Common Poisonous Plants and Mushrooms OF NORTH AMERICA Nancy J. Turner, Ph.D. and Adam F. Szczawinski, Ph.D. TIMBER PRESS Portland, OregonThis book cannot replace the advice and assistance of qualified medical personnel. In all cases of suspected poisoning by plants, or any other substance, immediate qualified medical advice and assistance should be sought. Copyright © 1991 by Timber Press, Inc. All rights reserved. Hardback printed 1991, 1992, 1997 Paperback printed 1995, 1997, 1999, 2001, 2003 Printed in Singapore TIMBER PRESS, INC. The Haseltine Building 133 S.W. Second Avenue, Suite 450 Portland, Oregon 97204, U.S.A. ication Data Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Pul Turner, Nancy J., 1947- Common poisonous plants and mushrooms of North America / Nancy J. Tumer and Adam F. Szezawinski. p. om. Includes bibliographical references Includes index. ISBN 0-88192-179-3 (hardback) ISBN 0-88192-312-5 (paperback) 1. Poisonous plants—Identification. 2. Poisonous plants—Toxicology. 3. Mushrooms, Poisonous—Identification. 4. Mushrooms, Poisonous ‘Toxicology. 5. Poisonous plants—North America—Identification. 6. Mushrooms, Poisonous—North America—Identification. 1. Szczawinski, Adam F. IL. Title. QK100.A1T87 1991 581.69'097—de20 90-37574, cpCONTENTS In Case of Poisoning, vii How to Prevent Poisoning, ix Preface, xi Acknowledgements, xiii How to Use The Book, xv Chapter I. An Introduction to Poisonous Plants, 1 Recognizing Poisonous Plants and Their Effects, 1 What is a Poisonous Plant?, 1 Prevalence of Poisoning by Plants, 3 Plant Allergens and “Hay Fever’, 5 Identifying Poisonous Plants and Mushrooms, 6 Poisoning of Animals by Plants, 7 Poisonous Plants Can be Useful, 8 Treatment, 10 Ipecac Syrup: a Safe, Effective Emetic, 10 Gastric Lavage, or Washing the Stomach, 11 Activated Charcoal: a Natural Cleanser, 11 Cathartics, 12 Cyanide Poisoning and Its Treatment, 12 General Treatment for Digestive Tract Irritation Caused by Plants, 13 Treatment for Skin and Eye Irritants, 14 Types of Plant Poisons, 15 Classification of Plant Poisons, 15 Alkaloids, 15 Glycosides, 18 Other Classes of Poisonous Plant Compounds, 19 Chapter II. Poisonous Mushrooms, 27 What are Mushrooms?, 27 Mushroom Poisoning, 27 Points to Remember for Mushroom Gatherers, 29 Types of Poisonous Mushrooms, 30 The Amanita Group, 33 Chapter III. Poisonous Plants of Wild Areas, 60 Algae, 60 What Are Algae? 60 Poisonous Freshwater Algae, 60vi CONTENTS Shellfish Poisoning: “Red Tide”, 61 Seaweeds: Most Are Harmless, 62 Fungi, 63 Ergot, 64 Mold Poisons, or Mycotoxins, 65 Lichens, 66 What Are Lichens? 67 Poisonous Lichens, 67 Lichens and Skin Irritation, 68 Cautionary Note on Eating Lichens, 68 Ferns and Fern Relatives, 68 Coniferous Trees, 72 Broad-Leaved Trees and Tall Shrubs, 73 Medium-to-Low Shrubs: Evergreen and Deciduous, 86 Wild Vines, 91 Wild Flowering Plants, 99 Chapter IV. Poisonous Garden and Crop Plants (Including Common Garden, Weeds), 145 Trees and Tall Shrubs, 145 Medium-to-Low Shrubs and Hedge Plants, 164 Vines, 173 Flowers and Herbaceous Plants, 181 Chapter V. Poisonous House Plants and Plant Products (Including Garden Plants of Subtropical Regions), 223 Woody Plants, 223 Herbaceous Plants and Household Plant Products, 236 Appendixes Appendix 1. Common Fruits, Vegetables and Beverage Plants Containing Potentially Harmful Toxins, 259 Appendix 2. Wild Edible Plants with Potentially Toxic Properties, 265 Appendix 3, Some Common Plants Causing Skin Irritation and/or Mechanical Injury, 270 Appendix 4. Honey Poisons, 274 Appendix 5. Milk Poisons, 275 Appendix 6. Some Medicinal Herbs of Questionable Safety, 276 Glossary, 281 References, 288 Index, 293IN CASE OF POISONING For easy reference, write in the name and phone number of family physician and local Poison Control Center in the space provided. Doctor: Number: Poison Control Center: Number: Ifa poisonous or unknown plant (or other poisonous substance) has been swallowed: © Identify the plant or substance as closely as possible. © Call your local Poison Control Center immediately, and seek professional medical aid and advice. © Do not panic; keep patient as comfortable as possible; remember that there are very few really serious poisonings from plants, and even fewer fatalities. ©@ Keep a sample of the plant or substance, and if vomiting has occurred, save a sample of the vomit for further identification. © Watch