Martial arts (literally meaning arts of war[1] but usually referred as fighting arts) are extensive
systems of codified practices and traditions of combat. Martial arts all have similar objectives: to
physically defeat other persons or defend oneself or others from physical threat. Some martial
arts are also linked to beliefs systems such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Daoism, Confucianism or
Shinto while others follow a secular code of honor. Martial arts are considered as both an art and
a science. Many arts are also practiced competitively, most commonly as combat sports, but
competitions may also take the form of "forms competition."
[edit] Overview
The term martial arts refers to the art of warfare (derived from Mars the Roman god of war) and
comes from a 15th-century European term referring to what are now known as historical
European martial arts specifically to what is today known as Historical Fencing, but is now most
commonly associated with Asian fighting styles, especially the combat systems that originated in
East Asia. The term both in its literal meaning however, and in its subsequent usage may be
taken to refer to any codified combat system, regardless of origin, a practitioner of martial arts is
referred to as a martial artist. Martial arts have originated and evolved in various cultures at
various times. In the Americas, Native Americans have traditions of open-handed martial arts
such as wrestling, while Hawaiians have historically practiced arts featuring small and large-joint
manipulation. A mix of origins is found in the athletic movements of Capoeira, which African
slaves developed in Brazil based on skills they had brought from Africa.
While each style has unique facets that differentiate it from other martial arts, a common
characteristic is the systematization of fighting techniques. Methods of training vary and may
include sparring (simulated combat) or formal sets or routines of techniques known as forms or
kata. Forms are especially common in the Asian and Asian-derived martial arts.[2]
[edit] Variation and scope
Martial arts vary widely, and may focus on a specific area or combination of areas, but they can
be broadly grouped into focusing on strikes, grappling, or weapons. Below is a list of examples
that make extensive use of one of these areas; it is not an exhaustive list of all arts covering the
area, nor are these necessarily the only areas covered by the art but are the focus or best known
part as examples of the area:
Strikes
Punching: Boxing (Western), Wing Chun,
Kicking: Capoeira, Savate, Taekwondo, Kickboxing
Other strikes: Karate, Muay Thai
Grappling
Throwing: Glima, Judo, Sambo
Joint lock/Chokes/Submission holds: Aikido, Judo, Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, Chin Na, Jujutsu,
Hapkido, Silat, Sambo
Pinning Techniques: Judo, Shuai Jiao, Wrestling, Sambo
Weaponry
Traditional Weaponry: Eskrima, Fencing, Kendo, Kyūdō
Modern Weaponry: Jukendo
Many martial arts, especially those from Asia, also teach side disciplines which pertain to
medicinal practices. This is particularly prevalent in traditional Chinese martial arts which may
teach bone-setting, qigong, acupuncture, acupressure (tui na), and other aspects of traditional
Chinese medicine.[3] Martial arts can also be linked with religion and spirituality. Numerous
systems are reputed to have been founded, disseminated, or practiced by monks or nuns. For
example, gatka is a weapon-based Indian martial art created by the Sikhs of the Panjab region of
India and the Kshatriya caste of Hindus also have an ancient martial art named Shastra vidhya.
Japanese styles like aikido, have a strong philosophical belief of the flow of energy and peace.
The Martial Arts are considered both an art for its dynamics of body movement as well as a
science for its systematic application in relation to anatomy, physics, philosophy, hoplology and
criminology.
Some martial arts in various cultures can be performed in dance-like settings for various reasons,
such as for evoking ferocity in preparation for battle or showing off skill in a more stylized
manner. Many such martial arts incorporate music, especially strong percussive rhythms. See
also war dance
[edit] History
Main article: History of martial arts
Further information: Martial arts timeline
[edit] Historical martial arts
Main articles: History of Asian martial arts and Historical European martial arts
Further information: History of boxing and History of fencing
While martial arts evidently have roots in prehistory, the earliest evidence of systematic training
in specific martial arts traditions emerges in antiquity (late 1st millennium BC) in both Asia and
Europe.
