Preface

By solving qualitative problems one obtains the necessary component of his/her education in
the physics. Not requiring cumbersome mathematical calculations, these problems make the reader
to concentrate its attention on the physical essence of the phenomena, on their interconnections
and revealing forms. The analysis of the problems of that kind makes deeper the understanding of
fundamental laws and concepts of the physics and excites an interest of the reader in a new perception
of the surrounding world.
In creating this book the authors used their large and long experience on both lecturing and
teaching the physics. We worked many years with the high school pupils, those who had to pass
examinations in physics to be admitted to the Kazan University, and the students of first years of
university curricula. This book contains about 1500 qualitative problems in the physics. In a certain
part, it is original and composed by the authors for admission examinations and Physical Olympiads
of different levels. Other part was composed by problems known in preceding years and from other
literature sources. But even these problems were carefully edited and revised. In the second half of
this book the authors give notes and solutions to practically all formulated problems. We hope that
these solutions will be very useful namely for those readers who will use this book for a self-
education.
The problems are divided into traditional sections of the physics: kinematics, dynamics, etc. In
spite of rather conditional subdivision and structure of the book, the latter helps to make your
knowledge more systematic and reveal and illustrates the variety of laws of the physics and thus of
the Nature.
First of all, this book seems to be useful for teachers of the secondary and high schools. It will
both help them to prepare better lessons and amplify their course in additional hours. The book
also should help them to organize some experiments for their pupils.
It may turn useful also for university professors and lecturers in physics, because it contains a
lot of illustrative and problem materials.
The “Physics Around Us” certainly will give a valuable help in autonomous study of this science
to the pupils at various preparatory levels and will helps to those who are preparing to enter a
higher school.

Professor A.I.Fishman, Doctor of Science.

4
 From the authors

The main objective which we had put in front of us when started this book of qualitative
problems in the physics, was to arouse in both pupils and students an interest to the physics by
helping them to understand deeper the various and numerous physical phenomena.
The main part of the problems in this book (containing more than 1500 problems) have
the qualitative character and do not require cumbersome mathematical calculations. However,
one cannot resolve these problems neglecting fundamental laws of the physics. In some cases
an estimation is required, though not exceeding the ordinary scholar elementary mathematics.
Our trend was to use rigorous but comprehensive notes and solutions which should be sufficient
for understanding of phenomena under consideration without referring to the special sources.
This makes us able to say that this book can be used as a rather helpful source for a self-
education.
We included into this book the problems published in XX century in other handbooks in
Russia, which seem for us most interesting from our point of view. All cited problems were
carefully revised; both the questions and the answers were refined in order to correspond to
modern physical concepts. Some problems were properly composed by the authors. These
problems were suggested to participants of Physical Olympiads of city and republic level in
1986-1995.
This book contains problems of very different complexity: some of problems might seem
very simple (and thus will excite a smile of a professional), meanwhile others may turn rather
complicated even for a well-prepared reader.
We hope that the book will be useful and interesting for both young people starting their
path to the science and even to their moms and dads, who ought to answer quests of their
curious children. It was written for all those who wish professionally study and teach the
physics.

The authors.

5
Translation of this book into English was even interesting: you should try to understand how it
would be perceived by a reader which uses a different linguistic system. Anyhow, in working
on the English version of these problems, I was bearing in mind the trend to supply an adequate
physical interpretation of these qualitative physical problems in a different language, but not
sense.
I would like to encourage those who will read and work with this book. Anything which
could help you in reading and understanding of this book will be pleased if sen t to my electronic
mailbox: [email protected].

Tagir S. Tagriov, Ph.D.,

Scientific Translator

6
 Chapter I
Basic Laws of Mechanics

Kinematics

I.1. The graphs of displacement of three rectilinear motions are given below (see Fig. I.1). What is
the difference between these motions? Indicate the motions with the greatest and least velocities.

S, m

30 30
20
20 20
10
10 10
O
0 1 2 3 t, s 0 10 20 30 t, min 0 1 2 t, h
F ig . I.1 F ig . I.2 F ig . I.3

I.2. Using the graph (see Fig 1.2), determine the place where the automobiles will meet. Given that
they move rectilinearly, determine their velocities and the time necessary for each before they will
meet. Note that cars leave at different moments the points with the distance 25 km between them.
I.3. In Fig.I.3 you can see a graph of the motion of an automobile. Indicate the character of the
motion at each of graph’s segments. Evaluate the velocity of the automobile.
I.4. On its route, a bus must pass a path of 6km between
endpoints. Consider the graph given in Fig. I.4 and answer the
following questions: a) how many buses are on that line? b) x, km
what is their average velocity? c) what is the time necessary to
make “there and back” for a bus? 6
I.5. In Fig. I.5 the velocity graph for a body moving rectilin- 4
early is given. What is the type
of this motion? What value 2
v, m/s does equal the area of each 0 30 60 t, min
square in this draw? What is the
À Â way passed by the body in first F ig . I.4
20
4 seconds? last 4 seconds?
I.6. For the motion given in the previous problem, construct the graph
10 of the acceleration with respect to time.
I.7. Two trains go towards each other: one goes with acceleration to
the North, other decelerates to the South. What are the directions of
the acceleration of each train?
0 2 4 6 8 t, se c I.8. An automobile moves on road’s bend. Whether both the right and
left wheels pass the same distance?
I.9. If a body moves under the action of a wind, then its velocity does
not exceed the velocity of the wind. A platform on skates with a sale
(constructions of that type are called “wind-skates”) moves over horizontal ice surface by the force
of a wind. It turns out that the speed of this construction may be 2 to 3 times grater than wind’s
speed. Try to explain why this construction may overpass the velocity of wind.
I.10. May a water-skier move faster than a boat tracking him/her? May the boat move faster than
the water-skier?
I.11. You are in a moving train and are looking through the window on another train moving in the
opposite direction. After its passage behind your window, you feel as if your train’s move now is
slower. Explain the reason for this feeling.

7
I.12. The rain traces over a window glass of a moving bus are skew. Can you explain why? Why do
these traces have different slopes?
I.13. On a floating ship somebody threw up (vertically) a ball. Will it fall down on the same place
if the ship goes: a) uniformly? b) with an acceleration? c) with a deceleration? d) what is the
trajectory of the ball with respect to the shore? Disregard the air resistance.
I.14. In a uniform motion of a train, a ball falls down to the floor from the upper place (recall that
trains in Russia have passenger places–beds in two levels – one lower and one upper). Will it fall
vertically? Compare the answers of an observer going by this train and an observer who watches
from a station.
I.15. A rider is on a horse which gallops directly with a constant speed. The rider wishes to jump
through a circle, and then, of course, meet his/her saddle again. What is the way in which he/she
must jump? Neglect the air resistance.
I.16. When one fires, in order to hit a target he/she ought to direct his/her riffle a bit above the
target. Why? When must this exceeding height be greater – for close targets or for far targets?
I.17. From an airplane, horizontally flying with a constant speed, a weight was thrown downwards.
In what place with respect to the airplane will this weight land? Answer with taking into account
the air resistance.
I.18. As known, an airplane, which makes the flight Kazan-Moscow, takes off and lands … at the
same astronomic time. Estimate the average speed of the plane provided that the geographic latitude
of both cities ∼56î on the north hemisphere.
I.19. Earth rotates from West to East. Then, having jumped up, why do we land at the same place
and do not move to West?
I.20. To what limit may grow the acceleration of a motion over a a
an inclined plane as its inclination grows?
I.21. In Fig. 1.6 you may see the graphs of the accelerations of:
a) a motion of a freely falling body and b) a movement of a
ferrous ball attracted by a magnet. Explain the reasons for the 0 t 0 t
difference between graphs of the accelerations of these non-
uniform motions. F ig . I.6
I.22. A tractor (on tracks) moves at the speed 9km/h. What are
the speeds of its upper and lower parts of the track with respect to the ground?
I.23. Upon the wheels of a bicycle one can see casings to protect a cyclist
against mud. Both the bicycle and cyclist move with the same speed.
Then why (and how) can the mud from wheels reach the cyclist in this
case?
vA I.24. Imagine a wheel of a train, which moves. Now explain why at each
A moment of the motion this wheel has some points which a) are still? b)
even move backward? What are these points?
I.25. A wheel rolls over a road. Why sometimes do its upper spokes seem
vB
B non-sharp as a disk, while the lower ones looks in focus and may be
distinguished?
I.26. How will a body (Fig. 1.7) move if some two its points À and  have
different linear velocities?
I.27. Estimate how would change the quantity of days in a year if we
were able to change a) the direction of the Earth rotation or 2) the direction
F ig . I.7 of Earth orbit around the Sun to opposite?
I.28. A boy has in his hands one end of a wooden plank, while another
lies on a cylinder. The plank is horizontal. Then the boy moves the plank forward and thus the
cylinder rolls without sliding over a horizontal plane. In addition, suppose that the plank does not
slides on the cylinder. Given that l is the length of the plank, what is the way the boy must walk to
reach the cylinder?
I.29. A gear with 6 teeth is in contact with another gear with 18 teeth. How many complete rotations
around its axis must the smaller gear make if we know that it will pass one lap around the greater
one (the latter does not move)?
I.30. Clearly, the hands of a clock and watches differ. Consider the minute hand. For these two
devices, which one will have the greater linear velocity of the end of its minute hand? Give the
answer for their angular velocities.
I.31. Visual observations of satellites and their carrying rockets show that, in spite of their very

8
poorly aerodynamic form, the last ones move around the Earth faster than satellites. Answer why.
I.32. Rails for a tram must be non-smooth, otherwise it will spin. However, on sharp bends, they
even grease rails. What for?
I.33. Suppose that cosmonauts are near one of the stars of a star cluster. They see that all other
starts of the cluster move out with velocities proportional to distances to these stars from observers.
How will change (if ever) the picture of the star motion if now they are near another star of the
same cluster?
Inertia and mass

I.34. A train approximates to a station and thus decelerates its velocity. In what direction would it
be easier to drag a heavy box on car’s floor? Toward the station or in the opposite direction?
I.35. At the room’s ceiling in a ship a little load is fixed. The ship goes directly and without
acceleration. To what direction will this load move with respect to the room if the ship: increases
its velocity? decreases its velocity? turns to the left? or suddenly stops (not Titanic)?
I.36. A man stumbles. Why does he fall? In what direction?
I.37. Invent a way to use the motion inertia to eliminate a drop of ink from the end of a pen (for
those who never had seen such writing device as pen: how to remove a drop of a liquid pigment
from the end of a tiny brush)?
I.38. A wind engine is often equipped with an inertial accumulator, i.e., with a heavy disk called
flywheel. This uniforms the motion of the engine in spite of constant changes of wind’s speed.
Similar heavy flywheel are used in piston engines (in cars, lorries, vapor engines, etc.). Explain the
action of a flywheel.
I.39. How could you explain that in a medical thermometer the mercury almost instantly goes
down when one shakes its strongly?
I.40. What are the ways to place an ax on a handle? Explain the processes and events.
I.41. It is not too difficult to juggle with a two-meter stick upon your fingers, but the same is
practically cannot de made with a match. Why?
I.42. A cosmonaut in the open space pulls toward himself/herself a halyard fastened to a cosmic
station. Why does not the cosmic station assume an observable velocity toward the cosmonaut in
this case?
I.43. You are playing in “tag” with your friends. Why it is difficult to catch a partner when he/she
permanently turns to different sides?
I.44. If a running man want to change sharply his direction, he embraces a tree or a pole. Explain
why does he do it.

Force. Adding and decomposing forces

I.45. To the middle of a tightly strained cord a less strong

rope is bound. They pulled it down (Fig. I.8). The cord has
broken while the rope not. Explain the phenomenon.
I.46. A towage of a ship even in a small sea storm is very
difficult, because waves may throw ships in opposite
directions, strain and broke the cable. To avoid it, sailors
F fix some heavy loads (anchors, metal pieces, etc.) near
cable’s center. Why do they do it?
I.47. Your automobile (not you, of course) has got into mud
F ig . I.8 in a forest. Having only a cable, how would you liberate
your vehicle?
I.48. Climb the Swedish Wall (a kind of ladder) and hang on your hands. How should one position
his/her hands for lesser efforts?
I.49. Could one stretch a rope between two trees in such a way that there was no any sagging?
I.50. When do the ropes of a hammock more tighten: if they have slope, or when they are almost
horizontal?
I.51. How may one weight a suitcase of approximately 300N by using spring balance graded up to
200N?

9
I.52. Two men pull a rope in opposite directions, each with the force 100N. Will this rope tear if its
maximal load is 150N?
I.53. Under what inclination (greater or smaller, see Fig.
I.9) will the barrel press stronger upon the plank?
I.54. A pole (for electric supply or for telephone line) must
be set on a place where line has a bending. How must one
α set a support log for this pole? How must one set a guy-
rope instead of the support log?
I.55. What is a force to be applied by a man who keep
himself by a rope in his arms if the rope is bound to his
body and then goes over a fixed pulley?
β>α I.56. Why do fishers use rods with thin and elastic ends
and even bound the fishing line to a rod through a ribbon
F ig . I.9 cord?
I.57. To expand elastically a spring for the length l the force
F is required. What is the force necessary to expand
elastically for the length l two same strings if: they are parallel? consecutive?
I.58. If sausages are cocked in boiling water, why do they burst along their length and not in cross
direction? (In Russia sausages are usually produced each in individual polyethilene envelope)
I.59. Why it is easier to cut food not by simple pressing over the knife, but by moving it backwards-
towards?

The second Newton law

I.60. How can one determine the average resistance force which acts against a raft in water if
observer has no a dynamometer?
I.61. Why does a volleyball mesh strongly tightened can break under ball strokes?
I.62. A man makes long jump. What must be the direction of a force with which a man acts towards
the ground in order to make the most long jump? Neglect resistance of air. Consider jumps with
some start runs and without.
I.63. The pressure of gunpowder onto a projectile in a stem channel attains 35Mpa. Due to this
fact, the projectile may assume the initial speed near 10km/s. Nevertheless, gun was proved to be
useless to launch a spacecraft. Meanwhile, by applying a rocket engine, we may impart to a spacecraft
the necessary cosmic velocity. Why?
I.64. A heavy anvil is imposed onto the breast of a circus artist. Why does a hammer stroke over the
anvil make no harm to the artist, while the same without anvil would simply kill him?
I.65. Why are anvils made massive?
I.66. Acceleration of a moving body is directly proportional to the
v, m / s resulting force and inversely proportional to its mass. Explain why, on
a horizontal piece of railroad, might a train have no any acceleration,
in spite of the tracking force of a locomotive being both constant and
positive and the mass of a train being also constant?
I.67. In Fig. I.10 you can see the graph of the speed of a body which
moves rectilinearly. What could you say about resulting force acting
upon this body?
t, s I.68. A skater wants to stop. Why does the skater have to put the skates
at an angle to each other?
F ig . I.1 0 I.69. If a locomotive cannot shift ahead a heavy train, then the machinist
first puts train back and then forward. What is it done for?
I.70. In a manual weeding why should one take off weeds rather slowly?
I.71. What is the force of a cobra when it moves vertically upwards at the speed v in preparing to
jump? Cobra’s mass is m, its length is l. At the first moment it lies curved to a ball on the ground.
I.72. How can a boy weaken the stroke of a heavy ball when cuts it with his hand?
I.73. If you land down after a jump, you must cower elastically. Landing with “straight legs” is
dangerous for health. Explain the reason for it.
I.74. In jumping down from a third of even forth floor of a building (for example, in a fire) onto a
stretched canvas, why might a man have no harm for his health?

10
I.75. Is falling down onto a frozen ground much dangerous than onto a fresh snow?
I.76. Why does a glass plate break if falls on a stone and does not break in falls onto grass?
I.77. Why do train machinists afraid to stop trains on a rise?
I.78. Mine cages moved by a cable are lifted up: first with acceleration, then uniformly, and then
decelerate before the stop at surface. How does the character of motion affect the stretching load of
a cable? When, most probably, might the cable torn?
I.79. A plumb line is weighted at the end by a body A. To A through a spring another body B is bound.
Whether these bodies will fall with the same acceleration if one has fired up the line?
I.80. Two balls of the same size with masses m1 and m2 (m2> m1) are bound with a line whose
length is much greater than the radii of balls. Balls are thrown down from a sufficiently large
height. Determine the tension force between these balls falling in air at a sufficiently large time
after throw.
I.81. Why would a parachute be helpless when one must jump down from a rather small height?
I.82. Whether we might apply the formulae of a free fall to the motion of a man who has jumped
wit a parachute from an airplane?
I.83. Theoretically, the most distant shot from a gun is attained if the stem slope is 450 to the
horizon. Practically, this angle of maximally distant shot equals some greater value, for instance
520. Explain the reasons.
I.84. A box A is filled with water, while B contains the honey. In what of the cases a bullet will have
a longer trajectory: 1) first through A then through B or 2) first through B and then through A? Consider the
case where resistance to bullet’s motion is proportional to its velocity.
I.85. A sand clock has been put on one of pans of a precise balance. The sand flows freely from the
upper part to the lower. At each moment, a definite quantity of sand particles are in air and they
thus do not press the bottom vessel. Therefore, if sand flows, the sand clock should weight less than
when all sand will be on bottom. But, this does not happen and clock’s weight is always same. How
could you explain this?
I.86. Suppose you are on the top of body scales and the pointer is calm. When you cower down.
What will happen to scales pointer at the beginning and at the end of your squat?
I.87. Estimate the time of elastic stroke between two similar metallic balls.
I.88. A bullet shot from a rifle makes a hole in a door but fails to open it. Meanwhile a finger can
open a door but cannot make a hole. Explain why.
I.89. A pneumatic bullet is shot through an empty thin glass cup. Why the inlet hole is lesser than
the outlet one?
I.90. Dams for water–power stations have a slanting descent at their tale race, to where the water
runs. Explain the reasons why?

The Third Newton Law

I.91. A horse pulls forward a loaded carriage. By the third Newton law, the force with which the
horse pulls the carriage equals the force with which the carriage pulls the horse. Then, finally, why
does the carriage move behind the horse?
I.92. We are on a railroad. Whether in clashing both buffers of two equal cars are compressed at the
same degree? If there clash a loaded car and an empty car?
I.93. The road is covered with thin ice. Why does a car take off so hardly?
I.94. Baron Munchhausen, the hero of famous tall–story taller by Rudolf Erich Raspe, says: “Well,
I caught my own hear and with all force of mine I strongly pulled me myself upwards and thus I
took from a bog both me and my horse - I embraced it with my legs as a nipper…” So, could he save
himself in that way?
I.95. A rope goes over a sheaf (fixed pulley). At one of its ends we see a hanging man keeping the
rope with arms. To another end a load is bound equaling the mass of the man. The man starts to
climb up by hands. What will happen to the load?
I.96. You have a sailboat and decide to move by using a large onboard ventilator. Whether it is
possible? What will happen if your ventilator will blow outside the sail?

11
 Impulse Conservation Law. Jet Motion

I.97. On one end of a straw a grasshopper sits. What is the least velocity v of jump with which it
will reach the opposite end? Assume that there is no friction between the table and the straw. Mass
of the straw is M, its length is l, grasshopper mass is m.
I.98. Applying the same force, when will you throw a stone at a longer distance if you either a) stay
on the ground or b) stay on skates on ice?
I.99. Two similar caretakers roll two on same light carriages over a very slippery ice. They roll in
parallel ways and with same speed. Snow starts to fall. One of the caretakers throws the snow from
his carriage uniformly in all sides around, while other simply sleeps. Which carriage will pass
greater distance? Take into account that carriages cannot move in direction perpendicular to their
wheels.
I.100. In a large bath a pan floats. We see a hole in pan’s bottom corked with a piece of sugar. After
sugar melting to where will the pan move?
I.101. Interior forces cannot change the position of mass center of a system. Then why does a
rocket fly?
I.102. What affects rocket motion if exterior forces are not present?
I.103. In a space flight, the velocity of gas jet with respect to the spacecraft may turn to be less than
the velocity of the spacecraft with respect to Earth. Does grow in this case the velocity of the
spacecraft?
I.104. Why the resulting speed of a multistage rocket drastically exceeds the final velocity of a one-
stage rocket of the same mass and same volume of fuel?
I.105. A meteorite burns in atmosphere and does not reach the surface of Earth. What happens to
its impulse?
I.106. The hand launcher of a counter-tank gun is a tube open from both sides. Explain why can
one shoot with large and rather heavy rockets from these big–calibre guns, which is not possible
from ordinary lock–guns?
I.107. How is realized “soft–landing” of a spacecraft?
I.108. A large closed glass bell jar with a bird is placed on a scale pan. If the bird will fly up and
soar inside the jar, the balance should seemingly lose their equilibrium since the pressure upon the
scale pan done by the bird will vanish. Is it true?

Angular Momentum. Torque

I.109. Why it is much easier to unscrew a nut with a long key than with a short one?
I.110. Why it is easier to break a long rod than a short one?
I.111. Wires which supply electric power are fixed at a pole by means
of isolators (see Fig. I.11). Why do they bend the hook of isolator so that
the axis of hook’s screw lie in one plane with the wire?
I.112. If one sharply brakes a car, why does the front part of the car go
down?
I.113. A bicycle both front and rear brakes. What is the they should be
switched on if a sudden stop is required?
F ig . I.11 I.114. On a rope loop a stick is hanged horizontally. One of stick ends is
much thicker than other end. Let us cut the stick at the place where the
rope was bound. Compare the weight of obtained two parts of the stick.
I.115. A ring (see Fig. I.12) lies on a table, a line is bound to it at the point A.
Explain how will the ring move under action of the force F of the line’s stretch.
I.116. An electric coffee mill is a closed cylinder with an electric engine. Can
you determine direction of engine rotation without disassembling it? A
I.117. Why do they use at least two propellers on a helicopter?
I.118. A coin rolls over table. Why does its stability depend on the rotation
speed?
I.119. Two solid balls similar in size and mass roll without slipping from F
the same height along an inclined plane within different times. When is it F ig . I.1 2
possible? There is no any other field except gravity.

12
I.120. Two hollow spheres, one made of copper and other of aluminum, have the same volume and
weight. Moreover, they are paint into same color. How may one distinguish them?
I.121. How would affect the “easy run” of a bicycle an increase of wheels’ diameter? All other
parameters are assumed to remain same.
I.122. Explain the action of an oar considered as a lever.
I.123. An adult man stands at the left edge of a deep trench and a boy is on the opposite edge. They
need to cross the trench. Each has a wooden plank whish is slightly shorter that the trench width.
How could they pass from one edge to other?
I.124. A trolley driver needs to disconnect a trolley from upper wires. Before to make it the driver
forces the rope bound at the trolley it as back as possible. What is the reason for this action?
I.125. In cutting by scissors a metallic wire, it is convenient to put the wire as close as possible to
scissors’ screw axis. Explain the reasons.
I.126. Why they do make tin snips with much shorter blades than scissors for tissue?
I.127. A log is hoisted along an inclined plane by a rope as shown in Fig. I.13. Do they gain in
force? In work?
I.128. A tower crane for hoisting heavy bodies has an arm, which usually F
makes an angle with the horizontal. By changing this angle of slope the
loading capacity of the crane will also change. How and why does it change?
In what position the crane will have the least capacity?
I.129. Under what condition can a screw serve for fastening details?
I.130. Why is not it possible to augment the pitch of the screw in metal
worker’s vices? Seemingly, the wider pitch would make the gripping of F ig . I.1 3
details in a vice faster (in a lesser quantity of screw rotations).
I.131. Why a fastening made with screws is much firmer than that with nails?
I.132. Screws for wood and metal differ by their shape. Explain the reasons.
I.133. A sheaf gives no advantage in force. However, experiments show that the force necessary to
keep a load on sheaves is less than load’s weight, while the force necessary for a hoist of a load is
slightly greater than its weight. What are the reasons for it?
I.134. Both the reels and bicycle gears, but in reels the force is applied to the smaller gear while in
bicycle the large gear is loaded. Please give reasons for such a difference.
I.135. Consider the handles, pedal, and gears of a
bicycle. In what of these machines we gain in force?
Where do we gain in velocity? For are the purposes in
N P each case?
I.136. A solid ball rolls down without slipping over a
Ffr sloped plank (Fig. I.14). It is subject to: the gravity
force P, the force of friction over plank Ffr, and the
r⋅sinα reaction of the plank N. The Figure shows that the
α force P creates a torque (rotating moment)
M = |P|r×sinα (r is the radius of the ball, r×sinα, stands
for force arm P) with respect to an instant horizontal
F ig . I.1 4 axis passing through the touch point between the ball
and the plane. In the
presence of the torque, the angular speed of the ball must grow
continuously. Consequently, the motion of the ball should be v
accelerated, and a uniform descent along the inclined plank is not Î
possible. Is right such an assertion?
I.137. Along a horizontal plane a wheel rolls at the Ffr
velocity v without slipping. Seemingly, the friction
v1 force is directed to the left (see in Fig. I.15).
Therefore, the wheel speed decreases. But the
F ig . I.1 5 .
moment of this force with respect to the axis O
should increase its rotation velocity. What is the
matter?
v2 I.138. Incline a stool, which stays on a sufficiently glance floor, at a small angle
and free it. Explain the resulting motion of the stool.
I.139. Two similar small dump–bells fly towards each other (see in Fig. I.16).
F ig . I.1 6 What will they move after collision? Consider the size of masses at the ends of
dump–bells as small with respect to the their whole sizes.

13
I.140. Why can a cyclist move “without hands”?
I.141. What is the role of a fin of a sailboat (yacht)?
I.142. Which of the ways to make a car to get move is easier: if one applies the force to the front
tracking hook or to the upper edge of wheels?
I.143. Why do skaters swing their hands when accelerate?
I.144. How is the stability of various industrial and home-used machines (turners, cars, flower
vases, tables, etc.) attained?
I.145. Why does not a crane fall to the side of a load when hoists it and backwards when leaves the
load?
I.146. Three similar lorries are loaded with three loads of the same weight: hay, breaks, and wood.
Which of then is steadier?
I.147. Why does a dug waddle when it goes, but not a hen?
I.148. In sportive struggle a man puts legs widely. Why does he do it?
I.149. Why do sailors have a specific “sailor gait”?
I.150. If a balance has different arms, then they cannot stay in equilibrium. But one may return it in
equilibrium by hanging some load on one of their pans. But even now it is not possible to weight
correctly. Explain why.
I.151. Whether the center-of-gravity of an airplane changes within a flight with respect to frame of
reference related to the airplane?
I.152. Where approximately the center-of-gravity of a man is situated? Does it change when he does
gymnastic exercises?
I.153. Somebody pours water into a cylindrical glass. When does the center-of-gravity of the glass
with water attain its lowest position?

Work and Energy

I.154. Let a body with the mass m lie in train going at the velocity u. With respect to the road it has
the energy mu2/2. Then the body is thrown in direction toward the head of the train with the velocity
v with respect to the train thus giving it the energy mv2/2. Consequently, its complete energy equals
mu2/2+mv2/2. But one might have the following arguments: with respect to the road tis body moves
with the velocity u+v and thus must possess the energy m(u+v)2/2. The latter is greater than former
by muv. Which or these arguments is false?
I.155. A ball of the mass m, fastened on an imponderable bar, rotates
with a constant linear speed v in the horizontal plane (see in
Fig. I.17). Its kinetic energy in the frame of reference immobile
m with respect to the center of rotation is constant and equals mv2/2.
In the frame of reference in the horizontal plane, which move
F ig . I.17 rectilinearly with the velocity v0 with respect to the rotation center
(v0 = v), the kinetic energy of the ball varies in time from zero up to
4×mv2/2 (see the previous problem). What is the cause of such a
change of energy?
I.156. In which of the cases the energy for launching a satellite is lesser: in launching along a
meridian or to East along the equator?
I.157. Even in sharpest braking, a car passes a certain (sometimes not small) path before it stops.
Why does it do so? What are the causes of the length of the brake-path?
I.158. In elevating uniformly, as usual, from the window of Baby to his place on roof, in that day
when he was entertained to with a jam, Carlson noted that he wasted 21 seconds more than usually.
Evaluate the mass of the jam eaten if Carlson’s engine power is always 14 Wt and the highness of
elevating is 10 m?
I.159. A passenger upstairs uniformly over an escalator which moves up, too. Whether the work
and power expensed by escalator engine will change?
I.160. As known, gravitation on Moon is 6 times lesser than on Earth. Therefore a sportsman which
may jump up by 2 m should jump over 12 m on Moon surface. Is it true?
I.161. Imagine that a cosmonaut makes a tour around spacecraft by means of a jet engine. When he
returns to the spacecraft, he forgets to switch off the jet and collides with it. Seemingly, it must not
be very painful since both the cosmonaut and spacecraft are imponderable. What do you think
about it?

