CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 39

1.
CHAPTER

3
EASTERN INFLUENCES ON
ASEAN COUNTRIES

Overview: religions in mainland countries are mostly Buddhism & Confucianism

in insular countries are mostly Hinduism & Islam
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 40

A. MAINLAND COUNTRIES
1. Buddhism
Definition & Origin
Buddhism is a nontheistic religion that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and
practices largely based on teachings attributed to the Siddhartha Gautama, who is commonly
known as the Buddha, meaning "the awakened one".
The History of Buddhism spans the 6th century BCE to the present, starting with the birth
of Buddha Siddhartha Gautama in Lumbini, Nepal, but most scholars "suggested that the
Buddha died within approximately a few decades on either side of 400 B.C.E"
Gautama was born in Lumbini in modern-day Nepal, around the year 563 BCE, at age
29, despite his father's efforts, Gautama ventured beyond the palace several times and he
learned of the suffering of ordinary people, encountering an old man, a sick man, a corpse and,
finally, an ascetic holy man, apparently content and at peace with the world. These experiences
prompted Gautama to abandon royal life and take up a spiritual quest. Gautama first went to
study with famous religious teachers of the day, and mastered the meditative attainments they
taught. But he found that they did not provide a permanent end to suffering, so he continued
his quest. At the age of 35, he famously sat in meditation under a sacred fig tree — known as
the Bodhi tree — in the town of Bodh Gaya, India, and vowed not to rise before
achieving enlightenment. After many days, he finally destroyed the fetters of his mind,
thereby liberating himself from the cycle of suffering and rebirth, and arose as a fully
enlightened being.
There are good reasons to doubt the traditional account but his outline of the life must be
true: birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death. We can
be reasonably confident Siddhatta Gotama did indeed exist and that his disciples preserved the
memory of his life and teachings.
Schools & Practices

Theravada vs. Mahayana architecture

 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 41

At the First Council in c. 400 BCE, the core teachings and monastic discipline were
decided upon and codified. At the Second Council in 383 BCE, a dispute over proscriptions in
monastic discipline led to the first schism between the Sthaviravada school (which argued for
observing said proscriptions) and the Mahasanghika school ("Great Congregation") which
represented the majority and rejected them. This schism would eventually result in the
establishment of three different schools of thought:
• Theravada Buddhism (The School of the Elders)
• Mahayana Buddhism (The Great Vehicle)
• Vajrayana Buddhism (The Way of the Diamond)
Theravada Buddhism (referred to as Hinayana “little vehicle” by Mahayana Buddhists,
considered a pejorative term by the Theravada) claims to practice the belief as it was originally
taught by Buddha. Adherents follow the teachings in the Pali language and focus on becoming
an arhat (“saint”). This school is characterized by a focus on individual enlightenment.
Mahayana Buddhism (which includes Zen Buddhism) follows the teachings in Sanskrit
and adherents work toward becoming a Bodhisattva (“essence of enlightenment”), one who,
like Buddha, has attained full awareness but puts off the peace of nirvana in order to help others
shed their ignorance. Mahayana Buddhism is the most popular form practiced today and also
claims to follow the Buddha's teachings faithfully.
Vajrayana Buddhism (also known as Tibetan Buddhism) dispenses with the concept of
having to commit to Buddhist discipline and change one's lifestyle in order to begin a Buddhist
walk on the Eightfold Path. This school advocates the belief illustrated by the phrase Tat Tvam
Asi (“thou art that”) that one already is a Bodhisattva, one only has to realize it. One need not,
therefore, give up unhealthy attachments at the start of one's walk but, rather, just proceed along
the path and those attachments will become less and less alluring. As with the others, Vajrayana
also claims it is the most faithful to the Buddha's original vision.
All three schools adhere to the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, as do the many
other minor schools, and none is objectively considered more legitimate than the others though,
obviously, adherents of each would disagree.
Intrusion and spreading
The Theravada tradition spread from India to Sri Lanka and Burma in the third century
BCE, and from there to Yunnan in southwest China, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, South Vietnam
and Indonesia. The Chinese form of Mahayana later spread to Korea, Japan and North Vietnam.
Laos
Theravada Buddhism is believed to have first reached Laos during the 7th - 8th Centuries
CE, via the kingdom of Dvaravati. Subsequent alliances with Burma and Thailand helped
cement the primacy of Theravada Buddhism in the Laotian kingdom. Faced with rugged,
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 42

isolating geography and the absence of a strong central government, Theravada Buddhism
became one of the primary unifying features of Lao culture. Lao Buddhism is a unique version
of Theravada Buddhism and is at the basis of Lao culture. Buddhism in Laos is often closely
tied to animist beliefs and belief in ancestral spirits, particularly in rural areas.

Thailand
Buddhism in Thailand is largely of the Theravada school and has deep integration with
folk beliefs. According to many historians, around 228 BC Sohn Uttar Sthavira (one of the
royal monks sent by Ashoka the Great) came to Suvarnabhumi (or Suvannabhumi) which some
identify with Thailand along with other monks and sacred books. During the 5th to 13th
centuries, the Southeast Asian empires were influenced directly from India, so that these
empires essentially followed traditions of Mahāyāna Buddhism. After the decline of Buddhism
in India, missions of monks from Sri Lanka gradually converted Burmese Buddhism to
Theravāda, and in the next two centuries also brought Theravāda Buddhism to the areas of
Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, where it supplanted previous forms of Buddhism. Theravada
Buddhism was made the state religion only with the establishment of the Thai kingdom of
Sukhothai in the 13th century AD. In spite of the wars in the centuries following, Buddhism
continued to grow in importance and enjoyed uninterrupted state support from Thailand’s royal.
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 43