The foundation of modern Asian martial arts is likely a blend of early Chinese and Indian martial
arts. During the Warring States period of Chinese history (480-221 BC) extensive development
in martial philosophy and strategy emerged, as described by Sun Tzu in The Art of War (c. 350
BC).[4] Legendary accounts link the origin of Shaolin Kung Fu to the spread of Buddhism from
India during the early 5th century AD, with the figure of Bodhidharma, to China.[5]
Boxing was practiced in the ancient Mediterranean.
In Europe, the earliest sources of martial arts traditions date to Classical Antiquity. Boxing
(pygme, pyx), Wrestling (pale) and Pankration were represented in the Ancient Olympic Games.
The Romans produced gladiatorial combat as a public spectacle.
A number of historical combat manuals have survived from the European Middle Ages. This
includes such styles as sword and shield, two-handed swordfighting and other types of melee
weapons besides unarmed combat. The most famous of these is Johannes Lichtenauer's
Fechtbuch (Fencing book) of the 14th century, which today forms the basis of the German
school of swordsmanship. Likewise, Asian martial arts become well-documented during the
medieval period, Japanese martial arts beginning with the establishment of the samurai nobility
in the 12th century, Chinese martial arts with Ming era treatises such as Ji Xiao Xin Shu, Indian
martial arts in medieval texts such as the Agni Purana and the Malla Purana, and Korean martial
arts with Joseon era texts such as Muyejebo (1598). "Historical martial arts" in both Asia and
Europe are mostly based on such records of the late medieval to early modern period (15th to
17th centuries; see also Koryū).
European swordsmanship was trained for duels until the Napoleonic era, and developed into
sport fencing during the 19th century. Modern boxing originates with Jack Broughton's rules in
the 18th century, and reaches its present form with the Marquess of Queensberry Rules of 1867.
Europe's colonization of Asian countries also brought about a decline in local martial arts,
especially with the introduction of firearms. This can clearly be seen in India after the full
establishment of British Raj in the 19th century.[6] Similar phenomena occurred in Southeast
Asian colonies such as Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam and the Philippines.
[edit] Folk styles
Main article: Folk wrestling
All over the world, there are traditional styles of folk wrestling, and in some cases also stick
fighting, rooted in local culture and folklore. In East and Southeast Asia, these are forms such as
Korean, Khmer or Mongolian wrestling and Japanese Sumo, in South and Southwest Asia Indo-
Persian Pehlwani, in Central and Western Asia Turkic (Uzbek, Tatar) styles; in Europe, there are
Icelandic, Swiss and various English wrestling traditions. African folk wrestling includes the
West African style of Lutte Traditionnelle.
While these arts are based on historical traditions of folklore, they are not "historical" in the
sense that they reconstruct or preserve a historical system from a specific era. They are rather
contemporary regional sports that coexist with the modern forms of martial arts sports as they
have developed since the 19th century, often including cross-fertilization between sports and folk
styles; thus, the traditional Thai style of Muay Boran developed into the modern national sport of
Muay Thai, which in turn came to be practiced worldwide and contributed significantly to
modern hybrid styles like kickboxing and mixed martial arts.
[edit] Modern history
Further information: Modern history of East Asian martial arts
late 19th to early 20th century
The mid to late 19th century marks the beginning of the history of martial arts as modern sports
developed out of earlier traditional fighting systems. In Europe, this concerns the developments
of boxing and fencing as sports. In Japan, the same period marks the formation of the modern
forms of judo, jujitsu, karate, and kendo (among others) based on revivals of old schools of Edo
period martial arts which had been suppressed during the Meiji Restoration. Modern Muay Thai
rules date to the 1920s. In China, the modern history of martial arts begins in the Nanjing decade
(1930s) following the foundation of the Central Guoshu Institute in 1928 under the Kuomintang
government.
Western interest in Asian martial arts arises towards the end of the 19th century, due to the
increase in trade between the United States with China and Japan. Relatively few Westerners
actually practiced the arts, considering it to be mere performance. Edward William Barton-
Wright, a railway engineer who had studied jujitsu while working in Japan between 1894–97,
was the first man known to have taught Asian martial arts in Europe. He also founded an eclectic
style named Bartitsu which combined jujutsu, judo, boxing, savate and stick fighting.
