GE 4

MATHEMATICS
IN THE MODERN
WORLD
1.0 MATHEMATICS
IN THE
MODERN WORLD

1.1 Patterns in Nature

1.1.1 Spiral (nautilus)
1.1.2 Stripes
1.1.3 Spots
1.1.4 Honeycomb
1.1.5 Fractals
1.1.6 Waves
1.1.7 Branching
1.1.8 Packing
1.1.9 Explosion
1.1.10 Explosion
1.1.11 Meander
1.2 Mathematics in Nature

1.2.1 Fibonacci sequence : The spiral pattern

The general term of the Fibonacci sequence is stated by the

formula
Fn = Fn-2 + Fn-1 , n≥2 (1)
where the first term S1 and the second term S2 are both
trivial terms given as 1 ( S1 = S2 = 1).
To obtain the succeeding element of the Fibonacci, add
the preceeding two numbers of the sequence.
 The succeeding terms Sn are computed as follows :

3rd term : S3 = S1 + S2 (2)

4th term : S4 = S2 + S3 = S2 + (S1 + S2) = S1 + 2S2 (3)
5th term : S5 = S3 + S4 = (S1 + S2) + (S1 + 2S2)
=
= 2S1 + 3S2 (4)
6th term : S6 = S4 + S5 = (S1 + 2S2 ) + (2S1 + 3S2)
= 3S1 + 5S2 (5)
7th term : S7 = S5 + S6 = (2S1 + 3S2) + (3S1 + 5S2)
= 5S1 + 8S2 (6)
1.2.1.1 Problem Solving

1. Find the 9th term F9 of the Fibonacci sequence.

Solution :
With S0 = 0 , S1 = 1 as initial values,
S2 = S 0 + S 1 = 0 + 1 = 1 (1)
S6 = S4 + S5 = 3S1 + 5S2
= (3)(1) + (5)(1) = 8 (2)
S7 = S5 + S6 = 5S1 + 8S2
= (5)(1) + (8)(1) = 13 (3)
S8 = S6+ S7 = 8 +13 = 21 (4)

S9 = S7 + S8 = 13 + 21 = 34 (5)
Answer : S9 = 34

2. Find the first 4 terms of the Fibonacci sequence

Fn = Fn-2 - Fn-1 , n ≥ 2 where the two given
terms are S1 = -3 and S2 = 7.

Solution :

With S1 = -3 , S2 = 7,
 S3 = S1 + S2 = -3 + 7 = 4 (1)
S4 = S2 + S3 = 7 + 4 = 11 (2)

Answer :
The first four terms of the Fibonacci sequence :
S1= -3 , S2 = 7, S3 = 4, S4 = 11, or
-3, 7, 4, 11
 1.2.2 The Golden Ratio
The ratio of the length of the longer part A to the length of the
shorter part B is equal to the ratio of their sum A + B to the
longer part.

A B

Figure 1.
 Mathematically expressed as
•
2. Manufacturing - in packaging, boxes and cans can use
rectangles with widths and length near the golden ratio.

3. Music - composition analysis of some composers reveal the

use of golden ratio

1.2.2.3 Problem Solving

1. The human body itself involves the golden ratio by

considering the shoulder as width and the arm as length. If a
man’s shoulder width is 45.6 cm, find his arm length.
 Solution :
•
 2. A rectangular picture frame length of 258.8 in nearly fits
the golden ratio. What is its corresponding width?

•
6. A Golden Rectangle is to be drawn from a square
with a side of 20 in. Calculate the following:
(a) area of the Golden Rectangle (b)
perimeter of the Golden Rectangle

Solution : A B

A+B
20 in

B
(a)
(b) Let P = perimeter of the rectangle
P = 2(A + B) + 2B = 2A + 4B
= (2)(12.36 in) + (4)(7.64 in) = 55.28 in
2.0 MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE
AND SYMBOLS

2.1 Mathematical Language

2.1.1 Definition of Mathematical Language

Mathematical language is a system used in the fields of
mathematics to communicate ideas, concepts, and theories
among others.
 2.1.2 Charateristics of Mathematical Language
1. Precise - able to make very fine distiction
2. Concise - able to say things briefly
3. Powerful - able to express complex thoughts
with relative ease

2.1.3 Examples of Mathematical Language

English Statement and Phrase Mathematical Expression

1. twice a number Let a number be equals = x

twice = 2
twice a number = 2x
 English Statement and Phrase Mathematical Expression
2. the sum of three consecutive numbers Let the first number be equals = x
the second consecutive number = x + 1
the third consecutive number = x + 3

Sum = x + (x + 1) + (x + 2) = 3x + 3
3. the difference of the square of two Let the first number be equals = x
numbers the second number be equals = y
the square of the first number = x2
the square of the second number = y2
the difference of the square of the two
numbers = x2 - y2
4. the product of three numbers Let the first number be equals = x
the second number = y
the third number = z
5. the reciprocal of the number Let the number be equals = n
the reciprocal of the number = 1/n
2.2 Mathematical Symbols
2.2.1 Definition
Mathematical symbols - are used to perform
various operations.

