1.

1 INTRODUCTION
Definition: Transport or transportation is the movement of people and
goods from one location to another. For rapid economic, industrial and
cultural growth of any country, a good system of Transportation is very
essential. Transportation system comprises of good networks of roads,
railways, well developed water ways, and airways. As blood circulation
through body arteries is essential for well being of a human being, similarly
a good system of transportation is essential for well being of a nation.
Adequate and effective transportation maintain healthy of a nation by
keeping the goods and men moving from one place to another. Every
commodities needs transport to facilitates both at the production stage as
well as distribution stage. Transport plays an important part in economic
growth and globalization, but most types cause air pollution and use large
amounts of land. While it is heavily subsidized by governments, good
planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow, and restrain urban
sprawl
Transport engineering (or transportation engineering) is the science
of safe and efficient movement of people and goods (transport). It is a,
sub-discipline of CIVIL ENGINEERING.
The planning aspects of transport engineering relate to urban planning,
and involve technical forecasting decisions and political factors. Technical
forecasting of passenger travel usually involves an urban transportation
planning model, requiring the estimation of trip generation (how many trips
for what purpose), trip distribution (destination choice, where is the
traveler going), mode choice (what mode is being taken), and route
assignment (which streets or routes are being used). More sophisticated
forecasting can include other aspects of traveler decisions, including auto
ownership, trip chaining (the decision to link individual trips together in a
tour) and the choice of residential or business location (known as land use
forecasting). Passenger trips are the focus of transport engineering
because they often represent the peak of demand on any transportation
system. The design aspects of transport engineering include the sizing of
transportation facilities (how many lanes or how much capacity the facility
has), determining the materials and thickness used in pavement, designing
the geometry (vertical and horizontal alignment) of the roadway (or track).
Operations and management involve traffic engineering, so that vehicles
move smoothly on the road or track. Older techniques include signs,
signals, markings, and tolling. Newer technologies involve intelligent
transportation systems, including advanced traveler information systems
(such as variable message signs), advanced traffic control systems (such as
ramp meters), and vehicle infrastructure integration.
Human factors are an aspect of transport engineering, particularly
concerning driver-vehicle interface and user interface of road signs, signals,
and markings.

1:2 DIFFERENT MODES OF TRANSPORTATION

Human being has always remained surrounded by the three basic medium
known as Land, Water and Air. Transportation system made use of the
available medium. Mode of transportation can be classified as follows:
 Roadways or Highway.
 Railways
  Waterways and
 Airways.
Beside the above stated four major modes of transportation, fluid are
mainly, transported through pipes. Belt conveyor and cable cars are some
other minor system of transportation, but they are used for specific.

1.3 DIFFERENT BETWEEN TRANSPORTATION MODE

Each mode has its advantages and disadvantages, and will be chosen for a
trip on the basis of cost, capability, route, and speed.

(1) Roadway or Highway: A road is an identifiable route, way or path

between two or more places. Roads are typically smoothed, paved, or
otherwise prepared to allow easy travel. It includes highway, access or city,
street, Feeder road and village road. It caters for vehicles and pedestrian.
ADVANTAGE
 It allow for more efficient travel at the cost of reduced flexibility .
 It offer quick and assure deliveries
 Has a high employment potential.
 it offer high flexibility.
DISADVANTAGE
 It has poor record of safety.
 It has low capacity.
 Roadways are deemed with high energy and area use, and
 The main source of noise and air pollution in cities.
 Has caused parking problem of serious proportion in any street.

(2) Railway: is an energy-efficient means of transport which runs on

permanent way consisting of two parallel rails made of steel and fastened
to sleepers or ties which rest on ballast or secured to solid foundation. Rail
transport is a major form of public transport in many countries.
ADVANTAGE
 Advantageous for longer distance.
 Constitute less in environmental pollution.
 Railed vehicles move with much less friction than rubber tires on
paved roads, making trains more energy efficient.
 Large quantities of bulk are transported by railways.
DISADVANTAGE
 Depend upon roadway for picking up loads and making deliveries.
 It is not flexible.

(3) Waterway: this mode of transportation includes Ocean, River, Canal

and Lakes for the movement of ships and boats. Although slow, modern
sea transport is a highly effective method of transporting large quantities of
non-perishable goods. Transport by water is significantly less costly than
air transport for transcontinental shipping. It needs minimum energy to
haul units of load through unit distances.

(4) Airways: Aircrafts and Helicopters use the airways. The airway is the
fastest method of transport and provides more comfort apart from saving
time in transportation of men and goods. But it is very expensive in terms
of affordability. Poor people cannot afford the cost.
1.4 TRANSPORTATION PROBLEM IN NIGERIA

1. Environmental hazard: Transport is a major use of energy, and burns

most of the world's petroleum. This creates air pollution, including nitrous
oxides and particulates, and is a significant contributor to global warming
through emission of carbon dioxide, for which transport is the fastest-
growing emission sector.

2. Land use act: Transportation facilities consume land, and in cities,

pavement (devoted to streets and parking) can easily exceed 20 percent of
the total land use.

3. Social economic factor:

4. Management capability and corruption.

5. Political expedient form.

1.5 THE IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORTATION IN NIGERIA

(1) It helps in the movement of materials which are unevenly distributed
across the land to the production and consumption centre at an economical
cost.
(2) Better transport allows more trade and a greater spread of people.

(3) Modern society dictates a physical distinction between home and

work, forcing people to transport Passenger. Transport is also the essence
of tourism, a major part of recreational transport.

(4) Transport enables travel and intermingling of people and thus leads
to national integration. This is especially for a country like Nigeria with
diverse regional customs life styles and language.

(5) Social development activities such as health, education, family

planning, housing, water-supply and sanitation rely heavily on a good
system of transport for their success.
(6) Industrial gets located wherever a good transport system is available.
The economical transport of raw materials from hinterland to the industrial
area and of the finished products to the consumer is a governing factor in
location of industries.
(7) Transport helps in fighting natural calamities like flood cyclone,
draught and famine. It brings timely relief to the affected person.
2.0 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

Traffic engineering is a branch of civil engineering that uses engineering

techniques to achieve the safe and efficient movement of people and
goods. It focuses mainly on research and construction of the immobile
infrastructure necessary for this movement, such as roads, railway tracks,
bridges, traffic signs and traffic light. This science developing fast due to
the phenomenon growth in motor traffic. Traffic Engineering is that
phase of engineering which deals with the planning, geometric
design and traffic operations of roads, streets, and highways,
their networks, terminals, abutting lands.
Traffic engineering suggest making use of existing facilities to the
maximum extent and to carry-out various studies to suggest various
improvement, modification in existing roads system and also for new
facilities. In a big cities, where traffic volume is very large traffic
engineering is the only instrument which remain busy carrying out various
studies and suggest various measure for easy, smooth and safe flow of
traffic. For small places, traffic eng’g may not carry any significant but in
case of big cities it has been recognized as an essential tool, without which
traffic system of the city cannot work.
2.1 SCOPE OF TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

The fundamental objective of traffic engineering is to achieve safe, free

rapid and efficient flow of traffic. Traffic engineering may be divided under
the following sub-heads;
 Traffic characteristic.
 Traffic operation, control and regulation.
 Traffic studies and analysis.
 Planning and analysis.
 Geometric design.

2.11 traffic characteristics

This includes road user characteristic and vehicular characteristic.
(a) The road user characteristics: pedestrian, cyclist and vehicle driver, all
are called road user. They are very complex, important and may be further
classified as physical, mental, psychological and environmental factors. This
is an essential feature for improvement of traffic facilities.

 Physical characteristics: vision, hearing and fatigue are the physical

characteristics which affect safe driving of the vehicles. Vision is the most
important out of all these factors. Driver that does not having normal eye
sight are dangerous to allow driving. Fatigue, alcohol or drugs, illness are
the temporary physical characteristics affecting the efficiency of road users.
All these factors affecting reaction time, judgment time, alertness and
consequently affect safe driving.
  Mental characteristics: intelligence, skill, knowledge, literacy and
experience of the driver comes under mental characteristics. Knowledge of
traffic rule, specific instruction and timely action depend on intelligence of
the drivers and road users. Reaction to certain traffic situation becomes
more spontaneous with experience.

 Psychological Factors: Impatience, attentiveness, ability to follow

regulation, and maturity are some of the characteristics which come under
psychological factor. Due to impatience and worries of mind, sometimes
dangerous accidents take place.

 Environmental factor: environmental factors like locality, atmospheric

Conditions, facilities to traffic etc affect the behavior of the road users.

(b) Vehicular characteristics:

It is the vehicular characteristic which actually fixes all the dimension of the
road. Width of road, shoulders, parking facilities depend on width of the
vehicle. Length of vehicle affects radius of horizontal curve, extra width of
pavement, min-turning radius, road capacity, overtaking sight distance,
parking facilities and valley curve. Height of the vehicle affects the
clearance to be provided under structures such as over bridge, under-
bridge and electric or telephone lines. Speed of vehicle affect sight
distance, super elevation, length of transition curve, lane capacity, and
intersection design and control measures. Weight of vehicle affect
pavement thickness, design of bridges.
2.2 DEFINITIONS OF PARAMETERS
 The Flow rate, q :Defined as the time rate of passage of vehicle over
an observation point given as vehicle per hour. Thus if 150 vehicles pass a
point in 6 minutes, the flow rate is given as

150
6
q= 60 =1500 veh/hr

 The volume, Q: is the number of vehicles observed in a given time

period, T and is based on actual counts expressed as vehicles.
Thus for the situation above
Q = 150 vehicles in 6 minutes
= 1500 vehicles in 1 hrs.

