18ECC205J – Analog and Digital

Communication
Course Credit : 4
Theory : 9 Hours

1. Singh. R. P & Sapre. S. D, “Communication Systems: Analog & Digital,” 3rd edition, McGrawHill
Education, Seventh Reprint, 2016.

2. Simon Haykin, “Communication Systems”, John Wiley & Sons, 4th Edition, 2008
Course Outline
1. Analog
Modulation
5. Spread Spectrum
2. Radio
Techniques and
Transmitters and
Information theory
Concepts Receivers

ADC

4. Passband Data 3. Digital Modulation

Transmission System and Baseband
Detection
Unit 1 – Analog Modulation
• Modulation, Need for ▪ Generation of AM waves: Linear
method-Collector modulator
Modulation,
▪ Non-linear Modulation - Balanced
• Amplitude Modulation, Types of Modulator
Amplitude Modulation ▪ Demodulation of AM waves : Linear
diode detector
• Double sideband Full carrier
▪ Frequency modulation, Types of FM
• Double sideband Suppressed
carrier ▪ Narrow Band FM, Wide Band FM,
Phase modulation
• Single Sideband Suppressed ▪ Generation of Narrowband FM
carrier, VSB
▪ Demodulation of FM : Foster Seely
Discriminator
 Unit 1 – Week 3
Session 7 Session 8 Session 9
 Frequency modulation,  Phase modulation
 Types of FM  Demodulation of
 Narrow Band FM,  Generation of FM: Foster Seely
Wide Band FM, Narrowband FM
Discriminator

1. Singh. R. P & Sapre. S. D, “Communication Systems: Analog & Digital,” 3rd edition, McGrawHill
Education, Seventh Reprint, 2016.

2. Simon Haykin, “Communication Systems”, John Wiley & Sons, 4th Edition, 2008
 Introduction to Analog modulation
Objectives :
 To study Generation and Detection of FM waves
 Introduction to Frequency modulation
 Introduction to Frequency modulation
 Introduction to Frequency modulation
 Introduction to Frequency modulation
 Frequency Deviation Ratio
 Wideband FM
 Narrowband FM
 Carson’s Rule
 Summary
Frequency Modulation
Process of varying the total phase angle of a carrier wave in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal, keeping the amplitude of the carrier
constant.
Consider an unmodulated carrier 𝜑(t)=Acos (𝜔𝑐 t + 𝜃0 )
or 𝜑(t)=A cos 𝜑 (1)
where ∅ 𝑡 = 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃0 is the total phase angle of the carrier wave.

Eqn (1) can be considered as a real part of a rotating phasor A𝑒 𝑗𝜑 and can be
represented as ∅= A𝑒 𝑗𝜑 or ∅ 𝑡 = Re[A𝑒 𝑗𝜑 ] = A Re[cos 𝜑 + j sin 𝜑] (2)
The phasor ∅ rotates at a constant angular frequency 𝜔𝑐 provided 𝜃0 is the phase
angle of the unmodulated carrier at t=0.
Frequency Modulation
The constant angular frequency 𝜔𝑐 of the phasor is related to its total phase angle 𝜑(t).
𝜑= 𝜔𝑐 t + 𝜃0 (3)
Differentiating (3) we get d 𝜑/dt = 𝜔𝑐 [𝜃0 is independent of time] (4)
This derivative varies with time and hence the angular frequency of the phasor 𝜑 will also change with time
The time dependent angular frequency is called as instantaneous angular frequency and is denoted as
d 𝜑/dt = 𝜔𝑖 (5)
𝜔𝑖 is time dependent

Fig: Waveform of a carrier wave with varying frequency

Types of Angle Modulation
Two types of angle modulation
 Frequency modulation
 Phase modulation

