TOPIC 3A

GAS VOLUMES AND MATERIAL BALANCE

CALCULATIONS
(Ikoku 1984, Natural Gas Reservoir Engineering)

CONTENT
i. Non associated-wet and dry gas reservoirs
ii. Gas condensate reservoirs

OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, the student should be able to

i. Determine gas initially in place for wet and dry gas

reservoirs using volumetric analysis and material balance
methods.
ii. Estimate recoverable reserves for wet and dry gas
reservoirs using volumetric and material balance analysis.
iii. Calculate initial in place gas and condensate for gas
condensate reservoirs.
iv. Estimate recoverable reserves for gas condensate
reservoirs using laboratory simulation data and empirical
correlations.
v. Outline the effects of water drive on production
Text

performance.
vi. Discuss the factors that should be considered before
embarking on a gas cycling project.

1
3.1 Wet & Dry Gas Reservoirs

3.1.1. Introduction
Because in the case of both wet and dry gas reservoirs,
the composition of the gas in the reservoir remains
unchanged with depletion, no differentiation will be
made between wet and residue gas in the subsequent
discussions.

Cumulative gas produced, Gp, means separator gas as

measured, plus the vapor equivalent of the natural gas
liquid (NGL) removed in the separator. Similarly, gas
formation volume factor, Bg, and gas deviation factor, z,
refer to the properties of a sample of separator gas and
liquid that has been recombined to represent reservoir gas
composition.

2
 ?

WET OR DRY GAS

3
4
3.1.2. Volumetric Determination of Gas in Place

Gas initially in place in the reservoir:

G = 7758Ah(1-Swi) (1/Bgi) 1

Where
G = initial gas in place, SCF
7758 = conversion factor, bbl/acre-ft
A = area of reservoir, acres
h = net formation thickness, ft
 = porosity, fraction
Ah = pore volume of reservoir, acre-ft
Swi = initial water saturation, fraction
Bgi = initial gas formation volume factor:
res bbl/SCF = (pbTz) / (5.615pTbzb)

p and pb = pressure at reservoir and base conditions,

psia

T and Tb = temperature at reservoir and base conditions,

o
R

z and zb = gas deviation factor at reservoir and base

conditions

5
If Bgi is in cu ft/scf, Eq. 1 becomes
1
G = 43,560Ah(1-Swi)----- ………………………………2
Bgi

(Where 43,560 = conversion factor, ft3/acre-ft)

At any subsequent pressure

1
G = 43,560Ah(1-Sw)----- …………………………….4
Bg

The volumetric equation is particularly applicable

when a field is comparatively new, before
sufficient quantities of gas have been produced to
allow for the use of material balance calculations.

6
3.1.3 Material Balance Determination of Gas in Place

The material-balance process as applied to gas

reservoirs, is an exact accounting of the materials that
enter, accumulate in, or are depleted from a defined
volume, in the course of a given time interval of
operation.
It is thus an expression of the law of conservation of
mass.

The following assumptions are made:

1. The reservoir acts as a constant-volume tank.
2. Pressure equilibrium exists throughout the
reservoir (i.e) there are no large pressure
gradients across the reservoir at any given
time.
3. Laboratory pressure-volume-temperature
(PVT) data of the reservoir gas are evaluated
at the average reservoir pressure.
4. Reliable production, injection, and reservoir-
pressure data are available.
5. The change in volume of the interstitial
water with pressure, the change in porosity
with pressure, and the evolution of gas
originally dissolved in the formation water
with decrease in pressure, are negligible.

7
In terms of mass and mole balances…

mp=mi-m …………………………………..……………. 7

and np=ni-n ………………………………………….... 8

where
mp = cumulative mass of gas produced
np = cumulative moles of gas produced
mi, ni = initial mass and moles of gas in place
at initial pressure, pi
m, n = mass and moles of gas remaining in
reservoir at some subsequent pressure, p

Since the composition of the produced gas is constant, the gas

volumes in standard cubic feet (both produced and remaining in the
reservoir) are directly proportional to masses and moles.

Using the constant-volume tank concept,

(i) let Vi be the original hydrocarbon reservoir volume (bbl) at the
initial pressure pi
(ii) also assume that at some subsequent pressure p, Gp standard
cubic feet of gas and Wp stock-tank barrels of water have been
produced (and measured) at the surface
(iii) We reservoir barrels of water have encroached into the
reservoir,
(iv) and the remaining gas volume in the reservoir is V barrels.