2.2.2 Importance of Mathemtical Symbols

1. Refer to different quantities.
2. Represent the relationship between two
quantities.
3. Mainly used to perform mathematical operations
under various concepts.
 2.2.3 Examples of Basic Mathematical Symbols
Symbol Symbol Name Meaning or Example
Definition
not equal sign inequality 10 ≠ 6
1. ≠
equals sign equality 3=1+2
2. =
strict inequality less than 7 < 10
3. <
strict inequality greater than 6 >2
4. >
inequality greater than or equal to a ≥ b , means a = b,or
5. ≥ a > b but vice versa
does not hold true
 Symbol Symbol name Meaning or Example
Definition
inequality less than or equal x < y, means x = y
6. ≤ to or , x < y, but not
vice versa
minus sign subtraction 5-2=3
7. -
plus sign addition 4+5=9
8. +
plus - minus sign both plus and minus 5 ± 3 = 8 and 2
9. ± operator

perpendicular to L1 ┴ L 2
10. ┴ sign
 Symbol Symbol Name Meaning or Example
Definition
times sign multiplication 2x3=6
11. x
asterisk multiplication 3 * 4 = 12
12. *
division slash division 6/2=3
13. /
modulo remainder calculation 7 mod 3 = 1
14. mod
square root
 Symbol Symbol Name Meaning or Example
Definition
caret exponent 2^3=8
16. a^b
percent 1% = 1 / 100 10% x 30 = 3
17. %
integral sign integration
18. ∫
aprroximately equal approximation 2/3 ≈ 0.666
19. ≈
equivalent equivalence A ↔ B
20. ↔
 2. 3 Examples of Translating Phrases Using
Mathematical Language and Symbols

1. The difference of 20 and 4

Translated : 20 -4
2. The quotient of 10x and 3
Translated : 10x / 3
3. The product of 5 and 8
Translated : 5 x 8
4. Three subtracted from 6
Translated : 6 - 3
5. How old will you be in eight years ?
Translated :
Let y = your current age
y + 8 = your age in 8 year’s time from now

6. How old were you seven years ago ?

Translated :
Let x = your age today
x - 7 = your age 7 years ago
7. Six more than m
Translation : m+6
8. Nine times the difference of c and n
Translation :
9 (c - n )
9 . The difference of twelve times c and n
Translation :
12 c - n
10. The ratio of m to n
Translated : m/n

11. The sum of three numbers

Translated :
Let x = the first number
y = the second number
z = the third number
x + y + z = the sum of three numbers
12. The difference between cubes
Translated :
Let x = the first number
y = the second number
x3 = the cube of the first number
y3 = the cube of the second number
x3 - y3 = the difference of cubes
13. Twice the product of two numbers
Translated :
Let x = the first number
y = the second number
2 = twice
2xy = twice th product of two numbers
3.0 PROBLEM SOLVING
AND REASONING
. 2. Write down a sequence for the number of shapes
in each pattern. Explain how to obtain the next number.

a.
b.
Example :
Mary has 7 pairs of red socks and 5 pairs of blue socks.Mary’s brother
James owns 7 pairs of socks. If her little sister own 8 pairs of green socks
and loses 3 of Mary’s pairs, how many pairs of socks do the sisters have left
?

The question asks you to determine the total number of socks between the
two sisters. The unit of measurement for this problem is pair of socks.

2. Gather information
Create a table, list or chart that outlines the information
or data you know and leave blanks for any information you don’t
yet know.
In this example :

Table 1. Pairs of socks

Mary James Sister

Qty (pair) / color Qty (pair) / color Qty (pair) / color
7 red 7 8 yellow
5 blue
lost : 3
 3. Create an eqution
Translate any of the mathematical terms into
mathematical symbols. For example, the words and phrases
“sum”, “more than”, “increased”, and “in addition to” all means
to ADD, so write a “+” over these words. Use a letter ffor the
unknown variable, and create an algebraic equation that
represents the problem.

4. Solve the problem

Using the equation, solve the problem by plugging in
the values and solving for the unknown variable. Double-check
your calculation along the way to prevent any mistake.
In the example :
Total pair of socks owned by the two sisters =
pair of socks owned by Mary + pair of socks owned by her sister
= (7 + 5 ) + 8 = 20 pairs of socks

Number of pairs of socks the sisters have left , N =

Total pair of socks owned by the two sisters - number of pairs lost
= 20 - 3 = 17 pairs of socks

5. Verify the problem

Check if your answer makes sense with what you know.

Using commom sense, estimate an answer and see
 if you come close to what you expexted. If the answer seems
absurdly large or too small, search through the problem where
you went wrong.

In the example, you know by adding up all the numbers for the sisters
that you have a maximum of 17 socks. Since he problem mentions that the
little sister lost 3 pairs, the final answer must be less than 20 pairs. If you
get a higher number, you did something wrong !
 Example 1
Timothy, the head physical therapist of St Luke’s Hospital is
15 years order than John, his assistant head. Six years ago, he
was twice as old as he. How old is each now ?
Solution :
Let x = John’s age now (smaller number)
x+15 = Timothy’s age now
x-6 = John’s age 6 year’s ago
(x+15) - 6 = Timothy’s age 6 year’s ago
Six years ago, Timothy was twice as John
(x+15) - 6 = 2(x-6) (1)
 x + 15 - 6 = 2x - 12 (2)

•
Example 2
The area of a square is two times its perimeter. How long is a
side.
Solution :

x
Let x = side of the square
A = area of the square
P = perimeter of the square
A = x2 , P = 4x (1)
 A = 4P (2)
•
Example 3
A mixture of containing 6% boric acid is to be mixed with 2 liters
of a mixture which is 15% boric acid in order to obtain a solution
which is boric acid. How much of the 6% solution must be used ?

