FORENSIC 5: LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

INTRODUCTION

Lying has become part of our daily lives. It has an implication on the survival
value of human being and other living things. Human may tell lies by denying the
truth, omitting or exaggerating information for social acceptance, to maintain a
harmonious relationship, to prevent hurting the feeling of others, etc. But when lying
becomes destructive to the interest of an individual or the society, the application of
available lie detection methods is a typical defense against liars.

As we grow old and acquire experiences, our capability of lying becomes more
advanced. Liars who are inclined of committing crimes, devised sophisticated means to
deceived justice. Thus, it is incumbent on the part of a polygraph examiner to educate
himself, enhance his skills, and learn the advance techniques to surmount the effort
exerted by a deceptive individual.
Our government law enforcement agencies employ polygraph testing primarily,
to aid in their effort of investigating crimes. The result generated from the examination
helps determine the innocence or degree of involvement of a particular subject on the
issue under investigation. The opinion of the polygraph examiner may be called by the
court to substantiate other existing evidence presented in the litigation of the case.

Some government agency and private company consider polygraph as part of

security strategy. They require applicants to undergo polygraph pre-employment test
as part of the screening process. Existing employees are required to undergo periodic
honesty test to determine any serious transgressions of security or company policy.
Those who were implicated on committing illegal act undergo polygraph testing to
prove their innocence or possible involvement. These approach provides the decision
makers in hiring the best qualified applicant, ensure adherence to policy, and serves
as deterrence for those who would attempt to do wrong.

Since polygraph test results relatively affects the future of an examinee, a

polygraph examiner must be properly prepared in their profession. Preparation
includes better understanding of the theoretical foundations, positive attitude towards
the polygraph practice, and the dedication for excellence thru continuous training and
research.

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POLYGRAPHY (Lie Detection)

Is the scientific method of detecting deception with the use of a polygraph
instrument. Polygraphy is the new name of LIE DETECTOR.
A Polygraph Instrument is a scientific diagnostic instrument used to record
physiological changes in the blood pressure, pulse rate, respiration and skin
resistance of an examinee under controlled condition. Lie Detector on the other hand
is the popular but misleading name of the polygraph. In Greek Polygraph means,
“many writings” and the instrument were so named because it make various ink
recording of a person’s body functions. The other name of polygraph is called “Truth
Verifier”.
POLYGRAPH – derived from the two Greek words “POLY” means many or more and
“GRAPHOS” which means writings. It is a device or an instrument capable of recording
changes in blood pressure/pulse beats, respiration and galvanic-skin-reflex or GSR as
indicative of emotional excitement, especially of lying when questioned.

Objectives of a Polygraph Examination

1. Obtain additional investigation leads to the facts of the case/offenses.
2. Ascertain if a person is telling the truth;
3. Locate the fruits or tools of the crime or whereabouts of wanted persons.
4. Identify other persons involved.
5. Obtain valuable information form reluctant witnesses.
6. Eliminate the innocent suspects.

Principal Uses of the Polygraph

1. Aid in investigation
2. Speeds up processing of investigation
3. Eliminates innocent suspects
4. Pre-employment screening
5. Honesty test (Periodic test)

DECEPTION – is an act of deceiving misleading which is accomplishment by lying.

LYING – as commonly used in our study, creating a false or misleading impression
with the intention of wrongfully affecting the acts, opinion, or affection of another.
DETECTION – is the act of discovering the existence or presence of something hidden
or obscured.

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EMOTION – is a complex state of feeling involving conscious experience, internal and

external physical responses, and power to motivate the organism to action.
STIMULUS – is the forced or motion reaching the organism from the environment and
excites the preceptors.
REACTION – is any activity aroused in an organism by a stimulus, which is if mental
processes.
RESPONSE – is any reaction, usually of muscular or glandular processes that
depends upon stimulation.
SPECIFIC RESPONSE – is one that is exhibited by the subject to a particular
question, which is a deviation from the norm.
SUBJECT – as often used in our discussion, refers to any person undergoing
polygraph examination. He may be a suspect, the complainant, the witness, the
victims or relative of the victim or suspect (in cases of criminal investigation or
interrogation) or he may be an aspiring job applicant (in cases of employment in a
government or private institution undergoing screening though loyalty test or integrity
checking).
POLYGRAPH EXAMINER/POLYGRAPHIST or merely EXAMINER/EXPERT – is the
one conducting the test or examination.
POLYGRAPH TEST or POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION – is the whole process of the
questioning or the taking of the chart from a series of questioning or all of the charts
and questions sheets used in the test.
POLYGRAPH CHART/POLYGRAM or CHART/GRAPH – refers to the recorded
tracings of all the emotional patterns permanently on the charts or graphs from series
of questions.

