n c iu m
232 231 238 237 244 243 247 247 251 252 257 258 259 262
 Additional questions involving several maths skills

d The chemical equation for the reaction between ethanoic acid and sodium hydroxide is
shown below:
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) -> CH3COONa(aq) + H:0(1)
i Use the chemical equation for the reaction to work out how many moles of
ethanoic acid react with 1 mole of sodium hydroxide.

ii Write down the number of moles of ethanoic acid that reacted with the sodium
hydroxide.

e Calculate the concentration of ethanoic acid in the sample.

E
Acknowledgements

The authors and publishers acknowledge the following sources of copyright material and are
gratefulfor the permissions granted.
Thanks to the following for permission to reproduce images:
Cover David Taylor/Science Photo Library; Inside Martyn F. Chillmaid/Science Photo
Library; Sputnik/Science Photo Library.
*