Solution :

acid 1 mixture + acid 2 mixture = resulting mixture

Let x = volume of 6% boric acid

 acid mixture 1 acid mixture 2 resulting mixture
volume, liters x 2 x+2
concentration of 6 15 12
boric acid , %

Word equation :
pure acid in mixture 1 + pure acid in mixture 2 =
pure acid in resulting mixture (1)

Equation :
0.06x + (0.15)(2) = (0.12)(x + 2) (2)
0.06x + 0.30 = 0.12x + 0.24 (3)
 0.06x - 0.12x = 0.24 - 0.30 (4)
•
Recreational Mathematics
Example of Recreational Mathematics

Palindrome
A palindromic number or numeral palindrome is
“symmetrical” number like16461, that remains the same when
its digits are reversed.
 4.0 THE NATURE OF
PROBLEM SOLVING

4.1 The Nature of Problem Solving

There are a number of mental processes at work

during the problem solving. These include :
1. Perceptually recognizing a process
2. Representing a problem in memory
 3. Considering relevant information that applies to the current
problem
4. Identify aspects of the problem
5. Labeling and describing the problem

4.2 Problem Solving Strategies

There are a number of ways to go about solving a
problem :
1. Algorithm
A step-by-step procedure that will always produce the
correct solution. A mathematical formula is a good example
of a problem solving algorithm. While an algorithm
guarantees an accurate answer, it is not always the
best approach.
2. Heuristics
 A mental rule-of -thumb (educated guess, an intuitive
judgment, common sense ) strategy that may or may not work in
certain situations. Unlike algorithm, heuristics do not always
guarantee a correct solution. However, using this problem
solving strategy allows people to simplify complex problem and
reduce the total number of possible solutions to a more
manageable set.

3. Trial and Error

A trial and error approach to problem solving a number of
different solutions and ruling out those that do not work. This
approach can be a good option if you a very limited number of
options available.
 4. Insight In some
cases, the solution to a problem can appear as a sudden insight.This
can occur because we realize that the problem is actually similar to
something that we have dealt with in the past.

4.3Examples of Problem Solving : Algorithm

Example 1
Raul bought 15 pieces of apple and 3 oranges from the market for
a total of P 105.00. If the price of an orange is
P 10.00, what is the price of an apple ?
Solution :

Let x = the price of an apple

 Word Equation :

(Price of an apple)(number of apples) +

(Price of an orange)(number of oranges) = Total cost (1)

Equation :

(x)(15) + (10)(3) = 105 (2)

number of apples, x = 5

Example 2

The circumference of an overloaded Greenwich pizza is 38 in. What is its

diameter ?
 4.3 Example of Problem Solving : Heuristic

Example 1
Roy is helping to set up 7 tables for the Physical Therapy Exhibition
in LCIC. Each table can only have one exhibit on each side. Roy arranges the
table together so that they form one long table. How many exhibits can be
shown altogether ?

Solution :

x x x

1 table 2 tables 3 tables

 Table 1. Number of Exhibits Shown Altogether

Number of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
tables
Number of
exhibits
shown 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
altogether
 Answer :
Number of exhibits shown altogether for 7 tables = 16

Example 2
In LCIC Physical Therapy Clinic, 25% of the patients were seniors,
45% of the patients were adolescents, 18% of the patients were children,
and the rest were young adults. There were 24 young adults. How many
patients were there at the therapy clinic ?
Solution :

seniors adolescents children young adults

25% 45% 18%

 4.4 Example of Problem Solving : Trial and Error

Example 1
Solve for x in the equation below using trial and error method.
3x + 4 = 10

Soluton :
Assign values for x such that the left member of the
equation equals to 10. Table 3 shows the results.
Table 3. Trial and error problem solving
assigned value of x 3x + 4 Satisfied ? Right member
1 7 ≠ 10
-1 1 ≠ 10

2 10 = 10
 Answer :
By trial and error, the value of x that satisfies the
equation 3x + 4 = 10,

x = 2
Polya’s 4 Steps in Problem Solving
 Problem 6
Twice the difference of a number and 1 is 4 more than
that number. Find the number.
Solution :
1. Understand the problem
Let x = the number
2. Devise a plan
2(x – 1) = x + 4
3. Carry out the plan
2x – 2 = x + 4
2x - x = 4 + 2
x=6

4. Look back
To check, substitute x = 6 into (1) :
(2)(6 – 1)= 6 + 4
10 = 10
 5.0 MATHEMATICS OF GRAPH
5.1 Definition of a Graph
Graph - a pictorial representation or a diagram that
represents data or values in an organized manner.
5.2 Graph Construction
1. Graphs have two axes, the lines
that run across the bottom and up the side.
2. The line along the bottom is called
the horizontal or x-axis, and the line up the
side is called the vertical or y-axis.
3. The x-axis contains categories or
numbers.
5.3 Types of Graph

5.3.1 Bar graphs - show numbers that are independent of

each other. Data might include things
like the number of people who majored in engineering, physics,
medicine, pharmacy, physical therapy, chemistry and theology in
college in a certain university or college.
5.3.1.1 Example 1 of a bar graph
Example 2 of a bar graph
 5.3.1.2 Construction of Bar Graphs
1. Collect the data.
2. Draw the x-and y-axes.
3. Label the x-axis.
4. Label the y-axis. Choose a suitable scale for the frequencies
and label it on the y-axis.
5. Draw the bars.
a. Rectangular bars must be of equal widths.
b. The space between two consecutive bars must be
the same.
c. The height of the bars represent the frequency of the
corresponding observations.
Sample Problem 1

The ABC Chamber Orchestra has given several performances at different places
in the city of Gertzcrim. Construct a bar graph from the following data :

Instrument Piano ClClarinet Violin Flute Cello Bass FFrench Horn

Number of 2 5 6 4 3 1 2
musicians
Answer :
5.3.2 Pie Chart - is a circle that is divided into sections or wedges according to the
percentage of frequencies in each category of the distribution. For example you want
to show how a budget had been spent on different items in a particular year.

