DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOLAR DRYER FOR LOCAL “GUSO”

(Kappaphycus spp.) SEAWEEDS

A Thesis by

Joey G. Carillo

Lord Boy C. Silong

Submitted to the Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

College of Engineering and Geosciences

Caraga State University

Ampayon, Butuan City

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

TITLE PAGE

June 2022

i
 APPROVAL SHEET

This thesis, entitled “DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOLAR DRYER

FOR LOCAL “GUSO” (Kappaphycus spp.) SEAWEEDS”, prepared and submitted by
JOEY G. CARILLO AND LORD BOY C. SILONG, in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURAL AND
BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING is hereby accepted.

ENGR. JACK O. BERTULFO ENGR. ART M. DALMAN

Thesis Adviser Member, Thesis Defense Panel

______________________ ________________________
Date Signed Date Signed

ENGR. CINDY MAY C. BELIVESTRE ENGR. NEIL CAESAR M. TADO

Member, Thesis Defense Panel Chairperson, Thesis Defense Panel

_____________________ _________________________
Date Signed Date Signed

Accepted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of BACHELOR

OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURAL AND BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING.

ENGR. NEIL CAESAR M. TADO

Chairperson, Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

_____________________
Date Signed

MERIAM MAKINANO-SANTILLAN
Dean, CEGS

Date Signed

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The researchers would like to express their heartfelt gratitude to the people who

exerted their efforts, skills, and ideas for the success of the study:

To their adviser, Engr. Jack O. Bertulfo for sharing his knowledge and expertise in

thesis writing and for his ineffable contribution during the entire period of the research

work devoting his invaluable time in guiding, supervising, and giving suggestions for the

good of the study;

To Kuya Albert, the skilled and ever helpful farm shop personnel for extending his

helping hands during the construction of the dryer;

To their DWARVES friends, for being one-call-away and for being supportive

during the construction of the of the dryer;

To their classmates, dormmates, and to all their friends who lend their hand when

they need it;

To their family, who has been their inspiration and strength and for continuously

supporting them morally and financially;

Above all, to the Almighty God for all His blessings. Thank you so much!

iii
 ABSTRACT

This study designed, constructed, and evaluated a solar dryer specifically for local

guso seaweed. The drying curves and the drying behavior of the guso seaweed dried under

the developed solar dryer were examined and fitted with the drying kinetic model. Six

different drying models were compared and evaluated. The most suitable model is selected

based on the quality of fit of the model, which has the highest value of the coefficient of

determination (R2) and lowest value of root mean square error (RMSE) and mean bias error

(MBE). The result shows that the Midili-Kucuk model is the best-suited model for

predicting and describing the drying behavior of guso with an R2, RMSE, and MBE values

of 0.9988, 0.01005, and 0.000101, respectively. A comparative analysis was conducted

between the sun-drying and the developed solar dryer in terms of their drying rate and

drying time. An independent sample t-Test was used to evaluate the significant difference

between the selected parameters. The analysis of the drying parameters showed that the

developed solar dryer is way better at drying the seaweed than the sun-drying in terms of

drying rate and drying time.

Keywords: Solar dryer, Drying kinetics, Seaweed, Kinetic modeling

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ....................................................................................................................... i

ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................... iv

Table of Contents ................................................................................................................ v

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... viii

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... ix

LIST OF EQUATIONS ...................................................................................................... x

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background of the Study .................................................................................... 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem .................................................................................... 3

1.3 Objectives of the Study ....................................................................................... 3

1.4 Significance of the Study .................................................................................... 4

1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Study...................................................................... 4

CHAPTER 2. REVIEW RELATED LITERATURE ......................................................... 5

2.1 Overview of Seaweed ......................................................................................... 5

2.2 Drying of Seaweed .............................................................................................. 8

2.3 Dried Seaweed Uses ......................................................................................... 11

2.4 Solar Dryer ........................................................................................................ 12

2.5 Drying Kinetics ................................................................................................. 15

2.5.1 Drying Constants ........................................................................................ 17

v
 2.6 Effects of Temperature and Humidity on Drying Kinetics ............................... 18

2.7 Goodness of Fit Statistics................................................................................. 18

CHAPTER 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS .............................................................. 19

3.1 Solar Dryer Elements and Mechanism ............................................................. 19

3. 1.1 Design Consideration ..................................................................................... 19

3.1.3 Material Selection and Construction of Solar Dryer......................................... 19

3.1.3 Solar Dryer Mechanism .................................................................................... 21

3.2 Experimental Set-Up and Procedure ................................................................. 23

3.2.1 Seaweed Samples ........................................................................................ 23

3.2.2 Drying Kinetics ........................................................................................... 24

3.2.3 Comparative Evaluation.............................................................................. 25

3.3 Data Gathered ................................................................................................... 26

3.3.1 Determination of Moisture Content of Seaweed ........................................ 27

3.3.2 Determination of Drying Rate .................................................................... 27

3.4.3 Mathematical Modelling ............................................................................. 28

3.5 Statistical Analysis ............................................................................................ 29

CHAPTER 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ............................................................. 31

4.1 Working Principle of Solar Dryer ..................................................................... 31

4.1.1 Drying Kinetics ........................................................................................... 32

4.2 Model Fitting .................................................................................................... 34

vi
 4.3 Comparative Evaluation Analysis..................................................................... 36

CHAPTER 5. .................................................................................................................... 39

5.1 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 39

5.2 Recommendations ............................................................................................. 39

References ......................................................................................................................... 40

Appendix A. GATHERING OF DATA ........................................................................... 47

Appendix B. BILL OF MATERIALS .............................................................................. 50

APPENDIX C. DESIGN CALCULATION ..................................................................... 51

APPENDIX D. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS ....................................................................... 53

CURRICULUM VITAE ................................................................................................... 55

vii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Value of Fisheries Production (2018-2020) [2] .................................................... 7

Table 2. PNS: Specifications for raw dried seaweed [24]. ............................................... 11

Table 3. Mathematical models applied to thin-layer drying curve [56]. .......................... 16

Table 4. Instruments used during experiments ................................................................. 26

Table 5. Selected Drying Kinetics Model ......................................................................... 28

Table 6. Calculated drying constants and statistical measures value................................ 35

Table 7. Summary Performance Between Solar Dryer and Sun-Drying .......................... 37

Table 8. Independent Sample t-Test between Solar Dryer and Sun-Drying..................... 37

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Sun-drying of seaweed ........................................................................................ 2

Figure 2. Seaweed supply chain in the Philippines............................................................. 6

Figure 3. Seaweed Production and Annual Growth Rate (2018-2020). ............................. 7

Figure 4. Dried Seaweed ..................................................................................................... 9

Figure 5. Solar dryer using UV resistant clear polyethylene ............................................ 13

Figure 6. Solar-tunnel dryer using UV-stabilized polythene sheet ................................... 14

Figure 7. Floating-type seaweed dryer.............................................................................. 15

Figure 8. Frame construction ............................................................................................ 20

Figure 9. Materials needed: (a) U-V plastic sheet, (b) Fish net ........................................ 21