Phase modulation – The phase angle ψ(t) is varied linearly with the
modulating signal f(t) about an unmodulated phase angle 𝜔𝑐 t
Frequency modulation – The instantaneous frequency 𝜔𝑖 varies
linearly with a modulating signal f(t) about an unmodulated frequency
𝜔𝑐 .
Representation of FM Signal
The instantaneous value of the angular frequency ωi is equal to the frequency
ωc of the unmodulated carrier plus a time varying component proportional to f(t) .
Mathematically ,𝜔𝑖 = 𝜔𝑐 + 𝐾𝑓 f(t) (6)
 Where 𝐾𝑓 is the frequency sensitivity (Hz/V)
The total phase angle of the FM wave can be obtained by integrating (5)
𝜑𝑖 = 𝜔𝑖 dt = [ 𝜔𝑐 + 𝐾𝑓 f(t)] = 𝜔𝑐 t + 𝐾𝑓 𝑓(𝑡)dt (7)
The corresponding FM wave can be given by ∅𝐹𝑀 (t) = Acos 𝜑𝑖 (8)

Sub (7) in (8) we get ∅𝐹𝑀 (t) = Acos[𝜔𝑐 t + 𝐾𝑓 𝑓(𝑡)dt] (9)

Representation of FM Signal

We know f(t) =𝐸𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑚 t dt (10)

𝐸𝑚
Sub (10) in (9) ∅𝐹𝑀 (t) = A cos[𝜔𝑐 t + 𝐾𝑓 sin 𝜔𝑚 t] (11)
𝜔𝑚
∆𝜔
Let ∆𝜔= 𝐾𝑓 𝐸𝑚 . Hence ∅𝐹𝑀 (t) = Acos[𝜔𝑐 t + sin 𝜔𝑚 t] (12)
𝜔𝑚
Where ∆𝝎 is the frequency deviation
∆𝜔
Let 𝑚𝑓 = Then ∅𝐹𝑀 (t) = A cos [𝜔𝑐 t + 𝑚𝑓 sin 𝜔𝑚 t] (13)
𝜔𝑚
Where 𝒎𝒇 is the modulation index - Ratio of frequency deviation to the
modulating frequency
Representation of Phase Modulated Signal
The total phase angle of the carrier wave is given by 𝜑𝑖 (t) = 𝜔𝑐 t + 𝜃0
For a phase modulated signal, the phase angle is varied linearly with the
modulating signal.
Hence 𝜃α f(t)
𝜃= 𝐾𝑝 f(t)
The phase modulated signal ∅𝑃𝑀 (t) = A cos𝜑𝑖 (t)
∅𝑃𝑀 (t) = A cos[𝜔𝑐 t +𝐾𝑝 f(t) ]
The maximum change in total phase angle from the centre phase is known
as phase deviation (∆𝜃)
∆𝜔
∆𝜃= 𝑚𝑓 =
𝜔𝑚
Relationship between FM and PM
Transmission bandwidth of FM signal
• Bandwidth=2n𝜔𝑚
where n is the number of sidebands Bandwidth of PM signal
BW(PM) ≈ 2∆ω
n≈𝑚𝑓 = 2K p Em ωm
• BW=2𝑚𝑓 𝜔𝑚 =2∆𝜔=2∆f
Modulation index of PM signal
mp = K p Em = θd
Bandwidth using Carson’s rule
BW=2(∆𝝎+ 𝝎𝒎 ) = 2(∆𝒇+ 𝒇𝒎 )

Depending upon the value of ∆𝜔, FM

is classified as narrowband FM
(NBFM) and wideband FM (WBFM)
Figure: Phasor diagram of FM
Comparison between NBFM and WBFM
NBFM WBFM
• Frequency deviation is very small • Frequency deviation is very large
• BW = 2𝜔𝑚 • BW = 2∆𝜔
• 𝐾𝑓 is very small • 𝐾𝑓 is very large
• BW is narrow • BW is wide
• 𝑚𝑓 is very small • 𝑚𝑓 is very large
• Only two sidebands • ‘n’ number of sidebands
International regulation for FM signal

• The following values are prescribed by CCIR (Consultative Committee for

International Radio) for commercial FM broadcast stations.

 Maximum frequency deviation ±75𝐾𝐻𝑧.

 Frequency stability of the carrier ±2𝐾𝐻𝑧.
 Allowable bandwidth per channel = 200KHz.