Fencing and Greco-Roman wrestling was included in the 1896 Summer Olympics. FILA
Wrestling World Championships and Boxing at the Summer Olympics were introduced in 1904.
The tradition of awarding championship belts in wrestling and boxing can be traced to the
Lonsdale Belt, introduced in 1909.
20th century (1914 to 1989)
The International Boxing Association was established in 1920. World Fencing Championships
have been held since 1921.
Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, or Gracie Jiu-Jitsu, is an adaptation of pre–World War II judo developed by
the brothers Carlos and Hélio Gracie, who restructured the art into a sport with a large focus on
groundwork.
As Western influence grew in Asia a greater number of military personnel spent time in China,
Japan, and South Korea during World War II and the Korean War and were exposed to local
fighting styles. Jujutsu, judo and karate first became popular among the mainstream from the
1950s-60s. Due in part to Asian and Hollywood martial arts movies, most modern American
martial arts are either Asian-derived or Asian influenced.[7] The term kickboxing (キックボクシ
ング) was created by the Japanese boxing promoter Osamu Noguchi for a variant of Muay Thai
and Karate that he created in the 1950s. American kickboxing was developed in the 1970s, as a
combination of boxing and karate. Taekwondo was developed in the context of the Korean War
in the 1950s.
The later 1960s and 1970s witnessed an increased media interest in the Chinese fighting systems,
influenced by martial artist and Hollywood actor Bruce Lee. Jeet Kune Do, the system he
founded, has its roots in Wing Chun, western boxing, savate and fencing. Bruce Lee is credited
as one of the first instructors to openly teach Chinese martial arts to Westerners. World Judo
Championships have been held since 1956, Judo at the Summer Olympics was introduced in
1964. Karate World Championships were introduced in 1970.
Following the "kung fu wave" in Hong Kong action cinema in the 1970s, a number of
mainstream films produced during the 1980s contributed significantly to the perception of
martial arts in western popular culture. These include The Karate Kid (1984) and Bloodsport
(1988). This era produced some Hollywood action stars with martial arts background, such as
Jean-Claude Van Damme and Chuck Norris.
Also during the 20th century, a number of martial arts systems were adapted for self-defense
purposes for military hand-to-hand combat. World War II combatives, Kapap (1930s) and Krav
Maga (1950s) in Israel, Systema (Soviet era Russia), San Shou (People's Republic of China). The
US military de-emphasized hand-to-hand combat training during the Cold War period, but
revived it with the introduction of LINE in 1989.
1990 to present
During the 1990s Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu became popular and proved to be effective in mixed martial
arts competitions such as the UFC and PRIDE.[8]
The K-1 rules of kickboxing were introduced in 1993, based on 1980s Seidokaikan karate.
Jackie Chan and Jet Li are prominent movie figures who have been responsible for promoting
Chinese martial arts in recent years.
With the continual discovery of "new" Medieval and Renaissance fighting manuals, the practice
of Historical European Martial Arts and other Western Martial Arts are growing in popularity
across the United States and Europe.
[edit] Testing and competition
Testing or evaluation is important to martial art practitioners of many disciplines who wish to
determine their progression or own level of skill in specific contexts. Students within individual
martial art systems often undergo periodic testing and grading by their own teacher in order to
advance to a higher level of recognized achievement, such as a different belt color or title. The
type of testing used varies from system to system but may include forms or sparring.
Steven Ho executing a Jump Spin Hook Kick
Various forms and sparring are commonly used in martial art exhibitions and tournaments. Some
competitions pit practitioners of different disciplines against each other using a common set of
rules, these are referred to as mixed martial arts competitions. Rules for sparring vary between
art and organization but can generally be divided into light-contact, medium-contact, and full-
contact variants, reflecting the amount of force that should be used on an opponent.