5.3.2.1 Examples of Pie Graph

 Sample Problem

Below is the frequency distribution for the number of patients treated

by physical therapists in a wellness clinic. Construct a pie graph.

Physical therapist Reyes Yulo Lim Abad Diaz

Number of patients treated 7 10 5 3 6

Solution :
Convert the frequency distribution into percentages.
Table 1. Frequency Distribution and Percentage

Number of
Physical
patients Degrees %
therapist
treated
Reyes 7 81 23%
Yulo 10 116 32%
Lim 5 58 16%
Abad 3 35 10%
Diaz 6 70 19%
Total 31 360 100%
Pie Graph

Reyes
23%
 5.3.3 Line Graph - shows how numbers have changed over time. They are
used when data are connected and show trends. For example, average night-time
temperature in each month of the year.

5.3.3.1 Examples of Line Graphs

Hospitals and Ambulance by Region
5.3.3. Construction of Line Graphs
1. Collect the data.
2. Draw the x-and y-axes.
3. Label the x-axis. Write the category on this axis.
4. Label the y-axis. Write the numerical data on this axis.
5. Plot the numerical values with the corresponding categories.
6. Connect the points on the graph. This shows the trend.
 Sample Problem

Table 3 below shows the frequency distribution for the colleges and
universities offering a curriculum in Bachelor of Science in Physical Therapy
program in the city of Xuff .

Table 3. Colleges and Universities in Xuff City Offering

BS Physical Therapy Program
College/ ZAK BLAM COLLEGE YEX ETI UNIVERSITY FIG COLLEGE
Universities UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY
Number of 13 16 9 7 10
faculty
Number of PT 6 5 7 4 6
Laboratories
Number of 4 3 4 5 4
Affiliated
Hospitals
Construct a line graph for the following showing:
(a) the faculty of each college/university
(b) the faculty and number of PT laboratories of each college/
university
(c) the faculty, number of PT laboratories, and number of affiliated
hospitals of each college and universities

Solution :
(a) the faculty of each college/university

Number of
faculty

College/ University
(b) the faculty and number of PT laboratories of each college/ university
 (c) the faculty, number of PT laboratories, and number of
affiliated hospitals of each college and universities
5.3.4 Cartesian Graph - has numbers on both axes, which therefore allow one to
show the changes in one thing affect another.This is widely used mathematics, and
particularly in algebra.

5.3.4.1 Examples of Cartesian Graphs

5.3.3.2 Construction of Cartesian Graphs
1. Collect the data.
2. Draw and label the x and y axes.
3. The independent variable lies on the x-axis, while the
dependent variable on the y-axis.
4. Plot each point according the data collected.
5. Draw the line segments connecting adjacent points.

Example 1
Limb injury cases for the years 2000-2020 as reported in
Vanadium Therapy Center is shown below. Construct a time series
graph.
Year 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Limb injury 243 198 126 175 81
cases
Answer :

Limb
Injury
Cases

Year
Example 2

The data below shows the number of physical therapists practicing the
different subspecialties in their profession in some therapy clinics in Jizfra
City, province of Xenon. Construct a cartesian graph of the number of
practicioners (X) versus the number of therapy clinics (Y).
Subspecialty Practitioners Therapy Clinics
Orthopedic 15 4
Geriatric 10 7
Neurological 4 4
Cardiovascular 6 5
Pediatric 5 6
Vestibular Rehabilitation 9 8
Women’sHealth 7 5
Answer :

Therapy

Clinics

Practitioners
 6.0 GEOMETRIC DESIGN
6.1 Intoduction
Geometry is nothing but numbers made visible. The very first
manisfestation of numbers, well before shorthand symbols - 1,2,3 -
were created for them. Early geometers understood the relationships
between numbers by looking at the way geometric shapes related to
each other, and as numbers were deeply meanigful, so were the
patterns emerging from them changed with meaning.

6.2 Terminology
1. Circle - a closed curve where all points are the same distance
from the center.
2. Diameter - any line that connects 2 points on a circle and
passes through the center.
3. Radius - any line that connects the center of a circle to its circumference
(practically speaking, this is the compass opening when drawing a circle).
4. Chord - any line that connects 2 points on a circle, without
passing through the center
5. Semicircle - half a circle
6. Arc - any segment of a circle that is not a semicircle.
7. Tangent - a line that just touches a circle into a single
point.
8. Acute angle - an angle that is less than 90⁰.

