DKRoy

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2 7 types of foods/nutrients
1. Carbohydrates
2. Fats
3. Proteins
4. Vitamins [C and D]
5. Mineral salts [calcium and iron]
6. Fibre/roughage
7. Water
3
Nutrients and sources

Food/Nutrient Main Source

Carbohydrates
Fats
Proteins
Vitamin C
Vitamin D
Calcium
Iron
Fibre
4
Nutrients and sources
Nutrient Main Source
Carbohydrates rice, potatoes, wheat, sugar cane, sweets
Fats cocoa, coconut, nut oil, fish oil, meat, milk, and
eggs
Proteins fish, meat, sea food, poultry, beans, nuts, lentils,
and vegetables.
Vitamin C citrus fruits, cabbage, sprouts, cauliflower,
pineapple, strawberries, and green, and red
peppers
Vitamin D milk, fish oil, eggs, fortified rice, canned pink
salmon, canned tuna, [also is made naturally by our
body when sunlight shines on the skin].
Calcium Present in milk, cheese & dairy products, and fish.
Iron red meat, dark green vegetables e.g. spinach and
parsley, and liver
Fibre Bread, pasta, cereals, salad, tomatoes
5
Nutrients and functions

Vitamin/ Function Deficiencies

Mineral
Vitamin C
Vitamin D
Calcium
Iron
6
Nutrients and functions
Vitamin/ Function Deficiencies
Mineral
Vitamin C It forms an essential part of collagen protein, Causes scurvy and
which makes up skin, hair, gums and bones. ageing.
It is needed for healthy teeth, gums, and to
prevent scurvy.
Vitamin D Facilitates the absorption of calcium.
It is essential for regulating the growth of causes rickets.
bones.
Calcium It is essential for development and leads to
maintenance of strong bones and teeth, as well osteoporosis.
as muscles.
Iron Is needed to make haemoglobin. causes anaemia.
7 Balanced diet

 A balanced diet is the right amount of all nutrients that is

needed according to age, gender, and activities.

 Can you explain how age, gender and activity affect the dietary
needs of humans (including during pregnancy and whilst breast-
feeding)?
8 Carbohydrates
Complex carbohydrates should provide around half of your
daily energy needs.
If you are performing strenuous exercise,
this should increase to 60–70%.
respiration
Energy from carbohydrates is
converted to a substance
called glycogen. This is stored energy
in the liver and the muscles.
glucose
When energy is needed, the
body changes the glycogen to oxygen
glucose which is used by the
muscles during respiration.
If you eat too much carbohydrate,
however, the body will store it as fat.
9
Fiber
Fiber is actually a substance called cellulose. It is found in
the cell walls of plants.

Fruit, vegetables and whole-

grain cereals are good
sources of dietary fiber.

Fiber cannot be digested, but it is required

to aid the smooth working of our digestive system.
People who eat too little fiber often suffer from
constipation and may run a higher risk of bowel cancer.
10 Fiber

• Allows your faeces

to pass through

• Found in things you Toilet

don’t digest (think
of your faeces after
eating sweetcorn!)

• Without it you look

like this
11 Water
The body is mainly composed of water.
Approximately 60%
of an adult’s weight
and approximately
80% of a child’s
weight is made up of
water. 60%
It is vitally important 80%
that you drink
enough water.
Dehydration by as
little as 2% of body
weight can seriously
damage
performance.
12 What is a balanced diet?

A balanced diet is the right amount of all

nutrients that is needed according to age,
gender, and activities.

Can you explain how age, gender and activity

affect the dietary needs of humans (including
during pregnancy and whilst breast-feeding)?
13
14

Mouth
Oesophagus

Liver
Gall bladder
Pancreas Stomach

Small intestine

Large intestine Rectum

Anus
 Mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodenum and ileum)
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and large intestine (colon, rectum, anus), salivary glands, pancreas,
liver, and gall bladder.
 Digestion  Physical digestion: is physically
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breaking down of large food into
smaller pieces.
takes place in:
– the mouth (chewing food)
– the stomach (churning food)

 Chemical digestion: is breaking down

of large insoluble food molecules into
smaller soluble molecules by the help of
enzymes.
Takes place in: the mouth, stomach,
and small intestine.
17
Sites of enzymes production and their functions.