Cambodia
Buddhism in Cambodia is currently a form of Theravada Buddhism. Buddhism has
existed in Cambodia since at least the 5th century, and in its earlier form was a type
of Mahāyāna Buddhism. From the 11th to 13th century, Buddhism reached the peak in
Cambodia and was strongly supported by the King, Suryavarman I (1002–1050) and
Jayavarman VII (1181–1215) who are considered the two greatest Buddhist kings. Although
Suryavarman I was a strong proponent of Mahayana Buddhism, he did not interfere or obstruct
the growing presence and dissemination of Theravada Buddhism during his reign, and the
presence of Theravada Buddhism was increasingly evident under the reign of Jayavarman VII.
At the same time, Jayavarman VII sent his son Tamilinda to Sri Lanka to be ordained as a
Buddhist monk and study Theravada Buddhism according to the Pali scriptural traditions.
Prince Tamalinda returned after ten years of ordination, he was a Thera, a senior monk, capable
of administering ordination into this vigorous Theravada lineage, which insisted on orthodoxy
and rejected Mahayana "innovations" such as tantric practices. Regarding external factors, a
new dynamic type of Theravada Buddhism was being preached as the "true faith" in Sri Lanka,
together with the Thais invaders and Burmese monks, contributed to the spread of Theravada
Buddhism . Therefore, After the 13th century Theravada Buddhism became the state religion
of Cambodia. Buddhism in this country experienced ups and downs through a number of
successive kingdoms and empires; the current form is Theravada Buddhism.
Burma (Myanmar)
As early as the time of King Ashoka of India, monks were sent to Thaton to spread the
Buddha's teachings. Thaton was a trading centre of southern Burma. Buddhism was widely
accepted by the people in Thaton as more Buddhist missionaries arrived from Indian Buddhist
centres. Thaton soon became an important centre for Theravada Buddhism. In the middle of
the eleventh century, a powerful king, Anawratha, brought northern and southern Burma under
his rule. As he was a strong supporter of Theravada Buddhism he made it the national religion.
In the succeeding centuries, Burma underwent several periods of wars and political unrest, but
Buddhism continued to prosper under the patronage of various kings and became part of the
life of the common people. It is the most religious Buddhist country in terms of the proportion
of monks in the population and proportion of income spent on religion. Theravada Buddhism
is practiced in conjunction with nat worship, which involves the placation of spirits who can
intercede in worldly affairs.
Vietnam
In the early centuries, there were a number of small states in the territory of present
Vietnam. Buddhism from China influenced the northern state, being for several centuries under
the domination of the Chinese empire. The earliest monks were said to have come from China
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 44

at the end of the second century CE Later, monks from India and Central Asia also arrived by
land and sea. The southern states were exposed to Indian influence from the beginning of the
Common Era. Both Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism were practiced then. From the fifteenth
century onwards, these southern states were gradually assimilated by the powerful northern
state, and as a result, the Chinese form of Buddhism also came to influence the south. Finally,
when Vietnam became unified as a nation, it was the Chinese form of Buddhism that was
commonly practiced. The southern states were exposed to Indian influence from the beginning
of the Common Era. Vietnamese Buddhism has had a symbiotic relationship with Taoism,
Chinese spirituality, and the indigenous Vietnamese religion.
FUN FACT:
The Buddhist flag is a modern creation it was jointly designed by Mr J.R. de Silva and
Colonel Henry S. Olcott to mark the revival of Buddhism in Ceylon in 1880. It was accepted
as the International Buddhist Flag by the 1952 World Buddhist Congress.
Colonel Olcott designed a flag from the six colours of the aura that he believed shone
around the head of the Buddha after His Enlightenment.
The first five stripes of the flag are of five colours.

Blue: Universal Compassion

Yellow The Middle Path
Red Blessings
White Purity and Liberation
Orange Wisdom

The sixth colour is a conglomeration of the five, but for the design, it has been separated
into its constituent colours. The colonel's flag later came to symbolize the unity of Buddhists.
Thereafter, it has been used worldwide and has been used in nearly 60 countries during
Buddhist festive seasons, particularly during the Vesak celebrations.
Colonel Olcott was one of the greatest American Buddhists who dedicated his later life
entirely to the people of Asia. He is known as the father of the Buddhist education movement
since he initiated the establishment of close to 400 Buddhist schools and colleges in Sri Lanka.
The Buddhism influence and Buddhism in mainland countries today
Popularity
Almost Buddhist in mainland countries are Theravada followers, except for Vietnam
where many different branches of Buddhism can be found. The rates of Buddhist popular in
the 4 mainland countries are as follows 95% in Cambodia and Thailand, 89% in Myanmar, and
65% in Laos.
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 45