Figure 10. The Various Parts of Solar Dryer .................................................................... 22

Figure 11. Solar Dryer Dimension .................................................................................... 23

Figure 12. Guso samples ................................................................................................... 24

Figure 13. Guso drying: (a) sun-drying, (b) solar dryer with hygrometer inside ............. 25

Figure 14. Actual Prototype of Solar Dryer ...................................................................... 31

Figure 15. Recorded Temperature and Relative Humidity ............................................... 32

Figure 16. Drying curve: Drying rate versus Drying time ................................................ 33

Figure 17. Experimental MR versus Drying time ............................................................. 34

Figure 18. Predicted MR from different model versus experimental MR ........................ 35

Figure 19. Comparison of Experimental MR and Predicted MR of Midilli- Kucuk’s model

........................................................................................................................................... 36

ix
 LIST OF EQUATIONS

Equation 1. Moisture Content wet basis ........................................................................... 27

Equation 2.Moisture Content dry basis ............................................................................. 27

Equation 3. Drying Rate…………………………………………………………………27

Equation 4. Moisture Ratio………………………………………………………………28

Equation 5. Simplified Moisture Ratio ............................................................................. 28

Equation 6. Coefficient of determination.......................................................................... 29

Equation 7. Mean Bias Error……………………………………………………………..29

Equation 8. Root Mean Square Error…………………………………………………….29

x
 1

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Seaweed (Eucheuma spp. and Kappaphycus spp.) is one of the major sources of

natural fiber and carrageenan for cosmetics and food processes. As indicated by [1],

seaweed as an ingredient in the food industry often requires it to be dehydrated before use

(for carrageenan production). Drying of seaweed helps prevent decomposition, increases

shelf life, and aids the extraction of certain chemical constituents. And also inhibits

microbiological activity and slows or stops chemical reactions that cause food to

deteriorate, thus prolonging shelf life.

In the Philippines, seaweed is among the top aquaculture commodities in this

current situation [2]. Additionally, seaweed farming generates income for more than

500,000 people and over 100,000 families living along coastlines and many islands [3].

Seaweed production accounts for over half of all aquacultural assets, employing more than

200,000 fishermen and 30,000 traders, making it one of the most profitable agricultural

sectors [4].

The drying of seaweeds is done mainly through sun drying methods, as shown in

Figure 1. The most common method is sun-drying, which spreads the seaweed evenly on

the platforms or ground level. It usually takes 2 to 3 days to obtain a moisture content of

less than 35%, which is the desired moisture content by buyers [5]. Another method is

called the hanging method which the newly harvested seaweeds are hung on a wood or

bamboo hanger. However, the current methods of drying the seaweed have many
 2

disadvantages, such as being weather dependent and exposed to dirt and unwanted

materials. Also, a sudden occurrence of rain may hinder the drying process and cause

decomposition and damage to seaweeds [6]. Hence, developing an enclosed solar dryer for

seaweed for village-level operation is highly needed.

Figure 1. Sun-drying of seaweed

Meanwhile, according to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, the

Philippines' average solar radiation ranges from 128-to 203 watts per square meter, or an

average of 161.7 watts per square meter, based on sunlight duration [7]. In addition, the

northern part of the country receives enough sunlight to generate an average of 4.5-5 kWh

per square meter per day, while the southern areas can generate an average of 5-5.5 kWh

per square meter per day. Moreover, the Philippine location has potential and is suitable

for developing solar dryer facilities.

This study was conducted to design and develop a solar dryer specific to local

seaweed known as “guso”. The solar dryer was fabricated and tested to improve and

accelerate the drying process of seaweed.

 3

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Drying the seaweed is needed to decrease its water activity to inhibit the growth of

microbes, reduce storage volume, and maintain the quality of the product [8].The common

drying method used by the local farmers is still relying on sun-drying regardless of

unpredictable weather conditions. A sudden occurrence of rain may hinder the drying

process and cause decomposition and damage to seaweeds [6]. Another factor was that

sun-drying takes longer to dry seaweeds. According to [9], sun-drying is labor-intensive

and time-consuming. Additionally, sun-drying is prone to contamination by dust and sand

particles and other impurities [10]. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to design

and develop a solar dryer for local guso seaweeds that can improve the drying process of

guso seaweeds.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this study was to design and develop a solar dryer for local

guso seaweeds. Specifically, this study aimed to:

1. Design and develop a solar dryer for local guso seaweeds specifically

intended for village-level operation;

2. Determine the drying kinetics of seaweed under the developed solar dryer;

3. Conduct a comparative analysis between the solar dryer and sun-drying in

terms of Drying Rate and Drying Time.

 4

1.4 Significance of the Study

Developing a solar dryer for seaweeds is a significant attempt to improve seaweed

farmers' drying methods and minimize human labor. It was designed to be simple to

construct and can be replicated easily. The enclosure of the solar dryer protects the

seaweeds from weather disturbances; thus, the quality of the dried seaweed can be

improved. The solar dryer can improve the drying process in terms of drying rate and

drying time.

1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Study

This study focused in the design and construction of solar dryer specifically for

guso (Kappaphycus spp.). The technology in this study was constructed and tested inside

the Caraga State University campus, Ampayon, Butuan City. The drying experiments were

done in the same place stated above. Also, the dryer was used to determine the drying

kinetics of guso seaweeds. Quality evaluation of the dried seaweed under the developed

solar dryer was not in the scope of this study. The dryer utilized solar radiation to heat air

to remove the moisture of seaweeds placed inside the dryer. Weather conditions still

influence the performance of the dryer, especially during rainy days, where a longer drying

time is expected before the desired moisture content is reached.

 5

CHAPTER 2. REVIEW RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Overview of Seaweed

Seaweed (Eucheuma spp. and Kappaphycus spp.), like mangroves and coral reefs,

is essential for the marine ecosystem. It contains a high amount of water in nature, with an

average of 75-85% water and 15-25% organic components and minerals [11]. It contributed

many benefits and uses to the environment, medicine, food production, and the economy.

Seaweed is an important product in food as a natural fiber resource. It's also been utilized

as a starting point for food additives including carrageenan, alginate, and agar.

China and Indonesia are by far the world’s largest seaweed producers with over 23

million tons of aggregated production in 2014 [12]. China and Indonesia produced more

than 10 million tons of seaweed in 2014, the Philippines and the Korean Republic produced

over 1 million tons, and the Popular Democratic Republic of Korea, Japan, Malaysia, and

Zanzibar produced more than 100,000 tons each [13].

The Philippines' seaweed is among the most diverse in the Asia-Pacific region's

flora. More than 800 seaweed species have been identified in the Philippines. It is the top

aquaculture commodity in the Philippines followed by milkfish and Tilapia [2]. Eucheuma,

Kappaphycus, Gracilaria spp., and Caulerpa lentillifera are the most important commercial

seaweeds in the Philippines. Seaweeds are exported in both raw (fresh or dried seaweeds)

and processed (semirefined chips/carrageenan and refined carrageenan) forms [14].