 Speed: the average rate of vehicle movement in a traffic stream over

a specified section of the roadway in a given interval. The two measure of
speed are space mean speed and time mean speed.
(1) Space mean speed (Us): speed on a roadway based on the average
travel time across a length of roadway and is given as
L
Us = t ………………………………………..2.1

Where L – length of section of the roadway.

t – Average travel time of vehicle across length, L.
n
∑ Nti
and t = i=1

ti = travel time of ith vehicle

 N = total numbers of vehicle observed.
Equation 2.1 becomes

NL
N

U ∑ ti
S = i=1 (2.2)
(2) Time mean speed: speed on the roadway based on the average of the
individual speeds of all vehicle observed. This is given as:

N
∑ ui
U
i=1
t = N (2.3)
and
Dxi
U i = Dt

N
∑ Dxi
U
i=1
t = NDt

Where U i – speed of the ith vehicle

N – Number of vehicle observed.
xi- Distance travelled by vehicle
t – Time of observation.

 Density/Concentration, K: Defined as the number of vehicle

occupying a unit length of a roadway expressed as vehicle per kilometer.
Numerically describes the relative occupancy of a roadway section and is
indirectly related to the average spacing between vehicles. The relationship
between lane flow (Q , vehicles per hour), maximum speed (V , kilometers
per hour) and density (K , vehicles per kilometer) is Q = KV . Observation
on limited access facilities suggests that up to a maximum flow, speed
does not decline while density increases, but above a critical threshold,
increased density reduces speed, and beyond a further threshold,
increased density reduces flow as well.

 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPEED, DENSITY AND VOLUME

Case 1: Relationship between Volume and Speed

A AB = Free flow
BC = Unstable flow
CD = Unstable flow
B DE = Forced flow

C
speed
D
E volume

Case 2: Relationship between Volume and Density.

 Volume
Max (critical Density)
Inf
ITDHighways Home Page

Jam density

Density

Density may be a better measure of road service than volume, since it

continues to increase as congestion increase. For any given volume, the
efficiency of flow can be determined by observing the density. The smaller
the density, the quicker the movement of traffic and the greater the
efficiency of flow.

 Example 1:- figure below shows vehicle travelling at constant speed

on a two-lane highway between section X and Y with their position and

speeds obtained at an instant of time. The velocities of the vehicles are
measured as 72, 64, 56 and 32 Km/hr respectively. Calculate the flow, the
Density, the time mean and space mean speed.
 5m 6m 10m 6m 11m 6m 26m 6m 17m

L = 93m

An observal locates at point X observed the 4 vehicles passing point X

during a period of 30sec.

Solution:

(1) The Flow rate is calculated by

nx 3600 4 x3600
q= T = 30 = 480veh/hr

n
(2) Density, k = L

4 x1000
= 93 = 43veh/Km

(3) Time mean speed,

n
1 32+56+64+ 72
U ∑ Ui
t = n i=1 = 4 = 56Km/hr

(4) Space mean speed,

n Ln
n n

U ∑ ( Ui1 ) ∑ ti
S = i=1 = i=1 =
 334 . 8 L

t i = U i sec

334 .8L
t A = 72 = 4.65sec

334 .8L
t B = 64 =5.23sec

334 .8L
t C = 56 =5.98sec

334 .8L
t D = 32 =10.46sec

4 x 93
Therefore, U S = 4. 65+5 .23+5 . 98+10 .$ 6 =14Km/hr.

 Spacing: a measure of the interval in both distance and time between

successive vehicles in a stream.

Two component of spacing are:

a. Time headway ht, the time interval between successive vehicles crossing
a point on the roadway expressed as second. The average time headway,
ht is the averages of all headway times, ht, expressed as sec/veh and
determine using q.

3600T 3600
ht = Q = q sec/veh.

b. Space headway, hd: Distance between front bumper of successive

vehicles at a given interval of time, expressed in unit of length. The
average space headway, hd is the mean of all headways on a facilities
expressed in unit of length per vehicle. The space headway is inversely
proportional to density. The space headway is related to time headway by
the equation below;

hd = c ht U (2.4)

Where hd & ht – average space and time headway respectively.

U – Average speed

C – Constant.

 Delay:- is the time lost by a vehicle due to causes beyond the control

of the drivers. The various types of delays include stopped delay,

congestion delay and intersection delay.

(1) Stopped time delay is the part of delay during which the vehicle is at
rest or due to complete inertia.

(2) Congestion delay: stoppage due to condition along the roadway

restricting the movement. These are caused by constricting or slowing
down effect of overloaded intersection, inadequate carriageway width,
parking cars and crowded pavement.

(3) Intersection delay: stoppage or restriction on smooth traffic flow due to

intersection operating condition. It is given by;

t ∑ ( A i− Di)
S = i=1 (2.5)
 Where t S - stopped delay time at intersection.

A - time when vehicle i is stopped.

i

D - time when vehicle i is started.

i

 Journey speed/ Route speed: the average speed with which a vehicle

travels on a route of specified length including stoppages; it is given by;

Journey speed =Total length of route

Total time of travel

 Journey time or Travel time is the time taken by a vehicle to traverse

a given section of the routes.

 Running time is the time a vehicle is actually in motion while

traversing a given section of a highway.

 VARIATION IN TRAFFIC FLOW RATE AND MAJOR MEASURE OF

FLOW RATE.

Traffic volumes on roadway vary with time and distances and there are
referring to as both cyclic and spatial variation;

i. Variations with time include;

 Hourly variation
 Daily variation.
  Weekly
 Monthly variation.
 Yearly/seasonal variation.

These variations portray the demand for the use of various classes of road
as a function of time.

ii. Spatial variation includes:

 Lane distribution
 Directional distribution.
 Rural-Urban distribution.

The major derivation that defines traffic flow variation with time includes;

(1) Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT): the total yearly volumes divided
by the number of days in the year.

(2) Average Daily Traffic (ADT): the total volume during a given period in
whole days greater than one day and less than one year divided by the
number of days in the year.

(3) Maximum Annual Hourly Volume: the highest hourly volume that occurs
on a roadway in a designated year. The average hourly volume (AHV) is
the mean of hourly volume when continuous hourly counts are taken for a
considerable length of time.

(4) Design Hourly Volume (30th highest hourly volume): the study volume
that is exceeded by 29th hourly volume during a designated year.
The relationship between hourly volume (highest hourly volumes) and the
Average daily traffic (ADT) which shows variability according to functional
classification of the routes.

20
18
16

14
12
10
0 40 80 120 160
NO OF HOURS IN ONE YEAR WITH TRAFFIC VOLUME GREATER THAN THAT SHOWN

Fig: hourly and Daily variation of Traffic volume.

There is a sharp deviance in the curve between the 20 th and 50th highest
hours, thus for practical purposes, the 30th highest hourly volume is a
reference base value for the Design hourly volume (DHV). This value which
is exceeded only by 29 hours of the 8760 hours of the year represents the
point of change in the shape of the order-array plot. The slope of the curve
becomes steeper rapidly for the busier hours of the year while it flattens
for the slacker hours. Road facilities, designed according to peak hourly
volume of the year will be uneconomical and those according to ADT will
be inadequate for most of the time of the year. Highway facilities designed
according to 30th highest hourly volume of the year is found to be
satisfactory from both economic and adequacy point of view. Traffic
congestion on such a road is expected for only 29 hours in the year.

The ratio of DHV to ADT is given as a constant K. thus DHV can be

determined from ADT using standard K values.

2:3 BASIC TRAFFIC STUDIES AND APPLICATION.

The studies are used to obtain qualitative empirical data on the main
indices of traffic.

 The main types of traffic studies include:

2:3:1 TRAFFIC VOLUME STUDIES:- number of vehicles passing a

particular Section of the road per unit time at a specified time is called
TRAFFIC VOLUME. This study can be carried out separately for vehicles
and pedestrians or combined. Traffic count or census is continuing for 24
hrs of the day and at least for one week continuously. A complete traffic
volume study may include classification of various types and classes of
traffic.

The methods of obtaining volume counts include:

 Automatic counting devises.

 Manual volume counts.
(1) Automatic volume count: the use of equipment which have sensor to
detect the movement of vehicle and counters which indicate the aggregate
count of vehicles detected. Detector is designed to respond to heat, light,
pressure, sound or impedance of electrical or magnetic force. The different
types of counter include; photo electric cell, Magnetic detector, Radar
detectors and impulse activated recorders, the automatic methods have
the advantage that they can work continuously day and night for designed
period and record total hourly volume which is not easy with manual
counting method. The main disadvantage is that it is not possible to get
classified volume of the traffic.

(2) Manual volume counts: although quite cumbersome, gives data which
cannot be obtained by mechanical recorders. Vehicle classification, turning
movement and counts, where the loading condition are required can be
studied and counted in better form by this ,method. The results of the
manual count are considered more reliable than automatic method.
However, manual counts cannot be carried all the 24hrs of the day and on
all the days round the year. Hence to cut short the manual labor for taking
complete count, one has to resort to statistical sampling techniques.

 THE USE OF TRAFFIC VOLUME DATA.

The uses are categorized according to types of counts;

(i) AADT or ADT are used for;

 Estimation of highway user revenue

 Establishment of traffic volume trend.
  Computation of accident rates in terms of accident per 100million
vehicle kilometer.
 Evaluation of the economic feasibility of highway project.
 Planning of highway activities like developing freeways.
 Measurement of current demand for service by the street or highway.
 Evaluation the present traffic flow on existing street or highway
system.

(ii) PEAK HOURLY VOLUME are used for

 Highway classification.
 Planning and location of traffic control devises.
 Design of the geometric characteristics of a highway, for example
number of lane, intersection signalization or channelization.
 Developing traffic operation programme such as designation of
through streets, one way streets.

(iii) VEHICULAR CLASSSIFICATION: gives types of vehicles, number od

axles, weight and dimension are used for;

 Geometric design with reference to turning paths, maximum grades,

lane width.
 Structural design of highways pavement, bridges.
 Capacity analysis, with respect to passenger- car equivalent of trucks.