Q. Where are digestive enzymes produced?

1. Mouth
2. Stomach
3. Pancreas
4. Small intestine
Q. How about liver and gall bladder.
18 Digestion in the mouth

Amylase
Starch ———–> Maltose/[maltotriose/dextrins]
19

Monosaccharide:
Disaccharide: maltose
Polysaccharide:
Maltotriose: 3 glucose molecules
Dextrin: can be up to 30 glucose molecules
20 Digestion in the stomach
The stomach secretes gastric juices:
1. HCl (pH 1.5-2.5)
•kills bacteria,
•Activates pepsinogen, and prorennin
•provides suitable pH for pepsin (protease).

2. Protein digestion begins in the stomach.

pepsin
Protein ———–> (Poly)peptides

3. Food is also mechanically digested by the

churning action of the stomach.
21
Digestion in the stomach
22
Digestion in the Small Intestine (Duodenum)

• Most of the digestion and absorption take place in the Small Intestine.
• It has an average length of 3 to 5 meters.
• It has been divided into the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
23
Bile, liver, and gall bladder

1. Bile is produced in the liver stored in the gall bladder.

It is alkaline, so it neutralizes acidic chyme coming from
the stomach.
It provides the right pH for the enzymes.
It emulsifies fats. [turning fat into tiny droplets of fat]
24 Pancreas

2. Pancreas makes pancreatic juice, which contains:

Pancreatic amylase
Pancreatic lipase
Trypsin (protease) [inactive form is trypsinogen]
Sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3) [alkaline]
 25
Enzymes

Location Digestive Made in Enzyme Substrate Products

juice
Stomach Gastric juice Cells in the Pepsin (protease) Protein Peptides
stomach wall Polypeptides
Amylase Starch Maltose
Small Pancreatic Lipase Fat Fatty acids &
Intestine juice Pancreas Glycerol
(duodenum) Trypsin (protease) Proteins (Poly)peptides
(Poly)peptides Amino acids
26

A protein is a chain of more than 50 amino acids that

has a particular shape.
A peptide is a compound consisting of 2 ̶ 10 amino acids.
A oligopeptide has up to 15 amino acids (unbranched).
A polypeptide is a long, continuous, and unbranched
peptide chain of 10 to 50 amino acids.
 27 3. Small Intestine

Part of the gut Enzyme Made in Substrate Products

Small Intestine Maltase Epithelial cells– Maltose Glucose
(ileum) Lipase covering the Fats Glycerol & Fatty acids
Sucrase villi Sucrose Glucose & Fructose
Peptidase (Poly)peptides Amino acids
Lactase Lactose Glucose & Galactose
28

Carbohydrate digestion

carbohydrase

long
carbohydrate sugar
molecule
29
Protein digestion

protease

long amino acids

protein molecule
30 Fat (lipid) digestion
bile

lipase +
fat molecule glycerol fatty
acids
31 i. Duodenum is first about 20-30cm of the small
intestine. It receives acidic chime from the stomach,
bile from the gall bladder, and pancreatic juice from
pancreas. Bile and pancreatic juice are alkaline, thus
they neutralize the acidic chime, and the pancreatic
enzymes digest food.
ii. Ileum is the terminal part of the small intestine
connected to the large intestine. Its about 3.5 m/3
meters long. Digestion continues here. Nearly all the
absorption of digested food takes place in the ileum,
including most of the water, (in particular vitamin
B12). This part is specially adapted for absorption.
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 34 Digestive enzymes
Part of Digestive Made in Works in Enzyme Substrate Products
the gut juice
Mouth Saliva Salivary Mouth Salivary Starch Maltose
Glands Amylase
Stomach Gastric juice Cells in the Stomach Pepsin Protein Peptides/
stomach wall (protease) Polypeptides
Small Amylase Starch Maltose
Intestine Pancreatic Pancreas Duodenum Lipase Fat Glycerol & Fatty acids
(duodenum) juice Trypsin Proteins/ (Poly)peptides
(protease) (Poly)peptides Amino acids
Small None Epithelial Maltase Maltose Glucose
Intestine (Enzymes cells covering Lipase Fats Glycerol & Fatty acids
(ileum) remain the villi Ileum Sucrase Sucrose Glucose & Fructose
in and on the Peptidase (Poly)peptides Amino acids
cells) (protease)
Lactase Lactose Glucose & Galactose
35
Absorption
Almost all the absorption take place in the small Intestine, and it is
well adapted for that.
Adaptation Explanation
Very long This provides a large surface area and enough time for absorption as
the digested food slowly passes through.
Thin wall The wall of small intestine is one cell thick, which speeds the rate of
diffusion of molecules into the blood.
Rich blood This helps carry absorbed molecules away from the intestine quickly.
supply This means there is always a low concentration of food molecules in the
blood, which maintains a high concentration gradient.
Folded interior Increases surface area.
Villi and Villi and microvilli increase the surface area of the small intestine [by
microvilli 1000 folds].
[The surface is covered with tiny (about 1 mm), finger-like projections
called villi. The cells on the surface of the villi have micro-villi]
Lacteal in Villi Lacteal absorbs fatty acids and glycerol [big chylomicron].
 The structure of a villus
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• Villi are small finger-like projections located in the walls of
the small intestine.
• Microvilli are microscopic cellular membrane projections.
• Both increase surface area.
 The structure of a villus
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38 Villi related questions
1. What is the purpose of villi (and microvilli) in the small intestine?
 ̶ Villi (and microvilli) increase the surface area for absorption, and allow
movement of substances into the cell.
2. How are villi adapted for absorption?
 Thin walls.
 Large surface area.
 Good blood supply [close to the surface].
3. Describe the structure of a villus
 Their outer walls are made of epithelial cells, which is only one cell thick.
[Thin wall minimize the diffusion distance.]
 Underneath the epithelial layer there are a lot of blood capillaries [to absorb
nutrients into the blood.]
 At the centre of a villus lies a lacteal [ that absorbs a large proportion of the
fatty acids and glycerol].
39 How do nutrients reach blood vessels
 How are nutrients absorbed?
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 43

