Heaven’s light is our guide
Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology
Experiment No: 10
Experiment Name: Microstructure Study of Welded Joint
Course No: MSE 2104
Course Title: Metallography Sessional
Name: Ratul Islam Antor
ID: 1813020
Group No: 4 (A)
Group Members’ ID: 1813019
1813021
1813022
1813023
1813024
Date of performance: 23-11-2020
Date of submission: 07-12-2020
Objectives:
1. To learn what welding joint is & its types
2. To learn the microstructure & different zones of the welded joint
3. To learn different welding defects & their microstructures
4. To learn what causes these welding defects & how welding defects can be avoided.
Theory:
A welding joint is a point where two or more pieces of metal are joined together. They are formed
by welding two or more workpieces according to a particular geometry. They are joined by using
high heat to melt the parts together and allowing them to cool, causing fusion. In addition to
melting the base metal, a filler material is typically added to the joint to form a pool of molten
material (the weld pool) that cools to form a joint that, based on weld configuration. Pressure may
also be used in conjunction with heat or by itself to produce a weld.
Welding is typically distinct from the lower temperature metal joining techniques such as brazing
and soldering where base metal does not need to be melted.
Welds can be geometrically prepared in many different ways. The five basic types of weld joints
are the Butt joint, Lap joint, Corner joint, Edge joint, and Tee joint.
Butt Joint: A butt joint is a joint where two pieces of metal are placed together in the same plane,
and the side of each metal is joined by welding. It is the most common type of joint.
Lap Joint: Lap welding joints are essentially a modified version of the butt joint. They are formed
when two pieces of metal are placed in an overlapping pattern on top of each other. They are most
commonly used to joint two pieces with differing thicknesses together.
Tee Joint: Tee joints are formed when two pieces intersect at a 90° angle. This results in the edges
coming together in the center of a plate or component in a ‘T’ shape. Tee joints are considered to
be a type of fillet weld, and they can also be formed when a tube/pipe is welded onto a base plate.
Corner Joints: Corner joints have similarities to tee welding joints. However, the difference is
the location of where the metal is positioned. In the tee joint, it’s placed in the middle, whereas
corner joints meet in the ‘corner’ in either an open or closed manner - forming an ‘L’ shape.
Edge Joints: In an edge joint, the metal surfaces are placed together so that the edges are even.
One or both plates may be formed by bending them at an angle.
After welding, a number of distinct regions can be identified in the weld area. These zones differ
from the base material and among themselves in chemical composition, structure, physical and
mechanical properties, micro-stressing, and macro-stressing. A welded joint made by fusion
welding exhibits a zone containing the weld metal, a fusion zone, a heat-affected zone, and a zone
where the properties and structure of the base metal remain unchanged.
The fusion zone is strictly the portion of materials that have undergone melting. In the heat-affected
zone, the base metal does not undergo melting; however, it is the area that had its microstructure
and properties altered by the weld. And base metal is the metal or alloy that is welded.
The fusion zone and heat affected zone of welded joints can exhibit very different mechanical
properties from that of the unaffected base metal as well as between themselves. For example, the
fusion zone exhibits a typical cast structure while the heat affected zone will exhibit a heat-treated
structure involving phase transformation, recrystallization and grain growth. The unaffected base
metal, on the other hand, will show the original structure with a slight grain growth.
Microstructure of different Welding Zones is shown below:
Any unacceptable deviation with respect to set technical and design requirements in any process
can be termed as defects. Defects are common in any type of manufacturing process as well as in
welding. Welding Defects can be defined as the irregularities formed in the given weld metal due
to wrong welding process or incorrect welding pattern. The defect may differ from the desired
weld bead shape, size, and intended quality. It may occur either outside or inside the weld metal.
Welding defects can be classified into two types as external and internal defects.
External Welding Defects:
• Welding Cracks,
• Undercut,
• Porosity,
• Overlaps,
• Crater,
• Underfill,
• Spatters,
• Excessive penetration,
• Arc Strike etc.