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I. EARLY METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION

1. Observation of Behavior

It was written in the history that liars can be detected by observing their
behavior. In an ancient texts written in India around 900 BC, it was mentioned that
poisoners can be determined because they are evasive and cannot give direct answer
to a question. He exhibits gestures of uneasiness, and noticeable physiological
changes are indicated (Trovillo 1939).
Another popular example of observing the behavior to verify truthful and false
statement was reported during the era of King Solomon. He made a wise decision
regarding the two woman claiming to be the mother of a disputed child. King Solomon
determined the real mother by observing the behavior displayed by both woman when
he stated to cut the baby in two parts to settle the conflict. The real mother readily
gave up her claim rather than seeing the baby killed, while the other woman agreed to
the settlement made by the king (Krapojl & Shaw, 2019).

2. Feeling the Pulse

It was depicted in history that, lying was presumed to affect the physiological
activity of deceitful person. Physiological changes are observed as symptoms of lying
when the person experiences fear of being detected.
Erasistratus (200-250) a famous physician and anatomist known for his
research on the functions of the brain and nervous system, was consulted by the king
of Syria to diagnose the unknown illness of his son. The king’s son was observed
losing his weight, no appetite and feeling depressed. Erasistratus hinted that the
cause of the mysterious illness was the son’s passion for the king’s young and
beautiful wife. During examination the examination he conducted, Erasistratus
observed that the pulse rate of the king’s son increased when he mentioned the
physical attributes of the king’s new wife. His findings was later on proven with the
birth of a baby girl out of intimacy between the prince and the new queen (Trovillo
1939).
Another attempt of detecting deception by feeling the pulse was described
during the Middle Ages. A noble man who suspected his wife of having an illicit affair
with another man consulted one of his adviser to verify his doubt. The test conducted
by the designated adviser was administered by occasionally placing his hand on the
wrist of the nobleman’s wife during their conversation. The adviser found out that the
pulse of the noble man’s wife quickened when he mentioned the name of the
suspected lover. Adversely, there was no similar response noted when the name of her
husband was mentioned (Trovillo 1939).

In 1730, Daniel Defoe, an English novelist, discussed in his writing the same
concept. He suggested that by feeling the pulse, he can discover the guilt of a
suspected person. Defoe described that a thief has the tendency to run and evade
when confronted, he will indicate obvious cues of tension that can be observe. An
innocent person however, whose conscience is clear will not attempt to escape (Matte,
1996).

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3. Trial by Combat

Trial by combat was also practiced on many countries in the early years.
Disputes between two adversaries is resolve by a physical combat. The innocent
person is expected to prevail in the fight because of the belief that the truth is on his
side. Nevertheless, the result of the combat usually favors the wise, skilled and able-
bodied participant.

4. Ordeal Method

In the ancient years of determining truth or deception, the methods of ordeal

was the most popular approach applied. The procedure subjected the accused to a
painful and dangerous test. Superstitious belief and divine intervention serves as
basis to prove the innocence or guilt. It supposed that innocent individual will be
spared by God from harm. This method of verifying deceit was also centered on actual
monitoring of psychological and physiological clues that guilty and innocent individual
may indicates.

 Rice Chewing Ordeal

It was also describes in history that fear is related with a dry mouth,
several forms of rice chewing was administered to suspected liars as a way of
determining fear. Suspected persons are forced to chew rice powder and instructed
to spit it out. If the rice powder was dry, the suspect was proclaimed lying (Vrij &
Ganis, 2014).

 Red Water Ordeal

In Western Africa, suspect fast for twelve hours before given a small
amount of rice to swallow and red colored liquid made f root extract to drink. If the
suspect vomits and ejects all of the rice, he is considered innocent. The natives
preferred this kind of test when being accused because of their faith in the
process. They believed that only the guilty person will suffer from the ordeal
(Trovillo 1939).

 Red-Hot Iron Ordeal

The ordeal of the red-hot iron in north Bengal was also based on the
concept of dry mouth. The innocence of the accused is determined by applying a
red-hot iron on his tongue for nine times, if the tongue will not burned, the
accused is innocent. The guilty person will not be able to salivate and the lack of
saliva will cause his tongue to get burned. The extreme implementation of this
ordeal was accomplished by asking the suspect to carry the hot-iron with his hand
(Trovillo, 1939).