𝐴2
Power content in FM signal
2
Narrow band FM
Standard FM Signal :
∅𝐹𝑀 (t) = Acos[𝜔𝑐 t + 𝐾𝑓 𝑓(𝑡)dt] =A [cos[𝜔𝑐 t ]+ cos 𝑓(𝑡) 𝐾𝑓 dt] ]
= Acos[𝜔𝑐 t ] cos 𝑓(𝑡) 𝐾𝑓 dt – A sin[𝜔𝑐 t ] sin 𝑓(𝑡) 𝐾𝑓 dt

For NBFM, sin 𝑓(𝑡) 𝐾𝑓 dt << 1 . Since cosθ≈1 and sinθ≈1 for small θ, we get

∅𝑁𝐵𝐹𝑀 (t) = Acos[𝜔𝑐 t ] - A sin[𝜔𝑐 t ] 𝐾𝑓 𝑓(𝑡)dt = Acos[𝜔𝑐 t ] - A sin[𝜔𝑐 t ] 𝐾𝑓 𝐸𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑚 t dt

𝐸𝑚
= Acos[𝜔𝑐 t ] - A sin[𝜔𝑐 t ] 𝐾𝑓 sin𝜔𝑚 t
𝜔𝑚

= Acos[𝜔𝑐 t ] - A sin[𝜔𝑐 t ] 𝑚𝑓 sin𝜔𝑚 t

Generation of Narrowband FM
signal Acos 𝜔𝑐 t
Carrier

Phase shifted carrier - 𝐴sin 𝜔𝑐 t

 Message signal f(t)= 𝐸𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑚 t

g(t)= 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐸𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑚 t

𝐸𝑚
 = sin𝜔𝑚 t
𝜔𝑚
Output of balanced modulator is
𝐸𝑚
 - 𝐴sin 𝜔𝑐 t * sin𝜔𝑚 t
𝜔𝑚
𝐸𝑚
 ∅𝑁𝐵𝐹𝑀 (t) = Acos 𝜔𝑐 t – A*K sin𝜔𝑚 t sin 𝜔𝑐 t
𝜔𝑚
𝐸𝑚
 Let K = 𝑚𝑓
𝜔𝑚
 ∅𝑁𝐵𝐹𝑀 (t) = Acos 𝜔𝑐 t - A𝑚𝑓 sin𝜔𝑚 t sin 𝜔𝑐 t
Varactor diode FM modulation
Principle of Operation:
• Modulating signal directly modulates the
carrier that is generated by an electronic
circuit.
• The oscillator circuit involves a parallel circuit.

• Frequency of oscillation of the carrier

generator is 1
 𝜔𝑐 =
𝐿𝐶

• The Carrier frequency 𝜔𝑐 can be made to vary

according to the modulating signal f(t), if L or
C is varied according to f(t).
Varactor diode FM modulation Contd..
Operation:
• Varactor diode is a semiconductor diode whose junction capacitance changes
with the applied d.c bias voltage.
• The varactor diode is shunted with the oscillator tank circuit.
• 𝐶 < 𝐶𝑑 to keep the r.f voltage from the oscillator across the diode small as
compared to 𝑉𝑜 , the polarizing voltage.
• 𝑋𝑐 at highest modulating frequency is kept large as compared to R.
• 𝑉𝑜 is reverse bias voltage across the varactor diode.
Varactor diode FM modulation Contd..
• The capacitance 𝐶𝑑 of the diode is given by 𝐶𝑑 = K 𝑉𝐷 (1)
Where 𝑉𝐷 is the total instantaneous voltage across the diode
K the proportionality constant.
𝑉=𝑉𝑜 + f(t) (2)
• The total capacitance of the oscillator tank circuit is (𝐶𝑜 + 𝐶𝑑 )
• The instantaneous frequency of oscillation
𝜔𝑖 = 1 𝐿 (𝐶 +𝐶 ) (3)
𝑜 𝑜 𝑑
• Sub (1) in (3), we get 𝜔𝑖 = 1 (4)
𝐿𝑜 (𝐶𝑜 +K 𝑉𝐷 )

• 𝜔𝑖 is dependent on 𝑉𝐷 which in turn depends on the modulating signal f(t).