Culture
Architecture
Overall, religious architecture in Southeast Asia undergoes three stages: early
Indianization, golden period of maturity and indigenization. Many beautiful and typical
religious architecture dot the landscape and there is a large number located in mainland
countries. Most of them are under profound influence of Hindu and Buddhist style with the
most significant works are Angkor Vat. Since the golden period of maturity, Thailand is well-
known not only for being the focus of the most glorious Buddhist temples and pagodas but also
for peacefully mixture of artistic factors from other religions.
Literature
Under different influence of Buddhism, religious literature of mainland countries bears
various characteristics and well reflect the human living at that time. For instance, Vietnam
literature depicts humor, realism and irony of the Vietnamese people through the combination
of many factors in Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism and Animism (worshipping strong winds,
the water and mountain). Classical Lao literature was written in prose and verse form, lengthy
and not original. Themes include handsome priest, the heroin is a beautiful princess and the
antagonist a demon. There is also a Lao version of the Ramayana. The main theme in Thailand
literature is Fate and Karma, Buddhist concepts of Merit and Demerit.
Beliefs and values
Buddhism shapes almost all the important beliefs and values in society of mainland
countries and play a significant role in every aspect of life. Buddhist monks perform a number
of functions in Cambodian, Lao and Thailand society.
People in mainland countries, especially in Thailand, Laos and Vietnam share many
commons in their attitude to life such as putting huge emphasize on family values , highly
appreciating close and hierarchy relationships, avoiding competitiveness and public emotional
expression.
However, there are still some interesting differences. Acceptance is the Lao’s important
view. Things are as they are and should be (Much of this perspective comes from the Buddhist
belief in re-incarnation). The Lao have a rich sense of humor, perhaps one of the richest and
competitive humor is much appreciated. Fortunetellers and astrologers are highly respected in
Cambodian society. Thailand people do not like to risk but like gambling.
Buddhism also exercises great influence in politics, especially in Myanmar and Thailand.
FUN FACT:
Lao are truly a people of the heart. The list below from a Vientiane Times article,
December 9-15, 1994, shows how many expressions include the word “chai” or "heart." A
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 46

culture with so many shades of meaning based on the heart is a deeply sensitive culture. One
should always bear this in mind before making a strong comment or taking direct action.
2. Confucianism

From left to right: Confucius (551–479 BC) or Kong Fuzi (Kǒng Fūzǐ, literally "Master Kong")
and The Analects – one of the four basic books in Confucianism.

Definition & Origin

Confucianism is an ethical and philosophical system, developed from the teachings of
the Chinese philosopher Confucius, and concerned with the principles of good conduct,
practical wisdom, and proper social relationships.
K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the
state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty, and era known
for its moral laxity. Later in life, he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to
their rulers. He accumulated a small band of students during this time. The last years of his life
were spent back in Lu, where he devoted himself to teaching. His writings deal primarily with
individual morality and ethics, and the proper exercise of political power by the rulers.
Intrusion and spreading
The practice of Confucianism in other Southeast Asian countries are not clearly seen,
apart from Vietnam and Singapore. As it did in the past, Confucianism still plays an important
role and lays the foundation for fundamental values in Vietnam and Singapore society.
In both cultures, Confucianism has exercised a powerful influence in the formation the
idea family is the basic unity and family values - extended generations, 'filial piety', and 'respect
for elderly'. However, the current situation of Confucianism in Vietnam and Singapore has
some stark differences.
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 47

Vietnam's first national university: Temple of Literature – Quoc Tu Giam

The statue of a seated Confucius and his students in Temple of Literature in Hanoi

Vietnam
The Chinese Emperor Han Wu-Ti placed Vietnam under a military governor in 111 B.C.,
and for the next 900 years, events in Vietnam were part of Chinese history. Confucianism was
brought into Vietnam under the Chinese rule, through three periods:
• 111 B.C – 39: the Western Han and Eastern Han dynasties
• 43 – 541 : the Eastern Han, Three Kingdoms, Jin, Northern and Southern dynasties
• 602 – 905 : the Sui and Tang dynasties
The role of martyr and the idea of sacrifice are also highly regarded in Vietnam. For
instance, a vigorous student dissidents his father who is an alcoholic and beats the mother on a
drunken binge. The children would run away but the mother refuses to leave.
Confucianism-based values also make present-day Vietnam a highly organized
hierarchical society. More importantly, many scholars have emphasized the positive benefits
of tolerance in accordance with “Universal Harmony” and stressed the need for Party and
government to hold onto the principle of “people as the root of the nation” as stated in
Confucianism’s books.

Overall, the value of

Confucianism as a
moderating influence upon
social behavior is strongly
influent by the flexibility and
openness in a developing
society like Vietnam.
As Vietnam experiences
Candidates and proctors inside an examination site (a drawing made in comprehensive changes in
1895) the context of reform and
Successful candidates kowtowing before the Literature Temple (1897). globalization, Marxism
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 48

continues to lose its grip over Vietnamese society and culture and the country is exposed to
Westernization in increasingly large doses, Confucianism may well re-assert itself as an
important and positive force.
Singapore
In Singapore, the government tried to use Confucian readings “to create a certain amount
of ideological coherence in its version of Asian Values and to give it some academic
respectability”. The government claimed that Singaporeans were actually implicit Confucians
who practiced Confucian principles without them actually knowing about them.
Singapore government has established the Institute for East Asian Philosophies focusing
on Confucianism, as well as the study of this was encouraged at other universities. They even
introduced a required Religious Knowledge course into secondary schools, where students had
five options to choose only one course – Confucian Ethics. The Singapore believe that one
should strive to cultivate oneself, then build a family, rule the country and make the country
harmonious and take it as a basic concept to foster talents.
B – INSULAR COUNTRIES
1. Hinduism
Definition & Origin
Hinduism, the third largest religion, was originated in India. Hindus is a polytheistic
religion which has many beliefs, including reincarnation, cause and effect, and righteousness
as the best path. Hinduism is a way of life, not just religion.
The term "Hinduism" derives from a Persian word that refers to the Sindhu (or Indus)
river in northwest India. "Hindu" was first used in the 14th century by Arabs, Persians, and
Afghans to describe the peoples of the region. By the end of the 19th century, "Hinduism" was
adopted by the British colonial administration in India to describe the various religious beliefs
and practices of the majority of India's population.
It is, however, extremely difficult to say when Hinduism began. The tradition itself
maintains that it is a timeless religion that has always existed. Historians generally hold that
the origins of what we call Hinduism can be traced to the ancient Indus Valley civilization.
This would mean that
the religion is over 4,000
years old, although it is a
dynamic religious
tradition that has
continued to develop
and evolve.
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 49