The different types of volume counts are:

(1) Spot counts: Volume count conducted at the location where information
is required. Used to get volume data for particular area on a road or street.
(2) Area wide studies: volume counts that are used to show variability in
traffic flow on a typical route with time and other pattern that includes
directional distribution and lane distribution.

(3) Screen line volume count: conducted at crossing of natural or artificial

barriers like rivers, railway lines, expressway, parks and bridge and act as
crossing of imaginary lines. Collection of data at these screen line stations
at regular intervals facilitates the detection of variation in the traffic volume
and traffic flow direction due to change in the land-use pattern of the area.

(4) Cordon counts: these are done to ascertain the accumulation of

vehicles and or person during a typical time period within a section called
the cordon area. The area is defined by a cordon line and the cordon
station is represented by every street crossing a cordon line where all
vehicle or person entering or leaving the district are counted. The data
gathered from cordon count are used for long range planning of arterial
and freeway street system, planning and adjusting transit services to
needs, planning adequate parking.

 SAMPLING SIZE AND ADJUSTMENT OF PERIODIC COUNTS.

The impracticality of collecting data continuously every day of the year at

all counting station makes it necessary to collect sample data from each
class of highway and to estimate annual traffic volumes from periodic
counts. This involves the determination of daily, monthly and yearly or
seasonal expansion factors for each class of highway. Expansion factors,
used to adjust periodic counts, are determined either from continuous
count stations. These include:
(a) Hourly Expansion Factor (HEF): these are given by

HEF = Total volume for 24-hr period

Volume for particular hour

These factors are used to expand counts of duration shorter than 24hrs to
24-hr volumes by multiplying the hourly volume of such hour during the
count period by the HEF for that hour and finding the mean of these
products.

(b) Daily Expansion Factors, (DEF): this is given by

DEF = Average total volumes for week

Average volume for particular day.

These factors are used to determined weekly volumes from counts of 24-hr
duration by multiplying the 24hr by the (DEF).

© Monthly Expansion Factor (MEF): this is given by:

AADT
MEF = ADT

The AADT for a given year may be obtained from the ADT for a given
month by multiplying this volume by the MEF. Expansion factors are
determine for each class of road in the classification system established for
an area,

 Examples :
A traffic Engineer urgently needs to determine the AADT on a rural primary
road that has the volume distribution characteristics shown in table below.
He collected the data shown below in a Tuesday during the month of May.
Determine the AADT of the road.

7:00 – 8:00 400

8:00 – 9:00 535

9:00 – 10:00 650

10:00 – 11:00 710

11:00 – 12:00 650

Solution:

Estimate the 24- hr volume for Tuesday using factor given in table;

400 x 29 . 0+535 x 22 .05+650 x 18 .80+710 x 17 .10+650 x 18. 52

DEF = 5

= 11,959

Adjust the 24-hr volume for Tuesday to an average volume for the week
using the factor given in table b.

Total 7-day volume = 11,959 x 7,727

11 ,959 x7 ,727
Average 24 – hr volume = 7 = 13,201veh/day

The AADT is obtained by using the factor in Table c: to expand the month
volume
 AADT = 13,201x1.394 = 18,402.

What is design hourly volume?

2:3:2 SPEED STUDIES

Speed is an important transportation consideration because it relates to

safety, time, comfort, convenience, and economics. This study gives data
on speed of traffic stream. Actual speed of the vehicle over a particular
stretch of road may vary widely depending on the factors such as
geometric features, traffic condition, place, time, environment and
condition of the driver. The study might be for off peak and peak our
values. Usually conducted for point location and along a route referred to
as SPOT SPEED and ROUTE SPEED respectively. Speed studies are
conducted for the following purposes in view.
 Determining the speed trend.
 Planning traffic control measures like traffic signals, location of
warning, regulatory and informatory signs, non- passing zone.
 Accident studies.

 SPOT SPEED STUDIES

Spot speed studies are used to determine the speed distribution of a

traffic stream at a specific location. These studies are conducted by
measuring the time a vehicle traverse a fixed distances with the use of
electronic detector to monitor speed of moving vehicles. The convention
means of manual estimation of spot speed is by stop watch time. this is
done by estimating the time a vehicle enters and leaves ‘trap length’ on a
given section of the road. It can also be conducted with the use of
mechanical devises which automatically starts and stop recorder, Radar
meter, motion pictures, graphic recorders and electric cell detector are
typical mechanical devises used for estimating. The data gathered in spot
speed studies are used to determine vehicle speed percentiles, which
are useful in making many speed-related decisions. Spot speed data have
a number of safety applications, including the following
1. Determining existing traffic operations and evaluation of traffic control
devices
a. Evaluating and determining proper speed limits
b. Determining the 50th and 85th speed percentiles.
c. Evaluating and determining proper advisory speeds
d. Establishing the limits of no-passing zones
e. Determining the proper placements of traffic control signs and markings
f. Setting appropriate traffic signal timing
2. Establishing roadway design elements
a. Evaluating and determining proper intersection sight distance.
b. Evaluating and determining proper passing sight distance.
c. Evaluating and determining proper stopping sight distance.
3. Assessing roadway safety questions
a. Evaluating and verifying speeding problems
b. Assessing speed as a contributor to vehicle crashes
c. Investigating input from the public or other officials
4. Monitoring traffic speed trends by systematic ongoing speed studies
5. Measuring effectiveness of traffic control devices or traffic programs,
including signs and markings, traffic operational changes, and speed
enforcement programs.

LOCATION FOR SPOT SPEED

1. Location that represent different traffic condition.
ii. Midblock of urban highway.
iii. Accident location.
NOTE: - when spot speed studies are being conducted, it is important that
unbiased data be obtained.

 SPEED, TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDY.

Speed, travel time and delay are all related measures that are common
used as indicators of performance for traffic facilities. This study gives the
Running speed, Overall speed, variation in speed and delays between two
specific stations on the road. It also furnishes information such as duration,
location, frequency and causes of delay. On the basis of this study, spots
of traffic congestion, their causes and remedies can be easily suggested. It
is also helpful in determining travel time and delay studies give a good
indication of the level of services on the study section. Following are some
of the methods of carrying out speed and delay studies.
(i) Moving-Vehicle-Observe method.
(ii) License plate method.
(iii) Interview technique.
(iv) Photographic technique.
(v) Elevated observation.
  Moving-Vehicle-Observe method or Floating-car technique: is done to
estimate speed and actual volume on the road section by determining the
travel time of the test vehicle. This method is designed to provide
simultaneous measurements of stream variables. The highway under
consideration is subdivided into section of L unit length. One or more test
car is /are driven through these section in both directions at the average
operating traffic speed and certain measurements taken.
t=0 stationary observer

A N

Traffic stream being

Measured.

t= ta t = tw

fig 2.1: illustration of Floating –car- technique.

The aim of the method is to estimate the number of vehicles that
passes an independent observer (stationary Observer) at a point A as the
test vehicle starts at time t = 0 on the opposite lane and continually taking
the count until the test vehicle crosses the observation point A. the
following information are recorded:
Qa – the number of vehicles met by the observer during the run against
the traffic stream.

Qw – the number of vehicles that overtaken the test vehicles during the
run with the traffic stream minus any vehicles that the test vehicle
overtaken during the run with traffic.

ta – journey time against the desired flow.

tw – journey time with the desired flow.

Thus, the total flow in the desired direction is given by;

Qa+Qw
q= ta+tw

the average travel time T is given by;

T=
( tw−
Qw
q )
Thus the average stream speed is;
L

U=
(
tw−
Qw
q ) = TL
The speed given above is the space mean speed because it is computed on
the basis of travel time.

 Example 1: while making measurement by the moving-car-observer-

Method, a test vehicle covered 1.6km in 1.5min going against traffic and
2.5min going with traffic. Given that the traffic flow was 800veh/hr and
that the test vehicle passed 10more vehicles than passed it while going
with traffic, find

(a) The numbers of vehicle encountered by the test vehicle while moving
against traffic.

(b) The speed of the traffic stream being measured.

© The concentration of the traffic stream being measured.

Solution:

Given length of test section, L =1.6Km

t a = 1.5min = 0,025hr, t w = 2.5min = 0.042hr

Qa+ ( Qo−Qp )
The flow rate q, is given by; q = (ta +tw )

But q = 800veh/hr, Q o – Q p = -10

Qa−10
Therefore, 800 = 00 . 025+0 .042

Q = 800 x 0.067 + 100 = 64 numbers of vehicle

a

encountered by test vehicle while moving against traffic.

(b) Speed of traffic is given by;

L 1.6

U =
(
tw−
Qw
q ) = (0 . 042−800
−10
) = 29.30Km/hr

© The conc. Of traffic is given by;

q 800
q = kv , k = v = 29 .36 = 27.25veh/Km.
Exercise:

Run/direction Travel Nos of veh. Nos of veh. Nos of veh.

time(min) travelling That Overtaken by
opposite overtaken test vehicle
direction test veh.
Eastward

1 2.75 60 1 1

2 2.53 75 2 1

3 2.85 83 0 3

4 3.00 78 0 1

5 3.05 81 1 1

6 2.70 79 3 2

7 2.82 82 1 1

8 3.03 78 0 2

Run/direction Travel Nos of veh. Nos of veh. Nos of veh.

time(min) travelling That Overtaken by
opposite overtaken test vehicle
direction test veh.
Westward

1 2.95 78 2 0

2 3.15 89 1 1

3 3.20 89 1 1

4 2.83 86 1 0
 5 3.30 80 2 1

6 3.22 79 1 2

7 2.91 82 2 1

8 3.03 81 0 1

Determine the travel time and volume in each direction at the section of

the highway.