breathing closely, and if necessary, apply artificial respira- tion (CPR). ©@ DONOT induce vomiting without medical help, or give anything to drink IF patient is extremely drowsy, unconscious, or con- vulsing, or if patient is under 12 months old. © DO Induce vomiting IF patient is conscious, over 12 months old, and has swallowed a plant known to be poisonous, or is showing symptoms from swallowing an unknown plant. Ipecac syrup is the emetic of choice (see p. 10); follow dosage on bottle; usually works in 20-30 minutes, Lacking that, liquid household detergent (2-3viii IN CASE OF POISONING tablespoons in ¥2 to 1 cup of juice or water; or 30-45 ml in 125-250 mi juice or water) may be useful. Drinking a solution of table salt, a mixture of mustard and water, or “finger-down-the-throat” are not recommended for inducing vomiting (usually incomplete or unsuccessful). Save vomit for laboratory. © Gastric lavage (removing stomach contents through a tube, adding fluids to help wash out the toxic materials) may be required if vomiting is unsuccessful or incomplete (see p. 11). This should be done only by a qualified physician. © Activated charcoal, given in a slurry mixed with water AFTER syrup of ipecac has been given and patient has vomited, or after gastric lavage, can “tie up” toxic substances and prevent them from being absorbed by the body (see p. 11 for details). Repeat every 4- 6 hours for 24 hours. © If patient is convulsing or clenching teeth, place a piece of rolled cloth between the jaws to prevent damage to teeth and tongue. © For eye contamination by plant irritants gently flush the eyes with a stream of slightly tepid water or saline solution for 5 minutes. © For skin contamination by plant irritants, wash skin immediately with a large amount of running water; use soap if available; remove and thoroughly wash contaminated clothing. © If poisonous plant is known, follow specific instructions for treatment. Raga aE eee csceceece cece ece acces This book cannot replace the advice and assistance of qualified medical personnel. In all cases of suspected poisoning by plants, or any other substance, immediate qualified medical advice and assistance should be sought. ————HOW TO PREVENT POISONING © Never eat any part of an unknown plant or mushroom. If you are trying a “new food,” eat only a small amount at first, and do not mix it with other “new” foods. @ Babies and young children must be carefully supervised. Keep poisonous house plants out of their reach. Remove poisonous berries from house and garden plants. Remove mushrooms from. lawns and play areas. Store bulbs and seeds out of sight and out of reach. @ Teach children about poisonous plants just as they are taught about busy roads and hot stoves. Train them never to put any plants or parts of plants into their mouths. Even babies and toddlers can learn about “bad” plants. © Learn to identify poisonous plants in the house, yard, and neigh- borhood. Eliminating all poisonous plants is not practical; knowing about them is. @ Teach children to recognize Poison Ivy, Poison Oak, and Poison Sumac or any other plants in the locality causing skin injuries, or dermatitis. © Do not assume a plant is safe because birds or other wildlife eat it. What is poisonous to humans is not necessarily harmful to other animals. © Donotassume, just because the fruits or roots ofa plant are edible, that other parts of the plant can also be eaten. Many plants with edible parts also have poisonous parts. © Do not count on heating or cooking a plant or mushroom to destroy any toxic substances. © Avoid breathing or coming in contact with smoke from burning plants. © Donot use unknown plants as skewers for meat or marshmallows, as decorations, or as playthings for children.X HOW TO PREVENT POISONING © Anyone using herbal medicines or teas, wild edible plants, or wild mushrooms, should be positive of the identifications of the plants they use and know how to prepare them properly. Each year many people are poisoned, some fatally, from mistaken identifications or misuse of herbal remedies. © Do not use edible plants or mushrooms gathered from roadsides, or from areas where herbicides or insecticides may have been applied. © Keep ipecac syrup on hand as part of any family first aid kit; keep enough for one dose for each family member. It is available at any pharmacy, and when used as directed is a safe, effective