Automatic Control Systems

2020handout 3: Concept of Transfer Functions

Transfer Functions
In control theory, transfer functions are commonly used to characterise the input-
output relationships of components or systems that can be described by linear, time-
invariant, differential equations.

The Transfer Function of a linear, time-invariant, differential equation system is

defined as the ratio of the Laplace Transform of the output (response function) to
the Laplace Transform of the input (driving function) under the assumption that all
initial conditions are zero.

The Transfer Function concept allows separation of the input, system, and output
into three separate and distinct parts. The Transfer Function concept also allows us
to algebraically combine mathematical representations of subsystems to yield a
total system representation.

Let us begin by writing a general nth-order, linear, time-invariant differential

equation,

where c(t) is the output, r(t) is the input, and the an’s, bm’s, and the form of the
differential equation represent the system.

Taking the Laplace Transform of both sides,

This equation is a purely algebraic expression. If we assume that all initial

conditions are zero, the equation reduces to

(ansn + an-1sn-1 + ... + a0)C(s) = (bmsm + bm-1sm-1 + ... + m0)R(s)

Now we form the ratio, output transform [C(s)] divided by input transform [R(s)]:

author: uChiyabu Page 1

Notice that the equation above separates the output, C(s), the input, R(s), and the
system, which is the ratio of polynomials in s on the right.
We call the ratio, G(s), the transfer function and evaluate it with zero initial
conditions.

The transfer function can be represented as a block diagram with the input on the
left, the output on the right, and the system transfer function inside the block.

input transfer function output

Notice that the denominator of the transfer function is identical with the
characteristic polynomial of the differential equation.
We can find the output, C(s) by using
C(s) = G(s)R(s)

Properties of Transfer Functions

1. A Transfer Function is defined only for a linear system, and strictly, only for time-
invariant systems.
2. A Transfer Function between an input variable and an output variable of a system
is defined as the ratio of the Laplace Transform of the output to the Laplace
Transform of the input.
3. All initial conditions of the system are assumed to be zero.
4. A Transfer Function is independent of input excitation.

Example: Find the transfer function represented by

Solution:

Taking the Laplace Transform of both sides, assuming zero initial conditions we have

sC(s) + 2C(s) = R(s)

The transfer function, G(s), is G(s) = =

author: uChiyabu Page 2

Electrical Network Transfer Functions

The Transfer Function can be applied to the mathematical modelling of electric

circuits including passive networks and operational amplifier circuits.
Equivalent circuits for the electric networks may consist of passive linear
components: resistors, capacitors, and inductors.

Voltage-current, voltage-charge, and impedance relationships for capacitors, resistors, and inductors

Note: v(t) = V (volts), i(t) in A (amps), q(t) in Q (coulombs), C in F (farads), R in Ω (ohms),

G in 1/Ω (mhos), L in H (henries)

In the analysis we combine electrical components into circuits, decide on the input
and output, and find the transfer function. Our guiding principles are Kirchhoff’s
laws. We sum voltages around loops or sum currents at nodes, depending on which
technique involves the least effort in algebraic manipulation, and then equate the
result to zero. From these relationships we can write the differential equations for
the circuit. Then we can take the Laplace Transforms of the differential equations
and finally solve for the Transfer Function.

Example: Transfer Function – single loop via the Differential Equation

Problem: Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage, VC(s), to the input
voltage, V(s) in the figure below.

RLC network

author: uChiyabu Page 3

Solution
In any problem, the designer must first decide what the input and output should be.
From the question, we are to treat the capacitor voltage as the output and the
applied voltage as the input.
Summing the voltages around the loop, assuming zero initial conditions, yields the
integro-differential equation for this network as

Changing variables from current to charge using i(t) = dq(t) = dt yields

From the voltage-charge relationship for a capacitor, q(t) = CvC(t)

Substituting for q(t) yields

Taking the Laplace Transform assuming zero initial conditions, rearranging terms,
and simplifying yields
(LCs2 + RCs + 1)VC(s) = V(s)

Solving for the transfer function, VC(s) / V(s), we obtain

The RLC electrical network has been transformed into

Block diagram of series RLC electrical network

author: uChiyabu Page 4

Step-by-Step General Solution

1. Take the Laplace transform of the equations according to the circuit elements
assuming zero initial conditions

For the capacitor V(s) = I(s) / Cs

For the resistor V(s) = RI(s)
For the inductor V(s) = LsI(s)

2. Now the transfer function is the impedance V(s) / I(s) = Z(s)

From .[sum of impedances] * I(s) = [sum of applied voltages]

Z(s) = Ls + R + 1/Cs

3. Instead of writing the differential equation first and then taking the Laplace
Transform, we can draw the transformed circuit and obtain the Laplace transform
of the differential equation simply by applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the
transformed circuit.