2:4 ORIGIN AND DESTINATION STUDIES

An origin-destination study (O & D) is used to determine travel patterns of

traffic on an installation during a typical day. They are useful in assisting
long-range traffic planning, especially when there are substantial changes
anticipated in the installation mission or strength. This is a study to
determine and analyze trips. Trips are defined as one-way movement, from
where a person starts (origin) to where the person is going (destination).
The purpose of this study is to get the answer of the following questions:-

(i) Why people travel – (purpose of trip)

(ii) When people travel – (time and direction)

(iii) How the people travel – mode of travel, bus, car, cycle on foot.
(iv) Where the people want to go – origin and destination.

(v) Where and why people stop – to determine concentration of vehicle

warranting need of parking facilities.

O & D studies are most essential in planning new highway facilities and
improving some of the existing system. If this study indicates high
percentage of through traffic, a bye-pass can be considered. This study is
most important for solving zonal as well as regional traffic problems. The
use of this study can be summarized as follows:

(i) To provide wide and better roads (expressways) along the maximum
desires lines of travel.

(ii) To plan bye-pass and establish preferential routes for various types of
traffic.

(iii) To plan public transportation system in the cities.

(iv) To evaluate the existing facilities and plan for improvement or new
facilities as the case may be.

(v) To locate intermediate stops of public transport.

(vi) To fix the dimensions and design standard for roads, bridges etc.

(vii) To locate new bridges as per traffic demand.

There are five methods by which an origin-destination study can be made.

These are:
(1) Roadside Interview--This method requires advance publicity and a
greater number of personnel. A manual count of traffic is made by hour,
place and time of O&D, type of vehicle, route, purpose of trip, number of
passenger in bus and car stoppage location. By doing this the sample can
be expanded into a 24-hour analysis.

Advantage

 The method is quick

 Team entrusted with the task can be easily trained.

Disadvantage

 Wastage of time of traffic

 Possible traffic congestion.
 Possible resentment from road users.

(2) License plate method:- in this method, the entire area under study is
condoned. Registration number of the vehicles entering or leaving the area
is recorded at the station set up for the purpose.

Advantage

 The method is quite simple and easy but a lot of office computation
in tracing the trips through a network of observation station is
involved.

(3) Return Post Card--A prepaid post card with the questionnaire on it is
distributed to all drivers entering the installation during a given time. A
traffic volume count is made at the time the cards are distributed. The
method is not effective as part of the road users may not return the card
or may not answer the questionnaire properly and hence information
compiled on this basis may not reflect the true picture.

(4) Comprehensive Home Interview--This method is performed by other

governmental organizations. It provides the most detailed data .

(5) Tag on Car--This is a limited study good for studying through trips. It is
conducted by having all cars counted when they enter the installation. At
stations just inside the entrance gates, MPs stop vehicles and affix a piece
of colored tape (different for each station) to the car's front bumper. At
exit gates of the installation, a tally of cars with each colored tape is made.
It provides a rough estimate of through trips on the installation. It's
necessary for each installation entrance and exit to be manned during this
study. The method is not very effective as it gives only information
regarding the points of entry and exit and the time taken to traverse the
area.

PARKING STUDIES

Definitions

Space hour: one parking space for one hour.

Parking accumulation: the total number of vehicles parked at a given time.

Parking volume: the total number vehicles parking at a particular area over a given
period of time. It is express in vehicle per day.
Parking load: the total number of space hours used during a given period of time. It
corresponds to the area under the accumulation curves. Its peak is reached at peak

accumulation, when capacity is used to its fullest extent .

Practical capacity: this is always less than the available capacity. This is due to the time
wasted in parking and unparking maneuvers, and the lack of knowledge that a free
space is available.

Turnover: the average number of times that a parking space is used by different
vehicles during a given period of time. For example, fi 100 spaces, were used by 1000
vehicles in a 10-hour study period, the turnover would be: 1000 (100) = 10
vehicles per space.

Parking duration:

The average amount of time spent in a parking space. This is a measure of the
frequency of availability of parking spaces. The expected number of vehicles that can
park in a given area can be calculated in terms of average parking duration by the
following relationship:

Number of vehicles that can park in given area

=(number of spaces)[period cover(in hours)] X (0.85 to 0.95)

Average parking duration (hours per vehicle)

Parking duration is also dependent on the type of parking facilities.

The purpose of a parking study is to provide recommendations for the development of

a parking programme to meet the requirements of an area. To carry out a parking
study, it is necessary to have information on the following points:

1. The supply and type of parking facilities.

2. How and for what purpose parking facilities are

3. The demand for parking space.

4. The characteristics of parking demand.

5. The location of parking generation.

6. The legal, financial and administrative factors associated with the parking situation.

The scope of a parking study which will provide all the information necessary for
developing a program for parking facility improvements must be comprehensive in
nature. However, due to limitations of funds, man-power, or time, it may be necessary
to conduct limited parking studies to obtain the essential, basic information on parking
conditions in a city or an area.

Traditionally, parking studies were designed to analyze the needs of the central
business district (CBD). Several procedures have been developed for this purpose,
ranging from the very comprehensive to the more limited studies. Some of these
procedures for various purposes are illustrated below.

PARKING INTERVIEWS

The purpose of this phase of the study are to determine (1) the extent to which the
inventoried facilities are been used, and (2) the extent and location of the demand for
parking facilities. The information on demand and its location can come only from the
drivers who create it. It is obtained by interviewers assigned to the various parking
facilities (the curbs, parking lots, and garages).

The driver of practically every car parking in the area is interviewed. An attempt is
made to interview 100 per cent of parkers over an 8- or 10-hour period, usually from 8
or 10 A.M to 6 P.M on a typical weekday. To determine (1) trip origin, home address,
and purpose of stop and (2) destination to which driver is going to walk, which,
together with the observed location of parking, will determine the distance walked by
parker.

Parallel

300

450

600

900

Observed data by the interviewer, in addition to parking location, include (1) time of
arrival and departure, to obtain duration of parking. (2) Types of vehicle and (3)
unrestricted curb, a metered space, an illegal place or a fee lot or garage.

Normally, the interview requires about 30 seconds, and one interviewer for every
15bspace is required.

COMPREHENSIVE PARKING STUDY

The procedure for conducting a comprehensive type of study has been developed by
the bureau of public roads (BPR).

Some preliminary or organization work of a general nature is necessary to prepare for

the various phases of the study. This includes the following:

1. Select overhead personnel.

2. Provide for office space

3. Delineate area to be studied

4. Prepared a map of the central parking district

5. Establish a system for designating blocks

6. Establish scheduling of operation.

7. Prepared land use and assessed valuation maps for study area.

Inventory of parking facilities

a physical inventory of existing facilities in the central parking district, at the curb and
off-street, lists their location and capacity ( in numbers and space-hour), Physical
features, operating features, regulations and fee schedules. The purpose of the
inventory is to determine (1) the existing supply of space and the necessary auxiliary
information to permit its evaluation and (2) areas or location for potential development
of additional parking spaces.

The data collected are summarized in tables and on a map of the area under study. The
data permit the determination of the theoretical available space-hours of parking
capacity for each facility. Usually the space-hour capacities are express for an 8-hour
(10 A.M to 6 P.M).

Cordon Count.
A cordon count is a count of all vehicles, inbound and outbound, on each street
crossing the boundary of the CBD or any other congested area designated for study.
The purposes of the cordon count are:

I. To determine the volume and classification of traffic, inbound and outbound, on each
street crossing the boundary of the area under study.

II. To estimate the total parking load imposed on the area during the business day, or
other selected period, and during half-hour periods throughout the day.

Data are obtained by conducting manual counts and classification of traffic at locations
where streets cross the cordon for at least that period of the day when parking
interviews are made. A 12-hour count (7 A.M to 7 P.M) is preferable. Cordon count data
are summarized in tabular form, showing the accumulation of vehicles ( by
classification), by half-hour periods within the study area, which permits an estimate of
the total volume of vehicles inside the cordon at any particular time. To evaluate the
accumulation of vehicles, it is necessary to determine the number of vehicles in motion
and the number of vehicles parked within the area at the beginning of the cordon
count. Data from the cordon count and parking interviews are combined, and normally
plotted, to indicate total accumulation of vehicles, total parking accumulation (on and
off-street), accumulation of commercial vehicles, accumulation of vehicles parked off-
street, and accumulation of commercial vehicles parked.

Analysis for parking space

This includes the routine coding and tabulation necessary to summarize the data, as
well as the interpretation of the data for making recommendations and for the
development of an improvement program. Analysis of data will give (block by block
within the CBD), the supply of available parking facilities. The use being made of those
facilities and the space-hours of demand for parking as measured by:

I. Number of driver legally parked and duration.

II. Number of driver illegally parked and duration.

III. Number of drivers parked just outside the CBD and duration.

The total of these demands, when compared with the parking space available, will
demonstrate the priorities and urgency of requirement for additional space. The data
will disclose whether the need of these parkers is for long time or short time parking.
Parking usage data will reveal the location and type of violation of parking regulations,
parking duration habits, the effect of meter areas on turnover as against free zones, the
relative patronage of off-street facilities, the extent of enforcement of current
regulations, and the extent of all-day parking by workers.

3:1 GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Geometric design is the dimensioning and arrangement of the visible

elements of a highway. The object of geometric design is the provision of
safe, efficient and economical system of highways. This is done to
accommodate the volume and speed of traffic on the roadway as well as
the characteristic of the vehicles and their operators that use the facility.
To certain extents environmental and social effects are considered in
geometric design. Speed, safety and least inconvenient are the three
important factors which are to be kept in mind by every road designer. The
major elements of geometric design are:

(i) Pavement width

(ii) Roadway alignment (horizontal and vertical).

(iii) Grades (slope)

(iv) Sight distances

(v) Super elevation

(vi) Channelization

(vii) Interchanges

The design of these elements is significantly affect highway traffic

operation, safety and capacity.

3.2 Geometric Design Factors (Control & Criteria)

These are used to regulate the geometric design process so that the facility
will carry the expected traffic requirement and for consisting and uniformity
in operation. The main factors concerned in the design are design speed,
Design volume and Design vehicle characteristic. These are basically
classified as traffic characteristic in terms of volume, speed and vehicle
characteristic.

