Module 1: Pre-Calculus Concepts

Unit 3 Analytic Geometry

Analytic Geometry is a branch of mathematics which investigates the relations, properties, and
measurement of solids, surfaces, lines, and angles.

3.1 Cartesian Coordinate System

The rectangular coordinate system, also called the cartesian coordinate system or the x-y coordinate
system is shown

The rectangular coordinate system consists of 4 quadrants, a horizontal axis, a vertical axis, and the origin.
The horizontal axis is usually called the x-axis, and the vertical axis is usually called the y-axis. The origin is the
point where the two axes cross. The coordinates of the origin are (0,0). The notation (x, y) is called an ordered
pair. The first coordinate (or abscissa) is known as the x-coordinate, while the second coordinate (or ordinate)
is the y-coordinate.

3.2 Distance Between Two Points

Let P1(x1,y1) and P2(x2,y2) be two points in the rectangular coordinate system. Then the distance between
these two points is given by

𝑑 = √(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )2 + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )2

Example Find the distance between (-3,5) and (-6,-8).

Solution:
Applying the distance formula, we have
𝑑 = √(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )2 + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )2 = √(−3 − (−6))2 + (5 − (−8))2
𝑑 = √(3)2 + (13)2 = √178

3.3 Division of a Line Segment

A line segment may be divided internally (when the point of division is on the line segment) or
externally (when the point of division lies on the extension). Let P1(x1,y1) and P2(x2,y2) be the endpoints of the
𝑃 𝑃
line segment and suppose 𝑘 = 𝑃 1𝑃 . Then if P(x,y) divides the line segment then
1 2

𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑘(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) and 𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑘(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )

Example The line segment from (2,5) to (7,-1) is extended a distance equal to twice its length. Find the
terminal point.
 Solution:
Let P1(2,5) and P2(7,– 1). Here k = 2, hence,
𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑘(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) = 2 + 2(7 – 2) = 12 and 𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑘(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) = 5 + 2(– 1 – 5) = – 7
Therefore, the terminal point is P(12, –7).

Midpoint Formula

A special case of the division of line segment is that where the point of division is at the middle of the line
segment. This is called the midpoint and k = ½. Hence, the midpoint formula is given below.
𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2
𝑥= and 𝑦=
2 2

3.4 Angle of Inclination and Slope of a Line

The angle of inclination of the line, L, (not parallel to the x-axis) is defined as the smallest positive
angle measured from the positive direction of the x-axis to the line L.

The slope of the line is defined as the tangent of the angle of inclination.

From the figure,

𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃, where m represents the slope of the line and  is the angle of inclination.
𝑃2 𝑀 𝑦2 −𝑥2
Then 𝑚 = =
𝑃1 𝑀 𝑥2 −𝑥1
Example Find the slope and angle of inclination of the line joining (– 1, – 5) and (7, – 4).
Solution:
Applying the formula, we have
𝑦2 −𝑥2 −4−(−5) 1
𝑚= = =
𝑥2 −𝑥1 7−(−1) 8
1
And since 𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ↔ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 → 𝜃 = 7.130
8

3.4.1 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

If two lines are parallel their slopes are equal. If two lines are perpendicular the slope of one of the
lines is the negative reciprocal of the slope of the other line.
If m1 is the slope of L1 and m2 is the slope of L2 and if:
(a) 𝐿1 ∥ 𝐿2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 (b) 𝐿1 ⊥ 𝐿2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑚1 = −1/𝑚2

y y
 Remarks:
1. Slope is positive, m > 0, if the line is leaning upward to the right.
2. The slope is negative, m < 0, if the line is leaning upward to the left.
3. Slope is zero, m = 0, if the line is horizontal.
4. Slope is not defined if the line is vertical (parallel to the y-axis)

Example 1 A line through (x, –4) and (6, 11) is parallel to the line through (2,5) and (–3,8). Find x.
Solution:
Let L1 consists of points (x, –4) and (6, 11) and L2 consists (2,5) and (–3,8). Then let m1 and m2 be the
slopes of these lines respectively. So,
11−(−4) 15 8−5 3
𝑚1 = = and 𝑚2 = =
6−𝑥 6−𝑥 −3−2 −5
15 3
Since L1  L2 then m1 = m2. Hence 6−𝑥 = −5. Thus, x = 31.

Example 2 A line through (2, –10) and (–2,y) is perpendicular to a line through (5, –5) and (–3, –7).
Determine the value of y.
Solution:
Let L1 consists of points (2, –10) and (–2,y) and L2 consists (5, –5) and (–3, –7). Then let m1 and m2 be
the slopes of these lines respectively. So,
𝑦−(−10) 𝑦+10 −7−(−5) −2 1
𝑚1 = = and 𝑚2 = = =
−2−2 −4 −3−5 −8 4
𝑦+10
Since L1 ⊥ L2 then m1 = -1/m2. Hence −4 = −4. Thus, y = 6.