Overall, Hinduism, the world's oldest religion, has no beginning - it precedes recorded
history. It has no human founder. It is a mystical religion, leading the devotee to personally
experience the Truth within, finally reaching the pinnacle of consciousness where man and
God are one. Hinduism has four main denominations - Saivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism and
Smartism.
Intrusion and spreading
Hinduism has historically been a non-missionizing religious tradition, which is
specifically linked to the fundamental theological worldview that all schools of Hinduism share.
Human beings are reborn into the world according to their past deeds in prior lifetimes (the
basic law of ‘Karma’). Thus being a Hindu is not a matter of choice or cultural circumstance
and many Hindus have held that one cannot convert to Hinduism. You are either born a Hindu,
or you are not. As a result, to be Hindu has traditionally meant to be a Hindu in India.
Hinduism has, however, spread to other parts of the world. It has spread as a result of
Hindu kings conquering non-Hindu lands; it has spread as a result of colonization and then
globalization; and in the modern period it has spread as a result of westerners adopting, and
converting to, Hindu practices and beliefs.
In Southeast Asia, Hinduism was spread in the 1st century AD by Indian traders who
established marketing centers on their routes. These traders brought along Brahman priests who
instructed people on Hindu beliefs. These religious men were patronized by local chiefs, who
were converted to Hinduism. Some say that Southeast Asia was “Hinduized” or “Indianized”
during this period. Among the peak periods of Hindu cultural efflorescence and its spread in
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 50

Southeast Asia was the Gupta period (A.D. 320-550). Hinduism became the state religion for
various SEA states from 5th-14th centuries.
Indonesia
Hindu influences reached the Indonesian Archipelago as early as 1st century. There are
several theories as to how Hinduism reached Indonesia. The first idea is that intermarriage
occurred between Indian traders/merchants and Indonesian natives. Another theory believes
that defeated soldiers from India found solace in Indonesia. Thirdly, a more traditional point of
view is that missionaries spread Hinduism to the islands. Lastly, the nationalist theory is that
Indonesians chose the culture themselves after having traveled to India. In 4th century, the
kingdom of Kutai in East Kalimantan, Tarumanagara in West Java, and Holing in Central Java,
were among the early Hindu states established in the region. Several notable ancient Indonesian
Hindu kingdoms are Mataram, famous for the construction of the majestic Prambanan temple,
followed by Kediri and Singhasari. Since then Hinduism along with Buddhism spread across
the archipelago and reached the peak of its influence in the 14th century. The last and largest
among Hindu-Buddhist Javanese empires, Majapahit, influenced the Indonesian archipelago.
Malaysia
There is no definite evidence which dates the first Indian voyages across the Bay of
Bengal, but conservative estimates place the earliest arrivals to Malay shores at least 1,700
years ago. The growth of trade with India brought coastal people in much of the Malay world
into contact with Hinduism. Thus, Hinduism, Indian cultural traditions and
the Sanskrit language began to spread across the land. Temples were built in the Indian style
and local kings began referring to themselves as Raja and more desirable aspects of Indian
government were adopted.
Subsequently, small Hindu Malay states started to appear in the coastal areas of Malay
peninsular notably the Gangga Negara (2nd century), Langkasuka (2nd century), and Kedah
(4th century). Between 7th and 13th centuries, many of these small, often prosperous
peninsular maritime trading states came under the loose control of Srivijaya Empire, a
great Hindu Malay kingdom centered in Palembang, Sumatra.
Singapore
The early 19th century saw a wave of immigrants to Singapore from southern India,
mostly Tamils, to work as coolies and labourers for the British East India
Company in Singapore. These immigrants brought along their religion and culture from their
homeland as well. Their arrival saw the building of temples throughout the island in the
arresting Dravidian form of architecture, and the beginnings of a vibrant Hindu culture.
Though the labourers were mostly responsible for introducing and preserving their
religion in their new home, in later times, monetary contributions were made by the richer
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 51

Hindu merchants to build up the makeshift shacks that served as their place of worship. The
temples also served to hold the community together, being a source of comfort to those far
away in a foreign land.
Cambodia
Cambodia was first influenced by Hinduism during the beginning of the Kingdom of
Funan kingdom. Hinduism was one of the Khmer Empire's official religions. Even though
Hinduism is no longer the main religion in Cambodia, this is still the home to one of the only
two temples dedicated to Brahma in
the world. Angkor Wat of Cambodia
is the largest Hindu temple of the
world.
With the exception of
Cambodia’s Angkor Wat, in other
SEA’s countries, Hinduism is now
mostly limited to small communities.
This decline of Hinduism is due to
the spreading and influence of other
religions such as Islam or Buddhism. Angkor Wat in Cambodia

The Hinduism influence and Hinduism in insular countries today

Today, small Hindu communities remain in Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and
the Philippines mainly due to the presence of Indians, such as Tamil people migrated from
Indian sub-continent to Southeast Asia in past centuries.
We will look into the prevalence of Hinduism, the impacts that it have left on cultural
aspects, and how it helped create a foundation for beliefs and values in some of these insular
countries. However, it is important to note that Hinduism in SEA has been in decline and
replaced by other religions, so the influence of Hindu lifestyle is not very prominent and there
are not many remnants left.
Popularity
Indonesia
Hinduism is practiced by only 3% of the total population, with 92.29% of them resides
in Bali and 15.75% in Central Kalimantan as of the 2000 census. However, between 4th century
to 15th century, Hinduism and Buddhism was adhered by the majority of the population, along
with native indigenous animism and dynamism beliefs that venerated natural and ancestral
spirit. By 15th to 16th century Islam has supplanted Hinduism and Buddhism as the majority
religion in Indonesian archipelago. The influence of Hinduism has profoundly left its marks in
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 52