 Smelling the Liars

In Africa, there is other technique involve in determining fear thru smell.

In this approach, suspects were assembled in circle, then an exorcist who will
perform hypnotic ceremonies will threw himself to each suspect and smell their

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neck. This procedure continues around the circle for several hours until the guilty
person was smelled out (Trovillo, 1939).

 Ordeal of the Balance

The ordeal of the balance (600 BC) in India is also carried out to test the
truthfulness of an individual by placing him on a balance and weighed. The ordeal
is conducted in the morning on good weather condition. The accused is instructed
to fast for the whole day, and took a bath before being weighed. Religious
ceremonies and prayers to the goddess was conducted before the accused is
weighed with his wet garments and a piece of paper placed on his head containing
the accusations. The he moved out from the scale and listened to an
encouragement delivered by a judge to the balance. The accused is then weighed
again. If the accused is lighter, then he is found innocent. The accused is guilty if
he weighed heavier or when the balance was destroyed (Trovillo, 1939).

 Boiling Hot Water Ordeal

In Modern Africa, the ordeal of the boiling water is used to verify the
deception of suspect. The suspect’s arm was alternately dipped from cold water to
boiling water and back to cold water for several times. The innocent person’s arm
would not blister. The theory involved is the Fight, Fight, or Freeze. Blood in a
fear/deceitful person is pulled from extremities into the major muscle groups.
Therefore it is more difficult for the body to cool itself effectively. This cause
blisters on the guilty person’s arm (Trovillo, 1939)

 Guillotine Ordeal

In Turkey, the ordeal of guillotine is the most severe means of detecting

deception. The head of the accused was cut off during the trial. If he was innocent,
his head would roll through the maze directly to the sea. If the accused was guilty,
his head would get stuck in the maze. The implication of this ordeal reflects on the
honor of the family, if the accused was proclaimed innocent, his family would be
spared from the embarrassment of the crime.

 Trial by the Sacred Ass

The trial by the Sacred Ass is a kind of test that employed psychology. This
ordeal was practiced in India around 500 BC (Keeler, 1938). In this method, a
donkey is placed in an enclosed dark tent. Suspects are instructed to enter the
dark tent one at a time. Each of them are ordered to pull the donkey’s tail. They
are told that the donkey will bray if a guilty person pulls its tail. Suspects are not
told that there is lamp soot on the tail of the donkey. The suspect’s hand were
inspected upon leaving the tent. Only the guilty person’s hand are found clean. He
will not pull the tail of the donkey because of fear of being detected. The origin of
the sacred ass ordeal can only be traced on Keeler’s story. There is no other
published materials found to trace its source (Krapohl & Shaw, 2019).

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 The Sheik Solution

This story is similar to the sacred ass tale of Keeler. The Sheik was able
to identify from the members of the tribe who took a piece of jewelry. Before he
conducted the ceremony, the Sheik proceeded to the desert with his white ass to
solemnly pray and lasted there for several hours before he returned. He assembled
the tribe members and told them to hold the ass tale one by one to prove their
innocence. Tribe members believed that the Sheik white ass is sacred and has the
capability to determine the culprit. They were told that it will bray when touched
by immoral person. Not known to the tribe members, the Sheik rubbed a pungent
herb in the ass tail while he was in the desert. The guilty person is afraid to be
discovered and his hand was found not having the smell of the herb when
inspected by the Sheik (Krapohl & Shaw, 2019).

 Smearing the Bell

Another similar tale of the Sacred Ass is a story written in the history of
China thousand years ago. A judge in Fujian China assembled the possible
suspects for theft. The judge told them that there was a magic bell placed behind
the curtain, suspects were told to reach and touch it one by one. The bell has the
power to identify the theft, it will ring when touched by the guilty. Not known to
the suspects, the bell was painted with dark ink to stain the hand of anyone who
will hold it. The judge examined the hands of the suspects after they reached the
magic bell behind the curtain. The guilty suspects will not touched the bell
because of his fear to be recognized as theft (Krapohl & Dutton, 2016).