Internal Welding Defects:
• Incomplete penetration,
• Slag inclusion,
• Internal porosity,
• Internal crack,
• Incomplete fusion.
External defects are found on the surface itself and can sometimes be recognized by naked eyes
while internal defects exist in the material at some depth and are hidden from naked eyes.
Some common Welding Defects:
The various types of external & internal defects with their causes and remedies are briefed below:
Weld Crack: This is the most unwanted defect of all the other welding defects. Welding cracks
can be present at the surface, inside of the weld material or at the heat affected zones.
Crack can be classified base on temperatures. They are – hot crack & cold crack. Hot crack is more
prominent during crystallization of weld joints where temperature can rise more than 100000 C.
And the other type of crack occurs at the end of the welding process where the temperature is quite
low. Sometimes cold crack is visible several hours after welding or even after few days.
Causes of Weld Cracks:
• The main cause of the weld crack is the poor ductility of the base metal.
• The presence of the residual stress can also cause a crack on the weld metal.
• The rigidity of the joint which makes it difficult to expand or contract the metals
during welding process may also cause cracks.
• If there is high content on sulfur and carbon then also the cracks may appear.
• And if hydrogen is used as a shielding gas while welding ferrous materials, this
type of external defects may appear.
Remedies for Weld Cracks:
• Using appropriate materials may decrease the chances of crack.
• Preheating the weld and reducing the cooling speed joint helps in reducing crack.
• By reducing the gap between the weld joints by using reasonable weld joints.
• By removing impurities etc.
A microstructure of the welding crack defect is added below for proper understanding.
Undercut: When the base metal melts away from the weld zone, then a groove is formed in shape
of a notch. This type of defect is known as Undercut. It reduces the fatigue strength of the joint.
Causes of Undercut:
• If the arc voltage is very high then this defect may occur.
• If we use the wrong electrode or if the angle of the electrode is wrong, then also this
type of defect may form.
• Using a large electrode may also cause undercut.
• High electrode speed is also one of the reasons for this type of defects.
Remedies for Undercut:
• By reduce the arc length or lower the arc voltage.
• By keep the electrode angle from 30 to 45 degree with the standing leg.
• The diameter of the electrode should be small.
• Reducing the travel speed of the electrode is preferable.
A radiographic image of the Undercut defect is given below:
Porosity: Porosity is the condition in which gas or small bubbles gets trapped in the welded zone.
Causes of Porosity:
• It occurs when the electrode is not coated properly.
• Using a longer arc may also increase the chances of porosity.
• High welding current may also cause porosity.
• Rust or oil on the welding surface is also the reason of this type of defects.
Remedies for porosity:
• Proper selection of the electrode is a must to avoid this defect.
• Low the welding current is preferable.
• Using smaller arc also helps to avoid this type of defects.
• And last but not the least, removing rust or oil from the surface of the welded joint and
using a proper technique will greatly help to avoid porosity.
A microstructure (left) of the porosity defect is added below and then how the surface looks like
on higher magnification is shown in the right side.
Overlap: When the weld face extends beyond the weld toe, then this defect occurs. In this
condition the weld metal rolls and forms an angle less than 90 degrees.
Causes of Overlap:
• The main reason of this type of defects is improper welding technique.
• Using large electrodes may also occur overlap.
• High welding current is also the reason of this kind of defects.
Remedies for Overlap:
• Using a proper technique for welding is a must to avoid overlap.
• Smaller electrode may also be used.
• And last, low welding current is preferable.
A microstructure of the Overlap welding defect is given below:
Spatter: Spatters as welding defects are small globular weld metal droplets expelled during
welding process and stuck to the base metal surface.
Causes of Spatter:
• High Welding current can cause this type of defects.
• Damp Electrodes are also the reason.
• The longer the arc the more the chances of getting this defect.
• Improper gas shields may also cause this defect.