Seaweed farmers serve as the producers of raw dried seaweeds (rds) and sell their

produce to local traders or buyers. The local traders, on the other hand, sell the raw dried
 6

seaweeds to local processors and exporters. And the local processors or exporters export

the raw dried seaweeds either in raw dried seaweeds alone or processed into semi-refined

carrageenan (src) and refined carrageenan form. The seaweed supply chain in the

Philippines is shown in Figure 2 below.

Figure 2. Seaweed supply chain in the Philippines [77]

The Philippines is one of the world's top seaweed producers, with the majority of

supplies coming from MIMAROPA, the Zamboanga Peninsula, and the Autonomous

Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM). Figure 3 shows the volume of seaweed production

and annual growth rate in the Philippines, from January 2018 to December 2020. It went

down by -2.1 percent compared with its previous year’s output of 1,499.96 thousand metric

tons. This implies that the seaweed industry in the Philippines shows a sudden decrease in

production in the year 2020. The Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR)

attributed this downtrend to the decreasing number of seaweed farmers. BFAR added that

some farmers experience problems with low productivity due to unfavorable farm location,

diseases, and vulnerability to the exercise and influence of market powers in the supply

chain. The gross value of seaweed production in 2020 amounted to PhP 10.60 billion, or -

10.5 percent lower than its record of PhP 11.84 billion in the previous year as shown in
 7

Table 1. The average price per kilogram of seaweeds during the year was quoted at PHP

7.22. It declined by -8.6 percent from its previous year’s price of PhP 7.90 per kilogram

[2].

Figure 3. Seaweed Production and Annual Growth Rate (2018-

2020). [2]

Table 1. Value of Fisheries Production (2018-2020) [2]

Species Value of Production at Current Prices Percent Change
(PhP) (%)
2018 2019 2020 2019/2018 2020/2019
Fisheries 265,348,684 281,651,654 273,407,828 6.1 -2.9

Milkfish 41,225,382 43,352,849 44,186,471 5.2 1.9

(Bangus)
Tilapia 24,253,177 25,179,587 25,509,478 3.8 1.3
Tiger prawn 21,785,312 23,118,769 20,597,564 6.1 -10.9
(Sugpo)
Skipjack 17,246,334 20,454,105 18,015,982 18.6 -11.9
Roundscad 11,608,295 12,179,367 13,735,565 4.9 12.8
(Galunggong)
Seaweed 10,919,695 11,845,017 10,603,114 8.5 -10.5
Yellowfin Tuna 10,043,961 12,6678,657 10,912,960 26.2 -13.9
Mudcrab 9,282,265 9,617,362 9,379,428 3.6 -2.5
(Alimango)
 8

Table 1 continue
Frigate Tuna 8,750,282 8,972,012 8,910,989 2.5 -0.7
(Tulingan)
Big-eyed Scad 8,673,810 8,866,480 8,786,718 2.2 -0.9
(Matangbaka)
Bali Sardinella 7,135,839 7,001,991 8,484,210 -1.9 21.2
(Tamban)

2.2 Drying of Seaweed

The post-harvest activity involved in seaweed production is drying. Careful post-

harvest treatment is required to maintain the crop's value. Drying racks or mats are used to

keep it away from sand and grime. In other places, the entire line is taken out of the water

and hung over a tall "fence" to dry, with the seaweed untied once it has dried. Sun-drying

for 2–3 days in most regions is sufficient to reduce the moisture content to the required 35

percent level. The minimum moisture content required by seaweed buyers is about 35 %

[15] . However, farmers don’t need to measure the moisture content of seaweeds before

selling them but only ensure that seaweed is properly dried as suggested. Well-dried

seaweed is filled with plenty of salt crystals as shown in Figure 4, and has a rubber-like

texture [16].
 9

Figure 4. Dried Seaweed

Currently, the most common method of drying seaweeds is open sun drying (floor

drying and bamboo rack drying), which is highly susceptible to changing weather

conditions. Unfavorable weather conditions reduce product quality, delay drying time, and

cause inefficiencies, all of which have an impact on overall seaweed production [6].

The improper drying process of seaweed will result in several losses, namely the

natural characteristics of the original material, such as texture, appearance, and quality

properties. Drying using plastic sheets or tarpaulin on the ground causes dirty seaweed and

uneven dryness due to moist [17]. Drying using bamboo shelves causes even dryness with

the desired water content due to air circulation through the gaps on the drying bed. Free

hanging is better because the salt content is low and dryness is more evenly distributed

[18].

Similarly, direct sunlight dryers and traditional convection dryers are used to dry

seaweed. The direct sunlight dryer was a simple and inexpensive option. The quality of the

dried product and the consistency of the process, on the other hand, are affected by the

climate or weather. Furthermore, the dry seaweed product was not hygienic because it was

placed in an exposed area [19]. However, to reduce the aforementioned issues while also
 10

achieving a quick and efficient thermal process, an oven dryer and a hybrid solar dryer [20]

were used for seaweed drying.

Some researchers have researched seaweed drying. In 2011, [11] studied the effects

of drying temperature on the moisture and phytochemical constituents of Irish brown

seaweed. They discovered that drying at 40 degrees Celsius reduced the phytochemical and

phenolic contents of seaweed by 29 and 30 percent, respectively. The exergy of a solar

drying system for red seaweed has also been investigated [21]. They reported that after 15

hours of drying, the seaweed's moisture content was reduced from 90% to 10% on a wet

basis, with the collector, drying, and exergy efficiency of 35%, 27%, and 30%,

respectively. Seaweed drying process using tray dryer with dehumidified air system to

increase the efficiency of energy and quality product was studied by [8]. His results showed

that the increase in drying temperature is proportional to the high drying rate that occurs,

while the drying rate decreases over time. The highest efficiency of the tray dryer is

obtained during drying for 4 hours at 50°C at the optimum air temperature and drying time,

which is 91.50 percent.

In 2015, the effectiveness of the sauna technique on the drying period and kinetics

of seaweed, Kappaphycus alvarezii, using a solar drier has been evaluated [22]. Drying of

sample seaweed in VGHSD reduced the moisture content from about 90.50% to 38% in 4

days at average solar radiation of about 600W/m2 and a mass flow rate of about 0.056 kg/s.

The seaweed moisture content was decreased by around 50% within 2 days in the sauna.

Likewise, [23] stated in their study that dehumidified air can be an option to retain the

seaweed quality. Results showed that for all cases, drying at 70˚C or below can provide a
 11

reasonable drying time. The higher the air temperature and airflow, the faster the drying

time.

The Philippine National Standard specification for raw dried seaweed is shown in

Table 2.

Table 2. PNS: Specifications for raw dried seaweed [24].