9. Right angle - an angle that exactly 90⁰.

10. Obtuse angle - an angle that is greater than 90⁰.

11. Triangle - a closed figure with 3 sides. The sum of the angles in any
triangle is always 180⁰.

12. Right triangle - a triangle that has right angle.

13. Isosceles triangle - a triangle with 2 equal sides.

14. Equilateral triangle - a triangle with 3 equal sides, and its 3 angles
are also equal.
15. Scalene triangle - a random triangle, as opposed to the above 3
triangles.

16. Quadrilateral - a closed figure with 4 sides.

17. Rectangle - a quadrilateral with 4 right angles. By necessity,
the 2 sides opposite each other are parallel and the same length.
18. Square - a quadrilateral where all 4 sides are equal.
19. Rhombus - a quadrilateral with the 2 sides opposite
each other parallel, but no right angles.
20. Pentagon - a 5 - sided closed figure.

regular pentagon
irregular polygon
21. Hexagon - a 6-sided closed figure.

regular hexagon

irregular hexagon
22. Septagon - a 7-sided closed figure.
23. Octagon - an 8-sided closed figure.
24. Nonagon - a 9-sided closed figure.
25. Decagon - a 10 - sided closed figure.
 5.3 Examples of Geometric Design

1. Monochrome - a simple
clear-cut patterns in design in
black and white. A design can
be created that is detailed and
intricate when it is in
monochrome.

Figure 1
2. Memphis - repeated shapes and wavy lines used to
create a Memphis design, which has truly distinctive look.

Figure 2
Figure 3
3. Geometric logos - geometric elements are popular in logo
design, with the style offering companies away to form a unique
brand image and identity. Many logos utilize geometric shapes
like squares, triangles, circles or rectangles in their design.

Figure 4 Figure 5
4. Asymmetry - not all designs have to be symmetrical. Apply
and use asymmetry designs that differ cross the board.

Figure 6
Figure 7
5. Symbols and emojis - geometric patterns can be used to
great effect to create symbols and emojis for a variety of
purposes.

Figure 8 Figure 9
6. Collage design - geometric collage can be created by
combining shapes and colors.

Figure 10 Figure 11
7. Complement an image - geometric pattern is used to
complement an image by aligning it with the subject of the
design.

Figure 12
8. Diamond designs - diamonds are very flexible geometric
element that can be used in a variety of designs.

Figure 13 Figure 14
9. Diagonals - lines and triangleular patterns are commonly used to ceate
this style. Digonals lead to the eye up and across the design. Diagonals
designs look great with multiple colors or in black and white.

Figure 15 Figure 16
10. Waves - the wave style adds a fluid, laid back element to any
design. It almost feels like the background is in motion.

Figure 17 Figure 18
11. Mix patterns - beautiful designs can be created by combining
different types of geometric patterns. A variety of shapes are used
to make a striking piece.

FIgure 19 Figure 20
12. Outlined shapes as a background- using geometric patterns of
shapes in outline form to create, eg.,an intriguing border.

Figure 21 Figure 22
13. Simple shapes - simple, bold, geometric shapes are key to
getting across your message clearly. Designers often use simple
circles, semicircles, rectangles, and squares to create a clean,
energetic look in their design.

Figure 23 Figure 24
14. Layers - layering an image with geometrical shapes create a
design with depth. The collection of shapes help to hold the focus
of anyone who views the piece.

Figure 25 Figure 26
15. Repeating shapes - visually appealing geometric patterns
can be made by repeating shapes and design. Eg., multiple
squares tessellating to form an intriguing design.

Figure 26 Figure 27
 6.3.1 Plane Geometry: Measurements in Two-Dimensional
Shapes

Perimeter – the measure of the boundary of a closed plane

figure. For circle it is commonly called as circumference. Common
units for perimeter : m, cm, in, ft, yd.

Area – the measure of the surface of the plane figure. Common units
for area : m2, cm2, in2, ft2, yd2.
 6.3.2 Solid Geometry: Measurements in Three-
Dimensional Shapes

The common measurements in solid geometry are volume and

surface area.

Volume – the measure of the amount of space occupied by a solid

object. Common units for volume : m3, cm3, in3, ft3, yd3.

Surface area - the amount of space covering the outside of a solid

object. Common units for surface area : m2, cm2, in2, ft2, yd2.
 1. A Balikbayan box used by a cargo
forwarder is in the shape of a cube of edge
3 ft. What is the capacity of this box?

Solution:

3 ft
 7.0 CODES
Binary code - a coding system that utilizes a
letter, a digit, or a character in an electronic device
such as computers. It is presented by binary digits 0
and 1 and represents text or computer processor
instruction. Bits refer to a character of instruction made
up of binary digits.
Normally, the base ten number system is used. Computers,
however uses the base two system; binary is read from right to
left.
The range of values a digit has is presented as a base
of a number system or radix.
 Conversion Among Radices: From Decimal to Any
Base
A Decimal Number to Decimal Notation
To convert a decimal number to decimal notation,
the number is continuously divided by 10 UNTIL the
last quotient is 0.
Example 1 Convert the decimal
number 4268 to decimal notation.
 A Decimal Number to Binary Notation

To convert a decimal number to binary notation,

the number is continuously divided by 2 UNTIL the
last quotient is 0. The remainder is listed from bottom
to top.

Example 2 Convert the decimal

number 547 to binary notation.
 A Decimal Number to Octal Notation

To convert a decimal number to octal notation, the

number is continuously divided by 8 UNTIL the
last quotient is 0.