Java, Bali, and Sumatran culture. Bali has become the last remnant of once Hindu dominated
region.
Malaysia
According to the 2010 Census, there were 1,777,694 Hindus living in Malaysia (6.27%
of the population). Of the Hindus, 1,644,072 were Indian, 111,329 were non-citizens, 14,878
were Chinese, 4,474 others, and 2,941 Tribals (including 554 Iban in Sarawak). 86.18% of all
the Malaysian Indians were Hindu.
Singapore
Hindus make up a minority, comprising about 5.1% (2010 Census) of adult Singapore
citizens and permanent residents. According to the 2000 census there were 99,904 adult Hindus
in Singapore. If the children are also included then the figure becomes 160,708. Almost all
Hindus in Singapore are ethnic Indians. Within the Indian community, 55.4% are Hindu. The
small number of non-Indian Hindus are mainly Chinese women who were adopted by or
married into Hindu families.
The Philippines
There is some growth in the religion as of late, although most temples cater to the same
communities. Actual adherents of Hinduism are mostly limited to communities that include
indigenous and native peoples, expatriate communities, as well as new converts. There are
various Hare Krishna groups and popular Hindu personalities and groups such as Sai Baba,
and Paramahansa Yogananda (SRF) that can be found. Hindu based practices
like Yoga and meditation are also popular.
Brunei
Almost the entire Hindu community in Brunei is made up of people of Indian origin. The
approximate size is a few thousands. According to the 2001 census, 124 of the Hindus are
citizens and another 91 are permanent residents. The rest are non-citizens.
FUN FACT: The Cow in Hinduism
In Hinduism, the cow is revered as the
source of food and symbol of life and may
never be killed. However, many non-
Hindus interpret these beliefs to mean that
Hindus worship cows. This is not true. It is
more accurate to say the cow is taboo in the
Hindu religion, rather than sacred. This is just
one example of the misunderstandings people
have about the Hindu faith.
Culture
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 53

Architecture
The most significant architectural feature of Southeast Asia is the Buddhist stupa with
the earliest surviving example is the Great Stupa at Sanchi, from the 1st century BC. Hinduism
and Buddhism are closely interconnected at this stage. The stupa provides the architectural
model for Hindu temples in India, for Buddhist temples in Southeast Asia and for pagodas in
China and Japan.
The famous Hindu temples of Angkor Wat (Cambodia) and Pagan (Burma), dating from
around the 12th century, are in the open Hindu style using the same model.
Indonesia
Some in temples Java have a mix of Hindu and Buddhist features which has made
attribution and original purpose against later usage difficult to ascertain. Hindu in Indonesia is
multi-ethnic, such as Bali, Java, Dayak, Karo, Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu, Punjabi, Chinese,
and other races. Hindu temples from one ethnic are different from Hindu temples from the
other ethnic. We can see that Hindu Tamil temples are usually known by ‘gopuram’ above the
main gate, which are different from Hindu Bali temples which have not ‘gopuram’ above the
temples.
Singapore
The first temple, Sri Mariamman Temple in Chinatown, was built as early as 1827
by Narayana Pillai, a clerk to Sir Stamford Raffles; it was dedicated to the Hindu
goddess Mariamman, an incarnation of the Mother Goddess, and who is believed to have the
power to cure diseases. He first
erected a wooden, thatched hut
on this site that he had purchased
in 1823. The present temple was
completed by 1863. The temples
are all built in the Dravidian
style, mainly the Tamil style
seen largely in Tamil
Nadu, India. This style is known
for its imposing 'gopurams' or
Sri Mariamman Temple in Singapore
entrance towers, complex friezes
intricate carvings and paintings or murals done on the walls and ceilings. There are currently
about thirty main temples in Singapore, dedicated to various gods and goddesses from
the Hindu pantheon.
Malaysia
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 54

After a violent conflict in Penang between Hindus and Muslims in March 1998, the
government announced a nationwide review of unlicensed Hindu temples and shrines. Between
April to May 2006, several Hindu temples were demolished by city hall authorities in the
country, accompanied by violence against Hindus. The authorities' excuse was that these
temples were unlicensed and squatting on government land. In 2007, Malaysian Hindu
organizations protested the destruction of Hindu temples by the Malaysian regime. On October
30, 2007 the 100-year-old Maha Mariamman Temple in Padang Jawa was demolished by
Malaysian authorities. Following that demolition, Works Minister and head of the Malaysian
Indian Congress Samy Vellu, who is of Indian origin, said that Hindu temples built on
government land were still being demolished despite his appeals to the various state chief
ministers.
The Philippines
Today, there is a Hindu Temple on Mahatma Gandhi Street and a Khalsa Diwan Indian
Sikh Temple on United Nations Avenue. Both are in Manila city's Paco-Pandacan area, the
traditional Indian enclave, and are about 15 minute walk away from each other.
Literature
Most of the Hinduism influence on literature was through the great epics of
Mahabharata and Ramayana – two major Sanskrit epics of India which are valued for their
literary merit and religious inspiration. The influence of such literature works can be seen in
Indonesian culture.