Criteria Kappaphycus spp. Eucheuma sp.
Moisture content (MC) (% max) 40 38
Clean anhydrous seaweed 30 40
(CAS), (% min)
Impurities (% max) 3 3
Salt as KCl (% max) 25 20
Sand, (% max) 1 1
Color purple to different shades of brown

2.3 Dried Seaweed Uses

Carrageenan is a collection of biomolecules made up of linear polysaccharide

chains connected to sugar units by sulfate half-esters. It's made from a variety of seaweed

species [25]. The polysaccharide structure of carrageenan is made up of ammonium,

calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium sulfated esters of d-galactose and (3,6)-

anhydrous-d-galactose units [26]. Carrageenan is extracted in a variety of ways, depending

on the source and environment., carrageenan has three types: kappa (κ), iota (ι), and lambda

(λ), which represent one, two, and three sulfate groups per disaccharide, respectively. Only

ι- and λ-carrageenan can form physical gels, while κ-carrageenan hydrogels exhibit pH and
 12

temperature sensitiveness. Physical gels can only be formed from iota (ι) and lambda (λ)

while kappa (κ) carrageenan hydrogels exhibit pH and temperature sensitiveness [27].

Carrageenan is said to be a possible alternative source of full plant protein since it

has been proven to enhance health and provide nourishment [28]. According to [29],

carrageenan possesses unique physical features such as gelling, thickening, stabilizing, and

binding capabilities. Thus, it has many food applications including ice cream, dessert

mousses, bakery fillings, canned food, instant desserts, salad dressings, canned pet foods,

etc. Carrageenan also has a variety of commercial applications in the form of refined

extracts, such as clarifying wine, brews, and honey in the brewing sector [25]. But usually,

carrageenan was used to improve the texture of cottage cheese, dairy desserts, or puddings.

It was also utilized in the manufacture of sausages, patties, and low-fat hamburgers as

binders and stabilizers. Additionally, carrageenan is also utilized in the manufacturing of

toothpaste, air freshener gels, firefighting foam, cosmetic creams, and shampoo as [30]

reported.

2.4 Solar Dryer

The use of dryers in developing countries can reduce post-harvest losses and

significantly increase food availability in these countries. Estimates of these losses are

typically in the 40 percent range, but under extreme conditions, they can reach as high as

80 percent. A significant portion of these losses is due to improper and/or inefficient drying

of foods such as cereal grains, pulses, tubers, meat, fish, etc. [31].

A solar dryer is a drying method that uses solar radiation as the primary energy

source, with a closed chamber to contain the material to be dried, thus protecting the dried
 13

materials from contamination. This drying method is relatively inexpensive and simple to

implement [32]. It can be classified according to its size, system design, and solar energy

usage method [33]. Two groups of solar energy dryers can be identified, viz., passive or

natural-circulation solar energy dryers and active or forced convection solar energy dryers

[34]. The construction of direct passive sun dryers (natural convection) like cabinets and

greenhouse dryers is simple and inexpensive. An insulated box with inlet and outlet holes,

as well as a transparent glass/polyethylene/polycarbonate sheet, make up a drying chamber

[35] [36] [37] [38] [39] and [40] investigated the use of greenhouse dryers for large-scale

drying of multiple agricultural products. Transparent UV-plastic sheet becomes the major

material that is being used in any type of solar dryer as shown in Figures 5 and 6 [41] [42]

[43] [44] [45]. In 2016, [36] indicated in their study that the average drying efficiency of

the passive dryer ranges from 20 to 40%, depending on the type of materials, airflow rate,

and location.

Figure 5. Solar dryer using UV resistant clear polyethylene [41]

 14

Figure 6. Solar-tunnel dryer using UV-stabilized polythene sheet [45]

Several systems such as a scaled-up microwave dryer [46] and solar dryer [47] have

been introduced. Additionally, the effect of air temperature, humidity, and velocity on

seaweed drying has also been investigated [23]. Dehumidified air can be an option to retain

the seaweed quality. With lower humidity, the driving force for drying can be improved

which shortened drying time. Results showed that for all cases, drying at 70°C or below

can provide a reasonable drying time. The higher the air temperature airflow flow, the

faster the drying time. Meanwhile, the dehumidified air also affected drying time

positively.

Moreover, Pangan [6] conducted an optimization study of their floating-type

seaweed dryer as shown in Figure 7. The optimization study conducted focused on the

effects of varying the air inlet of the dryer by opening the foldable sidings to different

height levels and the timely operation of exhaust fans in maximizing the combined effect

of solar and air drying. The results showed that fully-opened sidings without running

exhaust fan setting resulted in the highest moisture reduction in nighttime conditions. The

sidings that were opened one-fourth from the bottom without running exhaust fans and
 15

sidings that were half-opened with running exhaust fan settings, on the other hand,

produced the maximum moisture decrease under daytime conditions.

Figure 7. Floating-type seaweed dryer [6]

2.5 Drying Kinetics

IGI Global [48] defines “drying kinetics” as a graphical representation of the

evolution of the moisture content (generally a decrease of the moisture content) inside the

material. The drying kinetics are usually used to predict the drying behavior and to

optimization of the drying parameters of various foods [49]. The drying kinetics and MC

in the material at a particular instant of time can be predicted by empirical correlations [50]

[51]. The weight of a drying material as a function of time is commonly used to measure

drying kinetics in experiments. Moisture content vs time, drying rate versus time, and

drying rate versus moisture content are three different types of graphs that can be used to

describe drying curves [52].

Likewise, it can be costly to undertake a full-scale experiment to identify the best

drying conditions. As a result, drying kinetics is used to express the moisture removal
 16

process and its relationship to the process factors, and a thorough understanding of the

drying rate is necessary for developing a drying model [53]. Drying time, drying

temperature, relative air humidity, airflow rate (or velocity), surface area, size (material

thickness), volume and local or partial pressure are the factors that affect drying kinetics

[54]. Meanwhile, when solar energy is used to dry some materials, the drying kinetics are

satisfactory. [55]

However, [56] discovered that relying purely on experimental drying procedures

without taking into account mathematical factors for drying kinetics can have a substantial

impact on dryer efficiency, production costs, and dried product quality. The use of

mathematical models in determining the drying kinetics of agricultural products is critical

since an effective model is required for process design, optimization, energy integration,

and control. The table below shows some of the mathematical models applied and used for

thin-layer drying curves of various agricultural products.

Table 3. Mathematical models applied to thin-layer drying curve [56].

S/N Model Name Equation
1. Newton/Lewis M R = exp ( − k t )
2. Page M R = exp ( − k tn )
3. Modified Page M R = exp [ ( − k t )n ]
4 Midilli-Kucuk M R = a exp ( − k tn ) + b t
5. Wang and Singh M R = M O + a t + b t2
6. Henderson and Pabis M R = a exp ( − k t )
7. Logarithmic M R = a exp ( − k t ) + c

Several researchers have investigated the drying behavior of their products under

the design of solar dryers using different mathematical models. A Green V-Roof Hybrid
 17

Solar Drier (GVRHSD) was designed to dry the seaweed (Kappaphycus Alvarezii var.