medicine for inducing vomiting (see p. 10). Powdered, activated charcoal is also good to keep on hand for use after vomiting to adsorb toxic substances in the digestive tract, but it is usually administered at a hospital (see p. 11). eee ees This book cannot replace the advice and assistance of qualified medical personnel. In all cases of suspected poisoning by plants, or any other substance, immediate qualified medical advice and assistance should be sought. —_—_ eeePREFACE In April 1980, a five-year-old child was fatally poisoned in Victoria, British Columbia from eating Poison Hemlock (Conium maculatum) while at play with her sisters. Her babysitter was not even aware that she had eaten the plant. The little girl felt sick and would not eat. She lay down, and within an hour fell into a deep coma. It was only at this point that her sisters recalled that earlier she had eaten a plant. She was rushed to the hospital, but despite all efforts to save her life, she died six days later. In February 1987, under similar circumstances a six-year-old, also of Victoria, became paralyzed and stopped breathing after eating Poison Hemlock, but hospital staff were able to save her life by using a respirator and pumping out her stomach. These two poisoning incidents are only two out of hundreds in which humans have been poisoned from eating plants or drinking teas made from plants which are harmful. Many involve young children at play, “pretending” to eat better-known, edible look-alikes. Fig. 1. Poison Hemlock (Conium maculatum) leaves are sometimes mis- taken for Parsley. Fig. 2. Children are sometimes poisoned from the carrot-like taproots of Poison Hemlock. xixii PREFACE In fact, statistics show that children aged five and under are most vulnerable to accidental poisoning. The pea-like pods of the Golden Chain tree (Laburnum), the onion-like bulbs of Daffodil (Narcissus), the carrot-like taproots of Poison Hemlock, and the attractive, colorful berries of Climbing Nightshade (Solanum dulcamara), Daphne (Daphne mezereum), and Lily-of-the-Valley (Convallaria majalis) have all severely poisoned children. It is impossible to remove poisonous plants from our environ- ment. The best way to prevent poisoning is for people to learn which plants are harmful and to teach their children not to play with plants and never to put them in their mouths. We hope that this book will be useful to parents, pet owners, outdoors people, gardeners and people who keep house plants, and to heaith care workers, helping them to identify the poisonous plants around them, and helping them to undertake, or at least understand the treatments for plant poisoning. In writing the book, we have tried to avoid the use of technical jargon, either botanical or medical, but at the same time to provide informa- tion that can be used in identification and treatment of plant poisonings. For the more technical aspects of plant identification and treat- ment, and for descriptions of plants known to be poisonous to livestock but not to humans, other references are provided, many of which contain complete literature citations for various plant species and families and groups of plant toxins. If this book can prevent a single poisoning or result in a single successful treatment of a plant poisoning, we will feel it was worth our efforts. In all cases of suspected poisoning by plants or any other sub- stance, medical advice should be sought from the family physician or local Poison Control Center. This book is not intended to replace the advice of trained medical personnel, but to provide general informa- tion about potentially poisonous plants. The treatments listed for dif- ferent types of plant poisoning are provided as guidelines only, in case of emergency when medical advice is not immediately avail- able, or to give a better understanding of treatment for poisoning, undertaken by physicians or hospital staff. oe This book cannot replace the advice and assistance of qualified medical personnel. In all cases of suspected poisoning by plants, or any other substance, immediate qualified medical advice and assistance should be sought. ——_— eeeACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are particularly grateful to Dr. Walter H. Lewis, Professor, Department of Biology, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri for reading the manuscript and for many helpful suggestions and