Mahabharata Ramayana
The epics Mahabharata and Ramayana, became enduring traditions among Indonesian
art forms, expressed in ‘wayang’ shadow puppet and dance performances. The Ramayana is a
love story with moral and spiritual themes and the Mahabharata is a poem describing a
conversation between Arjuna and God Krishna.
Furthermore, the Philippines is another SEA country in which the influence of
Hinduism is evident in its language.
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 55

Rituals and practices

Hinduism places great importance on its rituals and practices. Traditional guidelines for
selecting a mate and marriage remain a powerful institution in the religion today. Funerals are
sacred in Hinduism, and the dead are usually cremated. Hinduism dictates how the family
should honor their lost relative. Vegetarianism is common among Hindus, who believe it is
wrong to eat anything that has been killed.
In Indonesia, there are many Hindu holidays. For example, Galungan which occurs every
210 days and lasts for 10 days, which celebrates the coming of the gods and the ancestral spirits
to earth to dwell again in the homes of their descendants. Another Hindu holiday is Saraswati,
celebrated every 210-days on Saniscara Umanis Wuku Watugunung, which marks the start of
the new year according to the Balinese Pawukon calendar. One more example is Nyepi, a
Hindu Day of Silence or the Hindu New Year in the Balinese Saka calendar. The largest
celebrations are held in Bali as well as in Balinese Hindu communities around Indonesia.

Fire Walking Festival in Singapore

In Malaysia, the Ratha-Yatra festival is held once a year in every temple throughout
Malaysia approximately 10 to 12. It is held usually end of the Year, when the Deities of Lord
Jagannath, Baladeva and Subhadra are placed on a chariot, which is pulled through the streets
by devotees, accompanied by a party chanting the Hare Krishna Mahamantra.
In Singapore, some of the major Hindu festivals celebrated every year
include Deepavali, Thaipusam, Pongal, Tamil New Year or Varsha Pirappu, Holi also known
as Festival of Colours and Thimithi or otherwise known as the Fire Walking Festival.
Beliefs and values
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 56

As a result of the interconnection between Hinduism and Buddhism at the same time
these two religions spread into Southeast Asia, Hinduism shares similar beliefs and values with
Buddhism. Therefore, influences between these two religions do not have a clear distinction.
The Sanskrit word ‘karma’ means "actions" or "deeds." As a religious term, karma refers
to intentional (usually moral) actions that affect one's fortunes in this life and the next. Karma
is a concept common to Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, but interpreted in different ways.
In Hindu texts, the word karma first appears in the ancient Rig Veda, but there it simply
means religious action and animal sacrifice. There is some hint of the later meaning of karma
in the Brahmanas, but it is not until the Upanishads that karma is expressed as a principle
of cause and effect based on actions.
The word karma refers primarily to "bad karma", which is accumulated as a result of
wrong actions. Bad karma binds a person's soul (atman) to the cycle of rebirth (samsara) and
leads to misfortune in this life and poor conditions in the next. The purpose of life in Hinduism
is thus to minimize bad karma in order to enjoy better fortune in this life and achieve a better
rebirth in the next. The ultimate spiritual goal is to achieve release (moksha) from the cycle of
samsara altogether. Various methods to attain moksha are taught by different schools, but most
include avoiding attachment to impermanent things, carrying out one's duties, and realizing the
ultimate unity between one's soul or self (atman) and ultimate reality (Brahman).
This concept is the moral compass for followers within remaining Hindu communities.
Its influence on the daily life of people living in SEA is integrated into the influences of other
religions.
2. Islam
Definition & Origin
Islamic means anything derived from the Islamic religion. Muslims follow the religion
of Islam, a monotheistic religion, and these teachings are found in their Holy book known as
the Koran (Quran).
Islam was founded on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad as an expression of
surrender to the will of Allah, the creator and sustainer of the world. The Quran, the sacred text
of Islam, contains the teachings of the Prophet that were revealed to him from Allah.
In 622 AD, the Prophet fled north to the city of Medina to escape growing persecution.
This event is celebrated by Muslims as the hijira ("flight") and marks the beginning of
the Islamic calendar (622 AD = 1 AH). Eight years later, Muhammad returned to Mecca with
an army and defeated it easily. By Muhammad's death, 50 years later, the entire Arabian
Peninsula had come under Muslim control.
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 57

"Islam" is an Arabic word that means "acceptance," "surrender," "submission," or

"commitment," and is closely related to the
Arabic word for peace (salaam; in
Hebrew, shalom). Adherents of Islam are
called Muslims, literally, those who make
peace. Muslims are those who surrender to
the will of God (Allah) in every aspect of
their lives and enjoy the resulting peace
with God and each other.
Intrusion and spreading
In SEA region, in the 11th century, a turbulent period occurred in the history of Malay
Archipelago: the Chola Navy crossed the ocean and attacked the Srivijaya kingdom of
Sangrama Vijayatungavarman, Kadaram (Kedah), an important fortified city in the Malayan
peninsula was sacked and the king was taken captive. Soon after that, the king of Kedah Phra
Ong Mahawangsa became the first ruler to abandon the traditional Hindu faith, and converted
to Islam with the Sultanate of Kedah established in year 1136. Samudera Pasai converted to
Islam in the year 1267, and many other rulers follow suit.
There are several theories to the Islamization process in Southeast Asia. The first theory
is trade. The expansion of trade among West Asia, India and Southeast Asia helped the spread
of the religion as Muslim traders brought Islam to the region. The second theory is the role of
missionaries or Sufis. The Sufi missionaries played a significant role in spreading the faith by
syncretising Islamic ideas with existing local beliefs and religious notions. Finally, the ruling
classes embraced Islam, which further aided the permeation of the religion throughout the
region. The ruler of the region's most important port, Malacca Sultanate, embraced Islam in the
15th century, heralding a period of accelerated conversion of Islam throughout the region as
the religion provided a unifying force among the ruling and trading classes.
Indonesia
There is evidence of Arab Muslim traders entering Indonesia as early as the 8th
century. Indonesia's historical inhabitants were animists, Hindus and Buddhists. However, it
was not until the end of the 13th century that the spread of Islam began.
The spread, although at first introduced through Arab Muslim traders, continued to
saturate through the Indonesian people as local rulers and royalty began to adopt it,
subsequently their subjects would mirror their conversion. The spread of Islam continued as
Muslim traders married the local women, with some of the wealthier traders marrying into the
families of the ruling elite.
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 58