14
I.162. Two cars with engines of power P1 and P2 may achieve the speed v1 and v2, respectively.
What could be a speed v of them joined by a rigid coupling?
I.163. What is the work (in the mechanical sense) when one goes, writes, stretches a line, presses a
ball, digging a soil, descending from a mountain?
I.164. Why does a loaded lorry have a slower speed than if it were unloaded?
I.165. Why does acceleration of car requires greater power than its uniform motion?
I.166. What is the role of the gear–box of a car?
I.167. Within the same consumption of gas, car’s speed decreases when it starts to move upwards
over a hill. What happens to it?
I.168. Average power of engines of a railroad locomotive and a tugboat is same. But locomotive
can pull a train which has load 15 times lesser than that for tugging. Expose your reasons.
I.169. By settling a dam across a river during construction of a water–power station three problems
are resolved. What are these problems?
I.170. The hydrostatic head of the Sayano-Shushenskaya water-power station is 194 m. If in each
second through its turbines 3666 cubic meters of water pass, the power of station equals 6.4 million
kWt. Evaluate the efficiency of hydro-turbines of the station.
I.171. Why is the output speed of water passing through a hydro-turbine greater than its input
speed?
I.172. Explain the words by Leonardo da Vinci: “Possessing a short, almost instant life, a stroke
produces in an oppositely lying object its great and quick action” (“On The Help of Mathematics
and on Quantitative Study of Phenomena “, 1508.).
I.173. Answer the question of Greek philosopher Aristotle: “If to apply to a wood an ax onerous
with a heavy load, then why will the three be injured insignificantly? But if one rises the ax without
any load and strikes over the wood, it splits in parts. Meanwhile the falling body is much lighter
than the pressing body” (Aristotle. “Mechanical Problems”).
I.174. By means of a stroke we may gain in power. In what way? Cite examples.

The Law of Conservation and Transformation of Mechanical Energy

I.175. To a bar of the mass M, which lies on an ideally smooth table, a piece of plasticine of mass
m, which before flied horizontally with the velocity v, strikes the bar and adheres to it. Evaluate the
quantity of heat Q, which will appear within the impact?
I.176. In what way one should trough a ball downwards on the floor for it could jump higher than
the level it was thrown from?
I.177. In hammering in a nail its hat is weakly heated after first strokes. But when it will be near the
surface, it will be heated much quickly within strokes. What does happen to it?
I.178. A train moves at speed u. A bullet of mass m, which had the speed v, reaches the train and
penetrates its last car’s wall. Find the energy produced as a heat during the blow. In solving this
problem, a pupil thought as follows: Before the impact the kinetic energy of the bullet was mv2/2,
after impact it is mu2/2. Therefore, the energy lost by the bullet equals mv2/2–mu2/2. Consequently,
the same is the heat energy appeared after impact. Another pupil thought that since the bullet
velocity with respect to the train is v–u, therefore the energy which appeared as the heat equals
m(v–u)2/2. Who of them is right?
I.179. Two similar bodies fall from the height H: one in the air, other in vacuum. Do they had the
same potential energy before they started to fall? Do they have same kinetic energy at the end of
fall?
I.180. A ball was thrown vertically upwards. What quantity is greater: ascending or descending
time? How will move two similar balls after a central elastic collision in absence of exterior forces
if one of them was in rest before the impact?
I.181. A resting ball suffers a central stroke of another similar ball. When will the first ball have a
greater velocity: for an elastic or non-elastic impact?
I.182. A ball falls from height of 2 m, then jumps up to 1.5 m. How will you coordinate this to the
Energy Conservation Law?
I.183. Collect some little color stones on a seashore and then through them on a solid cement floor
from a small height. It is known that after the first impact to a solid floor a body must jump again
for lesser height, since a part of its kinetic energy vanishes with the impact. As for our stones, after
the second impact they sometimes elevate almost twice higher than after first one. Knowing the
low of conservation of complete mechanical energy, how would you explain this seeming

15
contradiction?
I.184. A ball with the initial velocity u falls from the height H and then makes a series of jumps.
In doing so, it loses the k-th part of beforehand reserved potential energy. Determine on what
distance l from the place where it was thrown these jumps will completely stop. Assume that the
friction is absent and the horizontal component of the ball’s velocity does not change.
I.185. On the boundary of atmosphere a satellite loses consecutively its energy due to the air
resistance. In what manner will change the satellite’s velocity in this process?
I.186. Both a stone and a tennis ball received the same strike made by a wooden rod. Why does
the tennis ball fly longer under equal remaining conditions?
I.187. There are two ways to make high jumps: in a wave manner and simply vertically (not
swinging your body). Why is the first manner more efficient than the second?
I.188. We see two cups with mercury on Fig I.18. Two vessels
without air have been put into these cups. These vessels are almost
similar by their shapes with the unique difference – their ball-like A
cavities A and B are situated at different heights. The mercury in B
these vessels will ascend and then stop at the same level (see
Fig. I.18). In this situation, in both cases the air pressure p will
execute the same work equaling pV (V is the volume of mercury
displaced from cups). In the left vessel the main mass is posed on F ig . I.1 8
a greater height than in the right vessel. Therefore, by expense of
the same work two different individual potential energies are
accumulated, which contradicts the law of conservation of complete mechanical energy. Find an
inaccuracy in the arguments cited above.
I.189. By means of a hydraulic ram (see
in Fig. I.19), the water can be supplied to
a height, which exceeding essentially its
level in the source 1. The action of ram is
as follows. The water flows itself along
1 the pipe 2 and with growing velocity flows
3 out via the valve 3 and makes a pressure
2 4 on it. At a certain velocity the valve 3
closes suddenly. The water then continues
its motion opens the valve 4 and ascends
along pump–feed pipe. The pressure in the
F ig . I.19 pipe 2 goes down and water again starts
to flow via the valve 3. Thus, having a
source which is 2 to 3 meters above the valve 3, one can supply water up height of some dozens
meters. What is the energy, due to which the ram is acting? Whether its work contradicts to the law
of energy conservation? What are transformations of energy in this device?
I.190. Tires of automobile wheels (as well as springs, railroad car buffers, etc.) reduce impacts and
shocks. Explain the reasons.
I.191. Dominoes (bones) are put so that the first as falls makes to fall the second, and so on.
Estimate the time for a series of 100 dominoes to fall down.
I.192. Usually, gamma–quantums irradiated by nuclei of a radioactive material cannot be absorbed
by similar nuclei. Explain why this happens. Take into account that the energy of a nucleus, which
is considered as a quantum system, might possess only some fixed values.
I.193. Explain why do not affect the response effects, described in previous problem of response,
in studies of the visible light?

Motion with respect to inertia-free frames of reference

I.194. Imagine that you are in a car of accelerating subway and go toward the motion of the train
with velocity constant with respect to train. Easily sensible force tries to resist against you and you
certainly make a work against this force. But, seemingly, your mechanical energy is not changed.
Then what is the work made by your muscles wasted for? Do you violate the law of energy
conservation?
I.195. You are in a satellite and have lever scales and a set of weights. How will you determine the
mass of a body?

16
 I.196. Into a massive tube a spring is placed, which occupies in unloaded state the
whole tube. Then a ball is put over the spring, thus compressing it approximately
twice (see Fig. I.20). In a position with slope the tube starts to fall. What will happen
to the ball?
I.197. A closed lantern with a candle is put in a rectilinear accelerated motion. One
F ig .I.2 0 can see that candle flame will slightly incline toward the direction of acceleration.
How will you explain such a phenomenon?
I.198. In a closed pick-up of a lorry moving uniformly, a watermelon lies at the center of floor.
Over the watermelon a very light rubber ball filled by hydrogen. How will move the watermelon
and the ball if the lorry will brake? Air resistance and friction of the floor are small.
I.199. How must place himself a cosmonaut in the cabin of a spacecraft in order to meet least
pressure from the “pressing” wall of the cabin?
I.200. Point out components of the centripetal force acting on a body lying at the surface of Earth.
I.201. Estimate minimally admissible duration of a day for a planet with mass M and radius R.
I.202. What does produce the centripetal force acting on a satellite?
I.203. At road bends a car slightly “sits” from one side. Given a left bend, indicate from what side
will the car sit? Explain why?
I.204. A car makes a sharp bend. A passenger citing at the right door felt a pressure from that door.
What is the side to which the car turns?
I.205. Under rotation of the wheel of a centrifugal water pump an underpressure arises which
attracts the water. How is this underpressure produced?
I.206. On a merry-go-round’s platform a carpenter level is posed along radial direction. Determine
to which side the small air bulb will be displaced if the rotation will start?
I.207. You are in a train and wish to determine the slope of the railroad. Under what condition this
can be done?
I.208. You picked up with you a lantern with a candle. To what side the flame of candle will incline
if you sit on a rotating merry-go-round?
I.209. A stone is bound to a rope and now is rotated along a circle in the vertical direction. Whether
the stretch of the rope remains same in highest and lowest points of the circle?
I.210. A small pail with water is bound to a rope and a man rotates it in the vertical plane so that the
water does not leave the pail. Explain the phenomenon in both the inertial frame of reference and
in that related to the rotating pail.
I.211. On bends cyclists, bikers, and runners incline to the side to which they should turn. What are
reasons for it?
I.212. Rotation of a liquid with respect to vertical axis of a bottle is known to help to the liquid
leave a bottle much quicker. Explain it.
I.213. A line goes over the sheaves A and B (see Fig. I.21). Two loads P
and Q equal in mass are bound at its ends. What will happen if one A B
declines the load P from equilibrium and allows it to swing freely back
and forth? Consider two cases: a) friction in sheaves is small and b)
friction is essential.
I.214. A line does not snap under action of a load. Then why may the D E C
line snap is one declines the load and allows it to wing??
I.215. A body slips down from the point A to the
A point B (Fig. I.22). For the first time it goes along the P Q
M arc AMB. Another time it descends along the arc AKB.
The friction coefficient is same in both the cases. In F ig . I.2 1 .
K what case the velocity of the body will be greater at
B B?
I.216. Why they do some bridges convex upwards?
F ig . I.2 2. I.217. For what purposes do the screens over bicycle wheels serve? What
determines their sizes?
I.218. Why does a driver decrease the speed of his car at sharp bends?
I.219. High speed of rotation of machine details is known to be dangerous. What is the danger?
I.220. The rivers of North hemisphere are known to wash away their right shores more than left
ones. Give explanations.
I.221. On one-way railroads the rails wear out at the same degree, while on two-way roads the rails
wear out differently. Explain the phenomenon?

17
I.222. Explain the direction of trade winds (winds which blow from tropics to equator and West).
I.223. A jet projectile was sot along a meridian. What will be the direction of its deviation?
I.224. To prove that Earth rotates Jean-Bernard-Lion Foucault suggested to use a pendulum consisting
of a heavy load suspended on very long and thin steel wire. The swings of Foucault’s pendulums
have a very slow fading and the plane of swinging moves together with the rotation of Earth.
Explain the phenomenon of Foucault’s pendulum. Determine either clockwise or counterclockwise
will rotate the plane of swings.

The Law of Gravitation. Weight

I.225. On a massive table a sensitive equal-arm balance stands having two pans hung on each arm as
shown in Fig. I.23. Two equal weights (each 1kg)
are put upon left and right sides, one on the left
upper pan, second on the right lower pan. Will
then the balance show equilibrium?
I.226. A body mass is known to be determinable
by weighting or by studying or testing of its inertia.
Which one of these two ways should one apply
when he/she: a) holds consecutively the bodies to
be compared on extended hand; b) consecutively
throws upward and then catches these bodies?
I.227. The force of attraction of bodies is known
to decrease as they increase the distance from
the Earth’s center. Therefore, it seems that, as a
1kg weight approximates to Earth’s center, its
attraction must grow and turn infinite at the proper
center. Practically, the weight is lost as one goes
toward the center. Give your reasons.
F ig . I.2 3 I.228. Bodies at Earth surface make revolutions
together with Earth’s rotation. How does it affect
the specific weight of a body? Where this effect must be maximal and minimal? Answer the same question
concerning the density.
I.229. Spring scales were graded on the equator. What will happen to measurements made by same
scales on a pole?
I.230. Explain the reasons for necessary use of mechanical balances (e.g., Roberval balance) instead of
spring balances in commerce.
I.231. Is it necessary to take into account the geographical position of a place, where competitions in high
jumps or weight-lifting occur?
I.232. Whether one can lift a body from ground by applying a force equaling its weight?
I.234. A sixteen-kilogram dumb-bell is in a man’s hand. The man jumps downwards from a stool. What is
the weight of the dumb-bell during the fall?
I.235. Attraction of the Moon by Sun of approximately twice greater than the attraction by the Earth. But
the Moon is the Earth’s satellite, not of the Sun. May you explain?
I.236. Assuming known all parameters of the Earth and that one Moon month duration (time between two
same phases of the Moon) equals 28 days, estimate the velocity of Moon’s revolution around the Earth.
I.237. When does the Earth move along its orbit about the Sun: in Winter or in Summer (for Northern
hemisphere)?
I.238. In XVII century a problem was published in a book. Assume that around the Earth a bridge has
been constructed, homogeneous by its material on the whole length and equal by weight in each of its
parts. Afterwards all supports are eliminated. What then will happen to it? Will is fall? Can it be applied for
any practical purpose?
I.239. As known, to launch a satellite to Moon the second cosmic velocity is required. However, theoretically,
the same can be done in a rocket possessing the speed of a car. Could you explain the situation?
I.240. If the Earth were rotating so that bodies on its equator had no weight (being imponderable), then
how long were a day in this case?
I.241. Answer the following questions: a) in zero gravity how one could pour water from one vessel to
another? b) how will affect zero gravity the boiling of water? c) how can one rotate a rocket about its
orbit? How can one change the direction of its flight? d) how one can measure the mass of bodies in zero

18
gravity? e) how one can create an “artificial” gravity?
I.242. What shape has the orbit of a satellite?
I.243. A spherical cylinder with an unfrozen liquid ( for instance, a liquid fuel) is on an orbit around the
Earth. There is a piece of metal in the liquid. How will it move? If instead of metal a bubble of air will be in
cylinder, how will it behave?
I.244. If the mass of Earth were equal to the mass of Sun and the distance remained same, how will change
duration of a year on the Earth?
I.245. Whether a satellite might have stable revolutions around the Earth if its orbit plane were not passing
through the Earth’s center?
I.246. For communication so-called “immovable” satellites are used which move around the Earth with an
angular velocity equaling the rotation of Earth and thus every time are over the same point of Earth.
Determine the requirements on the orbit of such a satellite.

Friction

I.247. What is the force ensuring the displacement of a man when he walks? Where is it directed to?
I.248. Explain why a man must make small and frequent steps when he want to go quickly over an iced
surface, meanwhile on a solid ground he even might make long jumps?
I.249. A heavy box is being pulled uniformly over a horizontal floor. What is the force to get over in this
process? Of what genuine?
I.250. What will be easier: to pull a carriage in front of you or behind you?
I.251. Whether the way passed by a hockey puck until stop depends on its mass if all other conditions are
same?
I.252. As known, on a smooth surface one can more readily slip and fall than on a rough one, because
roughness increases the friction. But then why is a rough ice more slippery than a smooth ice?
I.253. To make sawing easier one must file and set a saw (“widen” ends of neighboring teeth). What is the
reason for it?
I.254. When grain flows out of a sack, it does not form a uniform layer, but a heap of a conic shape. Why?
I.255. Why do the surfaces subject to friction wear out?
I.256. What is the work against friction forces wasted for?
I.257. On gripping jaws of metal worker’s vices and pliers you can see teeth. What are they made for?
I.258. Handles of tools, heads of bolts, circular nuts for screwing by hand possess are rubbed (corrugated).
Explain the aim.
I.259. Is it so bad that nails hammered in do rust?
I.260. Why does a rusted needle make sewing difficult?
I.261. Why are sharp the ends of gear axes in watches and clocks?
I.262. Why is it easier to pull out a nail from a log by pliers if you rotate the nail head?
I.263. Why may a car skid in sharp braking?
I.264. Why do tires have a tread pattern? Why do they make both lengthwise and crosswise relief?
I.265. On the bottom side of skies they do a lengthwise channel. Why?
I.266. For a tram driver, there is a sign: “Be careful! Falling leaves!” What about does this sign warn
about?
I.267. As known, a motion of a train is possible when there are both traction and friction forces (friction
between wheels of a locomotive and rails). At the same time, the friction between car wheels and rails
brakes the motion. But wheels of both locomotive and cars are made of same material. Moreover, cars
weight more than locomotive. But then why can a locomotive move the train?
I.268. In contrast to airplane, an electric-powered locomotive is not made of light metals and alloys. Can
you explain why?
I.269. Why does a loaded automobile slip less that non-loaded one on a ground road after a rain. Why?
I.270. A lorry with a trailer must transport a heavy machine. What is more efficient: to load the machine on
the lorry or on the trail? Why?
I.271. Why do both skies and skates slip well over ice? Why does slipping turn harder when it is frosty
and the temperature is too?
I.272. Blades if skates for runners are thinner than those for hockey or sportive skating). May you explain
the reason for it?
I.273. In winter, when all around is covered by the snow, peasants change their carriage to slates? Why so
the do so? It is known that friction coefficient for rolling is less friction coefficient for slipping.
I.274. The friction is less in ball bearings than in needle ones. However, in present time the wheels of heavy
railroad cars have needle bearings. Can you give a reason?

19
I.275. Why does ironed and starched linen become less dirty than not starched linen?
I.276. Lubrication of ribbing surfaces decreases the friction. Then why is it more difficult to hold ax handle
by a dry hand than by a wet hand?
I.277. A shift of machine is made of steel while in bearings they use copper and other metals and alloys.
Give an explanation.
I.278. In mechanical watches (and less in clocks) the bearings are usually made of stones (agate, sapphire,
ruby, etc.). Why do they use stones and not steel?
Ê
I.279. In what case the tracing
force of an automobile is
greater: when it goes over dry
or wet road?
F ig . I.2 4 . I.280. A worker sharpens his Ê C
tool. He makes it for short
times and often takes the toll of the turning stone. What is the reason for
these interruptions?
I.281. Why is the front part of an ice-crusher ship slanted?
I.282. In putting an ax or a hammer on its handle they usually insert a
wedge K made of a rigid wood (see in Fig. I.24). Why do they make it?
I.283. For fastening something to a wall, a hole should be made and corked
by a wooden cork C. To reinforce the construction, the cork is hammered F ig. I.2 5
into wall with a wedge K made of more rigid wood (see Fig. I.25). Explain
why in that case is it difficult to pull out such a cork from the wall?

20
21
 Chapter II
Fluid and Gas Mechanics

Pressure of Liquid and gas.

Atmospheric Pressure

II.1. It is difficult to walk over marshland. One must waste a lot of energy for each step. May you
explain why?
II.2. Describe the process of filling an ink fountain-pen.
II.3. In what way could one evaluate the mass of atmosphere?
II.4. Whether the atmospheric pressure affects the possible height of
pumping up water in pipes? Whether the atmosphere has an influence on the
flow of water in an open cylindrical tube?
II.5. Whether one can pump out the mercury from an open vessel via a
vertical tube of length 1m by applying a suction pump?
II.6. A liquid flows from the upper vessel to the lower one by means of
siphon as shown in Fig. II.1. The liquid running from lower end of siphon
possesses kinetic energy. Where it takes this energy?
II.7. Whether a siphon will work if its short leg is of the height 9m? 11m?
II.8. Evaluate the pressure of a water pumped by fire0pump to the ninth
floor of a modern building.
F ig . II.1 II.9. To restore the losses of air on an orbital space station, a transport
rocket carries cylinders with air. Does air press the cylinder walls in the zero
gravity condition? Whether must a cylinder for reserving gas on space station
be as strong as on Earth?
II.10. In a low flying apparatus the air is pumped under the apparatus bottom by means of a propeller.
Estimate the redundant pressure in the air pillow under an apparatus with the mass 32 tones and
the bottom area 160m 2.
II.11. To pass easier soft grounds, sands, or snow, they usually blow out some air from tires. What
is the reason for this operation?
II.12. The head (difference between upper and lower levels of water near a dam) of Sayano-
Shushenskaya water-power station is 194m. What is the pressure on the dam at this depth?
II.13. A pressure gauge on a bathyscaph shows that exterior pressure of water equals p. How you
cloud determine on what depth the bathyscaph is now?
II.14. A hermetic reservoir is filled with a liquid (see in Fig. II.2). If
we suck out the air from the open part of the device for determining
depth (i.e., the tube demonstrating the level of the liquid in vessel),
then whether the liquid in tube will ascend along the tube? Whether we
might to make the liquid to flow out the tube if the hatch of the reservoir
remains firmly closed?
I.15. Under forming details without
pressing they put a hot plastic foil 1
1 (Fig. II.3) on a matrix-form 2 and
F ig . II.2 . suck the air from the volume under
foil. Why does make the plastic foil
to bend into matrix and to take its form?
II.16. Fill a glass (better with thick walls) up to upper edge and
2
cover with a sheet of dense paper. Turn over the glass keeping
the sheet by hand, Then take off you hand. Explain the result.
II.17. Whether a cosmonaut can fill in a pipette (medicine
dropper) with a liquid if on the board of spacecraft the normal F ig . II.3
atmospheric pressure is kept?
II.18. Imagine that on the Moon in a certain laboratory the
normal atmospheric pressure is kept. If we repeat the Evangelista Torricelli experiment in this
laboratory, what will be the result? Would not the mercury flow out the tube completely?

22
II.19. What is the difference between actions of a hydraulic press on the Earth and on the Moon?
II.20. Measurements produced by Russian automatic space station “Venera–7” show that
atmospheric pressure on the Venus surface is about 10,3 MPa. The gravity on Venus is almost 1.2
times less than on Earth. What will be the height of mercury column in Torricelian experiment
realized on Venus?
II.21. Whether the Pascal law acts on a satellite?
II.22. Whether one can measure the air pressure in the cabin of a spacecraft by applying a mercury
barometer? a barometer- aneroid?
II.23. To determine the pressure why on airplanes do they use barometer-aneroid instead of liquid
barometers?
II.24. Why the sucking inlet pipe of suction pump is thick-wall strengthened with steel wire?
II.25. If one shoots to a glass then: a thin wall empty glass gets two holes (inlet, outlet), a glass
filled with water blows into pieces?
II.26. A pail is hung with a thin rope and is filled with water. On its lateral side a little hole lets
water flow out. How will the shape of water flowing out change if we fire up the rope and pail will
start to fall?
II.27. One consecutively puts into a vessel filled with water three different bodies of the same
volume but with distinct densities so that bodies do not touch the bottom. Whether these bodies
will change the pressure of water in the same way?
II.28. Into the cap of a barrel filled completely with water a high tube was built in. When the tube
has been filled with water, the barrel blows up. Why does so small quantity of water blow up the
barrel?
II.29. Why diving is not possible with a simple device: one end of a rubber tube is in diver’s moth,
another is over water surface? Invent a device for diver could breath in
water.
II.30. How will you determine the weight of am automobile not
weighting it but studying its tires?
II.31. In Fig. II.4 two pistons of different diameter,
rigidly connected to each other by a stick. The space
between pistons is filled with water. It seems easy to shift
pistons downwards, since for upward movement we must
overpass the resistance of the weight of both water and
pistons. However, in practice all is contrary. How can you
F ig . II.4 . explain the situation? A B
II.32. To vessels with water communicate as shown in
Fig. II.5. the level of water in the right vessel is lower due to a cap. Seemingly, in this
case, the pressure of water at the points À and B, lying at the same horizontal should F ig. II.5
differ since they are pressed by different columns of water. Whether this is true?

Communicating Vessels
II.33.In communicating vessels (see Fig. II.6) the water is at temperatures T1 and T2 (besides, T1 >
T2). The valve V is closed. What will
happen if we open this valve? Consider
that the construction of both vessels V
guarantees very quick change of the
temperature of the water, which flows in 1 2
them.
II.34. Two mercury barometers (See in
Fig. II.7) sands at different heights and are F ig . II.6
connected with tubes filled with mercury.
One of tubes is horizontal, while the second connects points with different
values of pressure. Both the tubes have valves. What will happen if one of
these valves will be open?
II.35. Whether the water surface of river is horizontal?
II.36. During reconstruction of theater it was necessary to draw a horizontal
F ig . II.7. line on its walls. How can this be made with use of the law of communicating
vessels?

23
 II.37. Why are the output pipes of wash-basins and sinks bent in an
S-shaped form (Fig. II.8)?
II.38. To restore the function of oil wells which stopped “spout” by
C virtue of a decrease of pressure in oil layer, the following technique is
A applied. Using special pipes the compressed air is pumped into well. The
air penetrates the oil layer with tiny bubbles. Oil foam rises and forms an
B artificial spout. Hoe could you explain it?
D
F ig . II.8 . Archimedes’ Principle. Floatation

II.39. Whether the law of communicating vessels is valid (homogeneous liquid ion communicating
vessels has the same level at each of vessels) if in one of vessels a body is floating?
II.40. Water is poured into two communicating vessels of diameters D1 and D2. Its level is H0. How
does change the levels of water in vessels if we put a piece of wood of mass m into the first vessel?
Into the second vessel? Water density is ρ.
II.41. A bubble of air buoyed to the surface from the bottom of a lake. By expense of what did
increase its potential energy?
II.42. Whether the buoyant force experienced by the same body floating first in water and then in
kerosene is same?
II.43. What is the mass of a wooden cube with the side a if during transfer from oil to water its
submerging height reduces by a quantity h?
II.44. A wooden bar is floating in water with its largest face submerged. How are situated gravity
centers of the bar and the displaced water? Whether this equilibrium of the bar is stable?
II.45. A wooded rod with a stone bound at its lower end floats in water vertically. Explain why
does this happen?
II.46. Iron does not float in water. But ships are made mainly of iron. Why do they float and do not
sink?
II.47. Which of two ships is more stable on waves: with freight in its holds or light one? Why do
they place engines in the lower part of ships?
II.48. Where does a ship submerge deeper: on a sea or on a river?
II.49. A model of ship is placed to float in kerosene, oil, water, and mercury. In which of the
liquids will the model float more steadily?
II.50. On large ships floating on seas and rivers they draw so-called “load water-
line”. Which of the marks given in Fig. II.9 does correspond to submersion into 1
summer sea; winter sea; river?
II.51. Why burning kerosene cannot be put out by water? 2
II.52. On the hook of dynamometer an empty pail is hung. Whether the readings
of dynamometer will change if we pour the pail with water and merge it into 3
water?
II.53. A cup is floating in a pan, the pan is filled with water. How will change the
F ig. II.9 .
level of water if the cup sinks?
II.54. In a tank with water a glass floats. If we ladle a bit water into the glass and
then put it to float again, whether the level in tank will change?
II.55. A pail full of water is hung on the hook of a dynamometer. We merge a piece of iron hung on
a thin line into the pail. Will the dynamometer readings change?
II.56. On one arm of an equal-arm balance in equilibrium a can (with water) is hung. In the water
a musk-rat swims. From another arm by means of a lever a rope is hung reaching the water surface.
The musk-rat starts to climb upwards along the rope. Will remain the equilibrium?
II.57. A body floats in water so that 1/n of its volume is under water. If a tank where the body floats
will move upwards (downwards) with a uniform acceleration, which part of the volume will merge
into water?
II.58. A submarine when lands over a soft ground (a silty bottom), sometimes heavily buoys from
it. How can you explain this sticking of the submarine to the bottom ground?
II.59. A body with the mass m = 2.5kg and volume V = 60l closely lies on the bottom of a pool filled
with water up to the height h0 = 3m (see in Fig. II.10). For what value one must decrease the level of
water in the pool for the body start to buoy to the surface? The area of flat surface S of the body
which is in contact with the pool’s has the area 50cm 2.

24
II.60. A pan containing a certain quantity of water floats in a larger pan filled up to edge with a
liquid lighter than water. The interior pan starts to be uniformly filled
with water by a thin jet. Draw the graph of the
change of readings P of scales under the larger
h0 pans (see Fig. II.11) with respect to the time. Both
the liquids are assumed not to mix when
contacted to each other, the kinetic energy of the
F ig . II.1 0 jet is supposed to be insignificantly small.
II.61. In a glass with water a piece of ice is
floating. How will change the level of water when the ice will be melted?
Consider the cases where: a) the ice is homogeneous; b) inside the ice a
small stone is frozen; c) the ice contains a wooden piece; d) inside the ice
a bubble of air was frozen.
II.62. In a cylindrical glass a small cork cube is floating, over it an even
smaller metallic ball rests. Moreover, the upper face of the cube coincides F ig . II.11 .
with the level of water in glass. How will the level change if the ball rolls
down to the water? The area of the glass’ cross-section is S, the mass of the ball is m, metal density
equals ρm, water density is ρ.
II.63. A steel ball is floating in the mercury. Will the position of ball with respect to mercury level
change if we pour some water over the mercury?
II.64. It is convenient to measure the density of a liquid by the submerged volume of a body with
known density. If we graduate this body by using its submersion into liquids with known densities,
then we get a device called “aireometer”. The question is as follows: whether one can measure the
density of a liquid on the board of a spacecraft?
II.65.A piece of ice is floating in sea. Its part over the sea level has the volume 100 m3. Given that
the density of ice is ρi = 0.9g/cm3, and the density of seawater is ρw = 1.1g/cm3, find the volume of
that piece of ice.
II.66. Two shells with equal weights are made one of thin rubber and other of a rubberized tissue.
Both are filled with same quantity of the hydrogen. Which of these balls will rise higher (assume
that there are no hydrogen losses).
II.67. Since a certain time instead of hydrogen they started to fill balloons with helium. This decreases
essentially the possibility of blowing. But helium is twice heavier than hydrogen. So, in order to
reach the same buoyant force, the balloons filled with helium must be twice larger than those with
hydrogen. Is this argument correct?
II.68. For floating over Moon’s surface, whether a man can use balloons?
II.69. Whether the buoyant force will change for a balloon with its rising if its shell is assumed to
be non-stretchable and the temperature at various heights is set constant? May a balloon rise up to
any arbitrary height?
II.70. Whether the pressure inside a balloon filled with a light gas (e.g., hydrogen) is greater or less
than atmospheric?
II.71.Whether a hypothesis by Otto Herike tts is valid? He asserted that vessels with rarefied air
must buoy in the air. Is this realizable in practice?
II.72. Wishing to weight the air, an ancient philosopher had blown a bull bladder and then weighted
it. The weight in both cases (for both blown and empty bladder) was same. Hence the philosopher
derived that air weights nothing. Find his error.
II.73. In a flask a certain quantity of water is present. In this water a cork is floating. Given that the
air is completely sucked from flask, estimate in percent the change of the cork’s part over water
surface. Neglect the density of water vapor after suction. Densities of water and air are ρw and ρa,
respectively.
II.74. For storage of oil and similar liquids in seawater, they use to fill them into special shells
made of synthetic materials. Then they fasten some loads to these shells, sink them, and fix on
bottom. Why do the make it? Whether it is necessary to apply a pump for hoisting the oil and
supplying a ship?
II.75. For training of cosmonauts on Earth surface in zero gravity condition various ways exist.
One of them is as follows: a man in special costume is merged into water where he does not sing
but floats. When is this possible?
II.76. The mass of floating amphibian tank is 14 tons. Determine the volume of its part submersed
into water.
II.77. Whether Archimedes’ principle is applicable in Moon’s conditions?