con- tributions. Dr. George H. Constantine, Associate Dean and Head Advisor, College of Pharmacy, Oregon State University, Corvallis read the introductory section and gave valuable advice. Dr. Bettina Dudley and Dr. T. R. Dudley are also gratefully acknowledged for their editorial and botanical contributions. The section on poisonous mushrooms was read by Dr. Robert Bandoni, Professor Emeritus, Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Dr. Scott A. Redhead, Biosystematics Research Centre, Agriculture Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, and Dr. Al Funk and John Dennis of the Pacific Forest Science Research Centre, Victoria, B.C. all of whom offered many suggestions and helpful com- ments. Dr. Glen S. Jamieson and J.N.C. (lan) Whyte, Pacific Biological Station, Nanaimo, B.C. reviewed the section on algae in Chapter III and provided important information on algal toxins. The following people also contributed to this book in a variety of important ways: Dr. Eugene Anderson, University of California, Riverside; Dr. Denis R. Benjamin, Director of Laboratories, Children’s Hospital and Medical Center, Seattle; Dr. Philip Chambers, M.D., of Nanaimo, B.C; Dr. Adolf Ceska and Dr. Richard J. Hebda, Royal British Columbia Museum, Victoria, B.C; Ken O'Connor, Victoria, B.C.; Dr. Amadeo Rea, San Diego Natural History Museum; Dr. R. E. Schultes, Director Emeritus, Harvard University Botanical Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Krista Thie, White Salmon, Washington; and Dr. G.N. Towers, Department of Botany, University of British Columbia. These people are gratefully acknowledged. Credits for the color illustrations are provided with the captions. Contributors include Mary W. Ferguson, Dr. Richard J. Hebda, Dr. Walter H. Lewis, Frank Fish, Ian G. Forbes, Dr. J. C. Raulston, Robert A. Ross, Dr. Al Funk, John Dennis, Kit Scates Barnhart, Dr. Eugene N. Anderson, Bill McLennan, Biosystematics Research Centre, Ottawa, Washington University, St. Louis, and the late Audrey Burnand (Royal British Columbia Museum collection). The remaining illustra- xiiixiv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS tions are by Robert D. and Nancy J. Turner. We have enjoyed our partnership with Richard Abel and the staff of Timber Press in producing this book, and would like to thank them for their guidance and enthusiasm. Finally, without the continuing help and support of our families, including Robert D. Turner, Jane Chapman, Isobel Turner, and Barbara Lund and Alan Szczawinski, the book would not have been possible.HOW TO USE THIS BOOK The Contents show the overall organization of the book. In Chapter II, poisonous mushrooms are listed in alphabetical order by scientific name, since their common names are variable and their scientific names often well known. For the succeeding chapters, within the broad categories indicated in the Contents, the plants are listed alphabetically by their prevalent common names, with alter- nate common names, scientific names, and family names also provided. In cases where a plant could potentially be included in more than one category, for example either as a wild plant ora garden plant, we have tried to place it in its most relevant context. If there is any doubt about where to find a reference to a particular plant, or if only the scientific name is known, please consult the Index. Tech- nical terminology has been kept to a minimum. Some specialized botanical terms are defined in the Glossary (p. 281). This book cannot replace the advice and assistance of qualified medical personnel. In all cases of suspected poisoning by plants, or any other substance, immediate qualified medical advice and assistance should be sought.CHAPTERI AN INTRODUCTION TO POISONOUS PLANTS RECOGNIZING POISONOUS PLANTS AND THEIR EFFECTS What Is a Poisonous Plant? Plants and parts of plants that contain potentially harmful sub- stances in high enough concentrations to cause chemical injury if touched or swallowed are known as “poisonous.” There are literally thousands of poisonous plants in the world. In this book are described over 150 of the most common and dangerous types to be found in the temperate regions of North America: in homes and buildings, in gardens and urban areas, and in the wild. Emphasis is givento plants known to have caused poisoning to humans, but many of the same types have also caused injury