 The Theft Catcher

The same concept with the sacred ass ordeal that originates from India
was practiced in 19th century. Whenever there is a theft incident, a holy man sets
up a heavy grinding stone rubbed with unpleasant smelled substance. The stone
hand mill is placed on a room containing religious relics. Suspects were instructed
to enter the room one at a time and to touch the center of the stone. They were
told that if they are innocent, there is no reason to hesitate and obey with the
instruction. Further they were told that the hand of the guilty will be crushed by
the stone and it is very difficult to free himself from the predicament. After each
suspect had come out from the room, the theft-catcher examines their hands to
determine the presence of odorous substance.

Each of them were placed on a separate room to avoid communicating with

one another. Only the guilty one will not touch the stone and his hand would not
smell of odorous substance. The theft-catcher will then confronted the guilty
suspect and convince him to confess privately to preserve his reputation (Krapohl
& Duttom, 2016).

5. Torture Method

The use of force and coercion to obtain admission as method of verifying the
statement of a person is also described in history. Various forms of this technique
were used and have found to be effective in extracting information about crimes.

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However, the procedure creates serious concerns since the developed information can
be generated both from innocent and guilty person. Torture methods violates the
rights of a person under investigation and has gradually neglected by many in the
advent of technology. The application of forensics has been regarded to be more sound
and scientific means of investigating crimes. The use of polygraph significantly
decreases the use of torture in verifying the statement of suspected criminals.

II. CONTEMPORARY METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION

1. Physiological Lie Detection

The use of modern equipment to record the physiological changes that occurs
on a person was employed in determining guilt or innocence. The polygraph is one
that is used to accurately records and measures physiological changes which include
respiratory, electrodermal, cardiovascular, and vasomotor activity. These parameters
are monitored by the sensors connected on a particular parts the body of the person
being tested.

2. Non-Verbal Lie Detection

There are several concepts considered to determine the non-verbal indicators of

deception.

Non-Verbal Cues of Deception

According to DePaulo et al (2003), the most consistent indicators of

deception are the following:
1. Verbal and vocal immediacy
2. Pupil dilation
3. Discrepant/ambivalent
4. Verbal and vocal uncertainty
5. Nervous tense
6. Vocal tension
7. Chin raise
8. Pitch frequency
9. Lip pressing
10.Illustrators
11.Facial pleasantness
12.Changes in foot movements
13.Pupillary changes
14.Genuine smile
15.Indifferent, unconcerned
16.Specific hand and arm movement
17.Intensity of facial expression
18.Direct orientation

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3. Verbal Lie Detection

The basic premise of verbal lie detection are that liars have to think harder to
fabricate a lie and will try to make more convincing impression that truthful persons.
Verbal lie detection is a memory-based approach, regarded as a unique signs of
deception. It is presumed that people remember differently the events that he
experienced from the events that are fabricated. Hence, they talk about them in
different ways (Vrji & Ganis, 2014).

4. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging-Based Lie Detection (fMRI)

The method of monitoring brain activity has been employed by several

researchers in an attempt to detect deception. The fMRI approach involves the
measurement of changes in regional cerebral blood flow cause by the activity of the
nervous system. The activity of the brain in response to a specific type of events is
measured through fMRI procedures (Vrij & Ganis, 2014).

5. Optical Motor Detection of Deception

The idea of measuring the size of pupil can be traced from the theory suggested
by Charles Darwin that pupil dilation was associated with fear and other emotion
(Andreassi, 2000). It was speculated based on research that sympathetic nervous
system influenced the pupillary changes which could be used to measure the value of
interest and pleasure on visual stimuli. Succeeding researches suggests that cognitive
effort can be related to pupil dilation (Hess & Polt, 1960).

III. EVOLUTION OF THE POLYGRAPH

In the past, the device designed for medical purposes were used to record
certain physiological parameters in an attempt to detect deception. The effort to
improve the instrument evolved as numerous research and experiment was conducted
that leads to the development of polygraph.

1. DEVELOPMENT OF CARDIOSPHYGMOGRAPH

It was describe in the early study of deception that researchers employed

different apparatus in monitoring the blood pressure and pulse activity of a person.

a. Galileo
In 1518, he was the first to conduct experiments using pulsiologium, an
apparatus designed for measuring human pulse (Trovillo, 1939).

b. Giovani Lancisi
His study about emotion and mental functions was conceived in 1728.
Lancisi believed that emotions are produced, by thought, by more or less
forceful heart action. He concluded that the characteristics of the mind derived
from the structure and physical changes going on in the body (Trovillo, 1939).