Tambalang) and conducted under the metrological condition in Malaysia. Their results

concluded that Modified Page was the best model for describing the drying behavior of

their design with the highest value of R2=0.9989 and the lowest value of RSME=0.0497

[57]. As part of the investigation of the drying kinetics of seaweed (Eucheuma cottonii)

under the solar dryer, the data shows that Midilli-Kucuk model was the best model to

describe the drying kinetics of seaweed [58]. A solar chimney dryer was designed to be

economically fossil fuel-free, cold-inflow free, and no additional electrical devices in

drying the seaweed in Sabah, Malaysia. And the Page model was the one that showed the

best results of R2 and RMSE values of 0.9767 and 0.04393, respectively [59]. And based

on the analysis result [60] for the forced convection solar drying system, indicates that the

Page model is the best model to describe the drying behavior of the seaweed with the

highest value of R2=0.9673 and lowest value of MBE=0.0002 and RMSE= 0.0139.

Additionally, the Page model was also the most suitable model for determining the drying

kinetics of Malaysian chilies (Capsicum annuum L.) in a solar dryer [61].

2.5.1 Drying Constants

The drying constant in the thin layer drying idea is made up of drying transport

parameters including moisture diffusivity, thermal conductivity, density, specific heat,

interface heat, and mass coefficients [62]. To use any transport equation, knowledge of

transport and material properties is required [63]. Each equation has its own set of

dimensionless (model) constants (a, b, c, d, l, α) and drying constants (k, g, h, K1, K2, K0)

[56].
 18

2.6 Effects of Temperature and Humidity on Drying Kinetics

In drying kinetics, air temperature is one of the major factors influencing the drying

kinetics during dehydration [64]. In 2003, [65] reported that the drying constant,

equilibrium moisture content, and moisture diffusivity increase as the temperature

increases. The implications of drying temperature and humidity on the drying kinetics of

seaweed using the Low Temperature and Humidity Chamber Test and found out that drying

at 600C and relative humidity of 20% is the best way to seaweed. The higher drying

temperatures and low relative humidity the moisture content will be rapidly reduced [66].

2.7 Goodness of Fit Statistics

The goodness of fit test ensures that the model fits the problem or data correctly

[56]. Correlation coefficient (r or R), coefficient of determination (r2 or R2), Reduced chi-

square (χ2), mean bias error (MBE), root mean square error (RMSE), sum square error

(SSE), mean relative error root square (RRMS), modeling efficiency (EF), mean percent

error (MPE), Mean square error (MSE). Hence, If the R2 value is high and additional

criteria such as 2, RMSE, MBE, MPE, SSE, RRMS, EF, and MSE values are low, the

model is said to be a good fit [67] [68].

 19

CHAPTER 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Solar Dryer Elements and Mechanism

3. 1.1 Design Consideration

The design of the guso solar dryer took into consideration the availability,

specification, and selection of appropriate materials to meet the general objectives of the

study. The capacity of the dryer was also considered in such a way that it can accommodate

to dry the guso being placed inside the chamber. Furthermore, ergonomic aspect was also

considered in order to fit the average Filipino height while standing during the operation.

The design calculation for the solar dryer dimensions is shown in Appendix C.

3.1.3 Material Selection and Construction of Solar Dryer

The researchers want to design an inexpensive solar dryer. The selection of

materials was carefully done through canvassing and searching online. The chosen

materials were:

• Wood for the frame.

• Nails for linking the dryer components together.

• A fish net for the drying floor.

• A 200-microns UV-Plastic sheet for the enclosure of the dryer.

Timber wood is a low-cost construction material with natural anti-corrosive

characteristics which would be a good choice for framing a solar dryer. The fish net is
 20

locally available in the market and has been involved in drying the seaweed [69]. The UV-

plastic sheet is suitable for trapping solar radiation and is widely used in greenhouse

structures. The quantity and the bill of the materials for constructing one (1) unit dryer is

presented in Appendix B. The construction of the solar dryer was done at the Farm

Mechanization Center, Caraga State University oval, Ampayon, Butuan City. The

materials used for construction were bought in the nearby market except for the U-V Plastic

sheet since it was purchased through an online shop.

The timber wood was cut into sizes that corresponded to the desired dimensions

and then assembled to form the dryer’s frame as shown in Figure 8. The fishnet and U-V

plastic sheet shown in Figure 9 was ready to be attached after the frame was completed.

Figure 8. Frame construction

 21

(a) (b)
Figure 9. Materials needed: (a) U-V plastic sheet, (b) Fish net

3.1.3 Solar Dryer Mechanism

The designed solar dryer adapted the concept of passive drying wherein air is

naturally heated and circulated by buoyancy force, wind pressure, or a combination of the

two [70]. When the solar radiation strikes the dryer’s outer surface, the heat energy is

delivered to the walls, roof, and space enclosed by the solar dryer. And when the air enters

inside the drying chamber through the side openings, the heat gained is equally distributed

throughout the dryer. As a result of the accumulated heat energy through radiation and

convection, the water vapor inside the product evaporates and continues until the sample

reaches its moisture equilibrium [71].

The structural design is mainly based on the usual type of greenhouse dryer, where

the structure is enclosed with the use of the 200-microns UV-plastic material. For

maximum capturing of the free solar radiation, the roof was tilted at an angle of 15 degree

[72]. The roofing has a side lapping of 0.20 m for both sides to avoid the seaweed to be in
 22

contact with water when it rained. Figure 10 and 11 shows the various parts and description

of the designed solar dryer. The main component of the solar dryer is the drying chamber.

The drying chamber has a door-type, open upward and with an installed stick for keeping

the door open during loading and unloading of guso. It is elevated 0.65 meters from the

ground and is enclosed with a UV-plastic sheet. The drying chamber is enclosed to

maximize the heat retention inside, avoid external contamination, and protect from

unpredictable weather conditions. The enclosure is extended up to one-half of the length

of the small post. The chamber also has a 0.15-meter opening on both sides. The drying

floor is made of a 1.5cm x 1.5cm mesh fish net, and it serves as the drying tray of the

seaweeds. The fish net used to cover the drying floor and the sides is adapted to allow the

air intake and natural ventilation for proper air circulation inside the drying chamber.

Figure 10. The Various Parts of Solar Dryer

 23

Figure 11. Solar Dryer Dimension

3.2 Experimental Set-Up and Procedure

There were two series of drying experiments done in this study. All drying

experiments conforms to the thin-layer drying where samples are dry as one layer. The first

drying experiment was for the drying kinetics of guso under the solar dryer. The second

experiment is the comparative analysis between the developed solar dryer and the sun

drying in terms of drying time and drying rate.