25
II.78. Admit that in a laboratory on the Moon an investigator puts a stone into water. What result
will he obtain? Will the stone float one the surface of water since on the Moon it weights six times
less than on the Earth?
II.79. On the board of orbital space station a small balloon was filled with hydrogen. Will it buoy
there if the environment pressure is as the atmospheric one the Earth? Give arguments justifying
your decision.
II.80. A glass with water and a wooden bar were put on the pan of a balance and put into equilibrium
by some weights. Then the bar is put into glass. Will the equilibrium be violated? Answer the same
for a stone instead of wooden bar.
II.81. When are to be weighted, materials of what kind need no consideration of the air’s buoyant
force?
II.82. On a sensitive balance a wooden cube was put onto equilibrium with weights. After that, the
whole system was covered by a glass bell jar and all the air was sucked out. This resulted in a
change of air pressure on scale pans. Whether the equilibrium will remain?
II.83. To the arms of an equal-arm lever two similar weights are hung. If we place one weight into
water and other into kerosene, what will happen?
II.84. On balance with two pans a vessel with kerosene was set in equilibrium with a set of standard
weights. If we heat the kerosene, will balance remain in equilibrium?
II.85. Two levers are in equilibrium. First lever has on its arms two different loads of the same
material, on arms of second one two different materials having same volume. Whether the
equilibrium of levers will be lost if both are merged in water?
II.86. Three equal pieces of wood were places into three similar pails. To
each of them a similar load was bound and water was poured to pails’
upper edges. In the first of pails, both the wood and load were floating. As
for the second one, the rope became flabby in part and the load slightly
touched the pail’s bottom. It the third pail rope was unbound and load lies
on the bottom. Which of pails will be the heaviest?
II.87. Two similar open vessels of same volume but different forms are
shown in Fig. II.12. We merge then vertically with their open sides down so
that former bottoms be at the same depth under water. Whether the same
F ig . II.1 2 . force is necessary for this action?
II.88. In Kaucasus mountains a three called “box tree” (samshit) grows. It
is 1.2 times heavier than water. A bar was made of this wood, a similar by volume bar was made of
lime-tree (which is 1.2 lighter than water).Both bars were bound together and thrown to water.
What happens to then?
II.89. An open glass vessel has a round bottom and its volume is 250cm 3. It is poured up to half
with a solution. The pair (vessel and solution in it) weights 2.5N. A certain body was merged to the
vessel and the common weight became 4.5N, while the solution ascended to cylinder’s edge. The
weight of the body in the solution is 0.5N and it is by 0.5N less than its weight in water. Decide
what is the shape of the vessel: either cylindrical or conical?
II.90. On a balance a vessel with water (not full) is set into
à equilibrium. Then somebody lower his finger into water (not touching
h the vessel’s walls). What will happen to the balance?
II.91. Draw an approximate graph of the dependence of the buoyant
force acting on a rubber ball on the depth of merging.
II.92. In a vessel with water a piston floats with a cylindrical hole of
b square S0. Into the hole a cork is tightly settled. The lower face of the
cork is at the same level with the lower surface of the piston (see
Fig. II.13a). The upper cut of the cork if above the piston by a height
h. The cork may freely move inside the piston. A small load was put
onto the cork. The common position of all three bodies at the
F ig . II.1 3 . equilibrium reached is shown in Fig. II.13b. Determine the mass of
the load.

26
 Flow of Liquid and Gas. Bernoulli Law.
Viscosity

II.93. How can one determine experimentally, with the help of a stopwatch and a long straightedge,
the distance covered by a falling table tennis ball without a significant resistance of air?
II.94. Estimate the time necessary for completely flow out of water from a filled bath.
II.95. Why do in the rivers’ estuary some banks and small islands form?
II.96. Why do they make the end of fire-pump nozzles narrow?
II.97. A wind is known to be weaker on the ground than at a
certain height. Explain the phenomenon.
II.98. The stream of a river is from the left to the right as shown
in Fig. II.14. In what direction will the wings of the paddle-
wheel (shown in the figure) turn if submerged into water?
II.99. Imagine that the paddle–wheel from the previous problem
F ig . II.1 4 . is symmetrically settled in a pipe through which the water runs
from the left to the right. How will it turn?
II.100. Explain why do the ships with paddle-wheel have it half-submerged into the water, while
the propeller of modern ships is immerged completely?
II.101. Two cylindrical tubes are similar everywhere except for a small segment, which is long
from tube ends, where the first one has a thickening (bulb) while the second is narrower at the same
place. By means of a pump, a flow of water is created filling both of them completely and such that
water velocity is same at the input of each tube. In tubes no curls rise. At the input they mixed to
water a bit of paint. In what tube the paint will quicker reach other end? Whether the time of paint
appearance depends on the position of the bulb (or tightening)?
II.102. Under an open water faucet a small bath stands and the water flows upon it. Under the
water jet, a light small ball is placed. Whether it can remain is equilibrium?
II.103. A parachutist before landing pulls toward himself the front lings. In this case, in what
direction does he go to fly?
II.104. Within testing of a jet non-controllable projectile designed to protect an airplane from back
and thus placed at the tail of airplane, a surprising fact was established: after launch, the projectile
turns backwards and try to catch the proper airplane. How could
you explain such a phenomenon?
II.105. A stone is bound at the end of rod. The result then is
thrown directly forward. Why in its motion does the tone fly
always first?
II.106. It is necessary to row with minimal expense from A to B
B A against the current (Fig. II.15) and then return back to A (by the
current). Is it better to row near the shore or through the middle
F ig . II.1 5 . of river?
II.107. When water is high, the river surface is upwards convex.
When water is low the surface is concave? Can you give an
explanation?
II.108. Why does dust curl behind a moving car?
II.109. Why do they retract the landing gear when airplane flies?
II.110. The exploitation rules on railroads require that that car doors be necessarily closed even if
cars are empty?
II.111. How do the residues (e.g., scum) on pipe walls affect the quantity of liquid passing in a unit
of time (consumption) of a liquid or a gas?
II.112. In days with string frost the gas flows rather slowly in kitchens though gas station supports
the same pressure of supply. May you explain this phenomenon?
II.113. If one closes with finger the nozzle of a water cock, the water jet flows out from the remaining
space with much greater velocity than it flowed out earlier. Could you explain the reasons for it?
II.114. Vegetable oil in hot summer days easily flows from a bottle, in winter it flows significantly
more slowly. Why?
II.115. Over an inclined plane two bottles roll down. One is filled with water, other by a mixture of
sand with sawdust. Both masses and distribution of masses around the rotation axis the bottles are
same. Consequently, the bottles must have the time to reach the bottom. But, in practice, the bottle
with water will make it faster. May you give an explanation?

27
II.116. How could one know whether an egg was or was not boiled, not destroying its shell?
II.117. The bed of a channel (river) on straight segments of constant cross-section represents an
inclined plane along which the water is flowing down. But then why does water moves without
acceleration on these segments?
II.118. The trajectory of the motion of raindrops under a constant horizontal wind is not a parabola,
but a straight line. Can you explain why?
II.119. In competitions of runners some participants try to run behind their rivals and make a spurt
only near the finish line. May you explain why do they do so?
II.120. Swimmers tend to keep their heads in water. May you give an argument to explain such a
manner?
II.121. Flying to long distances, bird form a chain or a wedge in the sky. What for do they make it?
II.122. Why do the wings of anemometer have the sharp of a semi-sphere, not of a flat blade?
II.123. Why is wide and slightly concave the end of an oar?
II.124. In the cupola of a parachute one can note a small hole? For does it serve for?
II.125. Why does a ski-jumper inclines ahead his body when jumps-off?
II.126. Due to gravitation all bodies fall on Earth. Clouds are known to consist of small drops of
water. Therefore they must fall down. But nobody sees such an event. How can you explain this
paradox?
II.127. What is the shape of a liquid in a vessel sliding without friction along an inclined plane
making angle a with the horizon?
II.128. In falling from a large height, a raindrop consecutively evaporates. How does this affects
the character of its motion?
II.129. Which of raindrops fall down faster: big ones or small ones? Justify your answer.
II.130. If we cut out a piece of paper in the shape of a coin and then throw down them together
(with coin covered from above by paper), then paper follows together with coin as soon as paper’s
edges are inside the surface of the coin. If you throw them not gathering together, paper will fall
more slowly than the coin. Please give your explanation of this fact.
II.131. Why does a large stone fall to Earth quicker than the same stone partitioned into smaller
particles?
II.132. If future cosmonauts will arrive at the surface of Mars they would have to use steel umbrellas,
since ordinary ones will give too weak protection. What reasons can
explain this proposition?
II.133. On the bottom of a wide vessel there is a narrow tube. The
water filling this vessel may flow out it (see Fig. I.16). Between the
vessel and the tube a grid is situated. If we put a light ball on the
bottom of vessel (as sown in Figure) at the moment when water flows
out, this ball does not buoy. But of we close the tube, ball buoys.
Why?
F ig . II.1 6 II.134. We mix tea in a glass with small by rotating a tea–spoon. After
taking off the spoon, we can see that tea-leaves try to join in the center
of rotation. Why do they behave that way? The liquid keeps turning and, seemingly, the centrifugal
force should move them to the walls of the glass.
II.135. One inventor suggested the following simple project of a
perpetuum mobile: A hermetic vessel is divided into two parts by a
hermetic membrane. Through the membrane a tube goes and a water
turbine of a special design (see in Fig. II.17). The turbine has cameras
with automatically closing caps. The pressure in the lower part of the
vessel is greater than in its upper part. The water rises in the tube and
fills the open camera of turbine. After that the camera closes and the
wheel turns. In the lower part of the vessel the camera opens F ig . II.1 7 .
automatically, it returns the water and then closes hermetically, and
so on. Why will not work perpetually this machine?
II.136. A hurricane may blow out a house roof and throw it upwards. Explain the source of this
“buoyant force”.
II.137. Many houses have dormer-windows in their roofs. What do they serve for?
II.138. Why do travel dunes and sandbanks?
II.139. In snowy winters some parts of railroad or highways, situated in lower places, are open
covered by snow even is snow does not falls. How could you explain this?
II.140. In windy winter days some snowdrifts appear behind trees and poles. Can you explain this

28
fact?
II.141. If we direct a jet of air through a tube, which is perpendicular to a plate (Fig. II.18), then the
jet will press upon this plate and it shifts
downwards for a certain distance. Now let
us change the experiment: take two plates
and fasten to immobile upper one a tube,
while the lower parallel plate will be made
movable. So the distance between plates
may vary (see Fig. II.19). If the distance
between plates is small, then in blowing a
jet of air through the tube these plates will
F ig . II.1 8 . F ig . II.1 9 . move apart each other. Under a small
distance between plates they do attract to
each other so that a significant force must
be applied to separate them. Can you explain this phenomenon?
II.142. A floating body displaces a volume of water whose weight equals the weight of the body.
Why does a heavy motor boat runs almost over the water?
II.143. To support an airplane in the air a very small difference between pressures under and over
a wind is necessary. For example, it suffices to have the pressure 105 Pa under wing and 9.9×104Pa
above wing. In this situation, a heavy machine, which might
weight some tons, is supported in air. Give explanation how is
so heavy body supported by so small difference of pressures?
II.144. How will change the attack front resistance and the
buoyant force of a wing if, not changing the velocity, one changes
the angle of wing’s inclination with respect to the horizon?
II.145. How does change the buoyant force of an airplane wing
as it foes up? What is the upper bound of an airplane?
II.146. Why do high-speed airplanes fly, as a rule, on large
heights?
II.147. What is the function of wings on racing automobiles
(for instance, on car of class “Formula-1”)?
II.148. From the mechanical standpoint explain the difference
between the work of an airplane wing and a bird wing.
II.149. Bound to a line, a kite (see Fig. II.20) rises if, setting its .
F ig . II.2 0
plane at an angle with respect to the direction of kite motion,
one runs quickly. Why does a kite rise?
II.150. Why do airplanes take off and land on runway against wind?
II.151. What are forces against which an airplane realizes a work in taking off?
II.152. There is no wind, but a socker ball flies by a curve in the horizontal plane. What is the
mechanism of this phenomenon?
II.153. To make a ball to fly longer, in what direction it must twirled?

29
 Chapter III
Molecular Physics
Foundations of Molecular-Kinetic
Theory of Matter Structure

III.1. From the molecular-kinetic point of view explain: a) the feature of bodies to be subject to
compression under a pressure applied; b) impossibility of an infinite compression of bodies; c)
expansion of bodies under heating; d) solution of a salt in the water; d) the fluidity of liquids and
the conservation of forms by solid bodies.
III.2. If you sprinkle perfume in one corner of a room, after a certain time its aroma will be felt in
other corner. How can you explain this phenomenon? Having a watch, one can evaluate the average
speed of smell propagation (it is near 0.6–0.9 m/s). How will this speed agree with the large velocity
of a motion of molecules (~102 m/s)?
III.3. Why is the diffusion between liquids is significantly slower that that between gases? Under
what conditions can diffusion occur between solid bodies?
III.4. A smith heats to white two pieces of iron. Wishing to weld them he puts them on each other
and strikes with hammer. Pieces join, say ‘’weld”. tts Explain the phenomena.
III.5. An alloy can be obtained without making its components to pass into the liquid state. Explain
how can this be done.
III.6. The superficial layer of an iron thing can be made stronger by a carbonization. To do this,
one must heat for several hours a piece of iron placed in a box filled with carbon. Explain what
physical phenomenon is related to the iron carbonization, which is a saturation of the superficial
layer of iron by the carbon with forming the carbide of iron?
III.7. Why does a piece of sugar solute faster in hot water than in cold?
III.8. Put upon each other two glass plates. Why is it difficult to displace one plate with respect to
other? What are the forces to be overcome in this case?
III.9. In storing large sheets of polished glass, why do they put between them paper bands?
III.10. To reduce the friction, they polish surfaces, which are to contact each other. But, in dependence
on the quality of polishing, the friction does not disappear limitlessly – within further polishing the
friction starts to grow. Explain the cause of this phenomenon.
III.11. Explain the process of gluing from the standpoint of the molecular-kinetic theory.
III.12. As glasses are harder, so it is more difficult to glue them. Justify your answer.
III.13. Why does stucco slip if the rainwater gets between it and a break wall?
III.14. In the air filling a room, in accordance with the words by the great physicist Maxwell, under
any temperature there are both molecules moving quickly and slowly. Divide the room by a membrane
with a small door and let this door be controlled by a robot, which is able to distinguish quick and
slow molecules. If we open the door for quick molecules and close for slow ones, then after a
certain time we shall have in one half of the room all quick molecules. Consequently, the temperature
will differ in different parts of the room. In this situation, a possibility rises to explore this difference
between temperatures for production of a mechanical work. Therefore, one can construct a perpetuum
mobile? Are his arguments true?
III.15. In order to determine losses of a natural gas (it almost has no smell) they use a special
addend with specific smeller. The norm of mixing is 16g for 1000m3 of the natural gas. A man may
feel such a small quantity of the smeller in if it were diluted hundred times. Evaluate the quantity
of molecules of smeller in one cubic meter of air for it could be felt by a man if the mass of one
molecule of the smeller is 10-22g. Estimate how many molecules will reach the nose when make a
breath.
III.16. Why does the Brown motion is observable in a microscope only if particles are very small
and saturated in a liquid?
III.17. Consider a very thin powder (for example, the flower pollen). As soon as it is mixed with
water, why does not it sink on the bottom of a glass but always is in a suspended state? Whether the
distribution of powder particles is uniform in the whole volume of water?
III.18. Any paint is a suspension of tiny particles of ferment in a solvent. Why do the particles of
ferment remain long in suspension though their specific weight is greater than that of a solvent?
III.19. In 1883, in Indonesia at the Krakatoa island, a great volcano discharge happened destroying
the half of the island and throwing into the air huge amounts of tiny dust and ash. Presence of the

30
dust and ash in atmosphere was observed during some years later. Habitant of many countries
could observe unusual intensively red sunshine in those years. Why was the dust suspended for so
long period?
III.20. Why are nuclear weapon test accompanied with formation of great quantities of radioactive
dust are so dangerous for world human society when are made in atmosphere?
III.21. The milk is a suspension of tiny particles of fat. What is to be done to obtain the cream more
quickly?
III.22. A gas is in a closed vessel. Its molecules in their impacts with walls transfer a part of their
kinetic energy. This results in an assumption: an isolated vessel must become hot. It is true?

Thermometers
III.23. The balls of the two thermometers are same. One contains water, other one is filled with
mercury. Under similar condition, why does the mercury thermometer become cold twice quicker
than the water one?
III.24. In medicine, why do they use the mercury thermometers but not those of spirit or ether?
III.25. Which thermometer (under same other conditions) is more sensitive: with mercury or with
spirit?
III.26. In modern fluid thermometers water is used as working liquid. May you explain the reasons
for it?
III.27. Whether one could measure the temperature of a drop of hot water using a mercury
thermometer?
III.28. The taking the temperature by a medical thermometer requires a long time (5 to 10 minutes),
by short shakes put it back almost immediately after measuring?

Heat and Macroscopic Work.

The First–Law of Thermodynamics. The Heat Capacity
III.29. On the second floor the potential energy of firewood is greater than on the first floor. Whether
burning of firewood will give a greater energy than if it were burst on first floor?
III.30. A boy which is at the height H over water lets go a stone which finally reaches the bottom of
a pond of depth h. What is the quantity of heat which discharge the fall of the stone if its mass is m
and its volume equals V?
III.31. The gas temperature inside an engine reaches 18000C. Why is it not so hot at exhaust pipe’s
outlet?
III.32. If a teapot is full, the water long remains hot in it. But if teapot was filled poorly, it quickly
loses its temperature. Explain this phenomenon.
III.33. In the pipes of central heating the heat carrier is water. Why do they use water and not
another substance?
III.34. Even in hot summer days the temperature of upper layers of water in ponds, rivers, and
lakes is always lower than the temperature of air over them. Explain why.
III.35. How can you explain that at the beginning of frosts (in autumn) the water in rivers and lakes
is not frozen (ice) though the temperature of ambient air may be negative for some degrees (measured
in 0C)?
III.36. In a strongly blowing jet of air does a candle go out?
III.37. The climate on islands is more moderate and uniform than over large continents. Explain
the reasons.
III.38. In deserts, it is very hot in daytime, but at nights the temperature may fall below 0 0C.
Explain the phenomenon.
III.39. The interior vessel of calorimeter is often filled not by water but kerosene. Why do they do
it?
III.40. Estimate a maximal radius of a cave, which is formed in an underwater explosion on the
depth h = 1km of an explosive charge with the mass m = 1kg. The energy of explosion of 1g of the
explosive equals λ= 4 kJ.
III.41. Why do they make the brakes of airplanes of a material with high temperature of lighting
and large specific heat capacity?
III.42. A spacecraft has special heat shields. Why do the shields of a spacecraft destroy when it
enters to dense layer of atmosphere?

31
III.43. The temperature of atmosphere changes with the distance from Earth surface. Thus, at
height 80km the temperature is about 80 °C, and at the height 150–200km attains hundreds degrees
above zero. Nevertheless, space vehicles do not suffer from overheat at high orbits. Cosmonauts
say that shields “burn” namely in layer with low temperatures. Do they contradict something?
III.44. Producing a shot, the steel of the barrel of a gun does not melt, though the temperature
attains there 3600 °C. (Steel melts at 1400 °C). Why does the melting not happen?
III.45. In what case for heating of a metallic ball more energy is required: when it is hung on a line,
or when it stands on a support? Assume that neither line, nor support require an additional energy.
III.46. In attempt to determine the specific heat of a substance of sample
they found that the water in calorimeter is heated poorly when the sample
is sink into it. This results in a very small change in thermometer readings
and thus the accuracy of measurements is poor. Suggest a way for this
experiment in order to increase the accuracy of measurements?
III.47. In a cylinder provided with a piston a certain mass gas is posed. In
what case will a greater quantity of heat be required to warm up the
cylinder: either in position 1 or 2 (see Fig.III.1)? The initial temperature
1 2 of gas is same in both the cases.
III.48. Might the heat capacity of an ideal gas be negative?
F ig . III.1 . III.49. How will the temperature in a room change if we open for a certain
long time the door of refrigerator?
III.50. The gun-powder cannot be used as a fuel, while the gasoline does not serve for projectiles.
Explain the reasons for it.

Heat conduction

III.51. You are going to take your breakfast and pour coffee into a glass. But due to something you
have to leave the room for some minutes. Explain what should be done for the coffee be more hot:
pour milk just before you leave the room or after you come back?
III.52. Two teapots are taken to prepare the tea, both can take a mass mw of water. One teapot is
made of copper and has the mass 200g, while other is of porcelain and its mass is 300g. Tea is more
testy of prepared in water with higher temperature. Which of the teapots will bring a more testy tea
if the boiling water is poured at room temperature t = 20 °C and we may neglect the heat radiation
to the outside environment? (Specific heat of substances are: of water cw= 4180 J/kg×Cal, of porcelain
cp = 900 J/kg×Cal, of copper cc= 390 J/kg×Cal). Does a preliminary heating of a teapot by rinsing
with boiling water give an advantage? In presence of exterior cooling what of teapots is really
better?
III.53. Pour the same quantity of hot water of temperature T into both glass and aluminum cylinders.
By touching these vessels you may easily verify that aluminum is warmed quicker than glass though
specific heat of these substance is almost same (≈ 900 J/kg×Cal). Explain this phenomenon.
III.54. Why do we feel sharper a hot water when drink from aluminum cup than from a porcelain
cup?
III.55. Why are metallic things felt more cold than wooden ones when you touch them in a room?
III.56. A thin copper wire melts over a gas burner while a copper nail even does not turn red?
III.57. Experienced housekeepers do not like to fry food on aluminum frying-pans, but on cast-iron
ones?
III.58. Where is greater the temperature of an electric lamp: at the center of filament or on its
surface?
III.59. Let us apply electric current through a wire without isolation and through isolated one, both
being of the same section. Seemingly, the isolated wire should be hotter. But, in practice, the situation
is contrary. What is the reason?
III.60. What will be the difference if you take by hand in a string frost a thick metallic bar and a
thin-wall tube of the same diameter?
III.61. Heat a frying-pan on gas or spirit burner. From time to time sprinkle a drop of water over it
and observe the rate of its heating. Explain why at height temperatures the drops of water are long
“dancing” over pan and not disappear.
III.62. In a lake a heap of stones was covered by water. In winter the ice over this heap is thinner
than in other places. Explain the cause of this phenomenon.
III.63. It is necessary to cool a bottle with cola as soon as possible. What is the best place to put it

32
into: snow or a dropped ice?
III.64. If a pot is in long use, the water will boil in a greater time. Why does it occur?
III.65. A wet wooden plank seems to be colder than the dry one. Give an explanation.
III.66. Which soil is heated more rapidly by sun: the wet one or the dry one?
III.67. A man does not feel cold in air with the temperature 20 °C. Then why does he feel the cold
in water with the temperature 25 °C?
III.68. Give examples of the use of air in the capacity of a building material?
III.69. In dependence on rate of volume occupied by pores in a foam rubber its density varies from
40 to 100 kg/m3. Does the thermal conductivity of the foam rubber depend on its density? How
could you explain it?
III.70. Why does the “goose-flesh” appear when a man feels the cold?
III.71. If it is windy, why are hard to overpass both frost and hot in a desert?
III.72. When it is windy and cold in winter somebody can get his nose frost-bitten. Apropos, in
books they write that meteorites become in the air red-hot due to friction. Why does not nose
become hot?
III.73. Iron has a greater specific heat capacity that copper has. Therefore, being made of iron, the
point of soldering devices would have large reserve of interior energy than the same made of
copper if their both masses and temperatures were equal. Then why do they make points of soldering
devices of copper?
III.74. If a man is caught by frost on a street, he tries to move more agitatedly to not become bitten
by frost. Well, then why do the birds die of cold when fly?
III.75. The thermal conductivity of metals is known to be greater than that of a glass. Then why are
calorimeters made of glass and not metal?
III.76. Wishing to compare the heat conduction in various metals, the Russian physicist Rikhman
heated metallic balls and then observed the rate of their getting cold. He found that the led ball
makes it more quickly than those made of other metals. Whether it implies that the led has a greater
thermal conductivity than other metals?
III.77. Whether one can conserve frozen food in a thermos?
III.78. Is it true to say that a fur coat warms a man?
III.79. Is it true that the snow warms the ground?
III.80. It is known that fresh snow very well preserves the soil against frost, because it has a lot of
air, which is a bad hear conductor. But a soil not covered by snow has even much more air over it.
Then why does it turn strongly frozen?
III.81. Water is heated on an electric cooker of a constant power. Among two following processes,
which does require more time: to heat water from 10 to 20 °C or from 80 to 90 °C?
III.82. Which of two electric boilers requires less energy to make water to boil in a pan: of power
600Wt or of power 1000Wt?
III.83. It is known that a heating battery keeps the temperature in a room +20°C if it is –20 °C
outside, and keeps +10 °C if outside temperature is –40 °C. Find the temperature T of the battery.

Convection

III.84. Why do leaves of aspen sway even in a windless day?

III.85. Why are sounds more audible at night that in day?
III.86. Why sugar and salt dissolve easier when they are not on the bottom of a vessel but near the
upper surface of liquid?
III.87. In the workrooms of orbital space stations fans work constantly. Explain the reasons.
III.88. Stick a candle to the bottom of a glass pan. Then light it and elevate over a box with sand.
Let it go down and observe the flame of candle. What a phenomenon can be observed and who can
it be explained? Make some conclusions, which could serve for the equipment of a spacecraft.
III.89. Once lighted, flame must be extinguished by itself, because burning produces the carbonic
acid gas and water that both are non-burning substances and incapable to support burning. Therefore
the flame immediately is surrounded by non-burning substances which make difficult the income
of air. Without air any burning is not possible and thus the flame must be die. Then why is it quite
opposite in practice?
III.90. As known, a jet of air which goes from a fan bring us a cool freshness. You may try to
preserve the ice-cream of melting. From first argument it seems to be better conserved near a fan.
But reality if opposite. Try to explain the situation.

33
III.91. In a cold winter day we readily feel how it blows out of a tightly closed window without any
space for street air. How can you explain it?
III.92. Walls of some constructions are made double. Air is known to be a good thermal isolator.
Then why do not they leave the space between walls with air but fill it with a friable material?
III.93. You may observe that the ceiling or lampshade above an electric lamp darkens. May you
explain the causes?
III.94. In the systems of central heating working on hot water in spite of the presence of circulation
due to convection, they put additional pumps. What for is it done?