Through assimilation related to trade, royal conversion, and conquest, Islam had
supplanted Hinduism and Buddhism as the dominant religion of Java and Sumatra by the end
of the 16th century. The eastern islands remained largely animist until adopting Islam
and Christianity in the 17th and 18th centuries, whereas Bali retains a Hindu majority.
Malaysia
Individual Arab traders, including Sahabas preached in the Malay Archipelago, Indo-
China and China in the early seventh century. Islam was also brought to Malaysia by Indian
Muslim traders in the 12th century AD. It is commonly held that Islam first arrived in Malay
peninsular since Sultan Mudzafar Shah I (12th century) of Kedah (Hindu name Phra Ong
Mahawangsa), the first ruler to be known to convert to Islam after being introduced to it by

Indian traders who themselves were recent converts. In the 13th century, the Terengganu Stone
Monument was found at Kuala Berang, Terengganu where the first Malay state to receive
Islam in 1303 Sultan Megat Iskandar Shah, known as Parameswara prior to his conversion, is
the first Sultan of Melaka. He converted into Islam after marrying a princess from Pasai, of
present day Indonesia.
The religion was adopted peacefully by the coastal trading ports people of, absorbing
rather than conquering existing beliefs. By the 15th and 16th centuries it was the majority faith
of the Malay people.
The Philippines
In 1380 the first Arabian trader reached the Sulu Archipelago and Jolo in the Philippines
and through trade throughout the island established Islam in the country. In 1390
the Minangkabau's Prince Rajah Baguinda and his followers preached Islam on the
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 59

islands. Subsequent settlements by Arab missionaries traveling to Malaysia and Indonesia

helped strengthen Islam in the Philippines and each settlement was governed by
a Datu, Rajah and a Sultan. Islamic provinces founded in the Philippines included the Sultanate
of Maguindanao, Sultanate of Sulu, Sultanate of Lanao and other parts of the southern
Philippines.
By the next century conquests had reached the Sulu islands in the southern tip of
the Philippines where the population was animistic and they took up the task of converting the
animistic population to Islam with renewed zeal. By the 15th century, half of Luzon (Northern
Philippines) and the islands of Mindanao in the south had become subject to the various
Muslim sultanates of Borneo and much of the population in the South were converted to Islam.
Islamic Glossary:
• Allah: the Arabic word for God
• Hadith: the literal translation means "story"; traditional teachings based on
Muhammad's words and actions; these traditions are traced to eyewitness accounts
• Hijab: means covering the head and body in accordance with God's instructions
• Mecca: the holiest city of Islam; Muhammad's birthplace
• Polygamy: a marriage between a man and more than one woman; is seen as an
exception, not as a rule, within Islam
• Ramadan: ninth month of the Muslim calendar marked by fasting
The Islamic influence and Islam in insular countries today
Popularity
Islam is the dominant religion in Indonesia, which also has a larger Muslim population
than any other country in the world, with approximately 202.9 million identified as Muslim
(88.2% of Indonesia's total population of 237 million).
Malaysia is a multi-confessional country with Islam being the largest practiced religion,
comprising approximately 61.3% Muslim adherents, or around 19.5 million people, as of 2013.
According to statistics from 2010, about 15% of Singapore's resident population aged 15
years and over are Muslims. A majority of Malays are Sunni Muslims. 17% of Muslims in
Singapore are of South Asian origin. Other adherents include but not limited to those from
the Chinese, Arab and Eurasian communities. While the majority of Muslims in Singapore are
traditionally Sunni Muslims who follow the Shafi'i school of thought, there are also Muslims
who follow the Hanafi school of thought as well as Shia Muslims.
According to the U.S. Department of State International Religious Freedom Report for
2010, the Muslim population of the Philippines is between 5% to 9%, majority
are Sunnites with Shiite minority.
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 60

Islam is Brunei's official religion, 64 percent of the population is Muslim. They

are mostly from Sunnis of Malay origin, who follow the Shafi school of Islamic law. Most of
the other Muslim groups are Kedayans (converts from indigenous tribal groups) and Chinese
converts.
Culture
Architecture
Southeast Asian Muslims constitute almost a quarter of the Muslim population
worldwide, thereby being one of the strong pillars in the thriving structure of the “ummah”,
which means “community in Arab language. The uniqueness of the architecture of this region
is because it blends centuries of indigenous elements with the classic style of Middle-eastern
designs, along with a strong essence of traditional Indian influence. Aesthetically, this style of
architecture is among those of utmost importance in World Islamic heritage.
More and more Asian architectural features began to appear as Islam gained strength,
while there was a steady increase in trade between China, India, Iran, and other South-East
Asian islands. The Islamic architecture can be widely seen in Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei.
Indonesia
Islam spread gradually in Indonesia from 12th century onwards, and especially during
the 14th and 15th century.
The advent of Islam did not
lead to the introduction of a
new building tradition, but
saw the appropriation of
existing architectural
forms, which were
reinterpreted to suit
Muslim requirements.
The oldest surviving
Indonesian Islamic
mosques (or “masjids”) are Great Mosque of Demak - Indonesia

quiet large and in most cases were closely associated with palaces. The oldest surviving
mosque in Indonesia is the Great Mosque of Demak which is the royal mosque of the Sultanate
of Demak, although this is not the oldest Islamic structure. The oldest Islamic structure in
Indonesia is parts of the royal palace in Sultanate of Cirebon, Cirebon.
Malaysia
Many of the traditional masjids have almost completely wooden floors. They stand on
raised platforms with wooden steps leading up to the main hall of prayer. The masjid at
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 61