Example 3 Convert the decimal

number 547 to octal notation.
A Decimal Number to Hexadecimal Notation

To convert a decimal number to hexadecimal

notation, the number is continuously divided by 16
UNTIL the last quotient is 0. For remainders
above 10, use the letter symbols.

Example 4 Convert the decimal

number 1532 to hexadecimal notation.
 Conversion from Any Base to Decimal

To convert from any base to decimal, multiply the

original number by the digit value of the base and then
get the sum.

Example 6 Convert 123410

to decimal.
 Conversion from Any Base to Decimal

To convert from any base to decimal, multiply the

original number by the digit value of the base and
then get the sum.

Example 6 Convert
123410 to decimal.
Conversion of Other Bases
To convert other bases, the number of binary digits is
counted. Three binary digits are used to convert to an octal
digit while four binary digits are used to translate into
hexadecimal digit. Table 13 shows this relationship.

To convert a binary to octal, the binary number is grouped

into three starting from the right and the outermost groups
is written with “0” as needed to form triplets. Then the triples
are converted to octal equivalent as shown in Table 13.
 Codes of Secrecy

Secret code- a secret method of

writing; a coding system used for
transmitting messages requiring brevity
or secrecy.
 Encryption is the process of
converting normal message (plaintext)
into meaningless message (ciphertext).

Decryption is the process of converting

meaningless message (ciphertext) into its
original form (plaintext).
8.0 LINEAR PROGRAMMING

Linear programming is a mathematical model

that aids in decision making. The liner program
identifies the activities that will effectively use
resources to meet either a maximization or a
minimization objective. It utilizes equations and
inequalities to present the constraints of a
problem.
Operations of Algebraic Equations and Inequalities
Example 2

Solve the system of equations

2x - y = 2 , x + 3y = 36
Solution:

2x – y = 2 (1)
x + 3y = 36 (2)

Step 1: Solve for x in (2).

x = 36 - 3y (3)

Step 2: Substitute the value of x in (3) into (1).

2(36 – 3y) – y = 2 (4)
Solution of System of Linear Inequalities :
Graphical Method

Steps:
 A General Linear Programming Problem All linear
programming problems have the following general form:
 Linear Programming Problem (LPP) Formulation
The basic steps in formulation are:

1. Identify the decision variables

2. Write the objective function
3. Identify set of constraints
4. Construct the graph
5. Identify the feasible region
6. Find the optimum point
Example 1
A bakery manufacturers two kinds of cookies, chocolate chip,
and caramel. The bakery forecasts the demand for at least 80
caramel and 120 chocolate chip cookies daily. Due to the limited
ingredients and employees, the bakery can manufacture at most
120 caramel cookies and 140 chocolate chip cookies daily. To
be profitable the bakery must sell at least 240 cookies daily.
Each chocolate chip cookie sold results in a profit of P0.75
and each caramel cookie produces P0.88 profit.
(a) How many chocolate chip and caramel cookies should be
made daily to maximize the profit? (b) Compute
the maximum revenue that can be generated in a day?
 Solution:

1. Identify the decision variables Let x = number

of caramel cookies sold/day y = number of chocolate
chip cookies/day
2. Write the objective function P = 0.88x +
0.75y, where x and y are non negative
3. Identify the set of constraints caramel
cookies demand/day: 80 ≤ x ≤ 120 chocolate chip
cookies demand/day : 120 ≤ y ≤ 140 profitable number of
cookies/day: x + y ≥ 240
4. Construct the graph P = 0.88x + 0.75y
is subjected to the following constraints: 80 ≤ x ≤ 120
120 ≤ y ≤ 140 x + y ≥ 240
5. Identify the feasible region
The green area of the graph is the feasibility region.
 6. Find the optimum point (a) Test
the vertices of the feasibility region to determine the
optimal solution. The vertices are:

(120, 120) , (100, 140), (120, 140)

(120, 120) : P = 0.88 (120) + 0.75 (120) = P 195.6

(100, 140) : P = 0.88 (100) + 0.75 (140) = P 193
(120, 140) : P = 0.88 (120) + 0.75 (140) = P 210.6

Hence, the bakery should manufacture 120 caramel cookies

and 140 chocolate cookies daily to maximize the profit.
 (b) The maximum profit that can be
generated in a day:

P = 0.88x + 0.75y
= (0.88)(120) + (0.75)(140)
= P 210.60.
 Example 2

An American airline offers coach and first-class

tickets. For the airline to be profitable, it must sell a
minimum of 25 first-class tickets and a minimum of 40
coach tickets. The company makes a profit of $225 for
each coach ticket and $200 for each first-class ticket.
At most, the plane has a capacity of 150 travelers.
How many of each ticket should be sold in order to
maximize profits?
 Solution:

1. Identify the decision variables Let x =

number of coach tickets y = number of
first-class tickets
2. Write the objective function P=
225x + 200y, where x and y are non negative
3. Identify the set of constraints coach
tickets to sell: x ≥ 40 first-class tickets
to sell : y ≥ 25 total tickets to sell:
x + y ≤ 150
 4. Construct the graph P = 225 + 200y
is subjected to the following constraints:
x ≥ 40 y ≥ 25
x + y ≤ 150

5. Identify the feasible region

The feasible region is the region in which the green,
blue, and purple shadings intersect satisfies all three
constraints. (See graph below).
 6. Find the optimum point Test the
vertices of the feasibility region to determine the optimal
solution in the objective function.
Point (x,y) Profit (P = 225x + 200y)