Properties of Gases

III.95. If a ball was perforated, it do not jump when thrown on floor. Can you explain why?
III.96. Sometimes the water from a water cock runs white as milk. May you explain this
phenomenon?
III.97. How does the buoyant force hoisting an air bubble in water change?
III.98. Blow into a small children balloon and tie it firmly. To determine the volume of the ball, use
two pans: one with water at room’s temperature and one with hot water. After evaluation, explain
the difference.
III.99. If a deep-water fish is taken of water, its bubble goes off the fish. Can you explain the
phenomenon?
III.100. In following Boyle—Mariotte’s law for an ideal gas we have pV = const at T = const. But
then why when we inflate cheeks both the pressure and the volume grow in our moth?
III.101. When a dry fire-wood burns, sparks jump from it. Can you say why?
III.102. Where the morning frosts are more probable: in lower or places or at heights?
III.103. Smoke pipes of large factories are very height. Why do they construct them in that way?
Which pipes are better: made of iron or made of breaks?
III.104. If you put on a plate with some water a hot glass cylinder, some time later you will observe
that water in glass stands above the water in plate. Could you explain it?
III.105. Medicine doctors sometime recommend to apply cupping-classes. Why does a cupping-
glass “sticks” to human skin?
III.106. Why is a breech ring made in a fire-arm?
III.107. In the cylinder of engine the air is subject to quick and strong compression. What for is this
done?
III.108. Whether the same quantity of air is necessary to pump tires in winter and in summer?
Justify your answer.
III.109. In the production of electric lamps their bulb is filled by nitrogen with pressure significantly
lower that the atmospheric pressure. May you give an explanation?
III.110. Air is pumped into a vessel equipped with manometer. Its pressure is higher than atmospheric.
Then they close the valve and let the air to equal the pressure. Afterwards they close the valve. But
after a certain time the pressure in vessel grows again. Explain the phenomenon.
III.111. A bicycle air-pump turns warmer when one pumps tires. What happens in this situation?
III.112. Warm air goes up. But then why is air warmer in the lower part of the troposphere than in
its upper part?
III.113. In heating a gas, the following dependence of pressure on temperature ð 2
was obtained (see Fig.III.2). What does the gas do: is either tightening or 1
widening?
III.114. It is known that wet things are heavier than same but dry ones. It is
explained by the fact that to the weight of a body we must add the weight of
the water in it. However, if one takes precision balance and weight a liter of T
dry air and then a liter of humid air, the last one will be lighter. How could
you explain this seeming contradiction? F ig . III.2
III.115. To the handle of a cylindrical pail a stone is bound. Then the pail
was put into water with its bottom upwards. To night the temperature became
lower but the pressure was steady. How did the position of pail and the level of water change?
III.116. A glass of mass m was put into water with its bottom upwards. How will rise the bottom if
we heat the water up to 100 °C and keep his temperature? The area of bottom is S. The pressure of
the saturated water vapor under a temperature which water had at the beginning is significantly less
than the atmospheric pressure p0.

34
III.117. Arguing by a graph, explain how the gas volume changes within heating if the change of its
pressure and temperature is given in Fig. III.3.
p III.118. In a thermally isolated vessel standing on a table an one-
À atom ideal gas is under a piston which can freely move (see Fig.
III.4a). On the other side of the piston we have the vacuum. The
is fixed and the vessel is inclined by the angle α = 600. Then
Ñ piston
 the piston is liberated again (see
Fig.III.4b). For what factor will
the volume of gas change after
T the equilibrium will take place?
III.119. For how many degrees
F ig . III.3 must the air inside a balloon be
heated for it could take off? The
volume of balloon is 525m 3, shell’s mass is 10kg, the
a b
atmospheric pressure is 765 mm of mercury, the temperature
is 27 °C, the molar mass of the air is M = 29 g/mol. The shell
of the balloon is non-tensile and has a small hole at the bottom. F ig . III.4
III.120. We have an unknown substance. Give a simple way
to determine its molecular mass.

Features of Liquids.
Surface tension

III.121. In an explosion of water boiler with pressure only 10 to 15atm consequences may be very
hard. Meanwhile is rupture of a hydraulic press with pressure 100 to 200atm, damages are not too
significant. Explain the reasons.
III.122. Molecular pressure of water is 1.1×109Pa. In swimming and diving why do not we feel this
huge pressure?
III.123. A rope is stretched between two poles. How will the sagging of the rope change after a
rain?
III.124. Why does new linen sometime become smaller after first washing?
III.125. Why do the hairs of a paintbrush diverge in water but “glue” when are taken off it?
III.126. Heat a glass tube with a not straight (e.g., broken) edge on a flame of gas or spirit burner.
When melted, the edge becomes smooth. Explain the reason.
III.127. Sand is significantly heavier than water. Then why does wind make clouds of sand in
desert, but only small waves on water?
III.128. What is the reason for pouring water upon streets in hot days?
III.129. As known, the density of glass is less that the density of mercury. This explains the fact
that a glass plate put into a vessel with mercury does not sink. But if we first put a glass plate on
vessel’s bottom and then pour mercury, the plate will not float up. Why?
III.130. Into a vessel with water put a piece of thin paper so that it lie upon water. Then put on it a
small needle. After a certain time the paper will sink, while the needle will float over water. Paper’s
density is known to be less than that of water, contrary with steel needle. What is the matter?
III.131. On water surface two matches are floating. Before this they have been half-merged to
liquid paraffin. It turns out that both clean and paraffin ends of matches are attracted to each other,
while those with “different names” move away from each other. Explain this phenomenon.
III.132. Pour water in a vessel and throw into it some similar corks, they all will float on their sides.
One can make them to float in vertical position as follows: densely push corks one to other and then
sink completely into water. After that, keeping them tightly under the water, rise them up to water
surface and then slowly deliberate. Corks will float vertically. Explain why do the float so now.
III.133. Pour water into a wide plate and throw there some 8 to 10 matches. Take a piece of sugar
and touch water. Matches will join near the sugar. Now touch water with a piece of soap. Matches
will run off it. Explain why do matches “distinguish tastes”.
III.134. A drop of water of the radius r falls from the height h and drops out into n equal drops.
What quantity of heat will be radiated? Surface tension coefficient of water is σ.
III.135. A tarpaulin tent well protects against rain. But why does it start to leak if in rain one
touches its upper surface?
III.136. Why does one cannot make bubbles of water, but soap solution?

35
III.137. Take a not too high tin and make a small hole of the diameter 1 to 2mm. Melt paraffin and
put your tin into it. If the hole will be closed by paraffin, make a hole again with a
needle. Pour some 7 to 10mm of water into tin. Why does not water flow out?
III.138. Estimate the average size of capillary of filter paper by means of a
straightedge and a vessel with water.
F ig. III.5 III.139. A light non-closed paper frame, whole form is shown in Fig.III.5, is floating
on water. What will happen if we drop inside it soap solution?
III.140. Into a vessel with water an L-shaped glass capillary of the radius r is submerged (see Fig.
III.6). The temperature dependence of the coefficient of surface tension s
is given in Fig. III.7. In what range of
temperature will the water will flow out the
vessel? , m N /m
h III.141. When the soap film blows up, to 75
where does it disappear?
III.142. Some insects may freely run over
water surface as over a floor. How do they
do it?
III.143. What are the characteristics of water, 70
H o
which determine its behavior in zero gravity? 0 20 40 t C
III.144. Whether it is possible to cast metals
into forms moistening by this metal? F ig . III.7
III.145. Before to start solder one should
carefully clean the surfaces of oxides. For
F ig . III.6 what is it done? What can you say about molecular forces between
molecules of solder and oxides?
III.146. Aluminum fails to be soldered by tinny solder. What is the cause?
III.147. Why does not Indian ink flow out drawing-pen?
III.148. To make easier unscrew of nut from corroded bolt, they moisten it with kerosene or machine
oil. What are the reasons for such action?
III.149. One must not close a vessel with kerosene or fuel with a cork enveloped by a cloth. Why?
III.150. Why is a canister, where one keeps kerosene, often covered from exterior with a thin layer
of kerosene?
III.151. What happen to a liquid which is poured into vessel one a spacecraft?
III.152. Whether lubricators must moisten the metallic parts in friction?
III.153. What is a liquid, which can be poured into a glass “over edges”?
III.154. Why can the hands (covered by oil) be poorly cleaned by a wool or silk tissue?
III.155. It is not recommended to keep near each other a chalk and a humid cloth at blackboard.
Explain the reasons.
III.156. If we put a chalk upon a wet sponge, it will be humid. But if a dry sponge is placed over a
humid chalk, it will remain dry. Explain the phenomenon.
III.157. If paper is bad, you may see blur of ink on it. Why does it occur? Which is a way to treat
paper for it could server for writing by an ink-pen?
III.158. In ramming a ground, why do the underground water rise?
III.159. If the upper layer of a soil becomes caked, this soil dries more than a loosed soil. Explain
the cause. Why does a ploughed up soil dries more slowly that non-ploughed?
III.160. In order to avoid quick dry of soils, they plough it up and then cultivate. Why is it done?
III.161. A pen for writing with ink has a cut along its end. What for they make this lengthwise cut?
III.162. Explain an experiment made by M.V. Lomonosov: “Through a sheeted of lead, bent and
formed as a siphon and merged into mercury with one end, the mercury flows out from its vessel
within 24 hours”.
III.163. There are two thin glass tubes, which are narrowed to one end. A
drop of mercury and a drop of water were put into tubes (see Fig. III.8).
Point out where is mercury and where is water. Will these drops stay as they
are shown?
III.164. On a humid ground the traces of a man become wet. Why does this
happen?
III.165. Into a vessel with hot water a capillary tube was submerged. Whether
F ig . III.8 the level of water in tube will change when the water will become colder?

36
III.166. To enrich ore, i.e., to increase the concentration of useful parts, flotation is of often use. Its
essence is as follows. Ore is fined (to particles of 0.5mm to 1mm) and then is merged into reservoir
with water and oil-like liquids, which may cover the particles of a useful mineral with very thin
films. Now these particles are not moistened with water. The mixture is strongly mixed with air
and it forms foam. In doing so, we make the useful particles to float up to surface. Explain the
physical basements of the flotation.
III.167. Why is it necessary to cover a wooden surface with drying oil before painting?
III.168. A falling jet of water always breaks apart into drops. Explain the cause. Whether it is
possible to lengthen unboundedly a water jet?
III.169. In which case from the tap of a “samovar” (Russian traditional water boiler for tea,
representing a metallic vessel with a duct inside it for fire and a tap at its bottom for flowing out hot
water) are heavier the drops which fall down: when the water is hot or when it is cold?
III.170. Liquid drugs are often measured in drops. Is such manner of measuring sufficiently exact?
III.171. Blow a soap bubble using tube and soap solution. Take off the tube with which you blew it
not letting go to the bubble. 1. Explain the phenomenon observed. 2. Derive a formula for additional
pressure which takes place inside of soap bubble.
III.172. The two soap bubbles with radii r1 and r2 are joined into a single bubble with the radius r.
Determine the atmospheric pressure. The surface tension of soap film is σ.
III.173. Estimate the size of an atom of mercury if there are known the surface tension in units of
energy/square, as well as the density and the specific heat of vaporization of the mercury.
III.174. Clean a glass jar with boiled cold water and then pour clean water. Make some experiments:
a) sink to jar a tomato, cherry, or grape. Observe the volume of fruits. After a certain time of
merging fruits into water, you may see that they swell, which finally leads to bowing of their shell.
Explain the phenomenon observed; b) take a carrot and cut off its top. Turn over the top by a
sticking tape or even a line (for the carrot’s body not be destroyed). Hen make a cylindrical hole of
diameter 1cm and length 5cm to 6cm. Fill the cave with concentrated solution of sugar. Cover the
hole with a lid into which insert a glass tube (approximately 30cm) for observation of the level of
sugar solution. Then take a piece of cartoon or plywood, make in it a round hole for settling the
carrot. Now place the system into water so that it be merged in water almost completely. Trace the
behavior of sugar solution. To this end it is convenient to use a small rubber ring put onto tube. The
“readings” should be done each hour during 4 to 5 hours. The level of solution must grow; c) draw
the graph of dependence of the level on time.

Properties of Solid Bodies. Crystal Structure of Matter

III.175. The property of a metal to resist against penetration of another metal is called its strength.
It is determined by means of a steel ball. What is the pressure produced by a ball on the surface of
steel under action of the force 1500N if the area of trace of the ball equals 0.01mm2?
III.176. A crystal of salt divides after a stroke of hammer into various pieces, but they always have
the form of rectangular parallelepiped? Why does it occur?
III.177. As a liquid, amorphous bodies possess an isotropy, i.e., their properties are equal in all
directions. In contrast to amorphous bodies, the crystals are anisotropic, i.e., some physical properties
exist (elastic, electric, magnetic, optical, etc.) which differ in different directions. A solid metal is
a collection of a large quantity of tiny crystals engages to each other. Will this mean that properties
of such a substance will differ in different directions?
III.178. Is the glass a solid body?
III.179. Why does a ball turned out of a mono-crystal can change not only its volume but also the
shape?
III.180. All metals possess crystal structure, meanwhile the anisotropy in mechanical, thermal,
electrical features properties are rare for metals. May you explain the reasons?
III.181. A tin covered by zinc has patterns on surface. What is their origin?
III.182. Steel is more plastic than the cast-iron. What does give us the right for this conclusion?
III.183. The plasticity of a single crystal copper is some times greater than the plasticity of a multi-
crystal copper. What is the cause?
III.184. Why does snow squeak in frost under feet?
III.185. Why does the salt thrown on red-hot coals rattle?
III.186. In the nature, carbon is rarely met in the form of diamonds, but not the graphite. Explain
the reason.

37
III.187. Steel can be cold in tow ways: quickly and slowly. In which of these cases will it give more
heat? Why?
III.188. Which are the advantages of cosmic technologies enabling us to obtain materials with
unusual properties?
III.189. A fire-wood can be easily broken along filaments but not across. May you explain it?
III.190. The frame of a bicycle is usually made of steel tubes but not bars. May you explain the
reasons?
III.191. What is the meaning of tube structure or our bones?
III.192. In the modern construction and building the reinforced concrete columns are of often use
in the capacity of supporting elements. What for does its steel pattern inside it serve? Which kind
of deformation we meet here?
III.193. Consider two steel machine bars, one uniform, other is hollow (a pipe). The hollow one
turns to be stronger, but only if its walls are sufficiently thick. Explain the causes.
III.194. Determine the maximally admitted height of a reinforced concrete column which cannot
be destroyed by proper weight if the admissible pressure for concrete is 5000kPa.
III.195. The Ostankino Tower in Moscow bases on a fundament by ten “legs”, each having the area
of support 4,7m2. The mass of the whole tower is 32 thousand tons. Determine the pressure produced
by the tower upon the fundament with regard for that under strong wind the pressure on some
“legs” might increase by 2.7MPa.
III.196. Why is a diamond more strong than the graphite?
III.197. How can one augment the strength of a metal?
III.198. In what manner does the purity degree of a material affect its strength?
III.199. Which state of a metal (thin grains or large grains) does correspond to a greater strength?
Why?
III.200. As does the strengthening affect the strength of a metal? What are the changes in its
structure in this process?
III.201. The cooling of metals within its strengthening is not usually made usually in water but
mineral oils. May you explain why?
III.202. For what purposes they do anneal metals? Which changes in their structure will characterize
the process?
III.203. Exterior parts of supersonic airplanes are cooled with special equipment. What is it done
for?
III.204. In sharpening tools on a rotating stone it is necessary to cool the tools. Why do they cool
them by water from time to time?
III.205. In order to make a certain steel spring, one can proceed as follows. A steel wire is heated
up to it turn red on burner’s flame or by electric current. Then they slowly cool it. Afterwards the
wire is to be taken on a cylindrical surface. Then it is heated again and quickly cooled. You may
make the same yourselves. Explain the processes holding in the steel.
III.206. Tourists and boy scouts sometime have to take off the handle of a broken ax. They usually
apply the fire. What should they do in order to preserve ax properties?

Thermal Expansion

III.207. In heating whether the sizes of an utter bar and a hollow tube with both the same diameter
and length will differ?
III.208. At sharp oscillations of temperature a stone gives rifts but not metal. Explain the cause of
this phenomenon.
III.209. Why are glass vessels necessary for works in high temperatures made of thin glass?
III.205. Under sharp change of temperature rifts appear on enameled dishes.
Explain the cause of these rifts.
III.206. If a ring is subject to heating, how will change its aperture?
III.207. Over an iron cylinder a silver ring was tightly fitted at the room
temperature. What can you propose in order to remove it?
III.208. Over an iron cylinder a copper ring is tightly fitted. If we simultaneously
cool both objects, will we succeed in removing it? If heat?
III.209. Wheels made by casting of a cast-iron often have not straight but curve
F ig . III.9 spokes (see Fig. III.9). What is the aim?
III.210. Why do the rules of safety exploration strictly forbid washing of a hot

38
boiler with cold water?
III.211. Dishes made of quartz sustain sharp changes of temperature. An overheated cup made of
quartz can be safely put into cold water. What does explain this property of quartz?
III.212. Precision measuring devices and their details (calibrated plates, tools, bows of precision
balances, balances of watches) are made of an alloy (in Russian “invar”, consists of the nickel 35–
37%, the rest is iron). Explain why is this sort of steel used for these purposes.
III.213. To make a concrete construction stronger (for example, a dam), they build it on a steel
framework. The whole construction is called “reinforced concrete”. Why do such constructions (in
spite of difference in materials properties) behave as a single unit?
III.214. What does support a continuous motion of water in central-heating systems?
III.215. Why does not the thermal expansion of water break ducts and pipes in central-heating
systems?
III.216. If one opens a hot water cock after a long interval, the flow of water reduces and can even
stop. At the same time, if one leaves cold water tap open for a bit, the flow does not stops. Why this
happens?
III.217. Communicating vessels are filled with a liquid. The temperature of the liquid rises in one
vessel and remains same in other. Whether the level of the liquid will change in the second vessel?
III.218. How will the level of mercury change in a barometer if the temperature grows? Does affect
the thermal expansion of the barometric tube the accuracy of barometer?
III.219. A body is floating in water, not merged completely. Will float this body if one heats the
water?
III.220. The force of pressure on the bottom of vessels shown in
Fig. III.10 is same (vessels have bottoms of the same square). How
will change the force of pressure on the bottoms if one heats the liquid?
Assume that the thermal expansion of vessels can be omitted.
III.221. A vessel filled with kerosene is in equilibrium on a pan of a
sensitive balance. Kerosene is heated for several dozens degrees. One
may suppose that the equilibrium of the balance is not to be violated,
F ig . III.1 0 since the mass of kerosene has not changed. Then why does the balance
show a reduction of weight?
III.222. Air is known to expand under heating. Then why does a bubble of air in the device called
“level” become smaller in hot days and greater in cold days?
III.223. On a coin a straight line was draw by a thin chalk. Whether will it remains straight if the
coin will be heated?
III.224. Used for covering the south part of the Bristol cathedral, a lead sheet climbed down along
the roof for 50cm. They were trying to prevent this climbing down by hammering nails, but the
sheet was wresting all the nails. The roof was not too steep, and the sheet might lie on it under
action of the gravitation. Then why finally did the sheet climbed down completely?

Phase Transitions.
Change of Aggregate State of Matter

III.225. Human beings learnt to treat bronze much earlier than iron. How can you explain it?
III.226. A quartz glass is very strong and never burst. Resources of quartz on Earth are very rich.
Then why people do not use quartz for producing kitchen dishes and cups?
III.227. In winter, calm lakes are covered by ice in winter earlier than rivers. Why?
III.228. Ice melts longer if wrapped into a wet paper. Why?
III.229. Why water in lakes starts to turn into ice from upper layers?
III.230. Take two wide open wooden vessels: one with cold water and other with the same quantity
of hot water. Put then outside your house in winter frost. Which of the vessels will earlier be
covered by ice? You may guess that the vessel with cold water. Your reason might be as follows:
While the hot water will turn colder, the cold will turn into ice. But, in practice, the situation is
opposite. How can you explain his phenomenon?
III.231. Sometimes in autumn snow falls and a small frost (–1°C to -2°C) stands for some days.
But when weather becomes warmer, many plants remain alive, they continue grow and even give
flowers. How can they survive?
III.232. A wire loop is put on a bar of ice. To lower part of the loop a load is bound. The wire rather
quickly will cut the ice, which will be melted under the wire and turn frozen again above it. However,

39
if the wire will be of same diameter bit now plastic (e.g., of nylon), ice will practically remain
uncut. Explain the difference.
III.233. Estimate the maximal thickness of a glacier, which might exist on Earth.
III.234. In a light frost snowballs are easy to make, but not in a strong frost. Explain.
III.235. In winter frosts the window glass is covered by ice patterns. Why? On which side of glass
must these patterns appear?
III.236. Whether always the temperature of melting equals the temperature of crystallization for
the same substance?
III.237. Water can be cooled below 0 °C. In this situation, if one shakes a vessel with such overcooled
water, it will rapidly crystallize and warms up to 0 °C. How could you explain this?
III.238. Why are mists more often in towns than in fields?
III.239. In winter in a clean air outside cities or on high mountains one almost cannot note mist
produced by his/her respiration. Explain the phenomenon.
III.240. After a jet plane we see a trace which is like a straight long could. Why does it appear?
III.241. In spring, sometime in mornings a rime appears on plants and grass. How does it affect the
cooling of plants?
III.242. A wet thing turns to be frozen in a frost quite quickly. But in frosts, a humid soil becomes
frozen in depth more slowly than the dry one. Why does this occur?
III.243. Gas ducts in inhabited rooms without heating are usually covered for by something for
winter. Why do they make it?
III.244. Why cannot one melt wood and paper?
III.245. Will be melted ice taken at 0 °C if one pours over it water 0 °C and puts it into a room at the
temperature 0 °C?
III.246. Prepare in a chemical glass a mixture of snow and water and place a thermometer into this
mixture. Whether the readings of thermometer will change if we would accelerate melting by
heating the glass?
III.247. It is recommended to add salt over ice surfaces in ice-houses. What is the reason for that
manipulation?
III.248. In cold Russian winters streets sometimes are covered by ice. To avoid slipping of people
and cars, it is a custom there to disperse a mixture of sand and salt over roads. Why do they add salt
in sand?
III.249. In a popular scientific journal “Science and Life” a useful advice was given: To prevent a
medicine warmer fast cooling (a rubber vessel which in filled with hot water) add a teaspoon of salt
into hot water”. If you have a warmer of this type, you may verify the usefulness of the advice.
Explain the results obtained.
III.250. If one sinks one icicle into puts into water which freezes, and one icicle into solution of
salt of the same temperature, them within some hours the diameter of the first icicle will noticeably
grow, but the second will become thinner. Why?
III.251. For winter exploitation into radiators of cars not water, but a special liquid is filled. For is
the reason for this action?
III.252. In bid cooling cameras instead of water a salt solution is used in circulation tubes. Explain
the reason.
III.253. In cellar, where people use to keep vegetable for winter, if a frost may damage vegetables,
they often leave there a wide basin filled with water. How does water save vegetables against frost?
III.254. What is the role of specific heat of melting of ice in the nature? What might happen in the
spring if the specific heat of melting of ice were not 333, but 11,7 kJ/kg (as the mercury has)?
III.255. What is the weather, which helps icicles to born? They grow down even on roofs of inhabited
places, Were it a frost, where from would appear the water? If it were rather warm air, how would
they freeze?
III.256. In times when the driving of ice occur in the spring, it is more cold near the river, than far
from it. How can you explain this phenomenon?
III.257. When snow falls, the temperature usually goes up. Why?
III.258. Why does the water, when freezes and thus expands in a bottle, burst it, but not push off the
cork?
III.259. Why does the rime, covering branches of trees in winter mornings, disappear, even if a
thaw does not come?
III.260. Whether one can heat milk packed in paper on open flame?
III.261. When can ice serve as a heater?
III.262. Why does a newly baked bread weight more than if it were cooled?

40
III.263. Why do many things buckle when dry?
III.264. How one can reduce the rate of water vaporizing in an open vessel?
III.265. Why does the fat soup cool off more slowly than the same quantity of water?
III.266. A cold autumn rain drizzles outside house. Washed linen is hung in kitchen. Will it dry
quicker if we open window?
III.267. What is the meaning of sweating for a human organism?
III.268. Why is it more difficult to overpass big hot in a humid climate than in a dry one?
III.269. Why may a man bear temperatures exceeding 100 °C if the air is dry?
III.270. Due to large heat capacity the water warms more slowly than air, therefore even in hot
summer day the water in a pond is colder than air. But why do you feel cold after bath?
III.280. Why we feel cold in wetted clothes?
III.281. The temperature of a body sunk in water should be same as
if it were moisten by water. See in Fig. III.11 two thermometers, one
being merged in water and other is only moistened with water since
it is wrapped with a tissue, whose edge is in water. Why does the
merged thermometer show a higher temperature than that above
water?
III.282. After washing the floor, why can feel a nice cool in that
room?
III.283. Will a pot boil quicker if we add some hot water in it?
III.284. As known, the water has greater heat of vaporization than
F ig . III.11 the alcohol. Therefore, if we pour water on a hand, by vaporizing it
will cool the hand quicker than alcohol, which contradicts the
experience. Why?
III.285. Two different quantities of water were poured in two similar vessels. Temperature was
same. Air was eliminated from vessels and they were connected with a rubber tube. Vessels stand
one pan of a balance; the balance is in equilibrium. How will change the equilibrium in time?
III.286. When weather turns colder, usually the formation of clouds grows. Explain why do cloud
disappear to evening, while air turns cooler in this time?
III.287. To prevent the milk of turning sour, a vessel with milk should be put into water and covered
by a napkin whose ends are in water. Explain this way for conserving milk fresh.
III.288. Both te humid and dry thermometers of a psychrometer show the same temperature. What
should it say us about the state of air?
III.289. How changes the air humidity in a room if the difference between readings of the
thermometers of psychrometer starts to decrease?
III.290. Why is the summer humidity of air in rooms greater than the winter one?
III.291. As known, in normal atmospheric pressure the water boils at 100°C. Let us sink into a big
pan with boiling water a vessel with water. Water will heat up to 100 °C. Well, now it must start to
boil, but… We might wait as much as necessary, but it would not boil. Why?
III.292. If we add some spoons of salt into the pan from previous problem, will we get the required
result?
III.293. Will water boil inside long macaroni?
III.294. To prevent the carpenter glue from turning burnt, they heat it in special pans. A jar with
glue is to be put into a pan with water, which must be heated. Explain why will such a device
preserve the glue of becoming burnt?
III.295. They poured similar quantities of water of the same temperature in to similar pans. The
only difference is that now one pan contains water from tap, while water in other was previously
already boiled. In equal remaining conditions, which pan will boil first?
III.296. If we heat water in a pot to boiling and then increase flame, it will boil more intensively,
which shows increase of vapor formation. But if now we turn of the burner, the vapor jet becomes
even greater. Can you explain it?
III.297. Does anyone could prepare a hard-boiled egg on Mars?
III.298. The boiling temperature for mercury is 630 oC. How one could explain the use of mercury
thermometers for measuring temperatures up to 600 °C?
III.299. Why are humid matches so hardly fired?
III.300. How does water kill a fire?
III.301. To make better the burning of coal, they add some water to it. Why?
III.302. Why is it forbidden to apply water to extinguish burning resins and bitumen?
III.303. If one drops vegetable oil into boiling water, nothing special happens. Why do we not

41
recommend to drop the water into the boiling oil?
III.304. Why is more dangerous burn obtained by vapor at 100 °C than by water at the same
temperature?
III.305. In 0 °C by suction pump one can rise water to height up to 10m. How and why will change
this height for warm water?
III.306. May one elevate boiling water by a suction pump?
III.307. In heating, air bubbles form first at the bottom of a vessel. Give arguments to explain this
phenomenon.
III.308. Why does a pot noise before it start boil?
III.309. Why does the water hiss if is accidentally poured on a burner, which is heated to red-hot?
III.310. Does the temperature of boiling water in a pot differ from the temperature of the vapor in
it?
III.311. If temperature is same, whether average kinetic energy of vapor, water, and ice are at the
same temperature?
III.312. How can one refine mercury, which contains additions of zing and tin?
III.313. Sometime one can see as, in order to make cooking quicker, a housekeeper makes greater
the flame under pan, which already boils. Is such a way correct?
III.314. Why does a small hole exist in the tap of a pot?
III.315. Under critical temperature specific heat of vaporization equals zero for all liquids. Explain
the causes.
III.316. How change the absolute and relative humidity of air ina closed room in heating?
III.317. Why is a dampness felt in cold rooms?
III.318. In winter does are man’s hear, lashes, and moustache covered by the rime if he passed a
certain time in frosty air?
III.319. In Russia, they use to build bath-houses near main farmer’s building. This bath-house is
the place where people take bath and use steam-room in long cold winters and even summers).
Now imagine that you are in a hot well-heated bath-house. Winter is frosty and outside the bath-
house thermometer shows some dozens below 0 °C. If you open a small hinged window pane zero
in the bath-house, where will flow the vapor (mist) to?
III.320. Why does a mist flow from moth (when one breathes or speaks on street) in winter?
III.321. Why in autumn does mist over river usually stand for a long time after sunshine?
III.322. Why are the clouds closer to ground in autumn than in summer?
III.323. The dew usually appears at morning when sky is clear. At nights with dense clouds one
does not meet the dew. Why?
III.324. Under a wide bushy tree dew does not appear. Explain the reason.
III.325. Why is rainwater unsalted even over seas?
III.326. If you tenderly breathe upon your hand, you fill warm, but if you blow to it, you feel
cooling. Explain the difference.
III.327. In order to know whether the mineral machine oil contains some water, one can test it by
heating it up to 100–110 °C. If water is present, oil rattles and sprinkles. Explain this way of testing.
III.328. Wet fire-wood “hisses” in a stove and give less heat. Explain the situation.
III.329. Tow similar vessels with the same quantity of water are heated on flame, one being open,
other closed hermetically. In which vessel will the water warm quicker?
III.330. Why does the water almost immediately stop to boil as burner is turned off?
III.331. Where is the boiling water hotter: on a mountain, on sea level, or in a deep mine? Why?
III.332. In bakery, evaporation of a sugar solution is made at temperatures significantly lower than
100 °C. Why? In what way can thus evaporation be realized?
III.333. To sterilize medical surgery dressing materials and tools why do they
use autoclaves under increased pressure (to 0.3MPa)?
III.334. Wool is to be ironed with a hot iron through a wet cloth. Why do they
make it such way?
III.335. To prevent the “running off” of the milk in boiling, an enameled disk
with a wave shape us to be on the bottom of a pan. This disk has at one side a
F ig . III.1 2 channel with nose-shape (see in Fig. III.12). Explain the action of this “milk-
guard”.
III.336. To obtain metals of high quality, electric melting under vacuum is used. Which are the
advantages of this technology?
III.337. As known, in evaporation the temperature of a liquid decreases. In this case, why are
temperatures of gasoline, alcohol, and so on in usual conditions is almost same as the temperature

42
of air, though the surface of liquids is open?
III.338. Why does the flowers begin bloom earlier in the center of a city than in its suburbs?
III.339. In winter, the front window of cars is to be blown with a special fan. What is the aim in this
case?
III.340. If the hay is dried on sun, its alimentary value worsens. A special agriculture machine
picks up and presses the hay into bales with end-to-end holes it them. What is the meaning of these
holes?
III.341. Under conditions of vacuum, vegetables and fruits become dry more quickly than in normal
conditions? Can you explain why?
III.342. Dried milk is obtained by evaporation of natural milk in a vessel from which the air is
constantly pimped out. Besides, the temperature in this vessel is significantly below 100 °C. What
are physical laws put into basement of this process?
III.343. Carbon-acid fire-extinguishers are charged with carbon-acid gas. In acting, these such
extinguishers give not a jet of liquid, but so-called “carbon-acid snow” which is a dense whitish
cloud of gas? What is lying in the principle of such fire-extinguishers?
III.344. Reservoirs for holding petroleum and derivatives have valves for exit of gases. How do
appear gases in reservoirs?
III.345. Why cannot a cistern be filled up completely with gasoline?
III.346. To transport and hold gas, it must be dried. Suggest a way to dry it.
III.347. The clean oxygen, which is widely applied in production ad economy, is obtained from air.
What is the simplest way to derive the oxygen from air if you known that boiling temperature for
the oxygen and nitrogen (main component of air) are –183 °C and –196 °C, respectively?
III.348. Heat condition from one body to other takes place only if a temperature difference exists
between them. Then why is vaporizing the water (having the temperature of the ambient) being
poured into a dish? For water vaporizing a certain quantity of heat is necessary which cannot be
obtained from neighboring ambient. Then how does vaporization occur?
III.349. In a glass tube, sealed of at both ends, air is pumped off. The tube contains a column of
water inside it. If shaken, the column strikes the end of water as if it has no resistance. However, it
is known, that in spite of air being pumped out, the space over water is filled with water vapor.
Moreover, to a certain temperature, a definite pressure of this vapor corresponds. Explain the
phenomenon observed.
III.350. In a vessel at temperature t = 0 °C water is placed with a piece of ice which is frozen to the
bottom of the vessel. As soon as the heat Q = 60 kJ was applied to the content of the vessel, 10% of
ice melted and the remaining part floated up to surface. What is the new level of water in vessel if
at initial moment it was h = 20cm? The square of cross section of the vessel is S = 200cm2, the
density of water equals ρw = 1g/cm3, the density of ice is ρi = 0,9g/cm3, specific heat of melting for
ice equals q = 333 kJ/kg.
III.351. Estimate the speed which with a fly must impact a wall in order to burn out completely.