3.1.1 Design Speed: this is used for design in relation to the physical
features of a highway affecting traffic operation. The design speed affects
the horizontal alignment (curvature), super elevation, sight distance and
gradient. Specifically nearly all aspects of geometric design are affected by
the design speed. Chosen Design speed are selected based on Class and
function of highway, and traffic volumes expected to use the facility.
Highway design speed are used in level, terrain, rural roads, arterials and
high volume highways while lower design speed is used on mountainous
terrain, urban road, local street/roads and low-traffic volume road.

Table 2.1 Minimum Design Speeds for various types of highway (Kph)

Freeway
 Terrain Rural Urban

level 113 80

Rolling 97 80

Mountainous 80 80

Arterial Highway - Rural

Terrain Current ADT 80 -750 DHV 200 and over

DHV less than 200

level 80 113

Rolling 64 97

Mountainous 48 64

Arterial Highway

Urban Sub – urban

48 – 64 Kph for all types 64 – 80 Kph for all types of terrain
of terrain and for all traffic volume and for all traffic volume.
The other measure of speed that affect designs are the average running
speed, operating speed and average overall travel speed. The latter is used
to estimate level of service of urban roads.

3.1.2 Design Volume: the quantity of traffic used in designs which

represent traffic expected to use the facility. The average daily traffic
(ADT) is used for local roads and streets while the DHV is used for higher
classes of two-lane, two-way facilities. The directional design hourly
volumes (DDHV) is employed for multi-lane divided highways. DHV is
obtained by multiplying the ADT by standard factor that varies for class of
road and the DDHV is obtained by multiplying the DHV by the directional
distribution factor. This is the of traffic in the dominant direction of flow for
highway with more than two-lanes. Another important traffic parameters
based on volume is truck factor, T which is is the proportion to trucks and
buses using the facility. The design volumes determine the functional class
of the facility and the required pavement widths. The traffic element
considered for different classes of highway are given in table below;

Types of highway Traffic element required for design.

Local road and streets, two-[ane ADTc – current Ave. daily traffic
arterial highways ADT

DHV design hourly volume for some

future year.

Multilane arterial ADTc

Highway and freeway ADT

DDHV Directional design hourly

volume(DDHV)

T
3.1.3 Design Vehicle: this is the vehicle for which the weight, dimensions
and operating characteristics are used in design of the highway. The
characteristic of design vehicles are used to develop sight distance,
intersection design and cross-section design. These characteristic are made
up of both physical and operating characteristic. He physical characteristic
considered in design is overall width, length, vehicle height, wheel base
and front and rear overhang. The operating characteristics are as they
relate to wind, inertia and grade resistances. For purpose of design,
vehicles ae classified as passenger car, single unit truck, single unit bus,
intermediate semi trailer continuation, large semi trailer continuation and
full trailer continuation.

3.2 Design standard (Designation)

A combination of the various parameters used to regulate the design

procedure is referred to as the design destination. A typical design
designation is as given:

Design year – 2014

ADT (current year) – 20,100

ADT (Design year) – 31,000

DHV - 4,400

Directional distribution of traffic – 67%

Trucks - 5%

Design speed - 60Km/hr

Exercise:

In drawing up Geometric design standard for a country, what are the

considerations to be kept in view?

Describe how design speed affects highway geometry? List the aspect of a
highway geometry affected by the design speed.

Evaluation of main Design Element.

The major elements considered include:

a. cambering

b. carriageway width

c. roadway alignment

d. sight distance

e. cross-section

Camber is transverse slope given to the road surface. It is provided mainly to drain off
water from the road surface. In straight roads the central highest point is called the
crown. At horizontal curves instead of raising central point of the road, outer edge is
raised to drain off surface water. The camber is expressed as the slope of the line
joining the crown with the edge of the carriageway. It is denoted by 1 in n. for example
a camber of 1 in 40 in a straight carriage way of 10m wide, shows that crown is 12.5cm
higher than the two edges of the carriage way. Amount of camber depend on two
factors;

I. amount of rain fall

 II. Type of road surfaces.

Camber should be just sufficient for the efficient drainage of rain water from the
surface of the road. Excessive camber should not be provided unnecessarily because of
the following reasons;

1. Most of the vehicles will tend to move along the centre line of the road and thus road
capacity is affected.

II. Edges of the road surfacing wear out faster than the central part, because vehicle
moving near edges put more load on the wheels moving near the edges.

III. Because of tilt, high loaded vehicle may topple over easily.

IV. Due to rapid flow of rain water, cross-ruts may develop on the road surface.

All the three types of cambers are shown below;

Parabolic camber

Sloped camber
 Composite camber

Carriageway width is strip of road meant for vehicular traffic movement. Width of
carriage way depends on the width of the traffic lane and number of traffic lanes. Width
of carriage way on which a standard vehicle can move safely in one direction with some
minimum side clearance is called a Traffic lane. Minimum width of vehicle is 2.44m. a
minimum clearance of 68cm is recommended by IRC between side kerb or edge and
face of the vehicle in the case of single lane carriageway. So the total width of single
lane carriage way works out to be 3.8m. (2.44 + 2 x 0.68).

2.44

0.68 0.68

3.8

For roads having two or more lanes, width of 3.65 per lane is considered sufficient.
Outer vertical faces of vehicles and a clearance of 1.06m is adopted between two
crossing or overtaking vehicles. Total width thus works out to be (2.44 x 2 + 1.06 + 2 x
0.68) 7.3m in case of two lane carriageway.

0.68 2.44 1.06 2.44 0.68

 7.30m

Numbers of lanes to be provided depends upon the present and future anticipated
traffic volume and also on traffic capacity of the lane. On horizontal curves some extra
width of carriageway is also provided. If traffic volume is quite heavy, carriageway may
be divided into two parts by providing a median strip or traffic separator. Each portion
of the carriage way is reserved for traffic moving in opposite direction. Such
carriageways are called dual carriageway.

Shoulders are strips provided on both the sides of the carriageway. It serves as
parking place for vehicles which have developed some defect and need parking. If
shoulders are not provided, vehicles going out of order shall have to be parked on the
carriageway and thus efficiency of the road is effected and may even become cause of
some serious accidents. Minimum width of shoulder may be about 1.5m as
recommended by Nigeria Highway manual. But it is recommended that shoulder width
should be adequate to accommodate stationary vehicle at safe distance from the edge
of the adjacent lane. Shoulders may be of compacted earth or compacted gravel. It
should remain useable in wet weather also.

SHOULDER

Carriageway

FORMATION WIDTH

Shoulders provide lateral stability to the carriage way and also provide a sort of reserve
lane for over takings, and crossings, in the case of single lane.
 Sight distances; of utmost importance in highway design is the arrangement of
geometric elements so that there is adequate sight distance for safe and efficient traffic
operation assuming adequate light, clear atmospheric conditions, and drivers' visual
acuity. Sight distance is the length of roadway ahead that is visible to the driver. The
available sight distance on a roadway should be sufficiently long to enable a vehicle
traveling at or a near the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its
path. Although greater lengths of visible roadway are desirable, the sight distance at
every point along a roadway should be at least that needed for a below-average driver
or vehicle to stop. Sight distance may have been obstructed:

1. Due to sharpness of horizontal curve.

2. Some object at the inner side of the road curve obstructing the visibility.

3. Due to summit of the vertical curve.

4. At road intersection building at corner obstructing the sight line.

For design, the following two types of sight distance are considered:

 Stopping sight distance

 overtaking Sight Distance
 Sight distance at intersection

(i) Stopping sight distance (SSD); Stopping sight distance is the minimum distance
required within which a vehicle moving at designed speed can be stopped without
colliding with a stationary object on the road surface. The factor affecting stopping
sight distance are the speed of the vehicle, efficient of brake, total reaction time of
driver, longitudinal slope of the road, and lastly frictional resistance between road
surface and vehicle tyres. it is the sum of two distances: (1) the distance traversed by
the vehicle from the instant the driver sights an object necessitating a stop to the
instant the brakes are applied; and (2) the distance needed to stop the vehicle from the
instant brake application begins. These are referred to as lag distance and braking
distance, respectively. It is given empirically as;

Calculation of lag distance;

Let v = design speed in m/s

t = reaction time

V = design speed in Km/hrs

L
t L
V= = lag distance, = Vt

Calculation of Braking distance

F – Maximum developed frictional force

L – Braking distance

 - Frictional coefficient whose value is about 0.4

W – Total weight of the vehicle

On level road surface, the braking distance can be determined by equating workdone in
stopping the vehicle and kinetic energy of the vehicle: work done against friction in
stopping the vehicle is

F x L = WL (F = W)
 mv
2
1
2
But for v m/sec design speed, kinetic energy is

v w
2
1w
mv
2
1
2 2g g
Hence or (m = )

v
2
1w
2g
WL =

v
2

2 gμ
L =

Stopping distance = lag distance + braking distance

( v
)
2

vt +
2 ( g±μ )
SSD = ……………………(3.1)

Equation 3.1 applies for vehicle travelling on a grading terrain, for vehicle on a terrain;

( v
)
2

vt +
2 ( gμ )
SSD = ……………………(3.2) Note:-
AASHTO perception reaction time is given as 2.5sec.

Generally, speed of the vehicle is given in Km/hr. let v be the speed in km/hr.