Varactor diode FM modulation Contd..
Distortion due to non-linearity:
• From (4) it is understood that 𝜔𝑖 does not change linearly with 𝑉𝐷 .
• This non-linearity produces distortion due to the frequency variations caused by the
higher harmonics of the modulating frequency.
• Assume that the oscillator tank circuit comprises only the diode capacitance 𝐶𝑑 and
𝐶𝑜 is absent.
1
𝑉𝐷 4
𝜔𝑖 = 1 = 1 (5)
𝐿𝑜 K 𝑉𝐷 (𝐿𝑜 𝐾)2

The R.H.S of the above equation can be represented by a Taylor series about the
polarizing voltage 𝑉𝑜 as given below.
1 1
𝑉𝐷 4 𝑉𝑜 4 (𝑉𝐷 −𝑉𝑜 ) 3(𝑉𝐷− 𝑉𝑜 )2
1 = 1 + 3 1 - 7 1 (6)
(𝐿𝑜 𝐾)2 (𝐿𝑜 𝐾)2 4(𝐿𝑜 𝐾𝑉𝑜 2 )2 16(𝐿𝑜 𝐾𝑉𝑜 2 )2
Varactor diode FM modulation Contd..
• The higher order terms can be neglected if (𝑉𝐷 − 𝑉𝑜 ) is small.
• Let (𝑉𝐷 − 𝑉𝑜 )= ∆V = f(t) = 𝑉𝑚 sin𝜔𝑚 t (7)
𝑉𝑚2
(𝑉𝐷 − 𝑉𝑜 )2 = 𝑉𝑚2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑚 t = (1- cos2𝜔𝑚 t) (8)
2

• Sub (7) and (8) in (6)

1 1
𝑉𝐷 4 𝑉𝑜 4 𝑉𝑚 sin𝜔𝑚 𝑡 2
3𝑉𝑚 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔 t
3𝑉𝑚 𝑚
𝜔𝑖 = 1 = 1 + 3 1 - 7 1 + 7 1 (9)
(𝐿𝑜 𝐾)2 (𝐿𝑜 𝐾)2 4(𝐿𝑜 𝐾𝑉𝑜 2 )2 (32𝐿𝑜 𝐾𝑉𝑜 2 )2 32(𝐿𝑜 𝐾𝑉𝑜 2 )2
Varactor diode FM modulation Contd..
• % second harmonic distortion is the ratio of amplitude of the 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑚 term
and the fundamental term
3𝑉𝑚
% second harmonic distortion = x 100
8𝑉𝑜

By adjusting proper ratio of 𝑉𝑚 and 𝑉𝑜 second harmonic distortion may be

reduced.
Ignoring the effect of second harmonic of f(t)
1
𝑉𝑜 4 𝑉𝑚 sin𝜔𝑚 𝑡
𝜔𝑖 = 1 + 3 1 = 𝜔𝑐 + (∆𝜔)sin𝜔𝑚 𝑡
(𝐿𝑜 𝐾)2 4(𝐿𝑜 𝐾𝑉𝑜 2 )2
∆𝜔 𝑉𝑚
Modulation index 𝑚𝑓 = = 3 1
𝜔𝑚
4𝜔𝑚 (𝐿𝑜 𝐾𝑉𝑜 2 )2
Thus the modulation index not only depends on the modulating voltage 𝑉𝑚 but
also on the polarizing voltage 𝑉𝑜 .
Demodulation of FM signals
• The process of recovering the modulating signal from a modulated carrier is known as
modulation.

• The detector performs the demodulation in two steps.

• FM signal is converted to its corresponding AM signal using frequency dependent circuits
(frequency discriminators)
• The original message signal is recovered from this AM signal by using linear diode
detector.