Efficiency. Internal-combustion engines

III.352. The ocean possesses practically inexhaustible reserves of the interior energy. Why do not
people build machines, which could use this energy?
III.353. Whether a body always gives out in cooling the same quantity of energy, which was earlier
obtained in heating by the same body?
III.354. Why do they construct the walls of a boiler of steel of copper? Why do they clean off the
scum from walls?
III.355. The vapor in boilers of vapor turbines is overheated. What is it necessary for?
III.356. The greater is the compression in the piston of a the carburettor engine, the greater is its
power. However, the volume of air with fuel in piston is reduced for only by 7 to 8 times. How can
you explain this?
III.357. Sadi Carnot, a French engineer and scientist, evaluated the maximum of possible
efficiency of a heat machine which works with a heat carrier of temperature Th and a refrigerator of
temperature Tr: η = (Th–Tr)/Th. The formula shows that the efficiency of a heat machine is as higher
as greater is the difference between temperatures of heater and refrigerator. An automobile is a
heat machine. It bases on fuel which increases its temperature of working body (gases) in the
combustion of fuel, while the refrigerator is the atmosphere; besides, the temperature of the gases
formed by combustion is practically same in winter and in summer. Then why does automobile

43
consume more gasoline in winter? The temperature in winter is lower than in summer.
III.358. Why does the power of jet engines decrease as temperature of ambient grows?
III.359. Why are the internal-combustion engines are more efficient than steam ones?
III.360. Why are four-stroke engines equipped with flywheels?
III.361. To what type of engines could one relate the fire-guns?
III.362. Between the sparking of engine plug and the ignition of gas in cylinder a certain delay
takes place. Therefore the spark must occur earlier than the piston will rise the upper “dead” point
of compression (it must work in advance). What does affect the value of advancing time?
III.363. As noted in the previous problem, the ignition of the fuel in cylinder takes place with a
certain advance with respect to piston’s reaching of upper “dead” point. Give your ideas about the
processes in early or late ignition (i.e., where the ignition occurs after passing the upper point).
III.364. As known, among four strokes of an engine only one works while other are auxiliary and
are moved by inertia. How is ensured a smooth and uniform work of the engine?
III.365. Explain why does the presence of muffler in car leads to loss of power of engine and
decrease of its efficiency?
III.366. The work made by an internal-combustion engine and the work of a jet engine consists of
four strokes: suction, compression, expansion, and output. What is the essential difference in these
four-stroke processes? Which stroke does work in a jet engine?

44
 Chapter IV
Electricity and Magnetism
Electrifying of Bodies. The Coulomb Law
IV.1. Sometime they say that electric field lines of force are the trajectories, which were followed
by a positive charge inserted into an electrical field. Is this assertion correct?
IV.2. May a same body (e.g., ebonite) be charged by means of electrifying once positively, once
negatively?
IV.3. In wrapping a photo film in complete darkness some parts of the film turn to be lighted. How
may this happen?
IV.4. In touching each other, bodies may electrify. Explain the phenomenon. Why is it difficult to
see this electrifying in experiment than charge by rubbing?
IV.5. In transfusion gasoline from one cistern to other it may flare up if not prevented by specific
measures. What are the source of flaring up and these measures?
IV.6. Why is it not recommended to use plastic (PHV) canisters for transportation of gasoline and
other easily inflammable liquids, but metallic ones?
IV.7. May one electrify a conductor by rubbing, e.g., a copper bar? If your answer is “Yes”, then
explain the mechanism of that electrifying?
IV.8. There were cases when quickly rising balloon inflamed in air. How could you explain this?
IV.9. May one charge opposite ends of a glass with opposite charges by rubbing?
IV.10. Why do birds fly off the wires of high voltage as soon as a current is switched on?
IV.11. Will the tension of homogeneous electric field between two (parallel) oppositely charged
planes change if the distance between then will grow twice?
IV.12. A charged conductor is placed on an isolator. How may one take off a half of its charge?
IV.13. To charge an electroscope it is recommended not simply touch on its ball, but hold at the
part of surface of the ball. Why might a simple touch be insufficient for charging electroscope?
IV.14. If we put a charged ebonite stick on flow, will it lose all charge it had earlier?
IV.15. To decrease the dust accumulation on the walls of buildings these are covered by a special
paint. Which of electric features must posses such paint if it is known that the dust rising in the air
is usually charged positively?
IV.16. Why inflammable objects, e.g., gun-powder stores, are sometimes covered by a metallic
grid connected with the ground?
IV.17. Consider a positive charge. How can one charge (not losing the main charge) two other
charges equally with opposite signs (one positive, other negative) by means of the first charge?
IV.18. How one can determine the sign of the charge of electroscope without touching it with a
charged stick?
IV.19. If one approximates hands to an electrified “sultan”, its sheets are attracting by these hands.
Explain the causes.
IV.20. A small charged speck of dust may “be hung” between two oppositely charged plates. What
will occur if the charge of speck decreases? What is to be made to restore the equilibrium?
IV.21. Posed between two horizontal plates (one being charged, other connected with the ground),
small pieces o paper permanently “jumps” and touch alternately both plates. Explain.
IV.22. In making an oil well, the oil may suddenly gush up and start to burn. Explain what are the
forces, which create the fire. Why does the danger of inflammation grow if the weather is dry?
IV.23. Why, in placing vegetables and fruits into electrostatic field (the process is called “electric-
septic”), does their period of consuming grow?
IV.24. Preparatory cleaning of the cotton, it is passed through homogeneous electrostatic field.
Why in this case becomes easier posterior treatment for deleting mechanical addends?
IV.25. In rubber producing plants the rough rubber is subject to forge-rolling, i.e., it passes thorough
rolling cylinders. How is it necessary to connect the cylinder axis with ground? Why is it necessary
to have well settled ventilation in such rooms?
IV.26. In designing and producing drive belts for plants with a high danger of inflammation, either
graphite or metallic powder must be added into rubber. What are the objectives of this addition?
IV.27. Being charged, the coal dust in mines, flour dust on mills, particles of wool on weaver
fabrics, etc. may cause accidents and lead to troubles. Suggest measures for prevention.
IV.28. In print-shops and rooms of weaver fabrics special devices called “neutralizers” are used.

45
These neutralizers divide air molecules into positively and negatively charged ions. Answer the
question: Why does it reduces the electric charging of steering parts of machines and goods (paper
in printing machines, tissues in weaver machines) and thus helps to avoid accidents?
IV.28. If we create an electrostatic field between the pulverizer for sprinkling the paint and a small
object to be painted, then painting becomes less harmful for men and even more economical (residues
of paint reduce by 60%, productivity grows by 50–70%, the quality of painting also grows). Explain
the physical essence of this technology.
IV.30. To separate loose materials by the size of particles (sorting of flour, eliminating dust from
grain, floatation of residues of useful minerals) electric separators are used. The action of a separator
is based on the motion of small particles in an electrostatic field under the gravity. Explain the
principles of separation: a) if the particles are charged by a contact with charged electrode of
separator; b) if the separation bases on charging by rubbing.
IV.31. Why do small drops of chemical agents used in the struggle against insects in agriculture,
better sustain on leaves of plants if sprinkling is made in an electrostatic field?
IV.32. A ring made of thin wire tears if charged with a charge Q. The diameter of both ring anf wire
are increased n times. Determine the charge Q1, which will break the new ring.

Conductors and dielectrics in electric field

IV.33. Why are conductors used in electrostatic experiments made hollow?

IV.34. Two metallic balls of the same size charged with same sign are put into touching. One of
them is hollow. How will it distribute the charges in both balls?
IV.35. An uncharged ball is placed into electrostatic field. Does the field affect the ball?
IV.36. For cleaning the air of dust and smoke electrical filters are applied. The simplest electrical
filter is a metallic pipe with a wire strained at its axis. Between the wire and the pipe an electrostatic
field is generated; besides, the wire is connected with the negative pole of a source of electric
current. Explain the principles of cleaning the air taking into account that both negatively and
positively charged particles may be in air.
IV.37. A charged ball A is at the distance R from an uncharged ball B and attracts the latter with the
force F. Diameters of balls are assumed to be small with respect to R. How does F depend on R?
IV.38. How can two positively charged balls attract each other?
IV.39. If one charges a conductor A, then on the conductor B induces charges appear, and if we
charge the conductor B, then one the conductor A the induced
+ charges do not appear. In what case can this be observed?
IV.40. The field of a positively charged ball À induces charges on
A B C an uncharged conductor BC (see Fig. IV.1). After that the left half
D of the conductor BC was connected with the uncharged ball D.
Will the ball be charged D?
IV.41. Is the density of charge on a
+ 2
F ig . IV.1 .
surface of a conducting ball 1
uniform at all points?
IV.42. On a handle made of isolator
we have a metallic ball. What is the way for one might transfer to F ig . IV.2 .
electroscope a charge equaling the charge of the ball?
IV.43. Why do they make smooth the metallic parts of devices,
machines, and constructions which works under high electric tension and wit a trend to avoid sharp
edges?
IV.44. Why does a conductor covered by dust quickly lose its charge?
IV.45. An isolated charged conductor was approached to other isolated
+ 2 conductor with its edge turned to the charged conductor(see Fig. IV.2).
1
What then will happen?
IV.46. An isolated charged conductor was carried to another isolated
F ig . IV.3 . conductor with edge directed backwards to the charged conductor
(see Fig. IV.3). What then will happen?
IV.47. How will affect a charged stick on a magnetized needle?
IV.48. Why do they use lightning rods with a sharp edge?
IV.49. A pupil explained the action of lightning rod as follows: “Electric charges of a cloud through
the edge, conductor, and wire went to ground and made caused harm to the building”. Is correct

46
that explanation?
IV.50. In what conditions may a lightning rod become dangerous for the building?
IV.51. Above wires of a high-voltage line they place one or two wires which are connected to
metallic supports of the line (or with the ground if poles are made of reinforced concrete). There is
no current in these wires. What is the aim for which they are placed?
IV.52. In thunderstorms it is forbidden for radio operators to work on portable stations if their
antenna is not connected to the ground. Explain these measures of safety.
IV.53. The stroke of lightning is more probable in places where the upper layer of soil well conducts
the electricity (for instance, marshlands) . Why?
IV.54. When they are in high mountains the rock-climbers try to conserve metallic things somewhere
far of their camp. Why do the do so?
IV.55. Why is it dangerous to hide beneath trees in thunderstorm?
IV.56. To investigate the surface structure of metals metallographic microscopes are very useful,
the electronic microscope among them. It consists of a vacuum tube into which the edge of the
metal under investigation is placed. The interior surface of the tube is covered by a luminescent
paint (material which gives light when absorbs particle with high kinetic energy). Between the tube
and the edge a high voltage is applied: the edge serves as cathode, the screen works as anode.
Electrons leave the edge and fly in radial directions. If they met fluorescent screen, they give the
image (electrogramme) of the edge with a magnification equal to the ratio between the radius of
tube and the radius of the edge. Why so distinctly is the micro-relief of the edge visible on the
image?
IV.57. Inside an uncharged sphere a positively charges ball is placed. Explain: a) where will exist
electric fields? b) will appear charge on the sphere? c) in what places will proceed changes in the
electric field if the ball will be moved inside the sphere? d) in what way will the field inside and
outside the sphere change if we bring from to this sphere from outside a charged body (the ball in
this case is steady)?
IV.58. Suggest effective protection measures for workers of laboratories where electric charges
and action of electric charges are investigated.
IV.59. A hollow brass ball A with a small hole is positively charged. Will charge a metallic ball B
of one connects it by a wire with the interior of the ball A?
IV.60. Electric fields affect essentially the functioning of vacuum tubes. How one can protect a
vacuum tube against electric fields?
IV.61. Along the axis of a metallic pipe, which turns narrower on the
A segment AB (see Fig. IV.4), a charged particle is moving with a constant
B velocity. Will change the velocity of the particle when it passes the
narrowing?
IV.62. How the answer of previous problem is related to the energy
conservation law?
F ig . IV.4 . IV.63. A charged metallic ball is surrounded by a thick layer of dielectric.
Draw the picture of the lines of electric field inside and outside the dielectric.
Why does the electric field change on the boundary of the dielectric?
IV.64. Positive and negative point charges are attracted to each other by a force F. How will change
this force if we place between them a ball made of dielectric?

Potential of Electric Field

IV.65. Draw a rough view of equipotential surfaces and lines of force of the electric field of a point
charge placed near the Earth’s surface.
IV.66. What happens when we connect a charged electroscope with the Earth? Consider two cases:
when the electroscope is charged positively, and when it is charged negatively.
IV.67. A man touches the head of a charged electroscope standing on isolated support. In doing so,
he sees that the foils of electroscope fall. Explain what caused the divergence of the leaves when
the man took his hand off the electroscope.
IV.68. A metallic ball is charged to the potential of 1V. This ball is carried into spherical conducting
surface charged to potential of 1000V and they touch its interior surface. Charges leave the ball and
pass to spherical conductor. How can you explain this seeming contradiction?
IV.69. The conductors A and B are at a far distance from other bodies. The conductor A is charged,
but not the conductor B. When they are connected thorough a wire charges flow from A to B, and

47
also from B to A. Give examples of conductor of that kind.
IV.70. Will change the electric field generated by a conductor if we surround this charge with a thin
uncharged metallic surface coinciding with one of the equipotential surfaces?
IV.71. We have two copper hollow concentric balls. The exterior one is charged to the potential of
5V and the interior is charged to the potential of 10V. The balls are connected by means of a wire.
How will change the potentials of these balls?
IV.72. A copper ball À is positively charged, while a copper ball B is not. Balls have the same size
and almost tangent each other. When they were connected with a wire, the charge of the ball A
decreased twice. How strong is changed its potential?
IV.73. Two conductors are charged positively. Moreover, the potential of the first one equals 100V,
while the potential of the second is 50V. Will positive charges pass from one ball to other if the
conductors will touch each other? Assume that no any other bodies are close to these two balls.
IV.74. How one can change the potential of a conductor without touching it
and changing its charge?
IV.75. The following project of a perpetuum mobile was suggested (see
Fig. IV.5). Kerosene is poured into communicating vessels. One leg of the
+ − common vessel is placed into a strong electric field between two coats of a
capacitor. Since the bodies are pulled into the electric field (see Problem IV.35),
the level of the kerosene is higher in this leg that in other. Through two sheaves
a chain of balls goes, the density of balls is less that the density of kerosene. In
following the inventor, the Archimedes’ force acting on balls will be greater
in the left leg than in the right one, because in the left leg the quantity if balls
merged into kerosene is greater. The chain should start to move clockwise.
Why in practice no rotation will arise.
IV.76. Whether always between a conductor charged positively and other
F ig . IV.5. conductor charged negatively a difference of potentials exists?
IV.77. On a smooth horizontal table, a metallic bar of length l and weight P
lies. To one of ends of this bar a non-conducting line is bound, spread one the sheave fix at the edge
of table. On the other end of the bar, the second bar with same features is bound, so the system is in
motion. Find the difference of potentials, which arises between ends of each of the bars. The friction
of the line on the sheave and the weight of the line are small.

Electric capacity. Capacitors

IV.78. What will happen to the difference of potentials between the plates of a capacitor if we
decrease the distance between plates? And if we increase it?
IV.79. On a electric capacitor we can read the next data: 10 µF, 300V. Explain their meaning.
IV.80. A conducting sphere is broken into several pieces, which are dispersed in large distance
between each other. The parts are connected in an arbitrary order by thin wires. What is greater: the
electric capacity of the new system of parts or the electric capacity of the sphere? Do not take into
account the electric capacity of wires.
IV.81. If to metallic balls of different diameters one gives equal charges, will the current be generated
if after charging one connects these balls by a wire?
IV.82. The field of a flat air capacitor has the strength E, and the charge of the capacitor equals Q.
What is the force acting on each of the plates? Is it equal to Q×E?
E1 + E2 IV.83. A charged metallic plate is in an electrostatic field (see Fig. IV.6).
The charge of the plate is equal to Q. To the left from plate the field
+ strength equals E1, and to the right is E2. What is the force acting on the
plate?
+ IV.84. In stamping, plastic details are charged in view of contacts with
+ metallic forms. When a detail is taken off a form, its potential with
+ respect to Earth grows. May you explain why?
IV.85. One metallic ball was charged and other not. When they were
connected with a wire, charges flowed from the uncharged ball to the
F ig . IV.6 . charged one. When is it possible?
IV.86. Will change the difference between potentials of plates of a flat
air capacitor if one of these plates is grounded?
IV.87. Among two capacitors of equal capacities with similar dielectrics and similar plates the one

48
designed for higher tension has greater size. Why?
IV.88. As known, the force of interaction between two electric charges is less in water than on air.
It seems to help to create a perpetuum mobile as follows. Take two
opposite charges at the points A and B (see Fig. IV.7) and carry them
À Â to each other in the air. Let us merge both charges into water and
then draw them apart under water. Then simultaneously hoist them
from the water and repeat the process again. In doing so, we see that
the work obtained in rapprochement exceeds the work is spent for
drawing them apart, because the forces of electric interaction are
F ig . IV.7 . greater in air than in water. Find the error in arguments.
IV.89. The surface of a rubber ball, placed on an insulated support,
is covered by a conducting layer of soap solution. Now, if we charge the ball and connect it with an
electrometer, the pointer will deviate for a certain angle. By increasing the size of the ball, we shall
note that the angle between the pointer and the bar will decrease in spite of the fact that the charge
of the ball has not changed. Is it follows from these arguments that the potential of the conductor
charged with the same charge can take various values?
IV.90. Take a flat capacitor and charge its plates by similar in value but opposite charges +q and –
q, respectively. Almost all electric field will be concentrated inside the capacitor. The energy of
this capacitor W = q2/2C remains constant. As it appears in the electric field of the capacitor, an
electron will be accelerated. Therefore it gets a kinetic energy. From where has it got this additional
energy?
IV.91. The capacity of a flat air capacitor is less as far, as greater is the distance between its plates.
But if we draw apart these plates at an infinite distance, then the energy will equal zero. Is this
argument correct?
IV.92. After having been connected to a battery of accumulators, a capacitor is charged and gets the
energy of 1J. What is the work made by the battery in this case?
IV.93. A flat air capacitor is connected to an accumulator by its plates. In order to reduce the
electric field strength in the capacitor, we place it into a dielectric liquid with dielectric permeability
equaling ε. Have we made a correct step?
IV.94. Having been connected to an accumulator, the plates of a flat air capacitor start to attract
each other with the force F. What is the way in which this force will change if we insert between
the plates of the capacitor a dielectric plate with the dielectric permeability ε?
IV.95. Similar metallic balls S1 and S2 are at a long distance from each other and are charged
positively. An uncharged metallic ball s is essentially smaller than the balls S1, S2 and is far from
them. In one of experiments the ball s was connected with the
ball S1, next time they connected it with the ball S2. In the first
of cases, the ball obtained the charge q1, in the second case it
got the charge q2. What will be the charge of the ball s if one
connects it by a wire simultaneously with both the balls S1
and S2?
C C
A B IV.96. The difference between potentials of the points A and
B of the electric circuit shown in Fig.IV.8 is U. If we connect
to these points a capacitor of the capacity C, will this charge
C equal C×U?
IV.97. Two similar metallic balls are at a long distance in
vacuum. If we give them different positive charges Q1 and Q2,
F ig . IV.8 . then the potential energy of this system will be equal to
Q1Q2/(4πε0r), where r is the distance between balls. If we then
connect these balls by a wire for a short time, the charge of
each ball will be Q = (Q1+Q2)/2, and the potential energy of the system, as one can easily see, will
increase. From where has an “additional” energy been taken?
IV.98. Suggest a way to test a capacitor.
IV.99. In radio devices they sometime apply nonlinear capacitors (varicaps), whose electric capacity
may vary in dependence on the value of the applied electric field strength and the temperature.
What are the features possessed by the dielectric for the production of these capacitors?
IV.100. To protect the Power transmission lines against overvoltage (for example, produced by
lightning), gated discharges are applied: the power transmission line is grounded through a spark
gap and vilite disks (vilite is a dielectric whose resistance sharply decreases as tension grows).
Explain the principle of protection of power transmission lines by means of this device.

49
 Magnetic Field of Moving Charges

IV.101. How one can determine the signs of the poles of a source of current by applying a compass?
IV.102. In Fig. IV.9 three pairs of conductors with current are given.
Draw the direction of the Ampere forces
applied to each of the conductors. Justify
the validity of the third Newton law for
the last case.
IV.103. Determine the magnetic poles
of a solenoid shown in Fig. IV.10. Why
does its magnetic action grow if an iron
F ig . IV.9 . core is inserted? F ig . IV.1 0 .
IV.104. Which one of the
electromagnets shown in Fig. IV.11 possess the greater hoisting force (under same force of current,
equal number of turns, and same core)?
IV.105. Which of the electromagnets shown in Fig. IV.12 is
wrong winded?
IV.106. Two movable
conducting rings with
similar diameters are
placed in mutually
perpendicular planes
F ig . IV.11 . so that their centers
coincide. What will
happen with the rings if a current is passed through the rings? F ig . IV.1 2 .
IV.107. The wire of a table lamp which is supplied with
alternating current is carried to a magnetic needle. Will the
needle deviate in the magnetic field of the current?
IV.108. A constant current flows on a copper hollow cylinder in the direction parallel to its axis. If
we place inside it a steel bar, will the bar be magnetizes?
IV.109. To kill electric arc which rises in disconnecting large currents, they palace near the switch
an electromagnet so that the induction lines of the magnet field would be orthogonal to the rising
arc. Explain this phenomenon.
IV.110. Why do two parallel conductors attract each other if the current flows in them in the same
direction and why do two electron beams repel if they flow in opposite directions?
IV.111. If an electric current is passed through ionized gas (plasma), then the plasma is contracted
in the form of a plasmatic lace (pinch-effect). The pinch-effect is used for thermal isolation between
the hot plasma and the walls of tube in obtaining the thermonuclear synthesis reaction. Why is the
plasma compressed in these conditions?
IV.112. If one passes current through the jet of melted metal, then it becomes more narrow in cross
section. How will you explain it with regard for the proposition that a liquid is usually incompressible?
IV.113. Below you may see the principal scheme of a mass-spectrograph (a device which divides
beams of charged particles with a different ratios between a mass
of a particle and its charge). In the mass-spectrograph charged
N S particles are accelerated on the segment AB and enter into a
B magnetic field (see in Fig. IV.13).
− Determine the direction of the a
+ B
+ Lorenz force acting on a particle b
A at the moment when it enters into
the magnet field. − FC F L +
F ig . IV.1 3 . IV.114. In the mass-spectrograph 2
+

(see Fig. IV.14) charged particles,

by leaving the source 1, pass through the velocity filter 2. Into a ++
narrow output hole of the filter only the particles with close velocities 1
can get. Further the particles hit a homogeneous magnetic field.
Compare the masses of particles moving along the trajectories a) F ig . IV.1 4 .
and b) of their charges are same.
IV.115. Coils for resistance boxes and measure bridges are winded so that under a direct current a

50
magnetic field around them is practically absent. Suggest the method for winding such coils.
IV.116. A cable is composed of a central (axial) 2 and exterior 1 conductors (see in Fig. IV.15). Is
there a magnet field around the cable if in conductors the currents pass if the
1 same force and opposite direction? Same direction?
IV.117. The principal part of an electronic microscope are magnet lenses. The
simplest magnetic lens is a coil with a current. A dispersed beam of electrons is
2 focused by passing the magnet field of the coil. How can this be explained?
IV.118. How can one determine the poles of a horse-shoe shaped unmarked
magnet with the use of a television set?
F ig . IV.1 5 . IV.119. In a homogeneous magnet field with induction B
a metallic ball of the radius R moves with a constant
velocity v. Determine the points on the ball where the
maximal difference of potentials will be reached. Evaluate it by assuming B
that the angle between the velocity and the direction of the magnetic field is
α.
IV.120. To contain the plasma in thermonuclear reactors the magnet field is
applied. Let us consider a simplified model as in Fig.. IV.16. In a thin layer of
height d, a homogeneous magnetic field is created with the induction B being
parallel to the walls of the layer (perpendicular to the figure’s plane). At the d
left from the layer a gas is present consisting of charged particles with the
charge q and the mass m. These particles move in arbitrary directions with a F ig . IV.1 6 .
velocity v uniform by the absolute value. Under which meaning of the
induction B will not the particles hot the domain at the right from the magnet wall?