Laplace-transformed network

Summary of Steps
1. Redraw the original network showing all time variables, such as v(t), i(t), and
vC(t), as Laplace transforms V(s), I(s), and VC(s), respectively.
2. Replace the component values with their impedance values. This replacement is
similar to the case of dc circuits, where we represent resistors with their
resistance values.

author: uChiyabu Page 5

Transfer Function for Series Circuit

General Series Circuit

Transfer Function
E I
1/Z(s)

Z(s) = L1s + L2s + R1 + R2 + 1/C1s + 1/C2s

Transfer Function for Parallel Circuit

General Parallel Circuit

Transfer Function
E I
1/Z(s)

1
Z(s) =
(1/L1s) + (1/L2s) + (1/R1) + (1/R2) + (C1s) + (C2s)

Example: Determine the equation relating the output voltage E2 to the input voltage
E1 in the circuit below.

author: uChiyabu Page 6

Solution:

Z1(s) = 1 / [1/R1 + C1s] Z2(s) = R2

Total impedance Z(s) = Z1(s) + Z2(s) = (1 / [1/R1 + C1s]) + R2

Transfer Function

E1 R2(1 + R1C1s) E2
R1 + R2 + R1R2C1s

It can be shown that E2/E1 = R2(1 + R1C1s) / [R1 + R2 + R1R2C1s]

Thus the Transfer Function G(s) = R2(1 + R1C1s) / [R1 + R2 + R1R2C1s]

Operational Amplifiers

An operational amplifier is an electronic amplifier used as a basic building block to

implement transfer functions.

operational amplifier inverting operational amplifier

Characteristics of Operational Amplifiers

1. Differential input, v2(t) - v1(t)
2. High input impedance, Zi = ∞ (ideal)
3. Low output impedance, Zo = 0 (ideal)
4. High constant gain amplification, A = ∞ (ideal)

The output, vo(t), is given by vo(t) = A[v2(t) - v1(t)]

Inverting Operational Amplifier

If v2(t) is grounded, the amplifier is called an inverting operational amplifier.

For the inverting operational amplifier, we have vo(t) = -Av1(t)

author: uChiyabu Page 7

Inverting Operational Amplifier for Transfer Function Realisation

If the input impedance to the amplifier is high, then by Kirchhoff’s current law

Ia(s) = 0 and I1(s) = -I2(s)

Also, since the gain A is large, v1(t) ≈ 0.

Thus, I1(s) = Vi(s) / Z1(s), and -I2(s) = -Vo(s) / Z2(s).

Equating the two currents, Vo(s) / Z2(s) = -Vi(s) / Z1(s), or

the Transfer Function of the inverting operational amplifier configured as shown
above is

Example: Find the transfer function, Vo(s) / Vi(s), for the circuit given below

Solution

After simplifying Z2(s) / Z1(s) we have

author: uChiyabu Page 8

Translational Mechanical System Transfer Functions

Mechanical systems parallel electrical networks to such an extent that there are
analogies between electrical and mechanical components and variables. Mechanical
systems, like electrical networks, have three passive, linear components:
The spring and the mass are energy-storage elements. The viscous damper
dissipates energy. The two energy-storage elements are analogous to the two
electrical energy-storage elements, the inductor and capacitor. The energy dissipater
is analogous to electrical resistance.

Force-velocity, force-displacement, and impedance translational relationships for

springs, viscous dampers, and mass

K = spring constant, fv = coefficient of viscous friction, and M = mass

The mechanical system requires just one differential equation, called the equation of
motion, to describe it.

Procedure for Determining Mechanical System Transfer Function

Assume a positive direction of motion to the right. Using our assumed direction of
positive motion,

1. We draw a free-body diagram, placing on the body all forces that act on the body
either in the direction of motion or opposite to it.
2. We use Newton’s law to form a differential equation of motion by summing the
forces and setting the sum equal to zero.
3. Assuming zero initial conditions, we take the Laplace transform of the differential
equation, separate the variables, and arrive at the transfer function.

author: uChiyabu Page 9

Example: Find the transfer function, X(s)/F(s) for the system below

Solution
1. Draw the free-body diagram

Free-body diagram of mass, spring, transformed free-body diagram

and damper system

Place on the mass all forces felt by the mass. We assume the mass is travelling
toward the right. Thus, only the applied force points to the right; all other forces
impede the motion and act to oppose it. Hence, the spring, viscous damper, and the
force due to acceleration point to the left.