[edit] Light- and medium-contact
These types of sparring restrict the amount of force that may be used to hit an opponent, in the
case of light sparring this is usual to 'touch' contact, e.g. a punch should be 'pulled' as soon as or
before contact is made. In medium-contact (sometimes referred to as semi-contact) the punch
would not be 'pulled' but not hit with full force. As the amount of force used is restricted, the aim
of these types of sparring is not to knock out an opponent; a point system is used in competitions.
A referee acts to monitor for fouls and to control the match, while judges mark down scores, as
in boxing. Particular targets may be prohibited (such as headbutting or groin hits), certain
techniques may be forbidden, and fighters may be required to wear protective equipment on their
head, hands, chest, groin, shins or feet. In grappling arts aikido uses a similar method of
compliant training that is equivalent to light or medium contact.
In some styles (such as fencing and some styles of Taekwondo sparring), competitors score
points based on the landing of a single technique or strike as judged by the referee, whereupon
the referee will briefly stop the match, award a point, then restart the match. Alternatively,
sparring may continue with the point noted by the judges. Some critics of point sparring feel that
this method of training teaches habits that result in lower combat effectiveness. Lighter-contact
sparring may be used exclusively, for children or in other situations when heavy contact would
be inappropriate (such as beginners), medium-contact sparring is often used as training for full
contact
[edit] Full-contact
Further information: Full-contact
Full-contact sparring or competition, where strikes are not pulled but thrown with full force as
the name implies, has a number of tactical differences from light and medium-contact sparring. It
is considered by some to be requisite in learning realistic unarmed combat.[9]
In full-contact sparring, the aim of a competitive match is either to knock out the opponent or to
force the opponent to submit. Where scoring takes place it may be a subsidiary measure, only
used if no clear winner has been established by other means; in some competitions, such as the
UFC 1, there was no scoring, though most now use some form of judging as a backup.[10] Due to
these factors, full-contact matches tend to be more aggressive in character, but rule sets may still
mandate the use of protective equipment limit the techniques allowed.
Nearly all mixed martial arts organisations such as UFC, Pancrase, Shooto use a form of full-
contact rules, as do professional boxing organizations and K-1. Kyokushin karate requires
advanced practitioners to engage in bare-knuckled, full-contact sparring while wearing only a
karate gi and groin protector but does not allow punches to the face, only kicks and knees.
Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and judo matches do not allow striking, but are full-contact in the sense that
full force is applied in the permitted grappling and submission techniques.
[edit] Martial sport
Main article: Combat sport
Several martial arts, such as Judo, are Olympic sports.
Martial arts have crossed over into sports when forms of sparring become competitive, becoming
a sport in its own right that is dissociated from the original combative origin, such as with
western fencing. The Summer Olympic Games includes judo, taekwondo, western archery,
boxing, javelin, wrestling and fencing as events, while Chinese wushu recently failed in its bid to
be included, but is still actively performed in tournaments across the world. Practitioners in some
arts such as kickboxing and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu often train for sport matches, whereas those in
other arts such as aikido and Wing Chun generally spurn such competitions. Some schools
believe that competition breeds better and more efficient practitioners, and gives a sense of good
sportsmanship. Others believe that the rules under which competition takes place have
diminished the combat effectiveness of martial arts or encourage a kind of practice which
focuses on winning trophies rather than a focus such as cultivating a particular moral character.
The question of "which is the best martial art" has led to new forms of competition; the original
Ultimate Fighting Championship in the U.S. was fought under very few rules allowing all
fighting styles to enter and not be limited by the rule set. This has now become a separate combat
sport known as mixed martial arts (MMA). Similar competitions such as Pancrase, DREAM, and
Shooto have also taken place in Japan.