(40,110) 225(40) + 200(110) = $31,000

(40,25) 225(40) + 200(25) = $14,000

(125,25) 225(125) + 200(25) = $33,125

The third point, (125,25) maximizes profit. Therefore, the airline should
sell 125 coach tickets and 25 first-class tickets in order to maximize
profits.
 Example 3

Vanadium School Supplies sells two brands of

pencils, Neon and Xenon. The store owner pays Php8
and Php14 for each one unit of pencil Neon and
Xenon, respectively. One unit of Neon yields a profit of
Php2 while a unit of Xenon yields a profit of Php3. The
store owner estimates that no more than 2000 pencils
will be sold every month and he does not plan to invest
more than Php20,000 in inventory of these pencils.
How many units of each type of toys should be stocked
in order to maximize his monthly total profit?
 Solution:

1. Identify the decision variables Let x =

number of Neon pencils y = number of
Xenon pencils, where x ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0

2. Write the objective function P=2x

+3y

3. Identify the set of constraints pencils to

sell/month : x + y ≤ 2000 inventory from
pencils : 8 x + 14 y ≤ 20,000
 4. Construct the graph P=2x+3
y is subjected to the following constraints:
x≥0 y≥0
x + y ≤ 2000 8 x + 14 y ≤
20,000
5. Identify the feasible region The
solution set of the system of inequalities given above
and the vertices of the region obtained are shown
below:
 6. Find the optimum point Test the vertices
of the feasibility region to determine the optimal solution in the
objective function.
Vertex Profit, P = 2 x + 3 y

A(0 , 0) P(A) = 2 (0) + 3 (0) = 0

B(0 , 1429) P(B) = 2 (0) + 3 (1429) = 4287
C(1333 , 667) P(C) = 2 (1333) + 3 (667) = 4667
D(2000 , 0) P(D) = 2(2000) + 3(0) = 4000
The maximum profit is at vertex C with x = 1333 and y = 667.
Hence the store owner has to have 1333 Neon pencils and 667 Xenon
pencils in order to maximize his profit.
9.0 THE MATHEMATICS
OF FINANCE
 Financial mathematics - the application of
mathematical methods to financial problems.
Equivalent names sometimes used are
quantitative finance, financial engineering,
mathematical finance, and computational
finance.
 Benefits of Mathematical Finance in
Business

(1)  Maintenance of financial budget

(2) Making of better business strategies
(3) Learning effective marketing tactics
(4) Best source to increase financial
knowledge
(5) Getting more business opportunities.
 9.1 Time Value of Money
Interest - the amount paid for the use of borrowed money or of
money deposited in a bank.
Principal - the amount lent or deposited.
Interest rate - the amount of interest paid over a period of time and
expressed as a percentage of the principal.
9.1.1 Types of Interest
1. Simple interest - the method of calculating the interest
amount for a particular principal amount of money at some rate of
interest.
 Simple interest
I = Prt (1) where I =
interest P = principal amount
r = interest rate t=
interest period
Final amount
F = P + I = P + Prt = P(1 + rt) (2)
Conversion periods for compound interest
calculation
Problem 1

Calculate the simple interest and final amount due in

investing ₱50,000 at a simple interest rate of 14.5% for 1½
years.
Solution:
P = ₱50,000, r = 0.145, t = 1.5 years
Simple interest, I: I = Prt =
(50,000)(0.145)(1.5) = ₱10,875.00 Final amount, F:
F = P + I = 50,000.00 + 10,875.00 =
₱60,875.00
 9.1.3 Annuity

An annuity is a series of uniform payments made

at equal intervals of time. Examples of annuities:
annual premiums on life insurance, monthly rental,
weekly wages, monthly installment payments of
appliances.
In ordinary annuity, payments are made at the
end of each period.
 10.0 LOGIC
https://learnfrenzy.com/reasoning/verbal-reasoning/logical-venn-diagrams
 10.1 Definition of Terms

Logic – the science of thinking and reasoning

correctly.

Syllogism – an argument composed of two

statements or premises; namely, the major and minor
premises.
 Mathematical Logic – a branch of mathematics
concerned with the study of formal languages, formal
reasoning, the nature of mathematical proof, probability
of mathematical statements, computability, and other
aspects of the foundations of mathematics.

Proposition – a declarative sentence which is either

true (T) or false (F), but not both.
 If proposition P is true, it is assigned the truth value of 1.
If proposition P is false, it is assigned the truth value of 0.
Examples
True propositions 1. The integer 2 is
even. 2. 32 is divisible by 16.
3. No odd number is divisible by 2.
False propositions 1. 5=2
2. R⊆N
 4. Earth is not the largest planet.
5. Engineers are mostly men.
6. log 7 ≠ 5.

Compound Propositions
1. 9 is divisible by 3 and 4 is an odd number. 2. 2
+ 5 = 10 but 16 is a multiple of 3.
3. The weather is nice and it is very hot.
4. The murderer is Rene or Buni.
 5. 1+1=2 and 2<5. 6. If 4 > -1,
then y = 5

Logic Connectives and Symbols

 Example
Let p : You eat your supper tonight. and q : You get dessert.
r : I will practice piano. and s : The repertoire includes
Mozart.
 Quantifiers

Universal quantifier - is a quantifier that refers to all of the

objects in a given category. It can be expressed positively
using “For All” or “Every”, or negatively using “No” or
“None”.