Kampung Laut, built in the seventeenth century is the oldest surviving masjid in Malaysia and
stands out as a typical example of this type of masjid architecture. It is situated in a small town
called Nilam Puri, 10 kms south of Kota Bharu, the state capital.
Brunei
Islam is the state religion in Brunei so Islamic mosques in Brunei are built with the best
features and architecture. Architecture in Brunei only comes about during the reign of the 28th
Sultan of Brunei, Sultan Haji Omar Ali Saifuddien, who was called as “Brunei Modern
Architect” as His Majesty
designed one of Brunei’s best-
known landmarks – Sultan Haji
Omar Ali Saifuddien Mosque,
one of the most beautiful
mosques in Asia Pacific.
The mosque's most
recognizable feature - the main
dome, is covered in pure gold.
The mosque stands 52 m (171 ft)
Sultan Haji Omar Ali Saifuddien Mosque high and can be seen from
virtually anywhere in Bandar
Seri Begawan. The main minaret is the mosque's tallest feature. In a unique way it
mixes Renaissance and Italian architectural style. The minaret has an elevator to the top, where
a visitor can enjoy a panoramic view of the city.
The interior of the mosque is for prayer only, with features such as stained
glass windows, arches, semi-domes and marble columns. Nearly all the material used for the
building were imported from abroad: the marble from Italy, the granite from Shanghai, the
crystal chandeliers from England and the carpets from Saudi Arabia.
Literature
Stories and language use of Indonesia and Malaysia show a myriad of Islamic influences.
In terms of literature and stories, scholars of Javanese traditions have suggested that
stories and theatrical repertoires began to absorb Islamic influences in the wake of Islamic
travelers, traders, and teachers entering into the South China Sea area. These new stories were
created to meet the tastes of the rising Islamic commercial elites inhabiting the new Islamic
city-states that had arisen on the north coast of Java in the course of the sixteenth century.
Islam is central to and dominant in Malay culture. A significant number of words in the
Malay vocabulary can trace their origins to Arabic which is the chosen language of Islam. Islam
is so ingrained in Malay life and Islamic rituals are practiced as Malay culture.
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 62

Rituals and practices

The most striking ceremonial occasion is the Muslim month of fasting, Ramadan, which
is celebrated in the ninth month of Muslim calendar. Each night during Ramadan, fine
celebratory meals are held. The month ends with Idul Fitri, a national holiday when family,
friends, neighbors, and work associates visit each other's homes to share food treats (including
visits by non-Muslims to Muslim homes).
The ubiquitous Javanese ritual, selamatan, is marked by a meal between the celebrants
and is held at all sorts of events, from life-cycle rituals to the blessing of new things entering a
village. Life-cycle events, particularly marriages and funerals, are the main occasions for
ceremonies in both rural and urban
areas, and each has religious and
secular aspects.
In Malaysia, Muslim women
generally wear the tudung (hi jab or
headscarf) over their heads.
However, Malay women who do not
wear any headgear are not
reprimanded or penalised.
Prominent Malaysian female examples are Datuk Seri Rafidah Aziz, International Trade and
Industry Minister and Tun Dr Siti Hasmah Mohd Ali, wife of former Malaysian Prime
Minister Tun Dr Mahathir bin Mohammad. However, with the influx of Arabic travellers,
foreign Muslim women (Arabs) wearing hijab that leave only their eyes exposed are often
spotted in tourist attractions, not the least at the shopping malls. At certain Malaysian
institutions such as the International Islamic University, wearing of the tudung is mandatory;
however, for non-Muslim students this usually amounts to a loosely worn piece of cloth draped
over the back of the head.
Beliefs and values
Most Muslims in Southeast Asia are Sunni, although scholars note that Islam here is
remarkably syncretic, having absorbed a number of local beliefs, customs and traditions that
pre-date the arrival of Islam. This condition is most frequently remarked upon when discussing
Islam in Indonesia, where the religion was adopted by local populations used to Hindu,
Buddhist and animist traditions. The island of Java is usually of specific interest here, with
many pre-Islamic traditions remaining in place as part of the everyday life of local Muslims.
The influence of Sufism on Islam in Southeast Asia has also been commented upon by scholars,
with some suggesting that initial conversions in many places in the region may have been tied
to the work of prominent Sufi mystics.
 CULTURES OF ASEAN COUNTRIES 63

“Polygyny” in Islam
Islam allows polygamy and permits men, under specific circumstances, to have at most
four wives at any given time.
Polygamy was customary before Islam and was not abrogated with the coming of Islam;
instead, Islam has corrected and set various conditions for the practice. The principle was
permitted, but polygamy was limited to four wives.
It is believed that in authorizing polygamy, Islam does not have the intention of siding
with men and encouraging them to form harems or overindulge in sexual desires and
debauchery or to overlook the rights of women and oppress them. Rather, Islam’s aim is to
uphold a range of women’s natural rights—the right to marriage, forming a family, and having
and rearing legitimate children. Of course, the rights of men have also been kept in mind. The
permitting of polygamy, while observing prescribed conditions, is a social necessity and in the
ultimate interests of both women and men and in order to elucidate this matter, the following
two premises are indicated.
However, it is noticeable that in the modern society, this is not a popular idea any more.
Many young Muslim men in SEA show their disapproval of this marriage practice.