Some martial artists compete in non-sparring competitions such as breaking or choreographed
routines of techniques such as poomse, kata and aka, or modern variations of the martial arts
which include dance-influenced competitions such as tricking. Martial traditions have been
influenced by governments to become more sport-like for political purposes; the central impetus
for the attempt by the People's Republic of China in transforming Chinese martial arts into the
committee-regulated sport of wushu was suppressing what they saw as the potentially subversive
aspects of martial training, especially under the traditional system of family lineages.[11]
[edit] Health and fitness benefits
Training in martial arts imparts many benefits to the trainee, physical, mental and spiritual.[12]
Through systematic practice in the martial arts a person's physical fitness may be boosted
(strength, stamina, flexibility, movement coordination, etc.,)[citation needed] as the whole body is
exercised and the entire muscular system is activated. Beyond contributing to physical fitness,
martial arts training also has benefits for mental health, contributing to self-esteem, self-control,
emotional and spiritual well-being. For this reason, a number of martial arts schools have
focussed purely on therapeutic aspects, de-emphasizing the historical aspect of self-defense or
combat completely.[citation needed]
According to Bruce Lee, martial arts also have the nature of an art, since there is emotional
communication and complete emotional expression.[citation needed]
[edit] Self-defense, military and law enforcement
applications
Main articles: Hand to hand combat and Self-defense
U.S. Army Combatives instructor Matt Larsen demonstrates a chokehold.
Some traditional martial concepts have seen new use within modern military training. Perhaps
the most recent example of this is point shooting which relies on muscle memory to more
effectively utilize a firearm in a variety of awkward situations, much the way an iaidoka would
master movements with their sword.
During the World War II era William E. Fairbairn, a British police officer working in Shanghai
and a leading Western expert on Asian fighting techniques, was recruited by the Special
Operations Executive (SOE) to teach Jujutsu to UK, U.S. and Canadian special forces. This
fighting method was called defendu. The book Kill or Get Killed, written by Colonel Rex
Applegate, was based on defendu taught by Sykes and Fairburn. Both Fairburns' Get Tough and
Kill or Get Killed became classics of military treatise on hand-to-hand combat.
Traditional hand-to-hand, knife, and spear techniques continue to see use in the composite
systems developed for today's wars. Examples of this include European Unifight, the US Army's
Combatives system developed by Matt Larsen, the Israeli army's kapap and Krav Maga, and the
US Marine Corps's Marine Corps Martial Arts Program (MCMAP).
Unarmed dagger defenses identical to that found in the manual of Fiore dei Liberi and the Codex
Wallerstein were integrated into the U.S. Army's training manuals in 1942[13] and continue to
influence today's systems along with other traditional systems such as Eskrima.
The rifle-mounted bayonet, which has its origin in the spear, has seen use by the United States
Army, the United States Marine Corps, and the British Army as recently as the Iraq War.[14]
[edit] Martial arts industry
Martial arts since the 1970s has become a significant industry, a subset of the wider sport
industry (including cinema and sports television).
Hundreds of millions of people worldwide practice some form of martial art. Web Japan
(sponsored by the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs) claims there are 50 million karate
practitioners worldwide.[15] The South Korean government in 2009 published an estimate that
Taekwondo is practiced by 70 million people in 190 countries.[16]
The wholesale value of martial arts related sporting equipment shipped in the United States was
estimated at 314 million USD in 2007; participation in the same year was estimated at 6.9
million (ages 6 or older, 2% of US population).[17] R. A. Court, CEO of Martial Arts Channel,
stated the total revenue of the US martial arts industry at USD 40 billion and the number of US
practitioners at 30 million in 2003.[18] Ultimate Fighting Championship generated a revenue of
about USD 250 million in 2008, about 90% of the entire Mixed Martial Arts industry. World
Wrestling Entertainment had a revenue of USD 1.4 billion.[19]
Asian martial arts experienced a surge of popularity in the west during the 1970s, and the rising
demand resulted in numerous low quality or fraudulent schools. Fueled by fictional depictions in
martial arts movies, this led to the "ninja craze" of the 1980s United States.[20] The rank system
introduced for judo in the 1880s proved commercially viable, and "colored belt" systems were
adopted in many martial arts degree mills (also known as "McDojos"; parodied in Penn & Teller:
Bullshit! episode "Martial Arts", June 2010).