( )
v
2

254 μ
Stopping distance in metre = 0.278vt + ….(3.3)
 v
2

101
= 0.278vt +

= 0.278vt + 0.01v2

Example: compute the minimum sight distance required to avoid a head on collision of
two buses approaching from the opposite directions. The speed of both the buses is
70Km/hr. assume a total perception and brake reaction time of 2.5secs. Coefficient of
friction is 0.4 and brake efficiency is 50%

Solution:-

70×1000 175
60×60 9
70Km/hr = = m/sec

v
2

vt 2 μg
SSD = +

As the brake efficiency is 50%, the wheels would skid through 50% of braking distance
and rotate through the remaining 50% distance

v
2

2 μg 0 .5
SSD = vt +

( )
175
2

175 9
9 2×9 . 8×0 . 4×0 . 5
= x 2.5 + = 145.06m

SSD to avoid head on collision of the two approaching buses

 = 2 x 145.06 = 290.12m = 290m

(ii) PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE

passing sight distance is applicable only in the design of two-lane roadways (including
two-way frontage roads). Distance, usually applicable on 2-lane, 2-way facilities
required for the initiation and completion of an overtaking maneuvers by a faster
vehicle and a slower vehicle without impact with the opposing vehicle. Following are
some of the factor which affect the minimum passing sight distance.

i. Skill and efficiency of the driver intending to overtake.

Ii.spacing between both vehicles intending to overtaking and to be overtake

Iii. Speed of three vehicles namely vehicle overtaking, overtaken and vehicle coming
from opposite direction.

Iv. Acceleration rate of overtaking vehicles.

A3 B2 B1 A2 A1

C1 C2 s b s
d1 d2 d3
 Vb – Speed of the vehicle to be overtaken in m/sec. V–
Design speed of the vehicle A & B in m/sec.

(1) d1 = Vb x t S1
is the distance between A2 and B1 which may be taken as minimum spacing between
vehicles can be found out by formula S1= (0.69Vb+6.1).

(2) b = VbT meter

d2 = b + S1 + S2 = b + 2S (since S1 = S2)
= VbT + 2S

Overtaking maneuver time: Time taken in overtaking maneuver (T) depend upon the
speed of vehicle B and acceleration of A and can be determined by equating d2 to VbT
+ 1/2ft2. Hence f is acceleration in m/sec.

fT
2

2
d2 = b +2S = (VbT + )

fT
√
2
4S
2 f
in order words, b = VbT and 2S = ,T= sec

(3) d3 = VT,

Hence OSD = d1 + d2 + d3

fT
2

2
= Vbt + (VbT + ) + VT

Exercise:

Explain factors on which the overtaking sight distance depends. Derive an expression
for calculating the overtaking sight distance on a road.
Calculate the safe stopping sight distance for design speed of 60Km/h for;

a. two way traffic on a two lane road.

b. two way traffic on a single lane road.

Assume coefficient of friction 0.38 and reaction time as 2.5sec.

ROADWAY ALIGNMENT
Consist of a sequence of tangents or straight s that is linked with smooth circular curves
which results in the horizontal profile of the road. It also comprises of a combination of
rise and fall grades joined with vertical curves resulting in the vertical profile of the
road. Thus horizontal and vertical alignment designs are done uniformly as a 3-d

process to give flowing alignments which enhance safety and usual appreciation .

Horizontal Alignment
The horizontal alignment of a highway represents the projection of the facilities on a
horizontal plane. It generally consists of straight-line segments (tangents) connected by
circular curves either directly (simple curve) or via intermediately transition curve.

Circular curve

Tangent Tangent

PC PT

Simple curve

Circular curve

Transition curve Transition curve

Tangent tangent

The length of the facility is measured along the horizontal alignment of a control line
such as the centre line of a highway, and is usually expressed in terms of 1000m
stations from reference point. Appoint identified as chainage 2+250 is located at a

distance of 2250m from the reference point.

Circular curve
simple curve: this is a circular arc joining two tangents.

PI – Point of intersection

T PI ∇ PT – Point of Tangent

L PC- Point of Curvature

PC PT

R – Radius of Curve

R R L- length of curve
∇ - Intersection angle

∇
2 E – External distance

C- Chord length
Sharpness of the curve is designated by radius or degree of curvature. Degree of
curvature {arc definition}: central angle of the curve that is subtended by an arc of
100m

∇ 100 ∇
360 = 2 πR ( :. 360 2 πR = 100) R
 5729. 58
Therefore, ∇ = R

Sub chord: this subtend a sub arc

length of sub chord = c

δ δ
given as G – C = G – 2Rsin 2 c = 2Rsin 2 where
δ is obtained from previous equation

δ δ δ
External Distance (E): R+E = Rsec 2 , E = Rsec 2 -R = R(sec 2 -1)
δ δ
Middle ordinate distance (M): R-M = R cos 2 , therefore M = R(1 - cos 2 )

Derivations: in staking out a curve L and T must nearly always be computed, where ∇
is known, the following formulas are used;

L 100
∇ = D ;. L = 100 ∇ /D
5729. 58 ∇ ∇ 5729. 58
T= D tan 2 (T = Rtan 2 and R = D )

CURVE

Measurements are done along the tangents around the arc of the curve. Assuming
100m separates adjacent stations. The station might be partly on the tangent and
partly on the curve. Since the length of arc between two adjacent stations is 100m the
angle subtended at the centre by adjacent station is equal to the degree of curvature of
the curve.

The central angle ∆

Angle at the centre included between the radii which passes through the PC and PT.
Length of curve

L ∇
2 πR = 360

L = 0.174538 ∇ R

Where ∇ is in degree

∇
T = R Tan 2
∇
C= 2R sin 2 , where c = long chord
Length of any chord c: can be obtain by substituting the angle , subtended by long

chord for ∇ ;
δ
c = 2R sin 2

Sub arc: any arc less than 100m, the length is given as a unit and the angle length is;

a δ min utes
2 πR = 2100 (60 x 360 = 21600)

Location of curves by deflection angle

An angle between two chords or between a chord and a tangent that intersect at the
circumferences of a circle is measured by one half the intercepted arc. Given the
illustration below:
Station of PI = 65 + 27.42 central angle
∇
∇ = 7255’15’’ (72.59) T = R tan 2 =
350 tan 36.29 = 257.04m (2 + 57.04) to compute PC station;

PI = 65 + 27.42
- T = 2 + 57.04
62 + 70.33

Compute L;

L = 0.0174538 ∇ R = 0.0174538 x 72.59 x 350

= 443.41

To compute PT;
PT = PC + L
PC = 62 + 70.33
+ L = 4 + 43.41
67 + 13.79

Compute distance of deflection;

The proper deflection angle is turned from the PI to each station on the curve, and
chords are measured first from the PC to the first station on the curve, then from the
first station to the second station and so on. The increase in plus from the PC to the
first station on the curve is computed first. This is ‘a’ the length of the surface
measured from the PC. In this case, the first station on the sub arc is
63 + 00.00 -
62 + 70.33
 29.62 = ‘a’ the deflection angle from the tangent at PC for this sub
δ 21600×a 21600×a 29. 62
arc is given as; 2 (minutes) = 2 πR = 2×π×350 =145.46 =

225’46’’(2.42) the curve will be staked out at 50m interval. That means each
sub arc will increase the deflection angle from the tangent at the PC by half the central
angle sub arc of 50m

a = 50m

a δ δ a×21600 δ
2 πR = 21600 = 2 = 4 πR 2 =
245.555’ = 405’55’’ = 4.0925

The length of the sub arc from the last stakes on the curve to the PT, ‘a’ is 13.79m

1 a×21600
δ
2 = 4 πR = 67.72’ = 107’72’’ = 1.125

Thus, the deflection angles from the tangent at the PC are computed as follow:

Station Deflection angle

PC 62 + 70.33 000’’
63 + 00 225’46’’

+50 405’56’’

63 +50 631’02’’

+50 405’56’’

64 +00 1036’58’’

+50 405’56’’

64 + 50 1442’14’’

+50 405’56’’

65 + 00 1847’70’’

+50 405’56’’
 65 +50 2253’26’’

+50 405’56’’

66 +00 2655’82’’

+50 405’56’’

66 +50 3104’38’’

+50 405’56’’

67 +00 3509’74’’

13.79 107’72’’

PT 67 + 13.79 3617’66’’

δ
Note: the deflection angle to the PT should be equal 2 as the arc subtended equals ∇ .
δ
Since 2 = 3617’66’’, the value obtained from computation causes within 0.04’, the

error introduced by rounding off. ∇ is stipulated between 5 - 7 on level terrain and

should not exceed 10 on mountainous terrain. The degree of curvature is also

regulated by the friction factor, f .

Table: Horizontal curve Radii for urban and rural roads

Design Urban radii Rural radii

speed

Normal Minimum Desirable Minimum

Km/hr 4% 7% 4% 7% 4% 7%

120 - - - - 960 510

100 - - - - 660 350

80 500 300 260 230 420 230

 60 275 170 150 130 240 130

50 200 120 90 80 - -

30 75 50 25 30 - -

EXTRA WIDTH OF ROAD AT HORIZONTAL CURVE

On horizontal curves, increased carriageway width is provided than the normal

width on straight reaches. The increased width is called the extra widening of the
pavement and the length of the wheel base. Its value depends upon the sharpness of
the curve. For sharper curves extra width to be provided shall be more. Following
are the reasons of providing extra width of pavement at horizontal curves.

I. Drivers have a tendency to keep away from the edge of the carriageway while
driving on curves.

II. The clearance between the vehicles, crossing or passing each other over
horizontal curves, is kept more than that on a straight road due to psychological
effect.

III. While negotiating a horizontal curve the front steering wheels are turned and
thus more space of road is occupied by the vehicle.

IV. at start of the curves, drivers have a tendency to follow outer edge of the
pavement to have better visibility and large radius curve path.

V. Trailer units require even larger extra width at curves.

 R2

R1

Out of all points listed above, first two points come under psychological effect and
hence widening to this effect has to be provided. Psychological widening (W s) is
V
given as Ws = 9.5 √ R

Where V = design speed in Km/hr.