Remedies for Spatter:
• Reducing the arc length and welding current will greatly help to avoid this.
• Dry electrodes should be used.
• Increasing the plate angle and using proper gas shielding is preferable.
A microstructure of Spatter welding defects is added below:
Slag Inclusion: If there is any slag in the weld, then it affects the toughness and metal weldability
of the given material. This decreases the structural performance of the weld material. Slag is
formed on the surface of the weld or between the welding turns.
Causes of Slag Inclusion:
• Slag is formed if the welding current density is very small, as it does not provide the
required amount of heat for melting the metal surface.
• If the welding speed is too fast then also slag may occur.
• If the edge of the weld surface is not cleaned properly then also this defect may cause.
• Improper welding angle and travel rate of welding rod are also the reason of this defect.
Remedies for Slag Inclusion:
• The current density must be high to avoid slag.
• By adjusting the welding speed so that the slag and weld pool do not mix with each other.
• The weld edges must be cleaned and the slags of previous weld layers must be removed.
• And there must have a proper electrode angle and travel rate.
A microstructure of the Slag Inclusion welding defect is given below:
Incomplete Penetration: These defects occur only in the butt welds where the groove of the metal
is not filled completely. It is also called as incomplete penetration defect.
Causes of an Incomplete penetration are:
• Less deposition of the weld metal mainly causes this type of defects.
• Use of improper size of the electrode may also cause incomplete penetration.
• And improper welding technique is also one of the reasons.
Remedies for Incomplete penetration are:
• More deposition of the weld metal may be used to avoid incomplete penetration.
• A proper size of the electrode should be used.
• By using a proper welding technique, this type of defects can be avoided.
A microstructure of the Incomplete Penetration is added below:
Incomplete Fusion: This type of welding defects arise mainly due to incomplete fusion between
the weld metal with the base metal. Lack of fusion is also known as Cold lapping or cold shuts.
Lack of fusion is an internal welding defect, but it can occur on the external surface too.
Causes of Incomplete fusion:
• Low heat input/Low Arc current is the main reason of this type of defects.
• Wrong electrode diameter with respect to the material thickness may also cause this.
• Oxide or Scale in weld preparation may cause lack of fusion.
• Large Root Face/Small root gap/Excessive root misalignment are also the reasons.
Remedies for Incomplete Fusion:
• Maintaining Correct root gaps is a must to avoid incomplete fusion.
• High current or heat input can reduce the chance of causing this type of defects.
• And last, edge preparation should be improved.
Here is a microstructure of Incomplete Fusion:
There exist a few other welding defects too. They are -
• Shrinkage cavity
• Blow-Holes
• Warpage
• Excessive penetration
• Excess weld Metal
• Burn-Through
• Linear Misalignment
• Irregular Width
• Root Concavity
• Stray Arc
• Torn Surface
• Grinding Mark
• Under-flushing
• Chipping Mark etc.
Microstructure of few of these welding defects are given below:
Fig: Shrinkage Cavity
Fig: Linear Misalignment Fig: Stray Arc
Fig: Excess Weld Metal
Fig: Burn Through Fig: Uneven Weld Bead
Fig: Excessive Penetration
Conclusion:
Welding is an essential component of many industries such as the automotive industry, the
construction industry, the aviation industry, and more. Without this type of metal work, so many
things, including many buildings, gates, and fences, small kitchen appliances, vehicles - and even
space travel - would not exist. It keeps our world together. From cars to planes and bridges to
buildings, welding keeps our economy moving. It's the backbone of our world.
Now, as welding is a key part of the production process and can be fundamental to making sure a
metal structure being built is fit for purpose, practical knowledge of welding can, therefore, helps
a mechanical engineer understand the pitfalls in the production of their design. That’s why the
microstructure study of the welded joint is so much important.
References:
• www.theweldingmaster.com
• www.uti.edu
• www.whatispiping.com
• www.technoweld.com.au
• www.slideshare.net
• www.researchgate.net
• www.link.springer.com