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c. Stephen Hales, English clergyman

A priest who pioneered clinical physiology. In 1733, he was the first to
study the measurement of blood pressure in animals (Trovillo, 1939).

d. Angelo Mosso, Italian Physiologist

In 1875, he used plethysmograph in his studies of emotion and fear and
it effect on the heart and respiration. Mosso also performed his study to
emasure the influence of fear using a scientific cradle, an instrument designed
to measure the flow of blood in different parts of the body.

e. Cesare Lombroso
He was the first to attempt using scientific instrument for detecting
deception in criminal cases. Lombroso made use of spygmograph,
plethysmograph, and hydrospygmograph in the interrogation and investigation
of criminal suspects. In 1885, he published the reports of his successful
findings about the changes in blood volume and pulse rate, attributed to truth
and deception.

f. Hugo Munsterberg
In 1908, he suggested the use of blood pressure test, pulse tracings for
measuring deception in court proceedings.

g. William Moulton Marston

He developed a discontinuous systolic blood pressure test in 1915.
Marston used an ordinary sphygmomanometer to obtain periodic,
discontinuous blood pressure to test s suspected person involved in crime. In
1923, he attempted to present as evidence the result of his technique in US vs.
Frye case.

h. John Augustus
In 1921, John Larson constructed an instrument capable of
continuously recording blood pressure, pulse and respiration during
examination.

2. DEVELOPMENT OF PNEUMOGRAPH

Respiration is one of the physiological signals recorded by a polygraph for the

detection of deception. Significant research and experiments about the concepts and
the recording instruments was reported throughout history.

a. Vittorio Benussi (1914)

He conducted experiments using the pneumograph for the detection of
detection. Benussi observed changes in the inspiration/expiration ratio during
deception. His theory suggest that, if the length of inspiration was divided by
the length of inspiration was divided by the length of expiration, the ratio would
be greater after lying than before lying.

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b. Harold Burt (1918)

He partially confirmed the theory of Benussi for detecting deception. In
1921, he conducted study with Marston and Troland on the three methods of
determining deception: word association reaction, inspiration/expiration
reaction ans systolic blood pressure method.

c. Leonarde Keeler
Keeler made significant changes in the polygraph instrument by adding
channels for recording blood-pressure pulse, respiration changes, a
galvanometer and kymograph. The instrument records breathing pattern,
galvanic skin response, heartbeat, pulse rate and strength plus changes in
mean blood pressure.

d. John E. Reid
In 1945, John E, Reid devised an instrument capable of recording
muscular activity along with changes in blood pressure, pulse, respiration, and
GSR.

e. William M. Marston
The work of William M. Marston also included experiments to record the
respiration and the time of the subject’s verbal responses.

3. DEVELOPMENT OF GALVANIC SKIN RESPONSE CHANNEL

The Galvanic Skin Response was named before Luigi Galvani an Italian
physician and physicist, who conducted study of electricity on animals. In his
research, Galvani found out that the feet of a dead frog twisted by placing two
dissimilar metals on it. His discovery leads to the invention of battery
(https://en.m.wikipedia.org). GSR is an outdated term that is no longer used in the
science of psychophysiology. The recommended appropriate term is electrodermal
activity as applied in modern polygraphy (Handler et al, 2010).

a. Emil Du Bois-Reymond – German physician and physiologist

In 1849, he discovered the flow of current from the two limbs by applying
chemical compound on the hands and feet. Du Bois-Reymond inferred that the
human skin is a conductor of electricity. He regarded that the observed
phenomena was influenced potentially by muscle activity (Boucsein, 1992).

b. Hermann and Luchsinger

In 1878, they reported their findings about the connection of sweat gland
activity and flow of current in the skin of a cat. In 1881, Hermann discovered
that the finger and palms areas of the hands produces greater sweat compared
to other body parts (Boucsein, 1992).

c. Jean Martin Charcot, French neurologist

He was famous for his work on hysteria and hypnosis. Charcot
laboratory was used by Vigourox and Fere in their research.