2. Now write the differential equation of motion using Newton’s law to sum to zero
all of the forces shown on the mass

3. Taking the Laplace transform, assuming zero initial conditions

Ms2X(s) + fvsX(s) + KX(s) = F(s) or (Ms2 + fvs + K)X(s) = F(s)

Solving for the transfer function yields

block diagram

General form of equation: [Sum of impedances] * X(s) = [Sum of applied forces]

In mechanical systems, the number of equations of motion required is equal to the

number of linearly independent motions. Linear independence implies that a
point of motion in a system can still move if all other points of motion are held still.
Another name for the number of linearly independent motions is the number of
degrees of freedom.

author: uChiyabu Page 10

In a mechanical system with two degrees of freedom, one point of motion can be
held still while the other point of motion moves under the influence of an applied
force.
In order to work such a problem, we draw the free-body diagram for each point of
motion and then use superposition. For each free-body diagram we begin by holding
all other points of motion still and finding the forces acting on the body due only to
its own motion. Then we hold the body still and activate the other points of motion
one at a time, placing on the original body the forces created by the adjacent
motion.

Using Newton’s law, we sum the forces on each body and set the sum to zero. The
result is a system of simultaneous equations of motion. As Laplace transforms, these
equations are then solved for the output variable of interest in terms of the input
variable from which the transfer function is evaluated.

Example: Find the transfer function, X2(s) =F(s), for the system below

Two degrees-of-freedom translational mechanical system

Solution

Considering M1 only

Forces on M1 forces on M1 all forces on M1

due only to motion of M1 due only to motion of M2

author: uChiyabu Page 11

Considering M2 only

Forces on M2 due only forces on M2 due only all forces on M2

to motion of M2 to motion of M1

The Laplace transform of the equations of motion can now be written

[M1s2(Fv1 + fv3)s + (K1 + K2)]X1(s) – (fv3 s + K2)X2(s) = F(s)

- (fv3 s + K2)X1(s) + [M2s2 + (fv2 + fv3)s + (K2 + K3)]X2(s) = 0

From this, the transfer function, X2(s)/F(s), is

where

block diagram

author: uChiyabu Page 12

Equations of Motion by Inspection

Writing equations of motion of a three-degrees-of-freedom mechanical network

by inspection, without drawing the free-body diagram

Example: Write, but do not solve, the equations of motion for the mechanical
network below

The system has three degrees of freedom, since each of the three masses can be
moved independently while the others are held still.

For M1

For M2

author: uChiyabu Page 13

For M3

M1 has two springs, two viscous dampers, and mass associated with its motion.
There is one spring between M1 and M2 and one viscous damper between M1 and
M3.

For M1: [M1s2 + (fv1 + fv3)s + (K1 + K2)]X1(s) - K2X2(s) - fv3sX3(s) = 0

For M2 : - K2X1(s) + [M2s2 + (fv2 + fv4)s + K2]X2(s) - fv4sX3(s) = F(s)

For M3: -fv3sX1(s) - fv4sX2(s) + [M3s2 + (fv3 + fv4)s]X3(s) = 0

We can solve these equations for any displacement, X1(s); X2(s); or X3(s), or transfer
function.

author: uChiyabu Page 14

Mechanical Components

Series Mechanical Elements

mechanical elements in series

In determining inertia force the acceleration of a mass is always taken with respect
to the earth.
For series mechanical elements, the force f is equal to the summation of the forces
acting on each individual component, and each element undergoes the same
displacement.

Thus f = (K1 + K2 + C1s + C2s + Ms2)x

where x and f are measured from a convenient reference point.

The equivalent impedance for mechanical elements in series is

Z(s) = K1 + K2 + C1s + C2s + Ms2

Transfer Function
f x
1/Z(s)

author: uChiyabu Page 15

Parallel Mechanical Elements

mechanical elements in parallel

For parallel mechanical elements, the force f is transmitted through each element. In
addition the deflection x is seen to be the sum of the individual deflections of each
element.

Thus x = (1 / K1 + 1 / K2 + 1 / C1s + 1 / C2s) * f

or f= 1 * x = Zx
1 / K1 + 1 / K2 + 1 / C1s + 1 / C2s

The equivalent impedance for mechanical elements in parallel is

Z(s) = 1
1 / K1 + 1 / K2 + 1 / C1s + 1 / C2s

Transfer Function
f x
1/Z(s)

A necessary condition for parallel elements is that the force be transmitted through
each element. Springs and dampers satisfy this condition because the force is the
same on both sides. However, this is not the case for a mass such as the one in (a)
in the figure below, because the difference in forces acting on both sides of a mass
is utilised in acceleration. Thus, a mass located between other elements cannot be in
parallel with them.

author: uChiyabu Page 16

 mechanical system

A mass can be in parallel only if it is the last element as shown below.

parallel mass-spring-damper combination

For this system, the displacement x is

x = (x – y) + (y – z) + z = (1/K + 1/Cs + 1/Ms2) * f

author: uChiyabu Page 17

Rotational Mechanical System Transfer Functions

Rotational mechanical systems are handled the same way as translational

mechanical systems, except that torque replaces force and angular displacement
replaces translational displacement. The mechanical components for rotational
systems are the same as those for translational systems, except that the
components undergo rotation instead of translation.