3.5 Angle Between Two Lines

Let m1 be the slope of L1 and m2 be the slope of L2. Suppose  is the angle between L1 and L2 then
𝑚2 −𝑚1
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
1+𝑚2 𝑚1

Example Find the angle from the line through the points (–1,6) and (5, –2) to the line through (4, –4) and
(1,7).
Solution:
Let L1 consists of points (–1,6) and (5, –2) and L2 consists (4,–4) and (1,7). Then let m1 and m2 be the slopes
of these lines respectively. So,
−2−6 −8 4 7−(−4) 11 11
𝑚1 = = =− and 𝑚2 = = =−
5−(−1) 6 3 1−4 −3 3
Then
11 4
𝑚2 −𝑚1 − −(− ) 21 21
3 3
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = = 11 4 =− → 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (− 53) = 1800 − 21.60 = 158.40
1+𝑚2 𝑚1 1+(− 3 )(−3) 53

3.6 Straight Lines

A. General Equation of a Line

The general equation of first degree is also the general equation of the straight line. It is of the form
Ax + By + C = 0
where A, B and C are constants.
B. Standard Equation of a Line

Point-Slope Form: 𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )

Example Find the equation of the line through (5, –2) with slope 2/3.
Solution:
Using point-slope form,
𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )
2
𝑦 − (−2) = 3 (𝑥 − 5)
3𝑦 + 6 = 2𝑥 − 10 ↔ 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 16 = 0
𝒚 −𝒚
Two-Point Form: 𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏 (𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )
𝟐 𝟏

Example Find the equation of the line through (–4,4) and (6,–2).
Solution:
Applying the two-point form,
𝒚 −𝒚
𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝟐 𝟏 (𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )
𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏
−2−4
𝑦 − 4 = 6−(−4) (𝑥 − (−4))
−6
𝑦−4= (𝑥 + 4)
10
−2
𝑦 − 4 = 5 (𝑥 + 4)
5𝑦 − 20 = −2𝑥 − 8 ↔ 2𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 12 = 0

Slope-Intercept Form: 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒃, where b is the y-intercept.

Example Reduce the equation 4x – 3y + 6 = 0 to the slope-intercept form.

Solution:
4
4x – 3y + 6 = 0 ↔ 3𝑦 = 4x + 6 → 𝑦 = 3 𝑥 + 2
Hence, the line has slope of 4/3 and y-intercept 2.
𝒙 𝒚
Intercept Form: + 𝒃 = 𝟏, where a is the x-intercept and b is the y-intercept.
𝒂

Example Find the equation of the line through (2, –4) whose intercepts are numerically equal but of
opposite signs.
Solution:
Since b = –a and (2, –4) is a point on the line then using intercept form
𝒙 𝒚
+𝒃=𝟏
𝒂
2 −4 6
+ −𝑎 = 1 ↔ =1 → 𝑎 = 6 then 𝑏 = −6
𝑎 𝑎
Thus,
𝑥 𝑦
+ −6 = 1 ↔ 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 6 or 𝑥 − 𝑦 − 6 = 0
6

C. Distance from a Line to a Point

P1 (x1 , y1 )

y •
d1  0

Ax1 + By1 + C = 0

x
d2  0

•
P2 (x2 , y2 )
 Let the given line have the equation Ax + By + C = 0 and the given point P1(x1,y1). The distance of this
point from the given line is

𝐴𝑥1 +𝐵𝑦1 +𝐶
𝑑=
±√𝐴2 +𝐵2

Note that the sign of the radical must follow the sign of B.

Example Find the distance from the line 3x+ 7y + 12 = 0 to (6, –7)
Solution:
Applying the formula of distance from a line to a point, we have
𝐴𝑥1 +𝐵𝑦1 +𝐶 3(6)+7(−7)+12 −19 19√58
𝑑= = = =−
±√𝐴2 +𝐵2 √32 +72 √58 58

3.7 Circles

A circle is a locus of points that moves in a plane at a constant distance from a fixed point. The fixed
point is called the center and the distance from the center to any point on the circle is called the radius.

Parts of a Circle:

Center - It is in the center of the circle and the distance from this point to any other point on the
circumference is the same.

Radius - The distance from the center to any point on the circle is called the radius. A diameter is twice
the distance of a radius.

Circumference - The distance around a circle is its circumference. It is also the perimeter of the circle

Chord - A chord is a straight line joining two points on the circumference. The longest chord in a circle
is called a diameter. The diameter passed through the center.

Segment - A segment of a circle is the region enclosed by a chord and an arc of the circle.