to animals, including household pets and grazing or browsing livestock. It is important to remember that “natural” and “organic” do not necessarily mean “safe” and “wholesome.” Some of the most viru- lent poisons known are derived from plants, which are, of course, both “natural” and “organic.” Many medicinal plants, and even many food plants, contain chemicals that can be harmful. Our bodies are adept at handling and eliminating small amounts of many potentially harmful substances. In large concentrations, however, these same substances, when ingested, can affect our digestive, circulatory, or nervous systems, can cause irreparable damage to our liver or kidneys, can lower blood sugar, interfere with normal blood clotting, prevent cell division, or affect our immune systems. Other sub- stances found in plants can cause skin reactions—pain, redness, blistering, swelling—or can harm the eyes, simply from contact. Poisonous substances in plants are often considered to be by- products of essential plant functions. For many of these chemical compounds, scientists have not determined any obvious role in the functioning, or metabolism of the plants containing them. Some may simply be waste products. As well as being poisonous, many such2. CHAPTER I: AN INTRODUCTION TO POISONOUS PLANTS: compounds are bad tasting or have an unpleasant odor. These give protection to the plant against browsing animals and plant-eating insects. Often, individual plants or local populations of plants vary in the relative concentrations of toxic compounds they contain. This natural variation has helped plant breeders over many centuries to select and develop plant varieties with low concentrations of poisonous sub- stances. In fact, some of the vegetables we enjoy today were derived from ancestor plants too toxic to eat in any quantity. The potato is a good example. Even the edible tubers contain traces of the bitter alkaloid solanine, which is found in higher concentrations through- out the potato plant, rendering the green leaves, sprouts, and green, light-exposed tubers very poisonous. Tubers of the potato’s wild ancestors are also poisonous. It was only through careful and con- tinued selection of less toxic potato varieties that the native farmers of the South American highlands were able to develop sucha delicious vegetable tuber. Johns and Kubo (1988) describe some of the means people have devised to render otherwise poisonous plants edible. Can a plant be called poisonous if it has never poisoned anyone? The answeris yes. Ifit contains known toxic compounds in concentra- tions high enough to be dangerous if the plant is consumed, then it should be considered poisonous. Some plants can only be inferred to be toxic for humans, either because they are known to be poisonous to some animal species, or because chemical studies have revealed the presence of dangerous compounds. Controlled feeding studies with laboratory animals are sometimes used to determine potential toxicity, although many people feel this is an unacceptable and inhumane means of learning such information. A number of house plants previously not known to be poisonous, for example, were recently identified as apparently toxic by laboratory testing. At least one Begonia hybrid, Gladiolus gandavensia flowers, species of Dragon Tree (Dracaena), Prayer Plant (Maranta), Peperomia, Snake Plant (Sansevieria), Selaginella, and Goosefoot Plant (Syngonium), all received positive toxicity scores (Der Marderosian and Roia 1979). Because there is little other evidence against these plants, they are not described in detail in this book, but people should be wary of them nonetheless. Herbicides and pesticides used on house and garden plants or in forests can render otherwise edible species dangerous, causing unpleasant reactions that may not be distinguishable from plant poisoning. Never harvest plants, berries, or mushrooms along roadsides or highway rights-of-way, because toxic heavy metals from vehicle exhaust, such as lead and cadmium, can accumulate in plant structures and mushrooms. People seeking aquatic or marine edible plants such as Cattail (Typha latifolia), Watercress (NasturtiumRECOGNIZING POISONOUS PLANTS AND THEIR EFFECTS, officinale), or seaweeds should ensure that there are no pollutants in the waters where the plants are harvested. Some molds and mildews growing on foods can also render them