Magnetic Properties of Substances

IV.121. A ball made of the magnetically soft iron was first placed into a weak magnetic field and
then into a strong magnetic field. However, in the second case he experienced a force lesser than in
the first case. When is it possible?
IV.122. To transport incandescent metallic blanks why do not they apply electromagnet hoist cranes?
IV.123. A piece if iron is heated in a furnace situated between the poles of a magnet. Why may the
orientation of a sample change during the heating?
IV.124. As known, a nail can be magnetized by winding around it an isolated wire connected to a
galvanic battery. Will be the nail magnetized if we replace the battery with a charged capacitor?
IV.125. To investigate the microstructure of a metal (for example, to examine the presence of
ferromagnetic or non-magnetic components) the magnetic metallography is applied. To this end, a
treated surface of a metal is covered with a very fine layer of a magnetic powder (magnetite) and
then they investigate the position of magnetite particles under a microscope. Explain the physical
essence if the magnetic analysis of the structure of metals.
IV.126. To support metallic pieces in polishing, instead of mechanical keepers they use electromagnet
ones. What are their advantages? What are the forces which hold a detail on polishing machines?
IV.127. Steel pieces which may accidentally hit the lungs of a man, can be extracted without lancet.
To this end, a bronchoscope is used (an apparatus for investigation of bronchial ways): Through the
mouth a tube with light conductors is introduced into the bronchial tubes. By means of light
conductors one can illuminate and revise the interior surface of organs. How can one extract steel
particles from bronchial tubes by means of a bronchoscope?
IV.128. In transporting loads by means of electromagnet cranes it may occur that a part of a load
does not break away the core when the current is turned off. What must be done in this situation?
IV.129. The packing of nails into boxes is sometime made by applying a strong magnetic field.
What is the advantage of this way of packing?
IV.130. In the saucer of tractor engine a hole is made for exhausting of worked oil. Its closed with
a magnetized cork. What is it serving for?
IV.131. To what end on the poles of the core of electromagnet crane copper soldered rings are
sometimes made?
IV.132. The magnetic micrometer is designed for the measurement of layers of a paint or vanish
covering ferromagnetic pieces or details. The action of the device is based on measurement of the
change of attraction force in moving off a magnet from a painted piece. How do they determine the
thickness of a paint layer?

51
IV.133. In atomic reactors liquid metal is often used. This metal is usually pumped by magnet
pumps (see in Fig. IV.17). In what direction will flow a metal by the tube
A if we pass a current in the direction
shown in the figure?
IV.134. Presently, ferroalloys (magnetic
A materials) are widely applied. These C
materials represent chemical
− + combination of the iron oxide Fe O with
2 3
oxides of other metals. In addition to
ferromagnetic properties, the ferroalloys
S possess also properties of semi- −
conduction. Explain why are losses of
F ig . IV.1 7 . energy in magnetically soft ferroalloys
significantly less than in metallic +
ferromagnets?
IV.135. To clean the seeds of grass, flax, etc., possessing rough
surface, a special electromagnetic cleaning machine is applied (see
Fig. IV.18). Its principal part is a drum of nonmagnetic material
and an electromagnet fixed inside the drum. Explain the principle A B
of cleaning if in the bunker C seeds are loaded treated with iron
powder which well sticks to the F ig . IV.1 8 .
feeds of weeds. In which volume
A or B will the seeds be collected?
IV.136. A light
steel wheel is put
on a vertical axis.
At small distance
F ig . IV.1 9 . from the edge of
the wheel a
constant magnet is put. In the place nearest to one
of the poles of the magnet the steel edge is heated
with an alcohol burner (see Fig. IV.19). The wheel
starts to rotate. Explain the experiment.
IV.137. Let us make the following experiment.
Take a magnet bar and put on one of its ends a bar
made of magnetically soft iron, which is slightly
longer than the magnet (see Fig. IV.20). Then,
supporting the magnet with bar in the vertical
position, let us carry its free end to iron filings.
They will immediately be attracted to the bar. Now,
not disconnecting the magnet, down it slowly along
the bar. As soon as the magnet will approximate F ig . IV.2 0 .
filings to a certain distance, these will fall down.
Explain why?

Magnetic Field of The Earth

IV.138. Why does steel window grading become magnetized after a certain time?
IV.139. In what place on the Earth the magnet needle shows South by its both ends?
IV.140. Why do the corps of ships, tanks, blinded-cars always become magnetized?
IV.141. In the book by William Gilbert, one of first investigators of magnets, the following experiment
was described: If one strokes with hammer over an iron band which is looks from North to South,
the band becomes magnetized. Why? How the poles will be situated?
IV.142. What is the direction of induction lines of the magnetic foeld of Earth on its surface - from
North to South or opposite?
IV.143. Why are the stored steel rails become more magnetized than those which are explored on
railroads?
IV.144. Why are the ships for investigation of Earth magnetic field built of wood and have copper

52
screws for fastening details?

Electromagnetic Induction

IV.145. The turns of coils of electric generators or transformers may be deformed and even break
when a big force current passes through them (e.g., in short circuit). Why?
IV.146. What is the shape to which tends an elastic conductor when a current flows in it?
IV.147. How do neighboring turns of a solenoid interact when a current flow in solenoid?
IV.148.A coil is said to be bifilar if it is made of a single wire folded in two. Will be induced a
current in a coil with a bifilar winding?
IV.149. Two coils are on a table: one is connected into a circuit with a galvanometer, other is not.
Into both coils similar magnets are inserted with the same speed. Will the work be also same?
IV.150. A vertical conductor is displaced in the magnetic field of Earth from West to East. Is an
electromotive force of induction generated in this conductor?
IV.151. Whether the electromotive force of induction arises on the ends of a steel axis of an
automobile in its movement in the magnet field of the Earth? In which directions of motion will
this e.m.f. be maximal and minimal? Whether its value depends on the speed of automobile?
IV.152. The frame of some automobiles represents a closed contour. When they move, will there
arise an induction current?
IV.153. It is not recommended to combine the wires of street illumination supply and those of
telephone lines at same poles. May you explain why?
IV.154. Why sometimes may one hear a telephone talk which takes place on a neighboring line?
IV.155. After strong thunderstorm and a strike of lightning, one can find that the sensitive electrical
measuring devices (mainly, semiconductors) are damaged, fuses are fired out in illumination supply
network. Why does it happen?
IV.156. To investigate the homogeneity of the material of iron bars, rails, etc., these are first
magnetized, then a coil winded with an isolated wire is put on a sample under investigation and
then connected with a galvanometer. Afterwards it is moved along the whole construction. If any
non-homogeneity of the material of construction is met (rifts, caves, etc.) then a current arises in
the galvanometer. Explain the phenomenon.
IV.157. If an electromagnet is switched into an electric circuit, why is the complete force of the
current established not instantly?
IV.158. To what aim (except for the overcoming Ohm’s resistance) is the energy of the source spent
at the moment of completing a circuit?
IV.159. If one shorts the circuit with the source supplied by an ordinary radio battery, nothing will
be felt. But we include into circuit an electric bell, hands will feel sharp pushes. Why are they felt?
IV.160. Why is it forbidden to settle cables which carry AC supply to enterprises and houses near
gas, water, and heat communications?
IV.161. In the production of electric bulb lamps it is necessary to heat metallic parts inside the bulb
with air already pumped out. This is made by applying a high-frequency magnet field. The glass in
this process does not get notable heating. Explain the action of this method.
IV.162. An isolated super-conducting ring with a current is bent into two circles with the shape of
8. Then it is put in two. How will change the current in the new ring?
IV.163. On the axis of a constant magnet which is in vertical position there is a light wire ring
whose plane is perpendicular to the magnet axis. At a certain moment the ring starts to fall, its
plane remains horizontal. What is the difference between the behavior of a ring with a finite resistance
and a ring made of a superconductor? The ring has not current at
initial moment.
IV.164. A ring made of superconductor is near a constant magnet
and is permeated by the magnetic flow Φ. There is no current in the
K ring. What will be a magnetic flow through the ring if we take of the
magnet?
IV.165. An effective experiment is well-known: If one place a magnet
above a pan made of a superconductor, then the magnet levitates over
F ig . IV.2 1 . the pan. How will you explain this experiment?
IV.166. How depends on the time the current through a super-
conducting solenoid if the key K (see in Fig. IV.21) oscillates with a certain frequency?

53
IV.167. A magnet may fall inside a thin copper pipe and outside it, not touching the pipe in both
possible cases. Will the time of these falls be same?
IV.168. A rectangular frame and an infinite rectilinear conductor with a
D C current flowing are placed in a plane so that the sides AD and BC of the
frame are parallel to the conductor (see Fig. IV.22). In the middle of the
side BC the device measuring the charge already flowed is connected. The
frame can be placed into a new position, which is given in the figure by
dotted lines, in two ways: 1) by displacing it parallel to itself; 2) by rotating
it about BC by the angle 1800. In which of the cases the charge passed
A B through the device is greater?
IV.169. Prove that the inductance of a coil is
proportional to the square of the number of
F ig . IV.2 2. turns.
IV.170. A wire solenoid is connected to a
battery. How will change the current in the
circuit if the wire is quickly straightened?
IV.171. In Fig. IV.23 you may see the scheme of a contactor, i.e., a
strong electromagnetic relay used for A B C D
switching on heavy work circuits, for
example, an electric engine by means F ig . IV.2 3
C of auxiliary circuit with a current of
a small force. Explain the action of the contactor. Draw the scheme
L of switching the electric engine.
IV.172. Using the scheme given in Fig. IV.24, where L is a lamp,
C is a sharp metallic contact,
explain the action of an
electromagnetic current
F ig . IV.2 4 . interrupter .
IV.173. In very important A2
cases (for instance, in power circuits of airplanes) some devices
are set double. If the principal device fails, its duplicate is A1
automatically switched on. In Fig. IV.25 the scheme of closing
a circuit with a lamp, an ammeter A1, and its duplicate A2 is
shown. Explain how the automated switching of duplicate F ig . IV.2 5 .
ammeter is realized.

2 − 3
1 3 1

2 4
4 +
+
F ig . IV.2 6 . T h e sc h em e of a m a xim a l cu rren t F ig . IV.2 7 . T h e sc h em e of a m inim a l cu rren t
relay : 1 - c o il, 2 - m o bile c o re, 3 - re la y c o ntac ts, relay : 1 - c o il, 2 - m o bile c o re, 3 - re la y c o ntac ts,
4 - sp rin g . 4 - sp rin g .

IV.174. In Fig. IV.26 the scheme of maximal current relay is given. It is used for switching off a
circuit when the force of current grows in it above an admissible value. How does the relay work?
IV.175. In Fig. IV.27 the scheme of the relay of minimal current is shown . It is used for switching
off a circuit when the current in it becomes below a certain definite value. How does it work?
IV.176. In Fig. IV.28 a simplified scheme of automatic protection (auto-blocking) is given. It is
used in railroads to signalize whether a distance (a segment of railroad path) is either free or occupied
by some trains. How is realized the automatic signalizing on the occupation of a distance of railroad?
IV.177. To find electric supply wiring inside walls of buildings and also for determination of the
path of underground supply cables and lines without striping the ground, one can apply a device
whose principal part is a coil connected with an indicator (for example, a telephone handset). What
is the principle of action of this device?

54
IV.178. In braking engines of subway trains, their electric engines are switched off the supply and
then put into a short circuit (or connected to
special rheostats). What is this way of braking
basing on?
IV.179. To measure the induction of the
R magnetic field of Earth magnetometers are
used. A magnetometer (see in Fig. IV.29)
consists of a metallic frame 1, connected via
G rings to a galvanometer 2, and an electric
RL engine 3, which puts the frame into a uniform
A M B rotation. Explain the principle of action of the
magnetometer.
C T D IV.180. Electromagnetic non-destructive flaw
detection is widely used to control the quality
of metallic details. This way of control is as
F ig . IV.2 8 . T h e sim p lified sch e m e o f a utom a tic follows. First a sample detail of exemplar
p ro te ctio n : A B a n d C D - ra ils, M T - ca rriag e ro lling sto c k , quality is put inside of or near a coil with a
R an d G - th e red a n d g ree n la m p s resp e ctiv e ly,
R L - the re la y.
1 3
high frequency current. Afterwards they put a detail
to be checked. Why does the reading of the
galvanometer depend on the presence of defects (rifts,
cavities)?
IV.181. Why is it non-recommended to call by phone
in rural places in thunderstorms? 2
IV.182. An inductive heater consists of metallic tubes
into which isolated wires are inserted. An alternative
current is passed through the wires. Why are tubes F ig . IV.2 9 .
heated in this case?
IV.183. To warm reinforced concrete constructions in winter the inductive method can be applied.
An isolated wire is wind over a reinforced concrete construction, alternative current is passed
through the wire. Why is the reinforced concrete heated in this situation?
IV.184. Wood placed into alternate electromagnetic field of high frequency is warmed and thus
dries. What are the advantages of this technique of drying in comparison with ordinary ways?
IV.185. By applying a high frequency current, one can harden metallic detail in such a way that
their core will remain soft while the surface layer will be hardened. How can it be reached? What
are the advantages of this technique of hardening (for example, of crankshafts of automobiles)?
IV.186. To measure the thickness or gauge of flat metallic details (sheets, foils, bands) and also
details with closed surfaces (pipes and ducts, cisterns) special devices measuring the gauge are
applied. Their action bases of shield action of a metal introduced into a space between the primary
coil supplied by high frequency alternative current and secondary inductive coil. Explain the principle
of action of these devices.
1 IV.187. Fuses of radio and TV sets usually are melt not within their
work, but at switching them on or off. Why does it happen in these
moments?
IV.188. To ensure a stable work of the arc in the electric welding, it is
consecutively connected to a stabilizer, e.g., a coil with steel core.
How does this device work?
~220V 2 IV.189. The scheme of an illumination circuit containing a fluorescent
tube lamp(see in Fig. IV.30) contains a starter 1 and a choke (a coil
with a core) 2. The starter represents a bimetallic relay (starting device),
F ig . IV.3 0 . which closes the circuit with lamp electrodes and automatically
disconnects it in a certain time. Why at the moment of disconnection
of the circuit the lamp starts fluorescent though for setting up a glow discharge in the lamp a
voltage greater than in supply is required?
IV.190. Which of the two currents in the induction coil is more advantageous for ignition of fuel-
air mixture in a carburetor interior combustion engine: that arising in closing the circuit, or that
arising in disconnection of the circuit?

55
IV.191. The rules of secure exploitation forbidden re-switches in supply circuits if they at are
above the voltage of 30V. Why are such switches specifically dangerous if chokes, transformers,
electric engines, etc. are present in circuits?
IV.192. In closing and disconnecting circuits containing coils with cores (electromagnets, engines,
etc.), an arc charge arises destroying the contacts of disconnecting devices. In which moment an
interrupter gives more sparks: in interrupting or in connecting? What is the origin of this
phenomenon? Which are the ways to avoid destruction of the contacts?
IV.193. If a capacitor is connected in parallel with an interrupter, why does the sparking stop (see
the previous problem)?
IV.194. Why do sparks arise between the arc of tram and the air wire? Spark are significantly less
if the tram moves with disconnected engine and the current flows only through illumination lamps.
Explain the origin of this decease.
IV.195. Why must the disconnection of powerful electric engines be made smoothly and slowly
through rheostats?
IV.196. In switch on or an overload of an electric engine (i.e., in forced down of its rotation) the
current in the circuit is essentially greater than in its normal work. Explain the origin of this
phenomenon.
IV.197. A flat disconnected frame rotates in a vertical homogeneous magnetic field about the
horizontal axis with the angular speed Ω. Induction of the magnetic field changes in accordance
with the rule B= B0×sinΩt. Find the frequency of the electromotive force of induction arising in the
frame.

56
 Chapter V
Electric Current

Fundamental Laws of Electric Current

V.1. Answer to the question: may there exist currents flowing from a lower potential to a higher
potential?
V.2. An electric current in a conductor represents an oriented motion of free electrons. For example,
electric signals in a telephone talk are an alternating electric current. They are propagated through
telephone lines with a speed practically equal to that of light. Will it mean that the electrons run in
wires with the speed of light?
V.3. As known, near the Earth’s surface an electrostatic field with a tension exceeding 100V/m can
be observed. Then why cannot one obtain a direct current by means of this field?
V.4. Whether the work done by the source of current in the interior part of a circuit is a constant
value for this source of current?
V.5. One may apply an analogy between the flow of a liquid and an electric current. For example,
the force of a current equals the consumption of a liquid (the quantity of liquid which passes a cross
section of the flow within a unit of time). A dam is built on a river. Which electric circuit will be
analogous to this part of the river?
V.6. What are indicators for knowing whether a current flows or not in a circuit? Give or cite
examples.
V.7. Possessing a balance and two metallic plates of a known square S, how can one measure the
difference between potentials on clipses of a source of a constant voltage?
V.8. Suggest a method for measurement of the tension in a circuit of
B alternating current by means of an electroscope.
r V.9. Assume that in a ring conductor (see in Fig. V.1) an induction current
A whiose direction is marked by a pointer. The resistance between smaller part
of the ring - between the points A and B is equal to r, the resistance of the
larger part equals R, and the fall of the tension on the smaller part of the
R conductor in the direction from A to B at the moment under consideration
equals UArB. In these conditions the current on the part from A to B by the
Ohm law must be equal to I = UArB/r. Since the current must be same in all
F ig . V.1 . cross-sections of a conductor and the fall of tension between the same points
by via the long path from B to À, i.e., UBRA, must be equal to UBRA = –UÀrB,
therefore by the Ohm law the same current must equal I = –UÀrB/R. By comparison of these relations
we establish that r = –R. In what place have we made a mistake?

Current in Metals and Semiconductors.

Resistance of Metals and Semiconductors
V.10. A piece of wire was cut into two parts and wind, both parts together along their length. How
has the resistance of wire changed?
V.11. On electrified railroads on the edges of rails they make connectors in the form of a multifilament
copper wire welded to both ends of neighboring rails. What they make it for?
V.12. Whether a glass conducts an electric current?
V.13. In switching on an electric incandescence lamp, the current at the initial moment differs from
the current which is established when lamp begins to illuminate. How will change the current in a
lamp with a metallic filament?
V.14. In a part of electric circuit they connect first one amemeter and then another ammeter. The
first shows the value of current lesser than the second does. Among these amemeters which one has
the least resistance?
V.15. Having an electric stove with working voltage 220V, how can one verify the functioning of a
6V lamp with the normal 220V supply?
V.16. As we open the door of a refrigerator, a lamp is switched on inside it, when we close this door
the lamp is switches off, too. Compose the scheme of the corresponding electric circuit.
V.17. If the air were a good conductor, what would be the difficulties for electrical technique?

57
V.18. In humid rooms with ground or concrete floor only the low voltage currents can be used (not
exceeding 36V). What is the origin of this limitation?
V.19. Ceramic isolators for power transport lines are of a shape
(of the form of a bell) which ensures that their interior part remains
dry even when it rains or in snowfalls (see Fig. V.2). What are
advantages of that form of isolators?
V.20. Why do electricians work wearing rubber gloves and shoes,
using rubber carpets and tools with plastic handles?
V.21. Is it sufficient to isolate a man from ground in order to exclude
hitting by a current?
V.22. If the isolators of a high voltage of power supplying lines
are dirty, their dielectric features worsen.
F ig . V.2 . Therefore they wash them from a special V
fire-pumps, which ensure a dotted jet of
water with simultaneous grounding of their shells. Explain the physical sense
of these rules of safe exploitation.
V.23. To find defects (rifts, cavities, etc.) on details which have the same
cross section (e.g., rails) a device is used whose scheme is given in Fig. V.3.
How does it locate a defect?
V.24. To measure deformations in various constructions (for example, in
various points of airplane
wing) strain gauges are used. F ig . V.3 .
Usually, they are a thin mica
plate, inside which a thin
nickel-chrome or other wire is fixed with the resistance
150–200Ohm. Such a strain gauge is rigidly foxed over
A a construction (see Fig. V.4). What is a way in which
one can determine the value of deformation by the
readings of a galvanometer?
V.25. In Fig. V.5 one can see the scheme of a level
F ig . V.4 . gauge which is used to control the level
of gasoline in automobile tank. Explain
4 its functioning.
3 A V.26. Phone cables have many separated
wires. In laying a telephone cable, one
1 must determine the beginning and the
R end of each wire in the cable. How can
this be made?
V.27. In starting some electric engines
it is necessary to increase gradually the
2 supply. To this end a thermal resistor
(thermistor) can be applied, which is a
F ig . V.5 . T h e sch em e o f a lev el g a ug e : 1 - fu el tan k , 2 - a flo at, semiconductor device whose resistance
3 - rh e o sta t, 4 - dev ice d e m o n stra tin g a tan k in g by fue l
decreases as temperature grows.
Thermistor is included in circuits
consecutively with the engine. Why does this ensure a smooth start of the engine?
V.28. For a stable work of many electric devices a constant effective
supply (voltage) is necessary (in industrial supply lines the voltage R1
varies due to changes of consumption). To this end some special
devices, called voltage stabilizers, are used. In Fig. V.6 you may see a
scheme of a version of such device, its main element being the R2
thermistor Rt. Explain why in changing voltage on the contacts AB A
does the voltage on the load R not change practically? R
V.29. Basing on thermistor’s idea, suggest a scheme of a device for B Rt
measuring the velocity of air flow; same for water flow
(thermoanemometer).
V.30. Using the dependence of the resistance of a metallic conductor
on the temperature, design a device for determination of the wind
speed, i.e., anemometer. Draw the scheme of its electric circuit and F ig . V.6 .

58
explain the action of the device.
V.31. Conductors with a constant cross section possess
electric resistance R directly proportional to the length l
r I and inversely proportional to the square of cross section S,
so that R=ρl/S, where ρ is the specific resistance of the
conductor’s material. Therefore, if we merge huge batteries
of electrodes into sea, we could seemingly to obtain an
E infinitesimal resistance, because in that case we dealt with
a conductor with a huge are of section. It were unnecessary
U to lay expensive underwater cable for telegraph connection
between continents. Is such argument correct?
F ig . V.7 . V.32. A diode is connected to a source of the electromotive
force E through the resistance r. Find the current in that
circuit if the dependence of the current flowing through the diode on the voltage on it (volt-ampere
characteristic) is as shown in Fig. V.7.

Electric circuits.
Ohm’s Law for Completed Circuit

V.33. 1996 nails are hammered into a door. Each of these nails is connected with each of the
remaining 1995 nails. All connecting conductors have the same resistance R0. Determine the
resistance between two
arbitrary nails.
A A r V.34. For the schemes of
r r connecting an rheostat
B B A B into a circuit (see
R
R R Fig. V.8) draw the graphs
R of the dependence of the
ohmic resistance of the
a b c circuit between the points
A and B on the resistance
F ig . V.8 . of the right side of the
rheostat (till the runner).
V.35. How will
40 O hm 10 O h m change the
readings of
measuring
A devices when the
runner is
À V displaced? How
10 O hm 40 O hm will change the
glow of lamp
filament in both
10 V schemes? (see
Fig. V.9).
F ig . V.9 . F ig . V.1 0 . V.36. What is the
current flowing
through the amemeter in the scheme shown in Fig. V.10? Assume that internal resistance of the
amemeter is small.
V.37. In determining the resistance of a conductor by means of an
amemeter and a voltmeter (see in Fig. V.11) why do they take as more A
high-resistance voltmeter as greater accuracy of the result is required?
V.38. Having a amemeter and a voltmeter with unknown internal V
resistance, how can one measure the value of an unknown resistance?
V.39. One of the wires of a twin-core cable was connected to ground.
The cable’s length is several kilometers and it lies under the ground. F ig . V.11 .
How can one determine in simplest localize a fault?

59
V.40. In Fig. V.12 the schemes for measuring resistance by means of an amemeter and a voltmeter
are given. What is a scheme which will
Rx Rx supply the most accurate result?
A A V.41. The voltage on the poles of a power
source is always less than its electromotive
V V force. Why? By what value?
V.42. What is the system of voltmeter
which might give the most accurate
F ig . V.1 2 . measuring of the
electromotive force of a galvanic element?
V.43. Will change a current on an electric
U circuit if we replace one galvanic element with other possessing
plates of a greater size?
V.44. In measuring the electromotive force of an old battery for
pocket lantern a voltmeter shows
4.3V. However, the lamp does not work on this battery. Why?
V.45. A power source has the volt-ampere characteristic as shown
0 I in Fig. V.13 (Here U is the voltage on the source, I is the current
flowing through it). Draw a graph of the dependence of voltage at
the resistance to which this source is connected on the value of the
F ig . V.1 3 . resistance.
V.46. To obtain powerful light impulses through a gas-discharge
lamp, they use a battery of capacitors of large capacity, charged
up to a potential difference U. Why do not they use to this end a battery of galvanic element with
electromotive force equaling the same U?
V.47. In measuring the value of current in a lamp, a pupil has connected instead of an amemeter a
voltmeter. What happens then?
V.48. A pupil connected instead of a voltmeter and amemeter. What are the consequences of this
error?
V.49. If a high voltage wire breaks and falls on the ground, in which case will a man near this
accident be in less danger: when the ground is humid or dry? How can you explain your answer?
V.50. Wires of power transmission lines of high voltage are isolated by series of isolators of their
supporting poles. Nevertheless, why is it dangerous to touch these supporting poles?
V.51. May one make a short circuit in repairing a convenience outlet; an interrupter?
V.52. Compose a scheme of switching on (and off) an electric lamp which could be done in two
independent places, e.g., a scheme of illumination of a corridor with two entrances (use only two-
pole switches).
V.53. A three-lamp chandelier with two switches was connected to the supply. In testing it, it turns
out that some errors have been made resulting in: 1) in switching on the first switch only one lamp
lights; 2) in switching on only the second switch all lamps are alight but with an incomplete
incandescence; 3) when both switches are on, only one lamp is alight. Draw possible scheme of
such a connection and explain the effects.
V.54. Draw a scheme of connection of five-lamp chandelier with a double switch so that one could
switch on and off two, three, or five lamps.
V.55. On the cover of an electric element it is written: «EMF 4.5V», while a lamp is for the voltage
of 3.5V. Why is such a difference in voltage admissible?
V.56. In Fig. V.14 an infinite electric circuit is present.
A C What is the resistance between the points A and B?
V.57. A galvanic element is closed on two parallel
R R R conductors. Whether the currents in these conductors
R R R decrease if we increase their resistance?
V.58. An electric stove and an amemeter are switched
into a circuit. If one blows onto red-hot spiral of the stove,
B D what will the amemeter show?
V.59. For strong-current circuits in power stations why
do they use wires of a non-circle section?
F ig . V.1 4 . V.60. The electric main supply of trams has voltage 600V
and supply the elecetric energy to both engines and
illumination lamps in a tram. What is the sort of connection used to connect lamps into tram

60
circuit?
V.61. Why can birds «land» on wires of high tension power transmission lines without any harm?
V.62. Why will the voltage in a circuit will be
more stable, i.e., it will less change with
1 changes of load, if in the capacity of a source
one takes a battery of elements connected in
5 6 7 parallel?
2 V.63. In automobiles the turn is shown by
4 twinkling lamps. The main part of the
3 mechanism (see in Fig. V.15) is a bimetallic
plate 1 (two rigidly connected plates of metals
which differ by their thermal expansion). It is
F ig . V.1 5 . placed inside a spiral 2, which is heated by a
current. Explain why the lamp 3 will twinkle
if the key 4 will be closed?
V.64. Are you acquainted with the electric circuit in your flat? Can you decide the next questions:
1) which devices in your flat are connected in series and which are parallel with respect to each
other? 2) where stand the main fuses in your flat and how are they designed? 3) what are causes for
fuses interrupt the circuit even when wires are well-conducting and there is no a short circuit? 4)
why are poorly connected wires (e.g., near a self-made plug) of supply heated when current passes?
5) why do the sections of wires differ for different rooms? 6) why is it
forbidden to set switches in bathrooms but not outside?
V.65. What is a damage made by the electric arc in knives of knife-blade
switch and contacts of switches, in current collectors of trams, trolleys, and
electric trains?
V.66. As known, the electric power is to be evaluated by the formula P = U 2/
V R. Does it mean that if we connect a lamp designed for 220V into a circuit of
voltage 127V, then the power of lamp will grow three times?
V.67. If a filament of lamp in the circuit given
in Fig.. V.16 would burn out, then the voltmeter I
seems to be connected in series and show the
current. Is it true?
F ig . V.1 6 . V.68. In a certain circuit, there is a A B
C part shown in Fig. V.17. Two pupils C
R1 K discussed to where will the current
A flow to on ACB if one connects A F ig . V.1 7 .
2 1 and B by a conductor shown by a
G B dotted line. The first pupil said that since the current always
R R2
flows from plus to minus and plus is on the side of A, therefore
on the dotted segment it will flow via ACB. The second pupil
said that since on the main circuit the current flows from B to A
and at the point  the circuit bifurcates, therefore on the «dotted»
part the current must go in the direction BCA. Who is right among
them?
V.69. To determine the value of rather small capacities they
F ig . V.1 8 . sometimes use the bridge scheme shown in Fig. V.18. The tale
K vibrates with a frequency ν. What is the capacity of the
capacitor C if the value of the variable resistor is R, while the fixed resistors are R1 and R2. The
pointer of the galvanometer G is steady.