Ingestion is the taking of substances such as food and drink into the body through
the mouth.
Absorption is the movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall of the
intestine into the blood.
Assimilation is the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body
where they are used to build new molecules, and they becomes a part of
the cells.
Egestion is the passing out of food that has not been digested or absorbed, as
faeces, through the anus.
Excretion is the removal of waste products of metabolism or nutrients in excess.
Peristalsis is a series of involuntary wave-like muscle contractions that moves food
along the digestive tract.
44
The Large Intestine

The Large Intestine: is a tube shaped organ

situated after the small Intestine, which is
composed of several parts:
i. Colon
ii. Rectum
iii. Caecum
iv. Appendix
v. Anus

Substance passing into the large Intestine contains

water, minerals, undigested roughage, bile salts,
dead cells, and mucus.
45 The Large Intestine…
Function:
 Water, minerals, and bile salts are absorbed in the Large
Intestine.
 [But no enzyme is produced in here.]

 Rectum stores the semi-solid waste called the feces.

 Anus is the last part of the Alimentary canal that expels
the feces out of the body.
 State the names of the three labelled structures in Fig. 3.2 and describe the role
of each structure in the intestinal cell. [6]
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 Adaptations of the small intestine:
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Adaptation Explanation

Folded Increases surface area.

interior
Very long This provides a large surface area and enough time for
absorption as the digested food slowly passes through.
Thin wall The intestine wall in thin, which speeds the rate of
diffusion of molecules into the blood
Rich blood This helps carry absorbed molecules away from the
supply intestine quickly. This means there is always a low
concentration of food molecules in the blood, which
maintains a high concentration gradient.
Villi and Villi and microvilli increase the surface area of the small
microvilli intestine by 1000 folds.
[The surface is covered with tiny (about 1 mm), finger-like
projections called villi. The cells on the surface of the villi
have micro-villi]
 The significance of villi and microvilli:
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Villi are finger like

projections that increase
the surface area for
absorption.

Microvilli are tiny folds on the

cells located on the outer surface
of a villus, [which increase
surface by 20 times].
50

What is the purpose of the villi found in the small intestine?

Answer:
To absorb nutrients and the complete breakdown of food.
Explanation:
Villi in the small intestine absorbs nutrients. Factors of its
structure that help it function include
•Large surface area (provides more surface area for
exchange to take place)
•Thin wall (reduces the distance that materials need to
move)
•Moist (assists the transport of materials across the
exchange surface)
 The significance of villi and microvilli:
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Each villus contains:

•Blood capillaries: There
is a dense network of
blood capillaries, which
absorb amino acids and
glucose.
•Lacteals are tiny
lymphatic vessels, which
absorb fatty acids and
glycerol.
52

Where are the digestive enzymes produced?

Mouth
Stomach
Small intestine
Pancreas
53

Which enzyme is produced in the mouth?

Amylase
54

Which enzyme(s) is/are produced in the

stomach?
Pepsin
55


What types of food is/are digested the
stomach?
Proteins
 56 Explain the role of mechanical digestion

 Mechanical digestion where large food is Brocken down to smaller pieces without
chemical change by the help of teeth.
 Thus it becomes easier to swallow. In the stomach the churning action contributes to
this process.
 Mechanical digestion also helps food mixing with digestive juice, increases surface
area for enzyme action, which speeds up chemical digestion.