Types of FM discriminators
1)Slope detector
• Simple slope detector or single-tuned discriminator circuit
• Balanced slope detector or stagger tuned discriminator circuit
2)Phase Difference discriminator
• Foster-Seeley discriminator
• Ratio detector
In the above equation, the amplitude term resembles the envelope of AM wave and the angle term
resembles the angle of FM wave. Here, our requirement is the modulating signal m(t)m(t). Hence, we
can recover it from the envelope of AM wave.
Block diagram of Frequency discriminator
method
Foster Seeley Discriminator

• It uses a double-tuned RF transformer to convert frequency

variations in the received FM signal to amplitude variations.
• These amplitude variations are then rectified and filtered to
provide a dc output voltage. This voltage varies in both
amplitude and polarity as the input signal varies in frequency.
• The output voltage is 0 when the input frequency is equal to
the carrier frequency.
• When the input frequency rises above the center frequency,
the output increases in the positive direction. When the input
frequency drops below the center frequency, the output
increases in the negative direction.
• The output of the Foster-Seeley discriminator is affected not
only by the input frequency, but also to a certain extent by
the input amplitude.
• Therefore, using limiter stages before the detector is
necessary. Discriminator response curve
Foster-Seeley discriminator – circuit diagram
Foster-Seeley discriminator Contd..
• The radio frequency voltages 𝑉𝑎1 and 𝑉𝑎2 applied to the diodes 𝐷1 and 𝐷2
are
𝑉𝑎1 = 𝑉3 + 𝑉1 and 𝑉𝑎2 = 𝑉3 - 𝑉2
• Voltages 𝑉𝑎1 and 𝑉𝑎2 depend on the phasor relation between 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 .
• The phasor position of 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 are always equal and are in phase
opposition.
• The phase position of 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 relative to 𝑉3 will depend on the tuned
secondary at the resonance or off resonance.
• The operation of the Foster-Seeley discriminator can best be explained
using vector diagrams
Foster-Seeley discriminator Contd..
Off resonance
 At resonance
𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝒇𝒊𝒇  𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 > 𝒇𝒊𝒇 by an amount 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 < 𝒇𝒊𝒇 by an amount
𝒇𝒊𝒇 𝒇𝒊𝒇
• V3 in phase quadrature 𝟐𝑸𝒔 𝟐𝑸𝒔
withV1 and V2 . • Phase difference between V3
• The resultant voltages and V1 is 45 degrees. • Phase difference between
Va1 and Va2 are equal in • Since V2 is in phase V3 and V2 is 45 degrees.
opposition with V1 , phase Since V2 is in phase
magnitude. •
difference between V3 and V2 opposition with V1 , phase
is 135 degrees.
difference between V3 and
• The magnitude of Va1 is V1 is 135 degrees.
reduced whereas Va2 is
increased. • The magnitude of Va1 is
increased whereas Va2 is
decreased.
Foster-Seeley discriminator Contd..
• Thus the amplitude of Va1 and Va2 will vary with the instantaneous
frequency f as shown in figure 1 (a).
• The RF voltage Va1 and Va2 are separately rectified by the diodes D1 and
D2 to produce voltages Vo1 and Vo2 that represent the amplitude
variations of Va1 and Va2 .
• The output voltage is given by V0 = 𝑉𝑜2 − 𝑉𝑜1 .
• The discriminator characteristics is zero at resonance, positive above
resonance and negative below resonance.
Figure1 (a): Discriminator
• It is linear for the region between the peaks of Va1 and Va2 and this range Characteristics
is the peak separation region which should be more than twice the
frequency deviation .
Disadvantage
• Any variation in amplitude of the input FM signal due to noise modifies the
discriminator characteristics as shown in figure 2 (b).
• The undesired frequency components corresponding to amplitude
variations lead to distorted output.
• Distortions can be reduced by using a limiter in FM receiver.
Figure1 (b): Discriminator
Characteristics
• Advantages of Foster-Seeley FM discriminator:
• Offers good level of performance and reasonable linearity.
• Simple to construct using discrete components.
• Provides higher output than the ratio detector
• Provides a more linear output, i.e. lower distortion than the ratio detector
• Disadvantages of Foster-Seeley FM discriminator:
• Does not easily lend itself to being incorporated within an integrated
circuit.
• High cost of transformer.
• Narrower bandwidth than the ratio detector
Numerical
Review Questions

Q1.
Q2.
Answers

 1.
2