Existential quantifier - is a quantifier that refers to a

portion of the objects in a given category. It can be expressed
using “There Exists”, “Some”, or “At Least One”.
 
Example
Deductive and Inductive Reasoning

Deduction – is a process of making a specific conclusion

based on a given general statement. It uses premises
(accepted facts) and logical principles to arrive at a specific
conclusion.
Example
General : All students in Math 101 are present today.
Specific : Robert is a student in Math 101.
Conclusion : Robert is present today.
 Induction – is a process of making general conclusion based on
specific cases. It uses observations to arrive a conclusion by
generalizing the premises information.

Example
Observation: Greg is a student from LCIC. Greg likes Physics.
Robert is a student from LCIC. Robert likes Physics. Danah
is a student from LCIC. Danah likes Physics. Conclusion : All
students in LCIC like Physics.
 Relationship Between the Two Types of Reasoning:
Deduction and Induction
Application of Deductive Reasoning in Mathematics

Caution: The validity of the conclusions that we reach using

deductive reasoning depend on the validity of our underlying
assumptions. Also, in many situations where deductive
reasoning is used, the underlying premises are not always
clearly stated.

Examples

1. Find all numbers that satisfy the equation x2 = 4.

Application of Inductive Reasoning in Mathematics

Caution: It is difficult to know whether or not the

conclusions we reach using inductive reasoning are
correct. There may be more than one conclusion that fits
the observations we made. Hypotheses and conjectures
must be held tentatively until we find a way to validate
them.
 Examples

1. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next two terms in

the following sequences. (a) 1, 3, 5, 7, ,,,
(b) 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, …
Solution :
(a) 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 (series pattern: difference of 2
between terms)
(b) 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128 (series pattern: doubling the
succeeding terms)
2. Examine the following pattern. Predict the next product.

Solution :
4 (444444) = 1777776
 3. Look carefully at the following figures. Then, use
inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about the next
figure in the pattern.

Answer :
 Venn diagram - graphical method of
representing categorical propositions and
testing the validity of categorical syllogisms,
devised by the English logician and
philosopher John Venn (1834–1923).

10.2 Identification of Venn Diagram

Case I. If two separate groups of items are completely
unrelated to each other but they are all completely
included in the third group.
Example 1. Vehicle, Car, Bus

Solution: Venn diagram

Example 2. Hospital, Nurse, Patient
Solution: Venn diagram

Case II. When two groups of items have some

common relationship and both of them are completely
included in the third group.
Example 3. Lawyers, Teacher, Educated
Solution: Venn diagram

Case III. If one item belongs completely to the class

of second while, third item is entirely different from the
two.
Example 4. Engineers, Human Beings, Rats
Solution: Venn diagram

Case IV. If one group of items is partly included in the

second group of items and the third group is completely
unrelated to these two groups
Case IV. If one group of items is partly included in
the second group of items and the third group is
completely unrelated to these two groups.

Example 5. Wire, Copper, Paper

Solution: Venn diagram
Case (V) If one item belongs to the class of second and
the third item is partly related to these two.

Example 6. Female, Mother, Doctors

Solution: Venn diagram
Example 7. Doctor, Educated, Employed
Solution: Venn diagram

Case VI. If one item belongs to the class of second

and the third item is partly related to the second
Example 8. Male, Fathers, Children
Solution: Venn diagram

Case VII. If the items evidently belong to three

different groups
Example 9. Doctors, Lawyers, Engineers.
Solution: Venn diagram

Case VIII. If one item belongs to the class of

second and the second belongs to the class of third
Example 10. Second, Minutes, Hours
Solution: Venn diagram

Case IX. If two items are partly related to the third

and are themselves independent of each other.
Case X. If the three are partly related to each other.

Example 12. Married, Women, Teachers

Solution: Venn diagram
 10.3 Analysis of Venn Diagram

Generally a Venn diagram comprising

of different geometrical figures is given.
Each geometrical figure in the diagram
represents a certain class.
Example 1.
(a) Find out the number: (a) that lies inside all the
figures; (b) that lie inside any two figures.
Example 2.
Study the figure given below carefully and determine
the following: (a) the Literate Males who are Doctors;
(b) the Males who are neither Doctor nor Literate.
Example 3
Which one of the areas marked I-VII represents the
urban educated who are not hard working?
Answers:

Example 1: (a) 2, (b) 5, 1

2: (a) E (b) C
3: IV
11.0 MATHEMATICAL SYSTEMS
 Mathematical system – the logical study of
shape, arrangement, and quantity.

Examples of mathematical systems

Algebra, geometry trigonometry, and calculus

Structure of mathematical systems based on

four major areas Higher arithmetic,
algebra, geometry, and analysis
Modular Arithmetic
Modulo
Two integers a and b are congruent modulo n, if the quotient
of a – b divided by n is an integer. If this is the case, then
a ≡ b mod n
where n = modulus
Example
Determine whether the congruence is true. (a) 29 ≡
8 mod 3 (b) -43 ≡ 37 mod 4 (c) 15 ≡ 4 mod 6
12.0 DATA MANAGEMENT
 Descriptive statistics deals with the scientific
methods of sampling, collection, presentation, and
analysis of data in order to describe the data collected.

Measures of Central Tendency

Arithmetic Mean It uses one single

value that will describe the observed values or
frequencies in totality. This is the most commonly method
used in describing the central tendency.