Extra widening required as per remaining points is called mechanical widening

l
2

(Wm) of the road which can be taken as 2 R where l is length of longest vehicle
base in metres. Hence total extra widening of the road (W t) is the sum of
psychological and mechanical widening.

i.e Wt = Ws + Wm

Example;

Calculate the extra widening required for a pavement of width 7.3m on a

horizontal curve of radius 200m if the longest wheel base of vehicle expected on
road is 6.1m. Design speed is 80kmph.

Solution:

nl
2

V
+
Wt = Ws + Wm = 9. 5 √ R 2 R

n=2 as width of road is 7.3m

 2 x (6.1)
2

V
+
Wt = 9. 5 √ 200 2 x 200

= 0.595 + 0.186 = 0.781m

SUPER ELEVATION
Used to prevent the outward skidding of vehicles on curve path due to centrifugal force
inducing this effect. It is effected by elevating the outer edge of the curve. Consider the
theoretical illustration below.

The value of centrifugal

V
2
W
force is P = gR

Considering the equilibrium of the component of forces acting parallel to the surface of

the road, Pcos θ , the component of gravity and the frictional forces Fi and Fe. For
equilibrium condition,

P Pcos θ = Wsin θ + Fi + Fe

Pcos θ = Wsin θ + (Ri + Re)

= Wsin + (Wcos + Psin)

(Ri + Re = Wcos + Psin)

P(cos - sin) = Wsin + cos

Dividing by Wcos
P
(1−
W tan) = tan + 

P
tan θ+μ
W = −μ tan θ  = 0.15
 1
tan seldom exceeds 15 on this basis the value of tan =
0. 15×
1
15( ) less than 0.01.
thus ( 1−μ tan θ ) equal 0.99 and may be taken equal to 1 for practical purpose.

V
2

P P
W = tan +  = ℓ+  but W = gR

V
2

ℓ+  = gR

Where ℓ - rate of roadway super elevation (m/m)

f - side friction factor

V – Vehicle speed (Km/hr)

R – Radius of curve

g – Acceleration due to gravity

f - ranges from 0.16 at 48Km/hr to 0.11 at 128Km/hr

ℓ - Is place at a maximum of 0.12 on rural highway and condition range from

0.08 – 0.10.

The following methods can be used to attain super elevation of curves.

1. Revolving pavement about center line.

2. Rotating pavement about inner edge

3. Rotating pavement about outer edge

The development of full super elevation for a typical two lane highway simple circular
curve is illustrated below.

Cross – section

fig : Super elevation Development

Horizontal Alignment Control

(1) Direct alignment with as many passing sight distance should be adopted.

(2) Sharp curves should be avoided i.e short length of curve.

(3) Maximum curvature should be avoided as much as possible.

(4) Gentle curve should be used on long hills .

(5) Two curves in the same direction on other side of short straight or gentle curves
(broken back curve) should be avoided.

(6) At the end of long, flat (gentle, level) curves or long tangent, sharp curve are
undesirable.

TRANSITION CURVES: is such a curve whose radius changes from infinity to some
infinite value or between two finite values. This curve is introduced between straight
road and starting point of simple circular curve. When a vehicle travelling on a straight
course enters a curve of finite radius it is suddenly subjected to the centrifugal force
which causes shock and sway. In order to avoid this it is customary to provide a
transition curve at the beginning of the circular curve, having a radius equal to infinity
at the end of the straight and gradually reducing the radius to the radius of the circular
curve where the curve begins. Incidentally, the transition portion is also used for the
gradual application of the super-elevation and the curve widening and improvement of
general appearance.

OBJECTIVE OF TRANSITION CURVE

I. To obtain gradual and easy transformation from straight to circular curve to the
straight road.

II. To obtain a gradual increase of curvature from zero at the tangent point to that of
circular curves at their junction point.

III. To obtain a gradual increase of extra widening from zero at the tangent point to a
specified value at junction point with the circular curve.
 LEMNISCATE

CUBIC PARABOLA

SPIRAL

FIG: SPIRAL, LEMNISCATE AND CUBIC PARABOLA

Various forms of curves are suitable for highway transitions, but the one most popular
and recommended for use in this country is the spiral because the rate of change of
radius and thus rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is constant.

Equation of spiral is

L = m √θ

Where L = length of transition curve

M= a constant whose value is √ 2 RL

 = tangent deflection angle in radian
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Vertical curves provide gradual changes between tangents of different grades. The
simple parabola shown in Figure 2-6 is used in the highway profile design of vertical
curves. Denoted by the grade line which consists of straight/tangent grade connected

with curve. Main components are grade and vertical curve .

Grade:

The effects of rate and length of grade are more pronounced on the operating
characteristics of trucks than on passenger cars and thus may introduce undesirable
speed differentials between the vehicle types. Minimum allowable grade is controlled by
their effect on truck speed. Where there is a high proportion of truck traffic maximum
grade is set at 3% while for road heavily traversed by passenger car, maximum
allowable grade is place at 7%.The term “critical length of grade” is used to indicate the
maximum length of a specified ascending gradient upon which a loaded truck can
operate without an unreasonable reduction in speed (15 km/hr).

 Controls adopted in Grade Development

-For enhancing riding qualities and visibility, long length of point of intersection of grade
and long vertical curves between grades is essential.

-Smooth grade lines that comply with class of highway and terrain are desirable.

-Hidden Dip’ or Roller coaster types of profiles should be avoided.

-Two vertical curves in the same direction separated by short tangent pose hazard to
highway operation and should be avoided as well.

-Grades should be reduced on at-grade intersection on highway with moderate to steep

grades where condition permit.
VERTICAL CURVES

General consideration;

Vertical curves should be provided at point of change of grade.

The vertical curve serves a number of purposes:

1. They serve as a gradual transition from one gradient to another without discomfort
to riders.

2. They eliminate sudden humps and troughs.

3. They provide adequate visibility for stopping and overtaking.

If the point of vertical intersection (termed PVI) is above the road surface, the curve is
a summit or crest curve and if is below the road surface, the curve is a sag curve.

Crest Sag

+ve -ve -ve +ve

+ve

+ve

+ve +ve

-ve -ve

-ve -ve
Shape of a vertical curve: for best riding qualities, a vertical curve should be such that
the change in grade is uniform throughout. Such a curve is a parabola having a vertical
axis.

LENGTH OF SUMMIT CURVES

For summit curves, the most important consideration in determining the length of the
curve is the sight distance requirement. The following basic formulae can be used to
determine the length.

(A) For safe stopping sight distance

Case I: when the sight distance (S) is less than the length of the curve (L):

NS
2

L= (√ 2 h + √2 h )
1 2

Case II. When the sight distance (S) is greater than the length of the curve (L)

L=

Properties of a cubic Parabola.

The general equation for a parabola when axis is parallel to the Y- axis is given as;

Y = ax2 + bx + c

The slope of this curve at any point is given as the derivative;

δy
δx = 2ax + b

The rate of change of slope is given as;

δy
2

δx
2

= 2a
 δy
2

δx
2

=K

Design of vertical Curve:

D VPI

G1 E G2
L
BVC 2 EVC

G1 & G2- Tangent grade in percent. L- Length of the curve

A – The absolute of the algebraic difference in grades in percent.

BVC – Beginning of vertical curve, EVC – end of vertical curve

VPI – Vertical point of intersection. E – Vertical distance from VPI to curve.

D- Horizontal distance to any point on the curve from BVC or EVC

Algebraic Differences

A = (G2)-(G1)

AL
E = 800

( )
x
2

4E

Y=
L

Elevation at any point on curve is P = (elevation of BVC +

( G)
x
100
1

)+Y
Example: Design a 550m curve to join a +2.11% grade with a -1.29% grade which
both meet at a summit of reduced level 62.86m and station 41,000km. Take offset at
50m interval and produce a setting out table.

Solution:

550
Change at BVC = 41,000 - 2 = 40725 or 40 + 725

550
Chainage at EVC = 41,000 + 2 = 41275 or 41 + 275

Elevation at BVC, x = Elevation at VPI- (chainage at VPI – chainage at BVC) xG1

= 62.86 - ( 41000−40725 ) x 0.0211

= 57.06

Algebraic Difference. A = G2- G1

=-1.29- (+2.11) = -3.4

800¿
AL −3.4×550¿ ¿
E = 800 = ¿ = -2.33

( )
x
2

4E

Y=
L

Elevation at any point on curve is P = (elevation of BVC +

( G)
x
100
1

)+Y

Station Offset dist, (m) Grade level Offset y Curve level (m)

40 + 725 0 57.06 0 57.06

40 + 775 50 58.115 0.0773 58.04

40 + 825 100 59.17 0.309 58.86

40 + 875 150 60.225 0.695 59.53

 40 + 925 200 61.28 1.236 60.04

40 + 975 250 62.335 1.931 60.41

41 + 025 300 63.339 2.781 60.56

41 + 075 350 64.445 3.783 60.66

41 + 125 400 65.5 4.944 60.56

41 + 175 450 66.555 6.257 60.30

41 + 225 500 67.61 7.725 59.89

41 + 275 550 68.665 9.347 59.32

4:0 TRAFFIC INTERSECTIONS

4:1 INTRODUCTION
Intersection is an area shared by two or more roads. This area is designated for the
vehicles to turn to different directions to reach their desired destinations. Its main
function is to guide vehicles to their respective directions.
Traffic intersections are complex locations on any highway. This is because vehicles
moving in different direction want to occupy same space at the same time. In addition,
the pedestrians also seek same space for crossing.
Drivers have to make split second decision at an intersection by considering his route,
intersection geometry, speed and direction of other vehicles etc. A small error in
judgment can cause severe accidents. It also causes delay and it depends on type,
geometry, and type of control. Overall traffic flow depends on the performance of the
intersections. It also affects the capacity of the road. Therefore, both from the accident
perspective and the capacity perspective, the study of intersections very important for
the traffic engineers especially in the case of urban scenario.
The intersections are of two types. They are at-grade intersections and grade-separated
intersections.