Secant - A secant is a straight line cutting the circle at two distinct points.

Tangent - If a straight line and a circle have only one point of contact, then that line is called a tangent.
A tangent is always perpendicular to the radius drawn to the point of contact.

Standard Equation of a Circle

•P(x,y)
r
•
C(h,k)
y k

h x
x

Using distance between P(x,y) and C(h,k) which is the radius r, we have
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2
This is called the standard equation of a circle.
General Equation of a Circle

The general equation of second degree is of the form

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
If C = A and B = 0, then the equation becomes
Ax2 + Ay2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
This is called the general equation of the circle.

Example 1 Reduce x2 + y2 – 8x + 2y – 16 = 0 to standard from and find the center and radius of the circle.
Solution:
x2 + y2 – 8x + 2y – 16 = 0  (x2 – 8x) + (y2 + 2y) = 16
 (x2 – 8x+16) + (y2 + 2y+ 1) = 16 + 16 + 1
 (x – 4)2 + (y + 1)2 = 33
The center is at C(4, –1) and radius r = √33

Example 2 Find the equation of a circle having (10,2) and (6, –4) as ends of a diameter.
Solution:
Taking the midpoint of the diameter we have,
10+6 2+(−4)
ℎ = 2 = 8 and 𝑘 = 2 = −1
To solve for the radius, 𝑟 = √(10 − 8)2 + (2 − (−1)2 = √13
Then the required equation is
(𝑥 − 8)2 + (𝑦 − (−1))2 = (√13)2  𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 + 64 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 1 = 13
 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 16𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 52 = 0

3.8 Conic Section

A conic section is a section is a section obtained from a right circular cone. It may also be defined as a
locus of a point which moves so that its distance from a fixed point is in constant ratio to its distance from a fixed
line. The fixed point is called the focus, the fixed line the directrix and the fixed ratio is called the eccentricity.

General Equation of a Conic section

The general equation of a conic section is
Ax 2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 .
If the axes are parallel to the x and y axes respectively, then B = 0. Thus, the above equation becomes
Ax 2 + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 .

Four Ways of Determining a Conic Section

A. By a cutting plane
1. If a plane is cut parallel to the base, a circle is obtained.
2. If a plane is cut parallel to an element, a parabola is obtained.
3. If a plane is cut not parallel to any element, an ellipse is obtained.
4. If a plane is cut parallel to the altitude, a hyperbola is obtained.
 B. By eccentricity e
1. If e = 0, the conic is a circle.
2. If e = 1, the conic is a parabola.
3. If e < 1, the conic is an ellipse.
4. If e > 1, the conic is a hyperbola.

C. By Equation
For the equation Ax 2 + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
1. If A = C, the conic is a circle.
2. If either A or c is zero, the conic is a parabola.
3. If A  C but of the same sign, the conic is an ellipse.
4. If A and C are of opposite signs, the conic is a hyperbola.

D. By Discriminant
For the equation Ax 2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 ,
1. If B 2 − 4 AC = 0 , the conic is a parabola.
2. If B 2 − 4 AC  0 , the conic is a hyperbola.
3. If B 2 − 4 AC  0 and A  C, the conic is an ellipse.
4. If B 2 − 4 AC  0 and A = C, the conic is a circle.

3.8.1 Parabola
A parabola is the set of all points in a plane, which are equidistant from a fixed point and a fixed line of
the plane. The fixed point called the focus (F) and the fixed line the directrix (D). The point midway between
the focus and the directrix is called the vertex (V). The chord drawn through the focus and perpendicular to the
axis of the parabola is called the latus rectum (LR).

Parabolas with Vertex at (0,0)

𝒚𝟐 = 𝟒𝒂𝒙 𝒚𝟐 = −𝟒𝒂𝒙
 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟒𝒂𝒚 𝒙𝟐 = −𝟒𝒂𝒚

Parabolas with Vertex at (h,k)

(𝒚 − 𝒌)𝟐 = 𝟒𝒂(𝒙 − 𝒉) (𝒚 − 𝒌)𝟐 = −𝟒𝒂(𝒙 − 𝒉)

(𝒙 − 𝒉)𝟐 = 𝟒𝒂(𝒚 − 𝒌) (𝒙 − 𝒉)𝟐 = −𝟒𝒂(𝒚 − 𝒌)

General Equation of a Parabola

An equation of the second degree in which the xy-term is missing and only one square term is missing
represents a parabola with its axis parallel to a coordinate axis.