3.2.1 Seaweed Samples

The guso samples (Kappaphycus spp.) were obtained from a local farm in Barobo,

Surigao Del Sur. The samples were obtained from the leftovers resulting from the broken

of small branches during harvesting and hauling of guso. The unnecessary contaminants
 24

were removed from the samples. The initial moisture content of the samples was measured

using the oven-drying method. For the drying kinetics experiment, 1 kg of guso samples

were used. And for the comparative analysis experiment, 0.5 kg of guso samples were used

with three replications made for the drying experiment. The initial moisture content of

samples was 91.2 %. The guso samples are shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12. Guso samples

3.2.2 Drying Kinetics

The solar dryer was placed in an open field with no obstruction from the sun. The

samples were uniformly spread in a thin layer in the drying tray. The drying process starts

at 8:00 am and ends until the seaweed reaches the bone-dry weight. The temperature and

relative humidity inside the dryer and the weight of the guso were measured every thirty

minutes intervals.
 25

3.2.3 Comparative Evaluation

The second drying experiment was conducted to compare the solar dryer and the

sun-drying in terms of their drying time and drying rate. The sun-drying process was

spreading the seaweed on a wood platform with a fish net and letting the direct sunlight

remove the moisture content on the sample. The 0.5 kg of guso samples were used in solar

dryer and sun drying. The sample's initial moisture content wet basis was determined using

the oven-drying method. The same drying parameters in the first experiment were

measured and monitored. The actual drying experiment is shown in Figure 13.

(a) (b)
Figure 13. Guso drying: (a) sun-drying, (b) solar dryer with hygrometer inside

During the testing and data gathering, the instruments and apparatus were used as

listed in Table 4. The relevant data were gathered and recorded during the actual operation

of the dryer.
 26

Table 4. Instruments used during experiments

Materials Functions Range/Specification Accuracy
Used to record the amount of
Smartphone
Stopwatch time that elapsed during -
Application
drying.
±1.0˚C on -
Used to measure the -20 ˚C to 60 ˚C 20 to 0 ˚C,
temperature and relative 5% to 95% RH 45˚C to
Hygrometer
humidity, inside and outside 60˚C
of the solar dryer. (Fluke 971) ±2.5 RH (10
to 90% RH)
Used to measure the mass of
seaweed before and after
Analytical 0 to 5000 grams
drying to monitor the ±1 gram
balance S.K.R.
moisture content of seaweed
weighing scale
at a specified time.
Used to compute the
Calculator gathered data for modeling - -
and performance evaluation.
Used to determine the initial
moisture content of the LDO-080F, LabTech,
-
Oven dryer seaweed and other Indonesia
properties.

3.3 Data Gathered

The following data were gathered in this study.

1. The temperature (inside and outside) and relative humidity in the solar dryer

and the sun-drying.

2. The moisture content of guso, %

3. The moisture ratio

4. The drying rate, kg/min

5. Drying time, hr
 27

3.3.1 Determination of Moisture Content of Seaweed

The determination of the initial moisture content of the raw guso sample and the

final moisture content (wet basis) of the dried guso sample was done through the oven-

drying method. The samples were placed in the oven at a constant temperature of 80˚C to

attain their bone-dry weight. The sample's moisture content was then calculated by two

methods based on either a wet or dry basis using the following equation.
𝑊𝑜 −𝑊𝑓
𝑀𝐶𝑤𝑏 = 𝑥100 (Eq. 1)
𝑊𝑜

𝑊𝑜 −𝑊𝑓
𝑀𝐶𝑑𝑏 = 𝑥100 (Eq. 1)
𝑊𝑓

Where:

𝑀𝐶𝑤𝑏 = Moisture content of seaweed on a wet basis, %

𝑀𝐶𝑑𝑏 = Moisture content of seaweed on a dry basis, %

𝑊𝑜 = weight of the seaweed before drying, g

𝑊𝑓 = weight of the seaweed after drying, g

3.3.2 Determination of Drying Rate

The drying rate DR is calculated using MC at two successive times divided by the

change in time (dt) and is shown as,

𝑑𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐶𝑡+𝑑𝑡 −𝑀𝐶𝑡
𝐷𝑅 = = (Eq. 2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Where:

𝑀𝐶𝑡+𝑑𝑡 = moisture content at t1

𝑀𝐶𝑡 = moisture content at t2

 28

dt = change in time (t1 – t2)

3.4.3 Mathematical Modelling

To determine the drying kinetics of the seaweed, the selected drying model in Table

5 was used.

Table 5. Selected Drying Kinetics Model

No Model Name Model
1 Newton 𝑀𝑅 = exp (−𝑘𝑡)
2 Page 𝑀𝑅 = exp(−𝑘𝑡 𝑛 )
3 Modified Page 𝑀𝑅 = exp(−(𝑘𝑡)𝑛 )
4 Henderson and Pabis 𝑀𝑅 = a exp (−𝑘𝑡)
5 Midilli–Kucuk MR = a exp(-ktn ) +bt

The Moisture Ratio (MR) can be calculated as follow:

M𝐶𝑑𝑏 −𝑀𝑒
𝑀𝑅 = (Eq. 3)
𝑀𝑜 −𝑀𝑒

Where:

𝑀𝐶𝑑𝑏 = moisture content dry basis

𝑀𝑒 = equilibrium moisture content

𝑀𝑜 = initial moisture content

The moisture ratio is simplified as follows due to relative humidity variations in

the dryer [73].

𝑀𝐶𝑑𝑏
𝑀𝑅 = 𝑀𝑜
(Eq. 4)
 29

The statistical measures value like the coefficient of determination (𝑅2), mean bias

error (MBE), and root mean square error (RMSE) were used to determine the quality of

the drying model. The highest R2 values and the values of the lowest MBE and RMSE were

selected to estimate the drying curve is the best [60]. The R2, MBE, and the RMSE was

calculated using the equation 6, 7, and 8, respectively.

∑𝑁 (𝑀𝑅𝑝𝑟𝑒,𝑖 −𝑀𝑅𝑖 )2
𝑅2 = 1 − ∑𝑁𝑖=1 (𝑀𝑅 2 (Eq. 5)
𝑖=1 𝑒𝑥𝑝,𝑖 −𝑀𝑅𝑖 )

1
𝑀𝐵𝐸 = ∑𝑁
𝑖=1(𝑀𝑅𝑝𝑟𝑒,𝑖 − 𝑀𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑝,𝑖 )
2
(Eq. 6)
𝑁

1
1 2 2
𝑅𝑀𝑆𝐸 = [𝑁 ∑𝑁
𝑖=1(𝑀𝑅𝑝𝑟𝑒,𝑖 − 𝑀𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑝,𝑖 ) ] (Eq. 7)

Where:

𝑀𝑅𝑝𝑟𝑒,𝑖 = predicted moisture ratio

𝑀𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑝,𝑖 = experimental moisture ratio

𝑁 = number of observations

3.5 Statistical Analysis

To analyze the data gathered during the first experiment, the non-linear regression

techniques were used to obtain the different constants and coefficients in each selected

model, using the SOLVER tool in Microsoft Excel based on the General Reduced Gradient

(GRG) iteration method.

 30

The gathered data in the second experiment were analyzed statistically using a t-

test for independent sample analysis in SPSS.

 31

CHAPTER 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Working Principle of Solar Dryer

The solar dryer is associated with two types of heat transfer; radiation and

convection. The developed solar dryer adapted the idea of a greenhouse effect where the

solar energy is trapped inside by the aid of the UV-plastic sheet and thus increases the

drying temperature inside the drying chamber. The opening gaps in the drying floor allow

the air to enter the chamber and circulate freely to distribute the heat energy into the raw

guso and later exit in open siding. The solar dryer is composed mainly of a wooden frame,

UV plastic sheet for the enclosure, and a fish net on the drying floor. Figure 14 below

shows the actual prototype of the solar dryer.