 AT-GRADE INTERSECTIN
In at-grade intersections, all roadways join or cross at the same vertical level. At grade

intersection, how best it may have designed, traffic speed has to be reduced.

Moreover several conflict points are developed where possibilities of

accidents always persist.

4:2 Conflicts at an intersection

Conflicts at an intersection are different for different types of intersection. Consider a
typical four-legged intersection as shown in figure. The numbers of conflicts for
competing through movements are 4, while competing right turn and through
movements are 8. The conflicts between right turn traffics are 4, and between left turn
and merging traffic are 4. The conflicts created by pedestrians will be 8 taking into
account all the four approaches. Diverging traffic also produces about 4 conflicts.
Therefore, a typical four legged intersection has about 32 different types of conflicts.
This is shown in figure. The essence of the intersection control is to resolve these
conflicts at the intersection for the safe and efficient movement of both vehicular traffic
and pedestrians. Two methods of intersection controls are there: time sharing and
space sharing. The type of intersection control that has to be adopted depends on the
traffic volume, road geometry, cost involved, importance of the road etc.

Conflicts in a traffic signal

P P 4 Through traffic

4 Left Turn

P P 8 Left Turn- through

P P 4 Merging
4 Diverging
P 8 Pedestrian
Total = 32 conflicts

P P

Fig : Conflict at an intersection

Types of at-grade intersection

This intersection may be all-paved (unchannelized), channelized or rotary types.
Following are essential features of a road intersection;
 There should be adequate visibility for all the approaching vehicles on all
converging roads.
 Width of pavement and radius for turning should be sufficient provided.
  Area of conflict should be reduced to minimum by introducing properly designed
traffic island and channelizing islands.
 For night driving, intersection should be fully illuminated.
 Angle of approach of vehicle from all roads should be kept small.
According to the system of intersecting roads at grade intersection their forms are Tee,
cross, staggered, skewed and wye. All these intersection are shown below:

TEE CROSS WYE

Staggered Skewed cross

Fig: Types of intersection

1. Unchannelized: in this type of intersection, there is no provision of any direction

island or central island. Traffic from all the approaching roads intermingles and
proceeds to their desired path. If traffic is heavy, this type of intersection cannot work,
as there will be frequent accident. Heavy traffic at such intersection can be controlled
by installing traffic signals or with the help of traffic police who may be stopping traffic
on one road and giving direction for the traffic of other road alternatively.
 Flare Tee Flare Cross

At such intersection if no additional pavement width for turning movements is provided,

it is called plain intersection. If additional pavement width is provided at intersection, it
is known as flare intersection, increase in width due to flaring may be one lane or more.
At all such intersection, traffic on one road will have to be stopped while traffic on the
other road is crossing.

2. Channelization: The traffic is separated to flow through definite paths by

raising a portion of the road in the middle usually called as islands distinguished by road
markings. The conflicts in traffic movements are reduced to a great extent in such a
case. In channelized intersections, as the name suggests, the traffic is directed to flow
through different channels and this physical separation is made possible with the help
of some barriers in the road like traffic islands, road markings etc. Vehicles approaching

an intersection are directed to definite paths by islands, marking etc. and this method
of control is called channelization.
Channelization of traffic through a three-legged intersection and a four-legged
intersection is shown in the figures below.
 Fig: Channelization of traffic through three-legged intersection

Fig: Channelization of traffic through Four-legged intersection

Channelized intersection provides more safety and efficiency. It reduces the number of

possible conflicts by reducing the area of conflicts available in the carriageway. If no

channelizing is provided the driver will have less tendency to reduce the speed while
entering the intersection from the carriageway. The presence of traffic islands,
markings etc. forces the driver to reduce the speed and becomes more cautious while
maneuvering the intersection. A channelizing island also serves as a refuge for
pedestrians and makes pedestrian crossing safer.
3. Traffic rotaries: It is a form of intersection control in which the traffic
is made to flow along one direction around a traffic island. The essential
principle of this control is to convert all the severe conflicts like through
and right turn conflicts into milder conflicts like merging, weaving and
diverging. It is a form of `at-grade' intersection laid out for the movement
of traffic such that no through conflicts are there. Free-right turn is
permitted where as through traffic and left-turn traffic is forced to move
around the central island in anti-clock-wise direction in an orderly manner.

Merging, weaving and diverging operations reduces the conflicting

movements at the rotary.

Fig: Shape of Rotary or Roundabout

Advantage of Roundabout
 An orderly and regimented traffic flow is provided by rotary one way
movement. Individual traffic movements are subordinate in favour of
traffic as a whole.
 Normally all traffic provides simultaneously and continuously at fairly
uniform, though low speed, frequent stopping and starting are
avoided.
 Weaving movement replace the usual angular crossings. Typical at-
grade intersections. Direct conflict is eliminated, all traffic stream
merging or leaving at small angles. Accidents that occur from such
movement are of minor nature, usually involving property damage
only.
 A rotary is especially suited for intersection with five or more
intersection legs and where there heavy right-turning movement.
 For moderate traffic, rotaries are self-governing and need no control
by police or traffic signal.

Disadvantage of Roundabout
 A rotary required more land and may not be feasible in built-up
location.
 Where pedestrian traffic is large, a rotary by itself is not sufficient to
control traffic and has to be supplemented by traffic public.
 Where used on high speed roads, rotaries require extremely large
size.
 Where it was provided at close intervals they are troublesome.
  A rotary can accommodate no more traffic than a properly designed
channelized layout. In some cases, rotaries have been eliminated and
replaced with a channelized intersection resulting in better operation.

Guidelines for selecting a rotary type of intersection

Considering some of the above advantage and disadvantages, the following
general guideline may be kept in view when selecting a rotary type of
intersection.
I. Rotaries are most apt where volumes entering from different intersection
legs are approximately equal.
II. A total volume of 3000 vehicles per hour entering from all the
intersection legs appears to be the max. practical capacity of high type
rotaries.
III. A rotary is good choice when there are more than four approaches to
the junction.
IV. When the approach widths are restricted and it is impossible to provide
separate lanes for through and turning traffic, a rotary may be desirable.
Shape of Rotary Island
The shape and layout of the rotary is land depends upon the layout of the
intersecting roads and the traffic flow pattern. The following brief remarks
about the different types in common use are intended to be general
guidelines.

TYPE REMARKS
1. Circular suited where roads of equall importance
carrying approx. equal volumes intersect at
nearly equal angle.
2. Squarish with suited for predominantly straight ahead flow.
rounded edge
3. Elliptical, intende to favour through traffic. They may
be
elongated, oval provided to suit the geometry of the
intersecting legs or to provide long weaving
lengths.
4. Irregular Shape is dictated by the existence of a large
number of approaches.

Elliptical
 Circular
AT-GRADE AND GRADE SEPARATED JUNCTIONS
The choice between at-grade and grade-separated junction at a particular
site depends upon various factors such as traffic, economy, safety,
aesthetic, delay etc. Grade separated junction generally are more
expensive initially, and are justified in a certain situation. These are
(i) On high type facilities such as expressways, freeways and motorways.

(ii) Certain at-grade intersections which have reached the maximum

capacity and where it is not possible to improve the capacity further by
retaining the at-grade crossing.

(iii) At certain locations which have a proven record of bad accident history
when functioning as at-grade junction.

(iv) At junction where the traffic volume is heavy and the delays and loss
caused justify economically the provision of grade-separation.

4:3. Grade separated intersections: Grade a separated intersection

allows the traffic to cross at different vertical levels. Sometimes the
topography itself may be helpful in constructing such intersections.
Otherwise, the initial construction cost required will be very high.
Therefore, they are usually constructed on high speed facilities like
expressways, freeways etc. This type of intersection increases the road
capacity because vehicles can flow with high speed and accident potential
is also reduced due to vertical separation of traffic.
Interchange is a system where traffic between two or more roadways flows
at different levels in the grade separated junctions. Common types of
interchange include trumpet interchange, diamond interchange, and
cloverleaf interchange.

4:4 Various types of Interchanges

4:4:1 Trumpet interchange: Trumpet interchange is a popular form of
three leg interchange. Trumpet interchanges are traditionally used where
one highway terminates at another highway; it involves at least one loop
ramp connecting traffic either entering or leaving the Terminating
expressway with the far lanes of the continuous highway. These
interchanges are useful for highways as well as toll roads, as they
concentrate all entering and exiting traffic into a single stretch, where toll
booths can be installed. A typical layout of trumpet interchange is shown in
figure.

Trumpet interchange
 4:4:2. Diamond
interchange: A
diamond interchange is
an interchange involving
four ramps where they
enter and leave the freeway at a small angle and meet the non-freeway at
almost right angles. These ramps at the non-freeway can be controlled
through stop signs, traffic signals, or turn ramps. Diamond interchanges
are inexpensive to build and require little land but are prone to congestion
and accidents if there is high traffic.
A typical layout of diamond interchange is shown in figure.

Diamond Interchange

4:4:3. Clover leaf interchange: It is also a four leg interchange and is

used when two highways of high volume and speed intersect each other
with considerable turning movements. The main advantage of cloverleaf
intersection is that it provides complete separation of traffic. In addition,
high speed at intersections can be achieved. However, the disadvantage is
that large area of land is required. Therefore, cloverleaf interchanges are
provided mainly in rural areas. A typical layout of this type of interchange
is shown in figure.
Cloverleaf Interchange

4:4:3 Directional interchange: A directional interchange uses

flyover/under ramps in all directions at a three-way interchange.
Directional T interchanges are very efficient, but are expensive to build
compared to other three-way interchanges. They also require three levels,
which can be an eyesore for local residents.

Directional Interchange

Exercise:

(1) What location justified grade-separated intersection?

(2) What are the basic forms of at-grade intersections? Give sketches
showing the details of each type.

Prepared by: Engr. K. U. Otaru, B.ENG (BUK), M.SC (ABU), C.ENG, MNSE

Senior Lecturer