TRUSS

A truss is a set of beams connected in a series of triangles in a way that each of the component beams
will be loaded in pure tension or compression, with no bending or shear load. To achieve that, the joints
between the beams are not rigid, but pin-jointed, with the connection free to rotate.

In order that members of a trus be subjected only to axial forces (compression or tension), the following two
conditions must be met:

1. Members meeting at a joint must be connected together by frictionless hinges

2. All loads must be applied only at joints and not directly on the members

ARCH
An arch is a vertical curved structure that spans an elevated space and may or may not support the
weight above it, or in case of a horizontal arch like an arch dam, the hydrostatic pressure against it. Arch
carries most of the load axially with bending moment greatly reduced due to the curvature of the arch.

An arch is a pure compression form. It can span a large area by resolving forces into compressive
stresses and, in turn eliminating tensile stresses. This is sometimes referred to as arch action. As the
forces in the arch are carried to the ground, the arch will push outward at the base, called thrust. As the
rise, or height of the arch decreases, the outward thrust increases. In order to maintain arch action and
prevent the arch from collapsing, the thrust needs to be restrained, either with internal ties or external
bracing, such as abutments.

Types of Arches

The most common true arch configurations are the fixed arch, the two-hinged arch, and the three-
hinged arch.

1. The fixed arch is most often used in reinforced concrete bridge and tunnel construction, where the
spans are short. Because it is subject to additional internal stress caused by thermal expansion and
contraction, this type of arch is considered to be statically indeterminate. it is indeterminate to the
third degree.

2. The two-hinged arch is most often used to bridge long spans. This type of arch has pinned
connections at the base. Unlike the fixed arch, the pinned base is able to rotate, allowing the structure to
move freely and compensate for the thermal expansion and contraction caused by changes in outdoor
temperature. However, this can result in additional stresses, so the two-hinged arch is also statically
indeterminate, although not to the degree of the fixed arch. It is indeterminate to the first degree, and
although it is not as rigid as a fixed arch, it is somewhat insensitive to settlement. We could make this
structure statically determinate by replacing one of the hinges with a roller. Doing so, however, would
remove the capacity of the structure to resist bending along its span, and as a result it would serve as a
curved beam, and not as an arch.
The three-hinged arch is not only hinged at its base, like the two-hinged arch, but at the mid-span as
well. The additional connection at the mid-span allows the three-hinged arch to move in two opposite
directions and compensate for any expansion and contraction. This type of arch is thus not subject to
additional stress caused by thermal change. The three-hinged arch is therefore said to be statically
determinate. It is most often used for medium-span structures, such as large building roofs. Arches,
other than three-hinged arches, experience bending moments and shear forces

Tied Arch: If two and three-hinged arches are to be constructed without the need for larger foundation
abutments and if clearance is not a problem, then the supports can be connected with a tie rod. A tied
arch allows the structure to behave as a rigid unit, since the tie rod carries the horizontal component of
thrust at the supports. It is also unaffected by relative settlement of the supports.

Shape

The parabolic arch employs the principle that when weight is uniformly applied to an arch, the internal
compression resulting from that weight will follow a parabolic profile. Of all arch types, the parabolic
arch produces the most thrust at the base, but can span the largest areas. It is commonly used in bridge
design, where long spans are needed. In particular, if the arch has a parabolic shape and it is subjected to
a uniform horizontally distributed vertical load, then only compressive forces will be resisted by the arch.
Under these conditions the arch shape is called a funicular arch because no bending or shear forces
occur within the arch.   

The catenary arch has a shape different from the parabolic curve. The shape of the curve traced by a
loose span of chain or rope, the catenary is the structurally ideal shape for a freestanding arch of
constant thickness.

Cables
Carry applied loads & develop mostly tensile stresses. Cables near the end supporting structures
experience bending moments and shear forces. A cable may be defined as the structure in pure tension
having the funicular shape of the load. As stated earlier, the cables are considered to be perfectly flexible
(no flexural stiffness) and inextensible. As they are flexible they do not resist shear force and bending
moment. It is subjected to axial tension only and it is always acting tangential to the cable at any point
along the length. the maximum tension is located at the support where the slope is maximum.