Figure 14. Actual Prototype of Solar Dryer

 32

4.1.1 Drying Kinetics

Drying of guso using the developed solar dryer takes 8 hours to bone-dry the guso

from initial moisture of 90.3% to 9.7%, equivalent to 1 kg to 0.097 kg. Figure 15 shows

the plot of temperature and relative humidity inside the solar dryer, ranging from 37˚C to

48˚C and 45 % to 70%, respectively. It can be observed in the figure that there is a variation

of values of temperature and relative humidity. This is merely due to the condition outside

that varies at a certain time. It can be observed also that when the temperature rises, the

relative humidity falls, causing the air to become drier, and when the temperature drops,

the air becomes wet, causing the relative humidity to rise.

Temperature Relative Humidity

70 Temperature Relative Humidity 70
70 70
65 65

Relative Humidity (%)

65 65

Relative Humidity (%)

(˚C)
Temperature(˚C)

60 60
60 60
55 55
Temperature

55 55
50 50
50 50
45 45
45 45
40 40
40 40
35 35
35 35
0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

5.5

6.0

6.5

7.0

7.5

8.0
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

5.5

6.0

6.5

7.0

7.5

8.0

Drying time
Drying (hr)
time (hr)

Figure 15. Recorded Temperature and Relative Humidity

 33

The drying rate was calculated and plotted. The drying curve, presenting the drying

rate versus the drying time is shown in Figure 16.

5
Drying rate (g/hr)

0
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

5.5

6.0

6.5

7.0

7.5

8.0
Drying time (hr)

Figure 16. Drying curve: Drying rate versus Drying time

It can be observed in the figure that the drying curve does not follow the normal

falling-rate period, and there is an absence of the constant rate; it is due to the variation of

temperature and relative humidity at a certain time. At first, the drying rate increases due

to surface moisture removal at an increasing temperature. After 1 hour, the drying rate

decreases even though the temperature is still high - this is mainly because the surface

moisture was already evaporated. The removal of the internal moisture starts at that time.

No matter how high the temperature, the drying rate will still decrease because of the

difficulty of removing internal moisture content. It can also be seen in the figure that there

is a fluctuation of the drying curve due to variations in temperature and relative humidity

as presented in the Figure 16 above. The same events were also observed by [23].
 34

The moisture ratio was also calculated and plotted versus drying time as shown in

Figure 17. Based on the figure, it can be observed that the moisture ratio decreases along

with time. However, the moisture ratio from 3.5 hours to 4 hours is in a slight steady, where

it indicates small moisture removal. This also indicates the beginning of removal of internal

moisture of the material, as indicated by [74] in their study of drying bamboo at varying

temperature.

1.2

1
Experimental MR

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8
Drying time (hr)

Figure 17. Experimental MR versus Drying time

4.2 Model Fitting

The non-linear regression technique using the SOLVER tool in Microsoft Excel

based on the General Reduced Gradient (GRG) iteration method was used to obtain the

different constants and coefficients of each model. The different constants and coefficients

are shown in Table 6.

 35

Table 6. Calculated drying constants and statistical measures value

Model Drying Drying R² MBE RMSE

constant coefficient

Newton k= 0.00793 0.9919 0.00087 0.02947

Page k=0.001539 n=1.4934 0.9988 0.000122 0.011066

Modified Page k=0.005 n=1 0.9808 0.25895 0.50887

Henderson and k= 0.00843 a= 1.0722 0.9891 0.002613 0.05112

Pabis

Midilli-Kucuk k= 0.0015 a= 0.9973 0.9988 0.000101 0.01005

n= 1.33

b=0

After the different constants and coefficients were determined, the predicted

moisture ratio from the different models was then calculated using their respective MR

equations as presented in Table 3. The experimental moisture ratio was plotted and fitted

with the predicted moisture ratio from different drying models as shown in Figure 18.

1.2

0.8
MR

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420 450 480 510
Drying time (min)
Newton Model Page Model
Modified Page Model Henderson and Pabis Model
MR Experimental Midilli–Kucuk Model

Figure 18. Predicted MR from different model versus experimental MR

 36

The best fit model was selected based on the calculated value of their R2, MBE,

and RMSE. The calculation revealed that among all the models, the Midili-Kucuk model

obtained the highest R2 value of 0.9988 and the lowest MBE and RMSE values of

0.000101and 0.01005, respectively, as presented in Table 6. The findings of the model

fitting agree with the study of [58], where the Midili-Kucuk model best describes the drying

behavior of seaweed dried under the solar dryer. The plot of experimental MR versus

predicted MR of Midili-Kucuk is shown in Figure 19 below.

3.5

2.5
MR predicted

1.5
R² = 0.9988
1

0.5

4.3 Comparative
0 Evaluation Analysis
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
MR experimental

Figure 19. Comparison of Experimental MR and Predicted MR of Midilli- Kucuk’s

model

The drying performance of the developed solar dryer in terms of the drying rate and

the drying time was evaluated by comparing it to sun drying. The temperature, weight, and

relative humidity were recorded at 30-minute intervals. The temperature and relative

humidity range were 31˚C-49˚C and 42%-83%, respectively. The gathered temperature
 37

values inside the solar dryer are likewise comparable to the optimal range of temperature

(40-50 ˚C) for seaweeds as mentioned by [5].

Table 7 presented the summary of the result of the comparative evaluation. It can

be seen in the table that the lowest drying time is 3.5 hours and the highest drying rate is

0.12686 kg/hr, both at replication 3 under the developed solar dryer.

Table 7. Summary Performance Between Solar Dryer and Sun-Drying

Replication Drying Rate Drying Time

Solar Dryer Sun-Drying Solar Dryer Sun-Drying

1 0.09778 0.07782 4.5 5.5

2 0.09956 0.08000 4.5 5.5

3 0.12686 0.08461 3.5 5.2

The independent sample t-test with a 0.05 level of significance was used to

determine if the mean of all measured data were statistically different, as presented in Table

8. The analysis revealed that the developed solar dryer was statistically different in drying

time and drying rate, having a value of 4.17 hours and 0.10806, respectively, compared to

sun-drying.

Table 8. Independent Sample t-Test between Solar Dryer and Sun-Drying

Types of Dryers N Drying Time, hr Drying Rate, g/hr

Solar Dryer 3 4.17a 0.10806a

Sun-Drying 3 5.40b 0.08081b

Note: Means with different letter is significant with each other at 5% level of significance
 38

This implies that drying using the designed solar dryer will shorten the drying time

and increase the drying rate compared to the sun-drying. The fast-drying event was due to

the accumulation of hot air inside the drying chamber that resulted in high moisture

removal of the seaweed [23].