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d. Romain Vigourox, electrotherapist

In 1879, he conducted research on emotionally disturbed patients by
measuring the changes in skin resistance through adjusted dosages of
medications applied to them. Vigourox suggested the vascular theory in
electrodermal activity, which associated the changes in skin resistance with
changes in flood flow (Neuman & Blanton, 1970).

e. Charles Fere – French neurologist

In 1888, he observed changes in resistance as response to various form
of stimuli using a direct current on hysterical patients. His work leads to the
discovery of exosomatic EDR recording. Fere believed that the changes in
resistance were result of vasomotor changes (Handler et al, 2010).

f. Sticker
In 1889, he was the first to suggest for the application of
psychogalvanometer to forensic problem. Sticker believed that the origin of the
galvanic skin phenomenon is under the influence of exciting mental
impressions, and that the will has no effect upon it. His conclusion was derived
from the experimental work of several predecessors (Trovillo, 1939).

g. Otto Veraguth
In 1907, Veraguth was one of the first to used galvanometer in his
experiment with word association. He was also considered the first to use the
term psychogalvanic reflex. Veraguth believed that the electrical phenomena are
connected with sweat gland activity.

h. Hugo Munsterberg
Munsterberg suggested the use of the galvanometer in measuring the
resistance of electrodermal activity in 1908. He showed the importance of word
association test in determining the guilt of criminal suspect.

i. John Larson
He introduced the psychogalvanometer on the existing two-channel
polygraph and has become a significant and standard component of all
polygraph devices (Abrams, 1989).

j. William M. Marston
In 1917, he reported conducting experiments with Burt using
galvanometer while designing deception techniques for the US Army intelligence
service to address war-time problems. However, the results of the experiments
were not successful (Trovillo, 1939).

k. Richter
In 1929, Richter was the first to propose that endosomatic EDA (skin
potentials) is caused by sweat gland activity and epidermal mechanism
(Boucsein, 1992).

l. Wilson
In 1930, Wilson created a non- recording galvanometer which he used
with Keeler in the investigations of numerous criminal suspects. In 1935,

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Wilson designed and built a much improved recording galvanograph (Trovillo,

1939).

m. Chester Darrow
In n1932, he added a skin resistance measurement to early polygraphs
and experimented with a galvanometer himself, but reportedly decided to forego
its use in favor of cardiographic-type response measurement (Trovillo, 1939).

n. Leonarde Keelers
Keeler was credited for adding the EDR component in the existing polygraph
that records respiration, and relative blood pressure as early as 1949 (Reid &
Inbau, 1977).

V. OTHER SIGNIFICANT EVENTS AND PERSONALITIES IN THE HISTORY

OF LIE DETECTION

a. The Word Association Test

The application of psychology in the detection of deception in a form of
word association test was conceptualized in 1879. Sir Francis Galton, was the
first to conduct experiments about the idea of word association. These
procedure involves presenting numerous words that are irrelevant and inserted
with words that are pertinent to the issue under investigation. The examinee is
directed to call out the word that first comes to his mind. It supposed that a
guilty examinee will indicate obvious mental conflict that becomes observable
when answering the words related to the crime and words that have no
connection to crime under investigation. In 1908, Hugo Munsterberg prescribe
the use of word association test in a forensic application to determine guilt
(Trovillo, 1939).

b. The Ink Polygraph

Sir James Mackenzie a famous English heart surgeon, was credited for
the invention of Ink polygraph. The machine based sphygmograph was designed
not for lie detection but for medical use. The instrument record tracings of the
radial, jugular and hepatic pulse. He first described the instrument in an article
entitled the ink polygraph in 1908 (Reis & Inbau, 1977; https//hekint.org.)

c. The Cardio-Pneumo-Pscyhogram or Breadboard Polygraph

John Larson was credited for developing the cardio-pneumo-psychogram
that was used in Berkeley police department. The instrument is capable of
continuously recording blood pressure, pulse and respiration during
examination. It was assembled in portable form and was used successfully in
the test of criminal suspects. Larson polygraph takes about half an hour to set
up. He also designed a relevant irrelevant interviewing techniques which he
used in the investigation of criminal cases.

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d. Keeler Polygraph
The Keeler polygraph was originally manufactured by the Western
Electro-Mechanical Company. It had three tambours: a cardiosphygmograph, a
pneumograph, and a second pneumograph or a muscular movement device.
The kymograph could be adjusted to run the chart paper to 3, 6, or 12 inches
per minute. Keeler polygraph was called Emotograph, it is more advance than
the breadboard polygraph of John Larson.