Work of Current. Joule-Lentz Law

V.70. By the Joule-Lentz law we have P = U 2/R = I 2×R. Thus, assuming that both the formulas are
valid, we arrive at a contradiction: the quantity of heat radiated in a conductor when a current
passed through it is both directly and inversely proportional to the resistance R of a part of circuit!
Explain this contradiction.
V.71. The Joule-Lentz law asserts that the quantity of heat produced in a conductor with current is
proportional to the resistance of the conductor. Hence it follows that one can obtain an unbounded

61
quantity of heat by using a very small current and very huge resistors. In this situation, the electric
heating were the most profitable. But it takes no place in the reality. Why?
V.72. Two lamps are designed each for 220V. One has the power 60Wt, other 100Wt. Which is a
lamp with greater resistance?
V.73. A railroad car is illuminated by 10 lamps which are connected in series. How will change the
consumption if we decrease the quantity of lamps to five?
V.74. The filament of a lamp becomes thinner due to vaporization of its material and dusting out of
its surface. How will it affect the power of consumption of this lamp?
V.75. A current passes through a steel wire, the latter become rather hot. If we merge one part of
this wire into water, the remaining part will by heated even more. Why? The difference between
potentials at the end of the wire is supported constant.
V.76. Why so electric lamps usually burn out in switching them on and very rarely in switching
them off?
V.77. If you connect to supply an electric device of large consumption (iron, electric pot), the
brightness of lamps switched on changes. It is more visible at first seconds, then they turn brighter
but less than before switching the device. Explain the phenomenon.
V.78. Electricians say: “Cold welding is hot, hot welding is cold”. What is the sense of this expression?
V.79. Why in the process of electric welding are the greater amounts of heat produced on the places
where pieces are welded?
V.80. When one works on a turning lathe
with wrong-shaped tool, why does the
3 consumption of electric power increase?
V.81. On automobiles and tractors the
1 2 electric battery (accumulator) is usually
placed as close to the starter engine as
possible and connect them by a thick
4 copper wire. Explain the reasons.
V.82. In welding and cutting metals by
means of arc, why do they use currents
reaching several hundred amperes?
F ig . V.1 9 . T h e sch em e of a p oin t electrical w eld ing : V.83. In a point electric welding (see in
1 a n d 2 - th e sh eets to b e w eld ed , 3 a nd 4 - th e co p p er e lectro d es
Fig. V.19) the sheets are pressed to each
other by electrodes and then a current is
passed. Why in this process are welded only contacting places on sheets and not electrodes?
V.84. The section of wires supplying energy to spirals of heating devices is usually greater than that
of proper spirals. May you explain why?
V.85. Plugs, convenience outlets (sockets), or switches of electric circuits sometimes become
sensitively hot. What is the reason of this phenomenon and how can one repair this heating?
V.86. In a tram two engines are set. The drive may swintch them both in parallel and in series. What
are the reasons for providing both ways of switching?
V.87. Electric stoves may contain two similar spirals heated by a current; these can be connected
both in series and parallel ways. In which of these connections will the stove give more heat?
V.88. A steel wire has a resistance twice greater than a copper one. In which of these wires will the
greater quantity of heat arise in the same period of time: a) in parallel connection; b) in series
connection into a circuit with a constant voltage?
V.89. In a short circuit why is the voltage on battery terminals close to
zero? To what end the work extraneous forces go in this case? B
V.90. How do depend the losses of power related to the internal resistance
of the electric power source on the resistance of the external circuit? May
these losses be zero?
V.91. What are the necessary devices and in what way can one verify the
work of electric power meter? A
V.92. A ring is made of a homogeneous wire. The voltage of a power
source is constant. In what position of the runner (see in Fig. V.20) will
the minimum heat be produced in the ring? F ig . V.2 0 .
V.93. Explain why in moving the runner to the point A (see in Fig. V.20)
we get an infinite value of the heat power. Is this situation real?
V.94. A current in a coil grows linearly from zero to 5A within 9 seconds. During this time, in a
conducting ring which is near the coil, the 0.5J of heat was produced. What s the quantity of heat to

62
be produced in the ring if the current in the coil grows linearly from 0A to 10A within 3 seconds?

Current in Gases

V.95. Experience shows that none body that could be charged infinitely. After a certain value of
charge (depending on the shape and the size of body, as well as on the features of environment), a
further increase of charge cannot be attained. Why?
V.96. Why the wires of air power transmission lines are not covered by an isolating shell for a
greater safety?
V.97. Is a semi-self-maintained discharge between wires of a power transmission lines (air) possible?
V.98. In a spark discharge through a gas why is the greater voltage ~106V required for a distance
between electrodes ~1m, while for an arc discharge the voltage ~45–50V is sufficient?
V.99. In cooling a gas, its conductivity reduces. How can you explain it? Where are ions hidden?
V.100. In decreasing the pressure, the electric conductivity of a gas first grows and then, from a
certain value of pressure, decreases and turns into a negligible value?
V.101. What is the cause by which the glass of bulbs of electric
lamp darkens after a long use?
V.102. On Fig. V.21 you may see the distribution of the
U C potential alongside a tube in which a glow discharge is
produced. In which domain the electric field strength is
maximal? Where does it equal zero?
A V.103. For advertising and decorative purposes gas-light tubes
B with glow discharge are used. What does the color of glow in
them depend on?
V.104. Why must one avoid the air entering in the glow
discharge tubes?
O l V.105. If one rubbers the balloon of neon lamp with wool, the
F ig . V.21 . lamp may be alight. How will you explain this phenomenon?
V.106. For signalizing neon lamps, working on the glow
discharge, are widely used. A neon lamp is a balloon provided
with two electrodes and filled with an inert gas (e,g., the neon). In contrast to incandescent lamps,
why do the neon lamps start to glow at a strictly defined
voltage?
V.107. A glow discharge is used for the method of cathode
vaporization of metals, based on the fact that the substance R
of cathode step by step passes into a vapor and sets on the U + +
in U o ut
walls of tube or things inside the tube. By applying this
method, the high quality mirrors are produced, piezo-
quartz plates are coated, etc. Why does the cathode
substance vaporize in the glow discharge?
V.108. In Fig. V.22 you see the scheme of connection of a F ig . V.2 2 .
device (called stabilitron), which is applied in stabilization
of the voltage in electric circuits. The action of a stabilitron bases on the property of a glow discharge
to support practically unchanged the voltage in the discharge distance under changes of anode
current. How can you explain it?
V.109. Explain why in an electric welding, strong cooling of the cathode kills the arc, but in cooling
of anode the arc continues to burn?
V.110. One must weld a massive detail with a thin one. Which of details should be connected to the
positive pole of the power source and which to negative?
V.111. In the flight of an airplane, its structure may be electrized up to potential about half million
Volts, which leads to glow discharge on outstanding parts of airplain and makes difficult the radio
communication. In this connection, at some places of airplane steel needles are fixed. Why do
these needle reduce radio noise?
V.112. In order to reduce energy losses for glow discharge, why do they increase the diameter of
wires and make them hollow?
V.113. In some cases each wire of a high voltage of a power transmission line are made triple with
wires diverged on a certain distance (see Fig.V.23). Why does this solution reduce the losses to
glow discharge?

63
V.114. Why do the losses of electric power to glow discharge in power transmission lines sharply
grow in a bad weather (fog, rain, snow-fall, etc)?
V.115. To separate seeds they use a machine based on the crown discharge (see in Fig. V.24). The

2 1
− +
+ −

F ig . V.2 3 . F ig . V.2 4 .

machine consists of a rotating drum 1 and an electrode 2 which produces the crown discharge (a
thin wire); between these parts a strong electric field arises. As a consequence, the crown discharge
electrify and ionize the air molecules around. The
− ions thus produced charge the grain flowing from
a bunker. Why is a separation of seeds realized?
2 3 V.116. What is the objective to supply on the
electrodes of a spark plug in an internal
combustion engine the high voltage (near 20kV)?
V.117. Explain the physical basements of the
treating of metals by the electric-sparking
+ technique (see the scheme in Fig. V.25).
R
1 V.118. What are the advantages of the electric-
sparking method of treating metals in comparison
F ig .V.2 5 . T h e schem e for th e treatin g o f m etals b y with turning and milling?
electric-spark ing technique: 1- the treated piece, V.119. A neon tube and an incandescent lamp
2 - th e electro d e, 3 - a die le ctric liq u id filled with hydrogen are connected in parallel to
a power source. Only the neon lamp is alight. In
merging both the lamps into a liquid helium, the neon lamp stops its light, but the incandescent one
starts to burn. Why?
V.120. Wrap into a thin tin foil (e.g., the wrap of chocolate) the bulb of an electic lamp and then
wind above foil a thin copper wire. Connect the free end of the wire to an electroscope. Connect in
series with lamp a rheostat to make the lamp to be alight not in full power. Then make the following
experiments: a) charge the electroscope positively and switch on the lamp; b) charge the electroscope
negatively and then switch on the lamp; c) in continuing the experiment, move forward the runner
of the rheostat to make the lamp be alight in full power. Explain all the three phenomena observed.
V.121. In a certain quantity of the air is inside a vacuum bulb, its cathode is quickly collapses.
Why?
V.122. If a high voltage (several thousand Volts) is applied between the cathode and the anode of a
vacuum tube, the anode is strongly heated and might even melt. Can you explain the reasons for
melting?
V.123. In industry, both the vacuum and gas-filled lamps are produced. Why do the gas-filled (they
use inert gases to fill the bulbs) lamps serve more long time than vacuum ones?
V.124. Radioactive radiation forms elementary particles possessing high energy and thus able to
ionize the gases. Design a device (gauge) which could react on ionized particles.

Electrolysis
V.125. On gas ducts the negative pole of electric generator is connected with the duct, while the
positive pole is grounded. Why does this method, called «cathode protection», keep the ducts away
of corrosion?
V.126. Both clear distilled water and salt are isolators. Then why is their solution a conductor?

64
V.127. In the electrolysis the metals’ ions from a solution deposits at cathode, losing their charge.
In what way is the quantity of metals’ ions complemented in the solution?
V.128. In the capacity of an anode, place into an electrolytic bath a copper plate covered by a wax.
Before this, draw (scratch!) a picture on the surface of the plate. What will be the result after
making to pass a current and posterior cleaning off wax from the plate?
V.129. A concentrated sulfuric acid can be kept in both glass and iron vessels, but a diluted must be
kept only on glass vessels. Explain why.
V.130. To determine the poles of a power source, they connect it with wires merged in a glass of
water (water must not be distilled). Then they observe at which wire more gas is extracted. How do
they determine by these data the signs of the poles?
V.131. As known, both trams and electric trains use the direct current for their motion. The air wire
of supply is connected to positive pole of the power source, while the rails are connected to the
negative pole. Why?
V.132. Why must the wires designed for electric circuits in humid rooms be covered by a substance
non-permeable by the humidity (e.g., by synthetic resin)?
V.133. The aluminum, sodium, magnesium and many other metals are obtained by the electrolysis
of oxides melt. Thus, the aluminum is produced by the electrolyzing melt oxide of aluminum
solved in the cryolite, which is added to reduce the melting temperature of this melt. Explain the
physical basements of the process of producing aluminum.
V.134. In the industry, the electrolysis is widely applied for purification (refining) various metals.
On this process the metals are cleaned out from various residues and additions. Thus, the copper
extracted from ore contains some sulfurous addends reducing its electrical conduction. Such copper
in the form of plates is merged into electrolytic bath as an anode, the electrolyte being a solution of
the sulfuric acid and the copper sulfate. Explain the physical foundations for producing clean copper.
V.135. Both cathode and anode covering of details by a metal are used in the industry. If the metal
for covering is chemically more active than the metal of detail, the covering is said to be «anode»
(otherwise «cathode»). Determine the way of covering for a zinc-coated iron and a tin-plated iron
by using the series of chemical activity of metals.
V.136. Before to proceed with an electrolytic covering (plating and coating) details must be carefully
treated: polishing, fat removing, oxide-films removing from surfaces. Why does the covering metal
to be keyed better to the detail in this case?
V.137. To avoid the atmospheric corrosion of steel details, the zinc is used; to protect them against
the action of sulfuric acid and sulfates they use the lead; for protecting decorative finishing the
nickel and chrome are applied. What does stimulate the choice of the metal for protection of details?
V.138. In small electrolytic baths why do they use as a rule two anodes between which the detail is
placed?
V.139. Zinc-coating and nickel-plating of small details are made in electrolytic baths of the bell
type (drums) which rotate in the process of electrolysis. What for are these baths turned?
V.140. In order to improve the quality of electrolytic covering of products they use reversing which
is the alternating of the current’s direction in baths. Why does it improve the quality of covering?
V.141. Does the velocity of precipitation of a metal in electrolytic covering depend on the distance
between electrodes?
V.142. The anode-mechanical treating of metals is used in the industry. To this end a draft detail is
connected with a positive pole of the power source and the cutting tool is connected with the
negative pole. At the place of a tool-detail contact an electrolyte is supplied. In treating the anode
metal’s dissolving in the electrolyte is used as well as its later destruction resulting of spark discharge.
How can one apply these processes for tools’ sharpening?
V.143. How could one cover by metal product made of non-conducting materials (wood, gypsum,
leather)?
V.144. If through an electrolyte with two electrodes merged a current passes, then on anode a metal
is formed in quantities determined by the value of the electric charge passed through the electrolyte.
In discharging a capacitor via an arbitrary number of baths connected in series, whether one can
extract any prescribed quantity of a metal?

Direct Current Sources

V.145. Connect in series a metallic pot (made of either iron, or copper) and an aluminum vessel of
a calorimeter or an aluminum mug with a galvanometer. Pour into pot water with tea and dissolve

65
a bit of salt. Now pour the water to a glass. Why does the galvanometer show that a current is
passing?
V.146. Some animals stun their victims by electric current. For instance, an electric eel may produce
an impulse of a current of 1A with voltage 600V. Electricity is produced in special cells, so-called
«electric pockets», which may rapidly discharge when a nerve signal comes into. A set of these
electric pockets are connected together to obtain the necessary voltage. At the same time the eel
does not suffer of electric shock which is stipulated by the way in which electric pockets are
connected. An electric pocket discharges a difference between potentials of 0.15V and may survive
without destruction of its structure an electric current up to 1mA. Determine the umber of electric
pockets of an electric eel and the way of their connection.
V.147. Assume that we have as many as necessary elements for a small pocket lamp. May one put
alight a lamp designed for a very strong current?
V.148. To a accumulator battery with the electromotive force E1 n accumulators with the
electromotive force of each E2 are connected in series and then close the new battery thus made
with an external resistor. In what case the current passing through the resistor does not depend on
the quantity of connected accumulators?
V.149. May we use a common vessel in making a battery of parallel connected galvanic elements?
V.150. Electrified ebonite or glass stick attracts small pieces of paper. Why paper pieces are not
attracted to terminals of an accumulator or a battery?
V.151. From the electrostatics we know that all points of a conductor must have the same potential.
Why then in Volt element does arise the difference between potentials of zinc and copper plates?
All its components: plates and the solution of sulfuric acid between them are conductors.
V.152. Why the hydrogen in a galvanic element is produced on the positive electrode and not
negative, as within the electrolysis?
V.153. Is the term «dry element» correct? Why do the cover «dry elements» with a synthetic resin?
V.154. To extend the resource of an element it can be accurately rumpled. After this procedure why
do battery features restore?
V.155. In a galvanic element why is the zinc a negative electrode? Can an element with positive
zinc electrode exist?
V.156. To produce galvanic elements why do they use not a chemically pure zinc but that with
various impurities?
V.157. A tank for water made of aluminum sheets with copper rivets quickly decays cue to corrosion.
Why?
V.158. Electrolyte reduces in car accumulator battery with time. In what case will it suffice to add
distilled water and in what case must one add a ready-to-use electrolyte?
V.159. The degree of charge of a battery can be tested by the density of the electrolyte with the help
of an areometer. Give foundations to justify this method of testing.
V.160. A car lamp of 6V and 24Wt connected to a 6V car/bike battery burns brightly, but connected
to consecutively connected elements with common tension 8V glows weakly. Why?
V.161. Usually, an automobile starter is a rather small electric engine consuming large (~100A)
current under small (~10V) voltage. Whether one can turn on a car possessing instead of a car
battery several elements for pocket lamp connected consecutively?
V.162. One has an unlimited quantity of elements for pocket lamp. Can he obtain any great current
by connecting elements consecutively?
V.163. Why is it forbidden to admit short circuit for acid batteries?
V.164. Interior resistance of alkaline accumulators is greater that that for acid accumulators. Prove
that the efficiency of acid accumulators is above the efficiency of alkaline
ones (under equal remaining conditions).
E, m V 1 2 V.165. Alkaline batteries weight less than acid ones, they are resistant
against short cicuit (i.e., possess large interior resistance), but their
30 electromotive force strongly depends on the temperature. Why do the
20 use in automobiles not alkaline but acid batteries?
V.166. Why are the plates in batteries so close to each other?
10 V.167. How can one increase the efficiency of a battery composed of
o
similar elements?
200 600 t, C V.168. In Fig. V.26 the graphs of dependence of the electromotive force
arising in heating nichrome-constantan (1) and nickel-nichrome (2)
F ig . V.2 6 . welds. Which among these pairs requires a less sensitive galvanometer
in designing a thermoelectric thermometer? Why?

66
V.169. There are certain reasons to suppose the in future the magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD)
generators of current will have bright perspectives. Their samples are already working in practice.

C o m b u stio n E le ctro d e
ch am b e r
F u el B
R

E le ctro d e

F ig . V.2 7 .

They directly transform the interior energy of a gas into electric one. The current in the generator is
produced as follows. A jet of plasma (i.e., partially ionized gas) is directed into an interval between
two plates which are in a string magnetic field (see Fig. V.27). In this situation, between the plates
an electric tension arises. Explain the causes of its arising. If one connects by a conductor these two
plates, what will be the direction in which the current will flow in exterior circuit if the direction of
magnetic field induction is as shown in the figure?
V.170. Why in an MHD-generator they add to the products of combustion the vapors of metals
(e.g., potassium and cesium) whose atoms are easily ionized at high temperatures?

Electric Engines and Generators of Electric Current

V.171. When it rotates in the magnetic field of a stator, the rotor of a working electric generator is
subject to (in addition to friction) braking forces. What is the origin of these forces?
V.172. In Fig. V.28 you may see the scheme of a voltage regulator in a car. If the number or engine
rotations increases, the generator gives increased
5 voltage which increases the current in the
electromagnet 1; the latter attracts the contact 2, by
overcoming the resistance of a string 3, and thus
disconnects the circuit 4. Why will the tension
decrease in this case? What will happen later to these
6 4 contacts?
V.173. How can a generator of a direct current, which
3 supplies energy to electromagnets of its stator, start
2 to supply the current into mains of for its excitation a
magnet field is necessary?
V.174. If we connect two generator of a direct current
1 consecutively and start to rotate the rotor of one by
applying an external force, then other will start to
rotate, too. Why?
V.175. In generators of direct current there always is
F ig . V.2 8 . a mark showing to which side its rotor must turn. It is
forbidden to rotate in opposite direction. Why? What
will happen if one starts to rotate it in opposite
direction?
V.176. Automobile batteries are said to be discharged if a) the illumination lamps of the car are
glowing poorly; b) incandescence of the lamps changes if one increase the rotations of the engine.
Give explanations to these criteria.
V.177. Serving to start up an automobile engine, a starter is an electric engine working from an
accumulator battery. The current needed for starter is about hundred amperes. What is such a big

67
current necessary for? Why is it forbidden to switch on the starter for a long time?
V.178. As known, the start of powerful electric engines is produced by means of starting rheostats
in order to avoid burning out of winding of armature. Why is the starter switched on without these
rheostats?
V.179. Prove that if among two machines of the same type one works as the engine and other works
as a generator and the currents in armatures and magnet windings of both machines have the same
direction, then armatures of these machines will rotate in opposite directions.
V.180. Let there be given an electric machine with a constant magnet. Its rotor is provided with two
absolutely similar windings, connected with separate collectors. One of these windings is connected
to a direct current source and the machine works as an engine. In this situation, the second winding
can serve as the source of current. Determine how does the current in windings depend on the
resistance of the load to which the second winding is connected?
V.181. The direction of the rotation of a rotor of a direct current engine depends on the direction of
current in the windings. How may a tram go forward and back while the air wire has always a
positive potential of 600V with respect to rails?
V.182. May a tram in its motion not only consume the energy, but return it into circuit?
V.183. At first glance it seems that in rotation of electric engine rotor the quantity of the consumed
energy is as greater, as more fast are rotations of the rotor. But in practice all in contrary. How could
you explain it?
V.184. In powerful generators of alternating current the inductor rotates (electromagnet) fixed on a
rotor, the current is induced in windings of the stator. In a generator of a direct current, the stator is
an inductor, while the current is induced in the winding of the rotor. What does determine this
difference?
V.185. May a generator of alternating current supply the inductor with its current?
V.186. Generators put into action by hydro-turbines are multi-polar (i.e., the rotor represents an
electromagnet with many poles), while turbo-generators are always two-pole. Why?
V.187. Why the number of rotations of a stem turbine which is a component of a turbo-generator is
usually equal to 3000 rpm? What is this value related to?

Alternating Electric Current

V.188. In measuring the resistance of solutions why is it recommended to use only a direct current?
V.189. Two incandescent lamps are equipped with amemeters which register the current passing
through them. One of the lamps is connected to an ac and other to dc sources. Readings of amemeters
are same. Which of lamps will be brighter?
V.190. An isolated wire is winded about an iron bar. Will its resistance to dc change? To ac?
V.191. In a parallel connection of a capacitor to the circuit of a fluorescent lamp, why does the
power coefficient increase?
V.192. In consecutive connection of conductors the common resistance equals the sum of each
resistance. Into a circuit of alternating current with the frequency w we include a lamp with resistance
R. Afterwards, consecutively with this lamp we include a coil with the inductance L and a capacitor
with the capacity C. The resistance of the circuit seems
to grow and exceed R; however, if LC = 1/ω2, the
U
2 resistance of the circuit will be R. How must one
understood this situation?
V.193. A lamp an a capacitor are included consecutively
into AC mains. How will change the glow of the lamp if
we include one more capacitor in parallel to the first one?
1 V.194. Into a circuit of a battery they included a winding
of an electromagnet and an incandescent lamp. Will
change the glow of the lamp when the electromagnet will
attract a load?
t V.195. How can one visually distinguish among three wires
of air power transmission three-phase line a phase-wire
F ig . V.2 9 . an the zero-wire?
V.196. What is the pulsation frequency of directed three-
phase current of the industrial standard under two-half-period direction?
V.197. In Fig. V.29 one can see graphs of two three-phase currents. Which of them does need a

68
zero-wire? Why?
V.198. Sometimes, when
2 2
home fuses burn out,
1 2 3 1 2 3 lamps glow but dimly.
Why? Is it possible in
three-phase supply net
1 3 1 3 with the zero-wire?
2 3 1 2 3 1 V.199. An electric engine
is connected to three-
F ig . V.3 0 . F ig . V.3 1 . phase supply first in star-
shape way, then in trangle
way (see Fig. V.30). When do its windings get a greater voltage?
V.200. In Fig. V.31 you may see a terminal block of an
electric engine with three pairs of terminals. To these
ABC terminals beginnings and ends of three its windings are
connected. What way are connected the windings of the
engine, star or triangle, in both cases?
3 V.201. In starting up powerful engines of three-phase ac,
2 the interrupter first is positioned to right contacts (see
1 Fig. V.32), and, after the engine will reach necessary
rotation, to left ones. Why do they do it in this way?
3 V.202. Why is the transformation of ac to high voltage and
back necessary in transmitting the electric energy for long
2 distances?
V.203. Does change the power of
1 current under transformation in a
transformer?
V.204. What will happen to a coil of a
F ig . V.3 2. transformer if we straighten it not À
disconnecting from the mains?
V.205. The primary coil of a transformer is connected to a source, the second
being disconnected. Is the transformer consuming electric energy?
V.206. Why do the rings work on a battery must have an interrupter, while F ig . V.3 3.
those working on ac do not need it?
V.207. For measuring ac of large force so-called «current
transformers» are applied in electric circuits (Fig. V.33). 3
A version of these devices are so-called measure clutches
(Fig. V.34), which are specially convenient to measure 2
the current in power transmission lines without 1
disconnecting them. The clutches consist of a metallic A
core 1, an amemeter 2, and dielectric handles 3. The wire
of a line 4 is placed via a regularized gap 5 into interior
domain of the core 1 and by the amemeter the force of 5
current in the line can be determined. What are physical
laws which enable the action of the devices? Why cannot
one include the amemeter directly to the circuit with a
high current? 4
V.208. In Fig. V.35 a scheme of a transformer for welding
is given. The electrodes E, between which the arc is
excited, are connected to the secondary winding of a
transformer. Will either grow or decrease the tension of
electrodes’ terminals if one moves the handle H from A F ig . V.3 4 .
to B?
V.209. Why do not they use for illumination ac with the
frequency 15 Hz?
V.210. Will change the ratio between the tensions of terminals of primary and secondary windings
if the iron core will be replaced with copper one? One made of aluminum?
V.211. Why does a transformer fail if at least two winds are short circuit?
V.212. Why does a transformer with load toot? What is the frequence of the sound of a transformer

69
 ~220 V

A
E
H
E

F ig . V.3 5.

connected to the mains of an industrial power circuit?

G en e rato r

2
su pp ly
Pow er

4
3
C
1
Sp ring
Battery
F ig . V.3 6 .

V.213. In interruption of current from mains or in jumping off C a r s circu it

wires of its trolleys, lamps supplied by accumulators are
automatically switched on. Using the scheme in Fig. V.36, F ig . V.3 7 .
explain the action of such a device.
V.214. In Fig. V.37 a scheme is given which allows to switch
off the generator from the battery of a car when the latter gives current into car’s circuit. Explain
the scheme.

70
 Chapter VI
Oscillations and Waves

Mechanical Oscillations

VI.1. How will change the period of a pendulum if it will be carried from the air into the water or
a viscous oil?
VI.2. Two similar hollow balls with holes are filled: one with the water and other with sand. They
are hung on lines of the same length, and inclined to the same angle. Will they have same period of
oscillations? Will they oscillate within the same time?
VI.3. A flat T-shaped construction consists of three small balls and can
freely turn in the vertical plane about the axis O (Fig. VI.1, the plane of
the draw is perpendicular to the axis O). The length of each spoke is L,
O and its mass is neglectible in comparison with the mass of the balls.
Determine the period of small oscillations of the construction.
VI.4. Given a clock with its second pendulum established for Moscow,
how will is go on a pole and on equator?
VI.5. In a rocket which goes up with the acceleration a, a mathematical
F ig . 6 .1 . pendulum is put. Explain the character of oscillations of the pendulum
in a moving rocket and determine on which height the period of
oscillations will be same as in a rocket standing on the Earth.
VI.6. Will remain same the period of a mechanical pendulum of a clock if we transport it from the
Earth to the Moon?
VI.7. How will change the period of oscillations of a pail with water which is hung on a long rope
if the water will permanently leak from a hole in its bottom?
VI.8. What should be done with the pendulum of a clock if it goes faster?
VI.9. Does a change of temperature affect the accuracy of a pendulum clock?
VI.10. By means of a mathematical pendulum, how one can determine the acceleration of gravity
at a given place?
VI.11. By the change of the period of oscillations of the second pendulum, how can one estimate
the volume of ore if he knows the density of the ore ρo = 8000kg/m3 and the average density
ρE= 5600kg/m3 of the Earth?
VI.12. If one carries pails on yoke, then in a certain temp of walk the pails start to oscillate strongly.
How can you explain this phenomenon? How may one reduce such oscillations?
VI.13. Why do the glasses in an old bus start to tinkle at a certain frequency of engine rotations?
VI.14. If one puts a wooden circle upon the water in a pail, the water will not sprinkle out in walk.
Why?
VI.15. What are the reasons to install all vibrating devices in sky-scribers (electric engines, diesel
engines, and so on) on rubber or metallic shock absorbers?
VI.16. In what maximal speed of a train may the resonance of vertical oscillations of cars arise in
view of strokes of wheels on rail-ends if the length of a rail is 25 m, and the period of proper
vertical oscillations of a car is approximately 1.25 second?
VI.17. A spacecraft moves with a certain acceleration when its engines are turned on. By using a
mathematical pendulum hung in the spacecraft cabin, how one can determine the acceleration of
the spacecraft?
VI.18. Two tuning forks stated one resonance boxes have the resonance frequencies ω1 and ω2,
respectively. In striking one of the tuning forks, other, practically, does not respond. By exciting
one tuning fork, how one can make to respond another one?