Since the volume of the reservoir is constant then

Vi = V + We - WpBw (bbl) 9

8
9
10
11
Recalling eqn 9..
Vi = V + We - WpBw (bbl) 9

By re-arranging
V =Vi - We + WpBw 10

Where…
Vi, V, We, WpBw are in reservoir barrels.

Bw is the water formation volume factor in reservoir barrels per

stock tank barrel.

Expressing Vi in terms of G (scf of gas initially in place), and

substituting gas formation volume factors Bgi and Bg at pressures pi
and p, it can be shown that Gp , the cumulative gas produced (SCF)
as reservoir pressure declines from p i to p, is given by…

G(Bg - Bgi) + We - WpBw

Gp = ----------------------------- 12
Bg

For reservoirs with no water influx and no water production then

G(Bg-Bgi)
Gp = ------------ 14
Bg

12
It is sometimes convenient to calculate gas initially in place per acre-
foot of bulk reservoir rock, i.e.
1
G (scf/acre-ft) = 7758(1-Swi) ------------------- (15)
Bgi(res bbl/scf)

Where 7758 = no. of bbls per acre-ft.

Also,

1
G (scf/acre-ft) = 43560(1-Swi) -------------------
Bgi(res ft3/scf)

pTbzb
= 43560(1-Swi) -------- (16)
zpbT

Where 43,560 = no of ft3 per acre-ft.

13
3.1.4. Reserves and Performance Predictions

14
3.1.4. Reserves and Performance Predictions

3.1.4.1 Volumetric Estimates

For gas reservoirs under volumetric control, (i.e. no water influx or
water production), the cumulative gas produced, Gp, is the difference
between the volume of gas in place at the initial and subsequent
pressure conditions. Thus, for volumetric reservoirs, and based on
equation 15,

1 1
Gp = 7758 Ah(1-Swi)(----- - ----) (17)
Bgi Bg

If the gas formation volume factor at the assumed abandonment

pressure (Bga) is substituted for Bg, then Eq. 17 gives
(i) Gp at abandonment, or,
(ii) the reserves or recoverable gas in place at original
conditions.

Another approach, is to calculate the initial gas in place from the

volumetric equation and apply a recovery factor (RF). The reserves
or recoverable gas (in scf/acre-ft) is then given by

43560(1-Swi)RF
RG = -----------------------
Bgi

Where RG = gas reserves to abandonment

pressure, scf/acre-ft.
RF = recovery factor or fraction of initial gas in place to be
recovered.

15
Recovery Factors - RF
The recovery factor from a gas reservoir is primarily a
function of
(i) abandonment pressure
(ii) permeability
(iii) drive mechanism.

Abandonment Pressure: Lowering the abandonment pressure

will increase the recoverable gas. This pressure generally
depends on the price of gas, the size of the field, its location
with respect to market, and the type of market.
If the market is a transmission pipeline, the operating pressure
of the line may be a controlling factor in the abandonment
pressure for small fields; but for large fields, installation of
compressor plants may be economically feasible, thus
lowering the abandonment pressure substantially below the
operating pressure of the pipeline serving the area.

Permeability: In a closed reservoir, higher permeabilities

result in higher flow rates for a given pressure drop.
Generally therefore, the abandonment pressure is lower for a
high-permeability reservoir.

Drive mechanism: Water-drive gas reservoirs usually have a

lower recovery factor than closed gas reservoirs because of
the high abandonment pressure due to water encroachment
into the producing wells. Water encroaches in the form of (i)
coning, (ii) channelling, and (iii) the upward movement of the
oil-water contact (OWC).
16
Recovery Factors - Volumetric or Closed Reservoir:
For closed gas reservoirs, the principal factor governing
recovery efficiency is the abandonment pressure. If the
abandonment pressure is known, a recovery factor - RF can
be calculated.

Expressed in percent of initial gas in place....

Bgi
RF=100( ------) (19)
Bga

Water Drive Reservoirs:

For a water drive reservoir ....

100(SgiBga-SgaBgi)
RF= ----------------------- (20)
SgiBga

Where
Sgi = initial gas saturation, fraction of initial pore volume
Sga = abandonment saturation, fraction of initial reservoir
pore volume

17
Table 1 provides values for residual gas saturation after water flood
in core plugs, as measured by Geffen. These may be used in Eq. 1.20
as an approximation for Sga.