e. Relevant Irrelevant Technique

The first widely used anxiety-based polygraph testing technique was
developed by Leonarde Keeler. The Relevant Irrelevant Technique use crime-
relevant questions which refers to the issue being testes and crime irrelevant
questions which are not related to the case. Crime-irrelevant questions are
designed to control for interpersonal differences. Physiological data is analyzed
by clinical approach in which the reaction to crime-relevant question is
compared to the reaction of crime irrelevant question. The theory of Relevant
Irrelevant Test suggests that physiological response are produced by anxiety of
being detected when lying (Raskin and Honts, 2002). Examinee is pronounced
lying if the reaction to the crime-relevant questions is greater than the crime-
irrelevant questions. This rationale is considered very simplistic and naïve
(Podleny and Raskin, 1977). The Relevant and Irrelevant technique has been
criticized as an inappropriate polygraph technique that should not be used
(Honts, 1991; Iacono, 2008; Lykken, 1998; Raskin, 1986; Raskin and Honts,
2002, Saxe, 1994).

f. Peak of Tension Test

There are two types of peak of Tension test, Known solution POT (KSPOT)
and Searching Peak of Tension. A known Solution POT is used to determine if
the examinee has knowledge of details of a crime that have not been disclosed
to anyone. It is presumed that only the perpetrator, the victim or the
investigator have knowledge about the details of the crime being investigated. A
Searching POT (SPOT) is used to determine details of a crime that are not
known to officials, such as the location of an unrecovered body, but would be
known to a participant in the crime. The chart is evaluated by simply
identifying the point in the tracings where physiological arousal has peaked.
These tests are not generally used to determine truth or deception, but rather to
assist in the investigation or interrogation (Krapohl and Sturm, 2002).

g. Berkeley Psychograph
Captain Clarence D. Lee of Berkeley Police Department designed the Berkeley
psychograph similar to Keeler polygraph. The instrument consists of a chart
drive recording unit, a pneumograph, a cardiograph, and a stimulus signal unit
(Matte, 1996).

h. Reid Polygraph
John E Reid devised an instrument capable of recording muscular
activity along with changes in blood pressure, pulse, respiration, and GSR.

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 FORENSIC 5: LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

i. The Reid Control Question Technique (General Question Test)

The Reid Control Question Technique was introduced in 1947. It uses
control question as basic response indicator. The technique is consist of six
types of testing procedure which include the Straight-Through Test, Card test,
Mixed Question Test, Silent Answer Test, Yes Test and the Guilt Complex test,
the methods of chart analysis is called Global Analysis or Clinical Approach, in
which the physiological response are evaluated as a whole. Subject’s behavior
and facts of the case is also considered in determining the test outcome (Vrij
and Ganis, 2014). In 1953, the Guilt Complex Test was introduced by John
Reid, this technique was designed to test the overly responsive polygraph
subject (Reid & Inbau, 1977, Matte, 1996).

j. Backster Zone Comparison Test

The Zone Comparison Test was developed by Cleeve Backster in 1960. The
technique has three zone, green, red and black which represents the types of
polygraph questions. The Backster Zone Comparison Test is consist of three
testing format, the Backster SKY, Backster Exploratory and Backster You-
Phase. Backster introduced and incorporated a sacrifice relevant questions,
earlier-in-life comparison question and symptomatic question to the existing
relevant irrelevant test format. The Backster Zone Comparison Tests were
developed as modifications of the original comparison question technique of
John Reid (Nelson, 2013).

k. Numerical Scoring of Polygraph Data

Cleeve Backster was credited for the introduction of numerical scoring
approach in the evaluation of polygraph charts. The procedure involves
assigning numerical scores on the degree of physiological response observed in
relevant and comparison questions. Backster was also credited for developing a
The Uniform Chart makings. He founded the Backster School of Lie Detection in
San Diego, California (Matte, 1996; Nelson 2013).

l. Comparison Question Test

The Comparison Question Test was originated from the Reid Control
Question Technique of John Reid. It was developed by Dr. David Raskin in
1970s. This technique use relevant questions that specifically referring to the
crime and comparison questions that is same in nature of the crime but
unrelated by time, place or category. Comparison questions is believed to
produce stronger reaction than the relevant questions on innocent examinee.
Adversely, guilty subject will react strongly in the relevant questions (Vrij &
Ganis, 2014). Theory of Comparison Question Test suggest that, there are
changes in measured physiology load on one group of questions or the other, as
a function of deception or truth-telling to the relevant questions (Handler,
2018).

m. Guilty Knowledge Test

Dr. David T. Lykken, professor at University of Minnesota, Medical
School developed and introduced the Guilty Knowledge test in 1960.

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