Furthermore, it was observed during drying that the dried seaweed both in solar

dryer and sun-drying shows good color and acceptable moisture content. However, in sun-

drying, there were presence of dried leaves found in the dried seaweed which contributes

to the impurities and which is not acceptable for market.

 39

CHAPTER 5.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

Based on the results of the evaluation, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1. The designed solar dryer is capable of drying guso.

2. The most suitable model to describe the drying behavior of seaweed inside the solar

dryer was the Midilli-Kucuk model 99.88% accuracy.

3. There is an absence of constant rate of the drying rate of seaweed dried under the

designed solar dryer because of variations of temperature and relative humidity

values inside the drying chamber.

4. The drying performance of the developed solar dryer is significantly differently

compared to the sun-drying method in terms of drying time and drying rate.

5. The solar dryer is effective in drying the guso at a small drying time and at a fast-

drying rate.

5.2 Recommendations

For future development of the study, the researchers recommended adding solar

collectors for additional heat generation for the drying chamber. Installation of an exhaust

fan is also recommended to help remove the moisture of the seaweed through the

convection process. It is also recommended to conduct a quality evaluation of the dried

seaweed.
 40

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 47

APPENDIX A. GATHERING OF DATA

Table 1a. Gathered data for drying kinetics

Time Weight Temperature Relative MCdb Mo MR
(min) (g) (˚C) Humidity
(%)
0 1000 42.5 61.2 930.9278 930.93 1

30 878 41.2 56.3 805.1546 930.93 0.864893

60 738 44.3 54.7 660.8247 930.93 0.709854

90 586 45.3 53.6 504.1237 930.93 0.541527

120 472 47.5 51.4 386.5979 930.93 0.415281

150 381 46.5 50.5 292.7835 930.93 0.314506

180 292 40 59.6 201.0309 930.93 0.215946

210 240 41 51.6 147.4227 930.93 0.158361

240 223 42.6 52.9 129.8969 930.93 0.139535

270 180 46.5 46.2 85.56701 930.93 0.091916

300 130 45.4 50 34.02062 930.93 0.036545

330 115 44.9 54.7 18.5567 930.93 0.019934

360 104 41.2 55.1 7.216495 930.93 0.007752

390 100 42.8 53.2 3.092784 930.93 0.003322

420 98 40.1 56 1.030928 930.93 0.001107

450 97 39.2 59.6 0 930.93 0

480 97 37 68 0 930.93 0
 48

Figure 1a. Collected guso (leftovers after harvesting)

Figure 2a. Moisture content determination

 49

Figure 3a. Drying of Guso

 50

APPENDIX B. BILL OF MATERIALS

Table 1b. Bill of Materials

Items/Particulars Quantity Unit Unit Price Amount
(Php)
2x2 10 piece 20 200
Wood Timber
2x1 30 piece 15 450
UV-Plastic 1 Roll 600 600
Sheets
Nails 2 Kg 100 200
Net 3 meter 70 210
Total ₱1, 660
 51

APPENDIX C. DESIGN CALCULATION

Drying Chamber

Drying floor

Based on FAO Manual on Kappaphycus Spp., the approximate

amount of wet seaweed on drying platform is 10 kg/m2.

Assumptions:

Design capacity – 10 kg

Length, L = 1.3 m

Calculation:

Drying floor Area = 10 kg / 10 kg/m2 = 1 m2

Drying floor dimensions:

Drying floor Area = L x W

1 m2 = 1.3 x W

W = 0.76 m, an allowance of 0.17 m is provided in actual

construction. Therefore, final W = 0.93 m.

Drying chamber Volume:

Assumed height (H) is 0.15 m (for air circulation).

Drying chamber volume, V = L x W x H

V = 1.3 x 0.93 x 0.15

V = 0.18 m3

Drying roof

Since the length of the drying chamber is 1.3 m, a length extension

of 0.2 m is provided for both sides of the chamber.

 52

Calculation:

Length of roof = (0.2 x 2) + 1.3

Length of roof = 1.7 m

Width of roof = width of the drying floor

Width of roof = 0.93 m

Height of post:

Assumptions:

Average Filipino height (1.56 m) was considered. The longer post is

assumed to be 1.04 m and the shorter post is assumed to be 0.8 m.

 53

APPENDIX D. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

Economic analysis evaluates the costs and benefits of a product/project. It

aims to assess a project's economic impact [75]. The developed solar dryer has a

maximum drying capacity of 0.11 kg/hr and the dried seaweed price per kilogram

was based on the market value. It was assumed that the dryer has estimated life

span of one (1) year as shown in the Table 1d.

Table 1d. Basic Assumption for Economic Evaluation

Item Value

Drying Capacity 0.11 kg/hr or 0.88 kg/day (8 hr/day)

Investment Cost ₱1,660.00

Drying Capacity per 45.76 kg/year

year
Dried Seaweed Price ₱60.00

Estimated Life Span 1 year

Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR)

The Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR) is a method for calculating the project's net

benefits in relation to its net cost. As shown below the calculated value was greater

than 1.0, implying that the produced product will provide investors with a positive

net present value [76].

Income per year= 45.76 x 60= ₱2,745.60

𝐵𝐶𝑅 = 2,745.60/1,660 = 1.65

 54

Payback Period (PBP) & Return on Investment (ROI)

Payback Period (PBP) can determine how fast you can recover the

investment. And as shown in the calculation below, the initial investment can be

recovered after six (6) months with a Return on Investment of 65.4%.

PBP= (1,660/2,745.60) = 0.6

ROI= (2,745.600-1,660)/(1,660)x100= 65.4%

Table 2d. Summary of the Economic Evaluation

Item Value

Investment Cost ₱1,660.00

BCR 1.65

PBP 0.6

ROI 65.4%
 55

CURRICULUM VITAE

Name: Joey G. Carillo

Address: Purok 7, Barangay 3, Buenavista,
Agusan del Norte
Mobile: 09500735991
Email: [email protected]

Personal Background

Date of Birth: May 8, 1999

Sex: Male
Age: 22 years old
Height: 5’0
Weight: 50 kg
Nationality: Filipino
Language: Bisaya, Tagalog, English Religion:
Roman Catholic

Educational Background
Elementary
Grade School: East Central Elementary School (S.Y 2011-2012)

Highschool

Junior High: Saint James High School (S.Y. 2012-2016)

Senior High; Saint James High School (S.Y. 2016-2018)

Tertiary

Course: Bachelor of Science in Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

University: Caraga State University

 56

Name : Lord Boy C. Silong

Address : Purok-1B, Poblacion, Barobo,
Surigao Del Sur
Mobile # : 09261105790
Email : [email protected]

PERSONAL BACKGROUND

Nationality : Filipino
Sex : Male
Birthdate : October 10, 1999
Birthplace : Brgy. San Roque, Barobo, Surigao Del Sur
Religion : P.E.C.C.

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

Tertiary Course : Bachelor of Science in Agricultural and Biosystems

Engineering (2018-present)

University : Caraga State University – Main Campus

Secondary : Barobo National High School (2012-2018)

Elementary : San Roque Elementary School (2006-2012)