Note: K = spring constant, D = coefficient of viscous friction, and J = moment of inertia

Writing the equations of motion for rotational systems is similar to writing them for
translational systems; the only difference is that the free-body diagram consists of
torques rather than forces.

We obtain the torques using superposition.

1. We rotate a body while holding all other points still and place on its free-body
diagram all torques due to the body’s own motion.
2. Then, holding the body still, we rotate adjacent points of motion one at a time
and add the torques due to the adjacent motion to the free-body diagram.
3. The process is repeated for each point of motion.
4. For each free-body diagram, these torques are summed and set equal to zero to
form the equations of motion.

author: uChiyabu Page 18

Example:
Find the transfer function, θ2(s)/T(s), for the rotational system shown below. The
rod is supported by bearings at either end and is undergoing torsion. A torque is
applied at the left, and the displacement is measured at the right.

Solution:
1. Obtain the schematic from the physical system. Even though torsion occurs
throughout the rod, we approximate the system by assuming that the torsion acts
like a spring concentrated at one particular point in the rod, with an inertia J1 to
the left and an inertia J2 to the right. We also assume that the damping inside the
flexible shaft is negligible.

There are two degrees of freedom, since each inertia can be rotated while the
other is held still. Hence, it will take two simultaneous equations to solve the
system.

2. Draw a free-body diagram of J1, using superposition.

With J2 held still

(a) shows the torques on J1 if J2 is held still and J1 rotated. (b) shows the torques
on J1 if J1 is held still and J2 rotated. Finally, (c) is the final free-body diagram for
J1. The same process is repeated in Figure 2.24 for J2.

author: uChiyabu Page 19

 With J1 held still

Summing torques, respectively we obtain the equations of motion,

(J1s2 + D1s + K.)θ1(s) - Kθ2(s) = T(s)

-Kθ1(s) + (J2s2 + D2s + K)θ2(s) = 0

Required transfer function is θ2(s)/T(s) = K / ∆

where

General Form:

Block Diagram

author: uChiyabu Page 20

Analogy between Electrical and Mechanical Control Systems

An electric circuit that is analogous to a system from another discipline is called an

electric circuit analogue. Analogues can be obtained by comparing the describing
equations, such as the equations of motion of a mechanical system, with either
electrical mesh or nodal equations.
When compared with mesh equations, the resulting electrical circuit is called a series
analogue. When compared with nodal equations, the resulting electrical circuit is
called a parallel analogue.

Series Analogue

Example:

mechanical system desired electrical representation series analogue

Parameters for Series Analogue

mechanical control system electrical control system

mechanical equivalent electrical equivalent
component symbol component symbol
mass M inductor M henries
viscous damper fv resistor fv ohms
spring K capacitor 1/K farads
applied force f(t) voltage source f(t)
velocity v(t) mesh current v(t)

Translational Mechanical System Equation: (Ms2 + fvs + K)X(s) = F(s)

From Kirchhoff’s Laws for the series RLC network: (Ls + R + 1/Cs)I(s) = E(s)

Electrical analogue

author: uChiyabu Page 21

Example: Draw a series analogue for the mechanical system below

Solution:

Electrical analogue

author: uChiyabu Page 22

Parallel Analogue
A system can also be converted to an equivalent parallel analogue.

Example:

mechanical system desired electrical representation parallel analogue

Parameters for Parallel Analogue

mechanical control system electrical control system

mechanical equivalent electrical equivalent
component symbol component symbol
mass M inductor M henries
viscous damper fv resistor fv ohms
spring K capacitor 1/K farads
applied force f(t) voltage source f(t)
velocity v(t) mesh current v(t)

From Kirchhoff’s Laws for the series RLC network

(Cs + 1/R + 1/Ls)E(s) = I(s)

Analogous Quantities in a Direct (Force-Voltage) Analogue

translational force mass viscous damping spring displacement velocity
mechanical coefficient constant
system f M B K x á= sx
electrical voltage inductance resistance reciprocal of charge current
system capacitance
E L R 1/C Q I = sQ

Analogous Quantities in an Inverse (Force-Current) Analogue

translational force velocity spring damping mass

mechanical constant coefficient
system f á K B M
electrical current voltage reciprocal of reciprocal of capacitance
system inductance resistance
I E 1/L 1/R C

author: uChiyabu Page 23