Table 1
Residual Gas Saturation after Water Flood as
Measured on Core Plugs
.
Porous Material Formation Sgr,
Percent
Unconsolidated sand 16
Slightly consolidated sand (synthetic) 21
Synthetic consolidated materials 17
Selas Porcelain
Norton Alundum 24
Consolidated sandstones Wilcox 25
Frio 30-38
Nellie Bly 30--36
Frontier 31-34
Springer 33
Torpedo 34-37
Tensleep 40-50
Limestone Canyon Reef 50
Source: After Geffen ct al.

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3.1.4.2 Material Balance Estimates
Gas initially in place estimated from performance history using
material balance methods provides an independent check on
estimates determined using volumetric methods.

Equations 12 and 14 may be written as

GpBg – (We - WpBw)

G = -------------------------- (21)
Bg - Bgi

and

GpBg
G = ----------- (22)
Bg - Bgi

Early in the producing life of a reservoir, the denominator of

the right-hand side of the material balance equation is very
small, while the numerator is relatively large. A small change
in the denominator will result in a large discrepancy in the
calculated value of initial gas in place. Therefore, the material
balance equation should not be relied on early in the producing
life of the reservoir.
Accurate pressure-production data is also essential for reliable
material balance calculations. Estimates of average reservoir
pressure are the most likely source of error, especially during
the early history period when slight pressure errors have a
significant effect on results.
19
DETERMINATION OF WATER DRIVE

To determine if a gas reservoir is experiencing water

influx, compute the GIIP from Eq. 22.

20
If successive calculations at various times during the
history give consistent values for GIIP, the reservoir is
operating under volumetric control (Fig. 1.1).
The same equation can be used to make future
predictions of cumulative gas production as a function
of reservoir pressure.

21
If water influx is occurring, successive application of
Eq. 22 will give increasing values of G with time. Gas
leakage to another zone due to bad cement jobs or
casing leaks may however result in the computed value
of G decreasing with time. Eq. 21 should instead be
used for estimating G.

GpBg – (We - WpBw)

G = -------------------------- (21)
Bg - Bgi

Note that there are two (2) unknowns in this material

balance equation, i.e.
(i) initial gas in place and
(ii) cumulative water influx

Some independent method of estimating We, the

cumulative water influx, must be developed. There are
two commonly used procedures for estimating We.

Firstly, if the change in a gas-water contact can be

determined, then volumetric calculations can be used to
determine the water encroachment. One has to analyse (i)
production data from wells drilled low on the structure or
(ii) from log or drill stem test analyses of structurally low
wells drilled after there has been some gas production
and some rise in the gas-water contact.
22
The second method of estimating water influx is to
rearrange the material balance equation (Eq. 21) to solve
for initial gas in place and cumulative water influx at
several different times.

We GpBg + WpBw
G + ------------ = ------------------ 24
Bg - Bgi Bg - Bgi

At successive time intervals, the left-hand side of Eq. 24

should increase because of the We/(Bg - Bgi) term. A plot
of several of these values at successive time intervals is
illustrated in the following figure.

Extrapolation of the line formed by these points, back to

the point where Gp = 0 shows the true value of G, because
when Gp = 0, then We/(Bg - Bgi) is also zero.

Also since points calculated early in the producing life of

the reservoir may be subject to considerable inaccuracies,
more weight should be attached to points calculated later
in the life of the reservoir.

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24
3.1.4.3 Pressure Decline Curve or p/z Method
Equation 14 for a volumetric (closed) reservoir may be
written in the form:

p pbTGp pi
--- = - ------------------ + ---- (28)
z 5.615zbTbVi zi

Thus, a graph of p/z vs. Gp will be linear and the

intercept at p/z = 0 gives the initial gas in place.

25
The linear plot may be extrapolated to give (i) initial gas in
place at zero pressure, (ii) initial gas reserves at abandonment
pressure, and (iii) cumulative gas production at any pressure
of interest.

If water is encroaching, the reservoir hydrocarbon volume Vi

is not constant with time; consequently, a plot of p/z vs. Gp is
not a straight line. Instead, a water-drive reservoir normally
plots as a curve that is concave upward (Fig. 1.3), since the
pressure drops less rapidly with production than under
volumetric control.

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After a reasonable amount of gas has been produced
(about 20% of the reserve), the p/z vs. cumulative
straight-line plot for a volumetric (closed) reservoir
provides a satisfactory procedure for estimating
recoverable gas.

27
3.1.4.5 Reservoir Size

By combining the material-balance equation (eqn

1) and the volumetric equation (eqn 14), the areal
extent of a reservoir can be estimated using the
following:

GpBgBgi
A = -------------------------------- (33)
7758 h(1-Swi)( Bg - Bgi)

where
A = areal extent of the reservoir, acres
h = thickness of the reservoir, ft

This approach is advantageous when a well has

been drilled into a new gas reservoir and it is
necessary to provide an additional estimate of the
size of the reservoir (apart from seismic data) in
order to decide whether additional wells can, or
should be proposed for drilling.