Axis Parallel to the Y-axis: Ax2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

Axis Parallel to the X-axis: Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

Example Determine the vertex of the parabola whose equation is 4x2 + 4x – 24y + 37 = 0
Solution:
4x2 + 4x – 24y + 37 = 0  4x2 + 4x = 24y – 37
 4(x2 + x) = 24y – 37
 4(x2 + x + 1/4) = 24y – 37 + 1
 4(x + ½ )2 = 24y – 36
 (x + ½ )2 = 6y – 9
 (x + ½ )2 = 6(y – 3/2)
Hence vertex is at V(-1/2, 3/2)

3.8.2 Ellipse

An ellipse is the set of all points P in a plane such that the sum of the distances of P from two fixed points
F’ and F of the plane is constant. The constant sum is equal to the length of the major axis (2a). Each of the fixed
points is called a focus (plural foci). Eccentricity measure the degree of flatness of an ellipse. The eccentricity of
an ellipse should be less than 1. Focal chord is any chord of the ellipse passing through the focus. Major axis is
the segment cut by the ellipse on the line containing the foci a segment joining the vertices of an ellipse. Vertices
are the endpoints of the major axis and denoted by 2a. Latus rectum or latera recta in plural form is the segment
cut by the ellipse passing through the foci and perpendicular to the major axis.

Properties of an Ellipse:
1. The curve of an ellipse intersects the major axis at two points called the vertices. It is usually denoted by
V1 and V2.
2. The length of the segment V1V2 is equal to 2a where a is the length of the semi- major axis.
3. The length of the segment CV1CV2 is equal to 2b where b is the length of the semi-minor axis.
4. The length of the segment F1F2 is equal to 2c where c is the distance from the center to the foci.
5. The midpoint of the segment V1V2 is called the center of an ellipse denoted by C.
6. The line segments through F1 and F2 perpendicular to the major axis are the latera recta and each has a
length of 2b2/a.
7. The relationship of a, b and c is given by; a2 - b2 = c2 where, a > b.
8. c = a e
Equations of ellipse with center at the origin C (0, 0)

𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝒙𝟐
𝟐
+ = 𝟏, a > b + = 𝟏, a > b
𝒂 𝒃𝟐 𝒂 𝟐 𝒃𝟐

Ellipse with Center at (h, k)

(𝒙−𝒉)𝟐 (𝒚−𝒌)𝟐 (𝒚−𝒌)𝟐 (𝒙−𝒉)𝟐

+ = 𝟏, a > b + = 𝟏, 𝑎 > 𝑏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐

Example Reduce the equation to standard form and determine the center and length of major axis, minor
axis and latus rectum of 4x2 + 9y2 – 16x + 18y – 11 = 0.
Solution:
4x2 + 9y2 – 16x + 18y – 11 = 0  4(x2 – 4x) + 9(y2 + 2y) = 11
 4(x2 – 4x+ 4) + 9(y2 + 2y + 1) = 11 + 16 + 9
 4(x– 2)2 + 9(y + 1)2 = 36
(𝑥−2)2 (𝑦+1)2
↔ + =1
9 4
Center at (2, –1), major axis = 6 units, minor axis = 4 units and latus rectum = 8/3 units

3.8.3 Hyperbola

A hyperbola is the set of points in a plane such that the difference of the distances of each point of the set
from two fixed points (foci) in the plane is constant. Transverse axis is a line segment joining the two vertices of
the hyperbola. Conjugate axis is the perpendicular bisector of the transverse axis.
The generalized equations of hyperbolas with axes parallel to the coordinate axes and center at (h, k) are

(𝒙−𝒉)𝟐 (𝒚−𝒌)𝟐
− =𝟏 if foci are on a axis parallel to the x-axis
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
(𝒚−𝒌)𝟐 (𝒙−𝒉)𝟐
+ =𝟏 if foci are on a axis parallel to the y-axis
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐

𝑏
Equations of the Asymptotes of Hyperbola: 𝑦 = ± (𝑥 − ℎ) + 𝑘
𝑎

Example Determine the center, length of transverse axis, conjugate axis and equations of asymptotes of
9x2 – 9y2 + 15x + 21y – 42 = 0
Solution:
5 7
9x2 – 9y2 + 15x + 21y – 42 = 0 ↔ 9 (𝑥 2 + 3 𝑥) − 9 (𝑦 2 − 3 𝑦) = 42
5 25 7 49 25 49
↔ 9 (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + ) − 9 (𝑦 2 − 𝑦 + ) = 42 + −
3 36 3 36 4 4
5 2 7 2
↔ 9 (𝑥 + 6) − 9 (𝑦 − 6) = 36
5 2 7 2
(𝑥+ ) (𝑦− )
6 6
↔ − =1
4 4
5 7
Center at (− 6 , 6), length of transverse axis = conjugate axis = 4 and equations of asymptotes
5 7 1
𝑦 = ± (𝑥 + 6) + 6 or 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 2 and 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 3