poisonous due to the presence of mycotoxins (see p. 65); moldy or rotting foods should be strictly avoided, and foods such as nuts and grains should be stored in cool, dry places to reduce the chances of them being infected with harmful fungi or bacteria. Some plants, including many range species that might normally be edible for animals, have the capacity to absorb and concentrate naturally-occurring compounds such as nitrates, selenium salts, lead, and molybdenum. This sometimes leads to large-scale poisoning of livestock. Beets, Turnips, and Kale, for example, may accumulate excessive amounts of nitrates if they are over-fertilized. The nitrates may then be converted by bacteria in the digestive tracts of livestock to much more toxic nitrites. Since relatively large amounts of the plants must be consumed for toxic reactions to occur, and because many of the plant species involved are not normally eaten by people, human poisoning has seldom been a problem in these cases. The reader is referred to Kingsbury (1964) and Fuller and McClintock (1986) for information on this type of poisoning. Prevalence of Poisoning by Plants Poisonous plants are everywhere. They are found among virtually all groups of plants—algae, lichens, mushrooms, ferns, coniferous trees, and flowering plants. Many of our most prized and admired garden flowers, ornamental trees, and house plants are poisonous and some can be deadly. Each year, throughout North America, newspapers and medical journals describe hundreds of instances of poisoning from ingestion of plantsand plant parts. Babies and toddlersare often involved, espe- cially in poisoning by ornamental house plants such as Dieffenbachia and Philodendron. Older children at play may eat poisonous plants, in imitation of real foods. Adult poisonings generally result from misi- dentification of “edible” wild plants, or misinformed use of herbal remedies. Many instances of poisoning may not even be reported. As authors of books on edible wild plants and lecturers on this subject, as well as in interviewing elderly Native people, we hear many accounts of poisoning, some very serious, which are not necessarily officially documented. At leasta dozen people on different occasions have told us they have tried to eat Skunk-Cabbage (Lysichitum americanum) leaves because they “looked good” or “must be like cabbage.” The resulting intense and prolonged burning of the lips and mouth usually prevents ingestion of more than a bite, but one man was 34 > CHAPTER I: AN INTRODUCTION TO POISONOUS PLANTS Fig. 3. Poisonous plants such as Dieffenbachia and Philodendron are often used as ornamentals in shopping malls, offices, and lobbies. hospitalized for several days, and experienced a swollen, raw throat “as if [had swallowed a whole cup of scalding coffee.” Dieffenbachia, or Dumbcane, a relative of Skunk-Cabbage, is one of the most com- monly ingested houseplants, and we have heard of at least three instances of adults, who should know better, inadvertantly chewing on the stems. Another incident, which could have been disastrous but fortunately was not, occurred whena man attending a banquet, ina fit of boredom over the after-dinner speech, reached out and plucked a Daffodil out ofa vase in the center of the table, and ate it. He assumed it was edible—a foolish assumption indeed. Some Native people, and more than one outdoor recreationist, have been seriously, sometimes fatally, poisoned from mistaking the highly toxic Water Hemlock (Cicuta spp.) for the similar-looking Water Parsnip (Sium spp.). Others have been poisoned from eating an overdose of the deadly Indian Hellebore (Veratrum viride) or Death Camas (Zigadenus venenosus), which are Indian medicinal remedies. We heard ofa case where a hospitalized pregnant woman, anxious to proceed with her delivery and return home to her older children, secretly took a preparation of Blue Cohosh root (Caulophyllum thalictroides) to bring on labor. She had misjudged the age of her unborn baby, and it was delivered prematurely, at great risk to both mother and infant. In the past, human poisonings occurred in epidemic proportions from such substances as Ergot (Claviceps spp.) and milk from cows feeding on White Snakeroot (Eupatorium rugosum). These types of poisonings have been virtually eliminated, but at the same time more and more people are seeking recreation in the out-of-doors, moving