28
3.1.4.6 Gas Production Rate Versus Time

Two pieces of data needed for determining future gas

production rates are
1. p/z vs. Gp and
2. ‘Deliverability’ or ‘back-pressure’ test data.

If the p/z vs. Gp data are not available, then some

reasonable estimate must be developed. This is simple
for a closed gas reservoir because the plot is a straight
line and two points on this line can generally be
ascertained.

The first point that can be determined is the initial

pressure, at which point the cumulative gas production
is zero. The second point that can also be determined is
the GIIP (by volumetric analysis), which would be
equal to the total gas produced to zero pressure.

29
30
Deliverability test or back pressure test
Purpose
1. To determine the production capability of a well under
specific conditions of reservoir and bottom hole flowing
pressures (Pwf or BHFP).
2. To determine the ABSOLUTE OPEN FLOW (AOF) or the
maximum rate at which a well can flow against a theoretical
atmospheric back pressure at the sand face.
Test
- Different types tests
- Flow-after-flow one of the simpler tests
- conducted by producing the well at a series of different stabilized
flow rates and measuring the stabilized bottom hole pressure. After
the last flow rate, the well is shut in.
Empirical Equation
Rawlins and Schellhardt: q  C( p 2  pwf
2 n
)
C = stabilized performance coefficient
n = inverse slope of the line on a log-log plot of the change in
pressure squared or pseudopressure vs. gas flow rate.


Rearranging: log p  p wf 
2 2
 1
n
log(q)  log(C )

 2

If we plot log p  p wf vs log(q), we would get a straight line
2

with slope = 1/n, and intercept = − 1/n log (C) .

@P
The AOF potential is estimated from the extrapolation of the
straight line to p
2
 p wf
2
wf = atmosphere or basic
pressure Pb.

31
32
33
A typical back-pressure graph is also shown. This is a plot of
2
p R  pwf
2
vs. q on log-log paper, and should plot as a straight line
with a slope ranging from 1.0 to 2.0 where
p = reservoir pressure (shut-in BHP), psia
pwf = flowing sandface pressure, psia
q = flow rate, MSCFD

34
The procedure for relating gas producing rate to time:
1. Plot the p/z vs. Gp decline curve.
2. Plot the back-pressure test data.
3. From the p/z vs. Gp decline curve, select a value of p.
Read the corresponding Gp. Use small pressure steps
for accuracy. Also note that p and p are the same.
4. At the selected value of p, determine the theoretical
open flow potential - OFP.
5. Determine the allowable producing rate, which is
usually 1/4 of the OFP.
6. Compute the time required to produce the gas,
where

Time = gas produced during interval/flow rate

= Gp/q

If the contract producing rate does not exceed the

allowable producing rate, then use the contract rate
for this time interval. If the contract producing rate
exceeds the allowable producing rate, then the
allowable producing rate must be used.
7. Repeat steps 3 to 6 for consecutively lower values of
p until the abandonment pressure is reached.
8. Prepare the rate-time plot.

35
36
 Qaof Qaof)/4

37
4000

38
3.1.4.7 Liquid Recovery

The amount of liquids recovered at the surface must be

considered in an economic evaluation for a proposed project.
If there is a considerable quantity of liquefiable hydrocarbons
in the gas, it may be economic to install liquid recovery units,
in which case, the recoverable gas volume must be reduced by
the amount of gas volume converted to liquids. This reduction
in volume or plant shrinkage varies from about 8 to 13%, with
10% being the average.
Before applying the shrinkage factor, the recoverable gas is
usually known as recoverable wet gas. After the plant
shrinkage factor has been applied, the terms frequently used
are salable gas reserves, recoverable dry gas reserves, or
simply residue gas.
For a condensate reservoir, liquid dropout will occur when the
pressure declines to the dew point in the reservoir, and varies
with time as pressure declines. If the gas reservoir is not a
condensate reservoir, the composition of the gas in the
reservoir will never change and the liquid recovery will remain
constant. .
A laboratory analysis of a gas sample is necessary to
determine precisely whether the reservoir is a gas, wet gas or
a condensate reservoir.
However if the liquid-gas ratio exceeds 20 bbl/MMscf and Pi
> 5000 psia, then the reservoir is probably a condensate
reservoir.

39
Wet Gas Reservoir

40