Waves in Elastic Media. Sound

VI.19. The radius of the front of shock wave under a nuclear explosion depends on the energy of
the explosion E, the time of its propagation t, and the initial density of the air ρ0. Basing on the
method of dimensions, find this dependence.
VI.20. The sound speed in a gas may be represented by the formula v = f(p,ρ), where p is the
pressure and ρ is the density of the gas. Basing on this information, determine the ratio of speeds

71
in a gas in two different states which are characterized by the values p1, ρ1 and p2, ρ2.
VI.21. In a running transverse wave, a particle A (see Fig. VI.2) has the
direction of velocity shown in the figure. In what direction «moves» the
A wave?
VI.22. In approximating to a shore, the sea waves increase their height
reaching sometimes 50 m. Why does it occur?
VI.23. When small sea waves approximate an inclined shore, foam ridges
appear on them. Why?
F ig . V I.2 . VI.24. In formation of waves, particles of water do not move toward,
but participate in an oscillation about a certain mean position. Then
why do sea waves often throw onto the shore some floating things?
VI.25. If a shore is slanting, why do the waves reach the shore at an angle close to direct independently
of the wind direction?
VI.26. Sometime we see the flash of lightning but do not hear the sound of thunder. As a rule, the
thunder are rarely audible at distances exceeding 25km. However, the sounds of fire-guns are heard
at much longer distances. Why do we hear no thunder at the same distances? Take into account that
the sound velocity in gas is approximately proportional to its temperature.
VI.27. If one observes how marsh soldiers accompanied with an orchestra, it seems that they go
wrong and do not hear the music. Why?
VI.28. The watch was tuned by means of the sound of signals from a radio at rather far distance. In
which season will this tuning be more accurate: in winter or in summer?
VI.29. It is easy to find a propeller airplane in sky, but not a jet. Why?
VI.30. On heights exceeding 3km over the Earth’s surface, one cannot obtain any sound whose
source is on Earth. Why?
VI.31. Why are sounds in a fog heard for longer distances than in a sunny day?
VI.32. The most insects produce noise when fly. What does generate these sounds?
VI.33. Which of the following insects does make more frequent waves by their winds: a fly, a
bumblebee, or a mosquito?
VI.34. By the frequency of sound of a bee one can know where the bee flies to or from: to home
with a honey, or from home to collect the honey. How can you guess it?
VI.35. In testing wheels of a train, workers strike them with a special hammer (with a convenient
long handle). Why do they strike wheels?
VI.36. Before playing, musicians who play on musical instruments with a bow, rubber bows with a
rosin. What do they make it for?
VI.37. The sound of a circular saw lowers when it starts to saw a wooden plank. Why?
VI.38. Bass strings are winded with a wire. What for?
VI.39. How does the tone of a string or a tuning fork change if the temperature grows?
VI.40. You have two tuning forks. You hold one in your hand for a minute, and then excite both the
tuning forks. Why do you hear beatings now?
VI.41. In striking with a metallic bar a car tire, how does depend the tone of a sound on the pressure
of the air in the tire?
VI.42. If one blows near a hole of a tube closed from one end, a sound of a certain tone can be
heard. How can you determine the height of tone without blowing?
VI.43. The water is poured into a bottle. The water jet produces a noise with an distinguishable
tone. In pouring, this tone becomes as higher as much water was poured. Explain the phenomenon.
VI.44. Will the height of the basic tone of a tube change if we bend it for an angle?
VI.45. If one puts on a table a tuning fork which sounds, the sound becomes more laud. Where
from it takes an additional energy?
VI.46. May non-elastic substances conduct a sound? Why? Give an example.
VI.47. How do curtains and soft furniture influent upon the audibility of sound?
VI.48. Why are a singing and orator speeches less audible in an open air than in a closed space?
VI.49 The air conducts sounds significantly more poorly than a wood or a glass. Then, if the doors
and windows are closed, why do we hear less noise from the street?
VI.50. Musical instruments are «tuned» before playing. What is the physical essence of tuning a
violin, a mandolin, other string instruments?
VI.51. Experiment to sing some different tones into a closed glass can. In a certain tone the can will
amplify the sound and start to vibrate. Why?
VI.52. If somebody excites a sound before an open piano and then presses its pedal, the piano starts
to sound in response. How can you explain it?

72
VI.53. In checking the work of an engine, why do car mechanics often put one end of hammer’s
handle upon the engine and other draw to ear?
VI.54. If the engine of a supersonic jet is behind the pilot, and the airplane flies with a supersonic
speed, will the pilot hear the sounds of the engine?
VI.55. Can cosmonauts in the open space communicate by voice?
VI.56. If one hears the quality record of his proper voice, he badly recognizes it. Why?
VI.57. Why the hollow shell of a violin is made in so figure shape?
VI.58. A vibrator is merged into water, its membrane produces musical sounds. Will a an underwater
swimmer hear the same melody as he hears it one the air?
VI.59. Could the sound of a strong explosion on the Moon be heard on the Earth?
VI.60. If one strikes by a hammer one end of a pipe, another person hears a double stroke at another
end of the pipe. Why?
VI.61. Why does a bullet whistle of shot by a gun, but gives no sounds if thrown by a hand?
VI.62. If both higher and lower tones were propagating with different speeds, how would we accept
such a music?
VI.63. Sometime we hear a voice at a long distance, but cannot distinguish words. How can you
explain this situation?
VI.64. In large rooms echo may arise. Is it useful or not for a theater; a concert hall; a lecture room?
VI.65. Why do the orators making a speech on big squares, say their words slowly, separating
words by pauses?
VI.66. If a thunderstorm is close, why do we hear sharp laud blows, but only a rolling thunder if it
is far from us?
VI.67. Why do not we hear echo in a living room?
VI.68. May arise the echo in a steppe?
VI.69. Why is so multiple the echo in mountains?
VI.70. In its marsh, a brass band turns over a street corner. After a while, we hear only the bass
tubes and the drum. Why cannot we hear flutes and clarinets?
VI.71. When someone tries to hear a far noise, his/her moth becomes open automatically. Why
does it occur?
VI.72. If we draw a cup, a glass, or a seashell closely to our ear, we hear a sound similar to the noise
of remote sea waves. How can you explain the origin of this sound?
VI.73. Before starting to boil, why does a pot (not filled completely) make a greater than that filled
completely?
O’ O VI.74. Why the poles of power transmission lines sounds in
wind?
d ’1 d1 d ’2 VI.75. Accidentally flying into a room, a bat may «land» on
d2 one’s head. Why does it prefer this place?
M VI.76. As known, higher is the frequency of sound waves, shorter
M is the distance after which they weaken. In this case, why are the
ultrasound vibrations used by some species of animals (bats,
F ig . V I.3 . dolphins, guinea-pigs) as the main mean of communication and
location?
VI.77. On a free surface of a liquid they got a stable picture of the interference from two coherent
sources O and O’ (see Fig. VI.3), which vibrates with the frequency f= 100Hz. Using the figure,
evaluate the speed of propagation of waves on the free surface of liquid. The closest minimums of
the interference picture are situated at the points M and M’.

Electromagnet Oscillations and Waves

VI.78. In a tuned circuit, consisting of an induction coil and a capacitor, why do not the oscillations
stop when the capacitor is discharged completely?
VI.79. How will change the frequency of electromagnetic oscillations in a tuned circuit if we
introduce an iron bar into the coil? If we increase the gap between the plates of the capacitor?
VI.80. A mine detector is a generator of undamped electromagnetic oscillations of a sound frequency.
The inductance of the tuned circuit is made in the form of a wire ring. When the ring is moved upon
the ground surface and approximates to a metallic body, the high tone in telephones change for
lower. How can you explain it?
VI.81. Both a direct and a high-frequency alternating currents are transmitted through the same
line. How can they be separated?

73
VI.82. Using the block-scheme of a radio-transmitter in Fig. VI.4, explain the function of each
element and the principle of device’s action in the whole.

P ow e r Power h.f.
su pp ly amplifier Detector
amplifier

h.f. Modulator Power l.f.

oscillator supply amplifier

Speaker
Microphone

F ig . V I.4 . F ig . V I.5 .

F ig . V I.6 .

VI.83. Using the block-scheme of a radio-receiver in Fig. VI.5, explain the function of each element
and the principle of the function of the whole device.
VI.84. In Fig. VI.6 you may see the schemes of radio-transmitters for transmitting of signals. Explain
their functioning.
VI.85. Why is the radio receiving better in winter and at nights than in summer and in day-time?
VI.86. In radio communication at short waves the receiving is not good in all places; in some
places (maybe close to transmitter) so-called «silent-zones» are fomed. What is their origin?
VI.87. A radio receiver can be tuned on different frequencies and thus catch radio stations of
different lengths. What is to be done for receiving more long lengths: to approach or to draw apart
the plates of the capacitor of the tuning circuit?
VI.88. For the resonance, the length of the antenna must be four tomes shorter than the length of
the electromagnetic wave to be received. Why in practice do they apply antennas of a less length?
VI.89. What causes a noise in receiving when a tram passes near your house?
VI.90. If one switches on and off illumination lamps in a room a short noise is heard in radio-
receiver. What are the causes of that noise?
VI.91. If an airplane flies near your house, you may see double picture on our TV receiver. What
causes this double image?
VI.92. Why does a car radio work poorly when the car passes under a bridge or a
O1 trestle? What causes this poor work?
VI.93. Why are TV tower built so high?
VI.94. A radio communication is impossible for submarines which are merged into
A the ocean. Why?
VI.95. Waves interfere under certain conditions, either strengthening or weakening
each other. Weakening takes place if the difference of wave phases equals (2n+1)π
(n is an integer). In this situation the energy of oscillations equals zero at these
O2 points. Does it contradict the law of conservation of te energy?
VI.96. As known, if the difference of waves path lengths equals kλ, where k is an
F ig . V I.7 . integer and λ is the length of a wave, then waves strengthen each other. Sources are
at the points O1 and O2 (see in Fig. VI.7), whose waves reach the point A. The
distance O2A–O1A is equal to λ. Can we assert that the point A is the interference maximum?
VI.97. If two antennas irradiating electromagnetic waves are drawn to each other at a distance less

74
than λ/2, then at all the points of the space the condition of interference maximum will be fulfilled.
Does it contradict the law of conservation of the energy?

75
 Chapter VII
Optics

Propagation of Light

VII.1. If one draws the symmetry axis of the incomplete Moon visible in day-time, will it pass the
Sun?
VII.2. What does differ the light produced by: a firefly, an incandescent lamp, a fluorescent lamp,
and a neon lamp?
VII.3. Why does not the quality of image on the screen of a panoramic cinema suffer due to the fact
that the beams of different projectors intersect in space?
VII.4. One can look calmly on fluorescent lamps in contrast to incandescent lamps: the first ones
do not «cut eyes». Why?
VII.5. A beam of a projector is perfectly visible in fog but worse when weather is clear. Explain
this difference.
VII.6. Why do shadows not darken completely even with a point source of light?
VII.7. Why does the landscape become more visible before the proper sunrise?
VII.8. In day-time, one can see everything in street through from an open window; but why is it
difficult to recognize something from street something in a room even with open window?
VII.9. May one read a book under the light of a full Moon?
VII.10. Why do we see no stars in day-time?
VII.11. Why are less bright the stars near the horizon?
VII.12. Will one can see the reflection of the Sun in the bottom of a deep pit or well?
VII.13. A fork is lighted by a candle and produces a shadow on a wall. When the fork is in the
vertical position, the shadow clearly reproduces the form of its teeth; but if you hold it horizontally,
the shadow is blurred and teeth are not sharply visible. What is the cause for it?
VII.14. In surgical operations, the shadow of surgeon’s hands might cover the operational field.
How to avoid this obstacle?
VII.15. For most workers, why is it difficult to work in rooms with a diffused light?
VII.16. Shadows of telegraph poles are longer in morning and evening light. Whether the length of
horizontal wires changes within a day?

Reflection of Light

VII.17. A laser is known to produce narrow beams of light with a high density of energy. But, in
practice, the expensive production makes difficult their wide
application. So, let us propose a more cheap way for obtaining
such beams. Let light rays of a powerful projector fall into the
wide bottom of a conic tube, its interior surface being polished
and silver-coated (see in Fig. VII.1). After a series of reflections,
the beams will get out from the right hole which can be made
arbitrarily small. By means of this device, can one obtain a
large concentration of energy in the light beam flowing from
F ig . V II.1 . the output hole?
VII.18. In the plane of a mirror one can see the flame of a
candle. What will happen if we put between the candle and the
mirror a flat-parallel glass plate?
VII.19. A man stands in front of a mirror with one his eye closed. He covers the image of the
closed eye on the mirror with a piece of sticking paper. What will he see when he opens the closed
eye and closes that which was open before?
VII.20. In order to see his/her face better in a mirror, how must one place a lamp near a mirror?
VII.21. More closely to a mirror stands a man, the greater part of a street might be seen in the
mirror. But if in a mirror vertically hung on a wall he sees his reflection only from knees to head, no
attempts to draw himself closer to mirror will give a result which were essentially better. Explain
what happens.
VII.22. What will you see in looking into the two mirrors placed at a direct angle to each other?

76
VII.23. If the surface of water has waves, why do the images of things turn very strange by their
form?
VII.24. In looking through an window of a tram or bus in evening, one can see a vertical train
around bright sources of light (e.g., street illumination lights) on window’s glass. Explain the origin
of this train.
VII.25. Why is not cinema screen made of mirror?
VII.26. Why do they use to hang lampshades over lamps?
VII.27. Why does the end of a finger not coincide with its reflection in a mirror? In what mirrors
will this phenomenon take no place?
VII.28. What is that round mirror which physicians, specialized in the otolaryngology, use to wear
on their foreheads? What does the hole at the center of such a mirror serve for?
VII.29. For one could see his/her reflection in a flat mirror, the height of the mirror should be at
least one half his/her height. Prove it.
VII.30. Why are so clearly seen the pictures drawn over a misted glass?
VII.31. Sunny summer days, the asphalt road seems to have a bright mirror if one looks far ahead.
Why?
VII.32. Why do shoes shine when well polished?
VII.33. If one stands on a bridge, the fish in water is better visible than from a low shore. Explain
the reasons.
VII.34. Why is it better to recognize both submarines and shoals of fish from an airplane or a
helicopter?
VII.35. If one looks down from an airplane flying over a sea, the water beneath the airplane seems
to be darker than near the horizon. Why?
VII.36. In testing one’s vision, an ophthalmologist usually propose to read aloud the characters on
a special table posed at 5 meters away from your eyes. What should the ophthalmologist do if the
size of his cabinet is less than this distance and he has no other table?
VII.37. If one draw almost close to a mirror a small flat dark object, three images of this flat dark
object will appear in the mirror. In practice, the second and third images will not be so clear, as
the first one is. Why does it occurs?
VII.38. Why do they use to paint in black color the side of a propeller which is visible to a pilot?
VII.39. Why do special metal-coated (covered by a thin layer of tin foil) suits of the steel-makers
protect them against strong hot?
VII.40. In day-time, why do the windows seem so dark from a street?
VII.41. Why are the images of things and people in a metal pot so reduced?
VII.42. How is a lamp of a car headlight situated with respect to its concave mirror?

Refraction of Light
VII.43. If one wears a diving mask, why does he see much better all things under water?
VII.44. In many optical devices the prisms with a right triangle in their bottom are used. What are
the objectives for applying these prisms?
VII.45. Why are the glasses of headlights made not smooth, but fluted as being composed of three-
face prisms?
VII.46. In what case does the angle of incidence equal the angle of refraction?
VII.47. There are animals (for instance, feather-moustache midge), which are invisible in the water
due to their transparency. But these animals possess eyes which are well visible as black points.
Why are these animals invisible in the water? Why are their eyes non-transparent? Will they remain
invisible in the air?
VII.48. How can you explain the blinking of starts?
VII.49. Religious people assert that only in the Easter day the Sun rising in this morning «plays»
(the disk of Sun oscillates changing its form and color). How can you explain the variation of the
disk of a rising Sun?
VII.50. How would change the positions of stars on the sky if the Earth’s atmosphere had suddenly
disappeared?
VII.51. Why do the Sun and the Moon seem both oval near the horizon?
VII.52. Why is the true length of a day is slightly greater than that evaluated by the astronomic
calculations?
VII.53. What must be the refraction coefficient of a medium, on whose boundary one could observe

77
the complete reflection of a ray of light arrived from the vacuum?
VII.54. Why does the water lose its transparency when is in the form of a fog or a cloud?
VII.55. Why is the ice transparent, but snow is white?
VII.56. Why does a color glass seem almost white if ground into a fine powder? How can you
know again the color of the glass?
VII.57. It is well-known that the fur of a white bear consists of transparent hollow hairs. Then why
is a white bear white?
VII.58. If we cover a draw with a dull glass with its dull side downward, the lines of the draw will
be rather visible. But if now we put the dull glass with its glance side downward, the draw will be
hardly seen or seen in a blur. Why?
VII.59. Why are a paper, a soil, a wood, and a towel seem more dark if wet?
VII.60. Why does an oiled paper become transparent?
VII.61. If one mix the water with an eau-de-cologne, why does the mixture become a milky liquid,
though both its components were transparent?

Lens. Simplest Optical Devices

VII.62. Why do children call a magnifying lens «the firing glass»?

VII.63. How can one distinguish by his/her fingers a converging lens from a diverging one?
VII.64. May you distinguish a converging lens and a diverging lens by simply sighting through it?
VII.65. Is always a concavo-concave lens diverges, and a convexo-convex lens converges?
VII.66. Falling on a large convex lens, the sun rays join in a focus, which are visible due to specks
flying in the air. If we put a screen not in the proper focus, but either more close to the glass, or a bit
distantly from it, we shall see a small bright white pot bounded by a think band which is blue in the
first case and red in the second case. Explain the phenomenon.
VII.67. Describe qualitatively the dependence of the pressure of a light upon a lens on the distance
between the lens and the light source, which is at the optical axis of the lens. Assume that the part
of reflect light is neglectibly small.
VII.68. Given two spherical retorts filled one with water other with alcohol, how can one distinguish
theese liquids by directing sunlight on them?
VII.69. A semi-sphere is made of a transparent material with the index of refraction n = 3 2. A
parallel beam of light falls upon this semi-sphere (see
Fig. VII.2). The plane bounding the semi-sphere from
the left, is closed by a diaphragm except for a small
circular hole around the principal optical axis and a
thin ring-shaped slot. The angle α0 is equal to π/4, the
radius of the spherical surface R is 10cm. First the ring-
shaped slot was closed and a shield was placed so on
it a point arises. The central hole was then closed and
the ring-shaped slot was opened. What shall we see on
the screen? The answer must be supported by
S creen evaluations and a draw of the path of rays. Diffraction
may be omitted.
F ig . V II.2 VII.70. A candle is drawn from a long distance x to a
position almost close to a converging lens. How will
the image of the candle move in this case? Compare the velocities of displacements for both the
candle and its image.
VII.71. A photographer saw how a fly sat on the lens of his camera. Will appear the fly’s image on
the shot?
VII.72. Under exploitation of a photographic camera, some scratches appear on the surface of its
lens, which worsens the resolvability of the camera. To restore the resolvability of the lenses, these
scratched may be filled with black Indian ink. Explain the physical principles which allow to
restore the quality of shots in this way.
VII.73. It is required to place two converging lenses so that parallel rays after passing these lenses
remain parallel. How can you do it?
VII.74. A telescopic system consists of two lenses with a distance between them equaling the sum
of their focal lengths. Coming from far stars, a parallel beam of their light passes through lenses
and the image of stars is obtained at the focal plane of the lenses. This image serves as a target for

78
an ocular, which is left by rays which are again parallel. Thus they cannot make an image. Therefore,
astronomers must not see images. But how then do they see stars?
VII.75. In a receipt written by a physician it is written: spectacles, +1.5D. Decode: what spectacles?
For what eyes?
VII.76. How will the focal length of a lens change if its temperature grows?
VII.77. Whether any converging lens may serve as a magnifying glass?
VII.78. Why do they use long-focus lenses in the telescopes and short-focus lenses in the
microscopes? Why do telescopes need lenses of possibly large diameter, while it suffices to use
very small lenses for microscopes?
VII.79. Why do they use relatively short-focus lenses for photographic cameras?
VII.80. Lenses of a modern photographic camera is a combination of 8 to 10 and even more separate
lenses. What is the aim of collecting so many separate lenses?
VII.81. If one looks on rails toward to the horizon, they seem to converge to a point. Explain the
situation.
VII.82. Consider the path of light rays and prove that a projector is a photographic camera but with
the inverse path of the rays.
VII.83. How does the function of lenses’ diaphragm affect the image?
VII.84. Explain: why does a shortsighted man squint his eyes to obtain a sharper vision of an
object?
VII.85. In considering a spore of a mushroom in a microscope, a biologist determined that the
diameter of its image d equals 1.2cm. What is the real diameter of the spore if the objective lenses
magnify 100 times and the ocular makes the 6-times magnification?
VII.86. Invent a way to obtain a fire by means of ... ice!
VII.87. To make models of optic devices one must select appropriate lenses. How can one do it if,
in addition to a set of lenses, he has a screen and a straightedge with ruler?
VII.88. What are spectacles for a man with normal vision?
VII.89. Whatever were a telescope one could construct, the stars will remain only some points of
light due to the huge distance from us to them. Then why do men tend to construct large telescopes?
VII.90. A grain of a metal is coincided with the image of a point light source by a converging lens.
When the source stands at the distance a1 away from the lens, the grain is heated by ∆t1 degrees
each second. What will be the value ∆t2 of the degrees of heating if we put the same light source at
a longer distance a2? Both the distances a1 and a2 are assumed to be much greater than both the
double focal length of lens and the diameter of the objective.

Features of Eye

VII.91. What is the physical interpretation of the phrase «Stars went out from his eyes»?
VII.92. Why do they often make to blink light signals (for example, in lighthouse)?
VII.93. Why does a quickly moved glowing object (for instance, a glowing cigarette) make a trace
(or train) in its motion?
VII.94. Why do we see a rain as jets, though it consists of drops?
VII.95. In a thunderstorm night, in the flashes of lightning we see moving objects as is they were
still. Why?
VII.96. In a fog, a lamp on a pole seems to be hung higher than usually. How will you explain it?
VII.97. A incandescent filament of a lamp seems more thick than the same in «cold state». Why?
VII.98. A source of light seems at nights more close than indeed it is. Why?
If you press slightly by a finger upon a corner of your eye, you may see double images of surrounding
things. Why?
VII.99. Why do drivers switch off far headlights and leave only half-lights when another car
approximates?
VII.100. Explain the reason for welders’ wearing dark glasses in their work.
VII.101. Take a brightly colored book from your book-shelf, for instance that of red color. If it has
big letters, look at a point where two lines intersect. If the book has no letters, make a small sharp
sign on its colored surface. Keep your head without moving and stare at this point without an
interruption for a half-minute. Then quickly pass your sight to a large white surface. Seemingly,
you ought to see a clean white surface; by in practice you would see the image of your book, but in
other colors. Explain why does it happen.
VII.102. Why does a the whole chain of street illumination lights seem equally bright along all its

79
length?
VII.104. Explain why do Russians call a hare «skew-eyed»?
VII.105. Eyes of many insects have a cellular structure. Explain its meaning for insects.
VII.106. Why do horses rise up their heads when a man approximates?

Emission and Absorption of Light.

Action of Light
VII.107. Why does an electrical lamp of power 100Wt burn so bright, while an electric stove of
power 600Wt gives almost no light?
VII.108. Let us focus by means of a concave mirror (see in
Fig. VII.3) the sunlight rays into a small hole of a closed
cavity with the walls not conducting the heat. By increasing
the size of the mirror, we can succeed in collecting more and
more energy and therefore the energy inside the cavity will
permanently grow. However, in practice, above a definite
size of the mirror, the temperature will cease its growth.
Explain why.
VII.109. In the Dewar vessel, the thermal isolation is achieved
by producing the vacuum between two walls of a container
(see in Fig. VII.4). 1. Evaluate the losses of heat within a
time unit for a cylindrical
F ig . V II.3 . container of the height 30cm an
with the diameter 10cm. It is
assumed that the emission capability of the container is 10%, the
temperature inside the container is 100°C and 20°C outside the
container. The distance between the walls of container is small. Vacuum
2. What times will change the losses of heat if we introduce an
additional wall between the two given? Note: The blackbody either
radiates from or absorbs onto a unit of the area of its surface within a
unit of time the quantity of the heat which can be evaluated by the
Stefan-Boltzmann law: W = σT 4, where s is the Stefan-Boltzmann F ig . V II.4 .
constant (σ = 5,67×10-8Wt/m2K4) and T is the absolute temperature.
The radiation ability of a bogy shows which part of the energy radiated
by the blackbody is radiated or absorbed by the given body.
VII.110. Estimate the energy lost in the unit of time by a man due to radiation if the temperature of
ambient were 1K.
VII.111. Two concave mirrors are placed in a room, facing each other. If at the focus of one mirror
we set a cooled body and put a thermometer at the focus of another mirror, then the thermometer
will show a decrease of the temperature. Why?
VII.112. Which soils are better heated by the Sun and quicker return the energy by radiation: black
soils or podzol soils?
VII.113. In a clear summer day, the greater hot is felt not by the noon, but somewhere afternoon.
Why?
VII.114. Which of the snows will melt quicker: clean snow or dirty snow?
VII.115. Under equal other conditions, which pot will boil earlier: a clean one or one covered with
smoke?
VII.116. The length of the wave of the red light in the water is equal to the length of the green light
in the air. The water is illuminated by the red light. What color will a diver see under water if he
opens his eyes?
VII.117. On photographs of locations, made from an airplane, one can clearly see military disguises
made to produce imagination of green threes and grass, which might be hardly guessed within a
direct recognition. What must be the specific feature of the photographic equipment on airplane
board, making possible to obtain these shots?
VII.118. Why is the flame of an electric arc is not harmful for human vision if the arc burns in the
water?
VII.119. A red kerchief was illuminated by a blue light. What will be the color of the kerchief for
an observer?

80
VII.120. Why do artists paint their masterpieces only in daylight?
VII.121. In evening, why is it difficult to know what will be a color of a tissue in daylight?
VII.122. To protect the health against the sunlight, both white and red umbrellas more practical.
Why?
VII.123. A red glass and a green glass are put together. Which rays pass through this pair of glasses?
VII.124. In observing through a spectroscope the Sun’s crown at Sun eclipse, the dark lines in the
spectrum are not visible and some color lines start to occupy their places. Why?
VII.125. Observations of a spark which jumps between electrodes made of unknown metals allows
to determine the chemical composition of these metals. In what way?
VII.126. Whether the infrared rays pass well through a glass? What is the meaning of the use of
glass in building?
VII.127. Whether ultraviolet rays pass well through a glass? Is the role of this feature of the glass
is positive or negative? Why?
VII.128. One may notice that a pigment in clothes is fading mostly due to the rays which are
additional to the color of the pigment. How would you explain it?
VII.129. In order for a linen to seem whiter, why do in washing they color blue the linen?
VII.130. Why do they add into a mixture of water and chalk for painting the ceiling a bit of blue
pigment?
VII.131. An electron beam in a TV tube produces the light by striking its fluorescent layer at a
certain point. What is a negative consequence of this glow?
VII.132. For X-raying a human body they use a soft radiation, while for X-raying metals they apply
hard radiation. Explain: what is the qualitative and
quantitative differences between these rays?
VII.133. In Fig. VII.5 you may see a scheme for X-raying
metallic products in order to verify their quality and find
possible cavities. How do they do it? Why do they apply
double or even triple X-raying?
VII.134. A great Russian scientist K.A. Timiryazev said: «The
food is the source of forces in our organism only because it
F ig . V II.5 . is nothing else but a concentrate of the sunlight... A man has
the right to call himself the son of the Sun» («Life of Plants»
by K. Timiryazev). How can you explain these words?
VII.135. Why do they usually develop photographic films, plates, and paper in a dark room or
under a weak red light?
L ig h t A m p lifier VII.136. Why do red subjects appear black
in b/w photographs?
To th e m o to r VII.137. Can you photograph subjects in a
completely dark room?
VII.138. In Fig. VII.6 you may see
simplified schemes of photo-relays, which
alert: a) if a light hits a photocell; b) if a
L ig h t A m p lifier light ray permanently falling upon a
photocell, is ceased. Explain the functioning
To th e m o to r of these schemes.
VII.139. Among the schemes shown in Fig.
VII.6, which one can serve for the purposes:
a) to open gates by headlights; b) to count
production on a fabric transporting line?
VII.140. Given two surfaces: black and
F ig . V II.6 . white; which one will be subject to a greater
pressure produced by the same light source?
VII.141. Why is it easier to observe the photo-effect upon the alkaline metals, e.g., on the cesium?
VII.142. By means of a thermovisor (a device for scanning differently heated objects), one can
distinguish different bodies which are heated (even slightly), independently on whether they are
illuminated or are in a complete darkness. What is a physical phenomenon applied in this device?
VII.143. The brightness of the glow of overheated objects is determined by their temperature.
Then why does a piece of metal glow brightly, but not a piece of a glass with the same temperature?
VII.144. How can workers in workshops, where metals are treated by heat, estimate the temperature
of the detail to be hardened by simple observing the process of the heating through a hole in an

81
electric furnace?
VII.145. Why do they introduce into observation windows of blast furnaces not the usual glass but
the quartz one? What are the features to be possessed by this glass?
VII.146. A simplest hotbed is a firmly hammered wooden box, to which a soil is put. The upper
face of the box is made of the glass. Sunlight equally heat both the hotbed and the ground around it.
However, the temperature in the hotbed is essentially higher than on the ground. Where is the
additional heat being taken from?
VII.147. Who is more heated under the sunlight: a man already bronzed, or a man with a whiter
skin?

Scattering of Light Waves

VII.148. It is known that the sunrise is red, while the sky is blue. Basing on this information,
explain which rays, red or blue, are more scattered in the atmosphere.
VII.149. Why do spectacles with a bluish color enable a better vision in a light fog?
VII.150. The flame of a candle viewed through a mist, seems to be red. How will you explain it?
VII.151. Why are both the balloons of divers and the «black-boxes» of airplanes painted in bright-
orange colors?
VII.152. Why do we see the Sun red in sunrise?
VII.153. Why does the forest near the horizon seem to be rather covered with a bluish fog than
green?
VII.154. Why do we see the water deep-blue in an open sea, while it seems greenish on shallow
places?
VII.155. Why did the astronauts see on the Moon not a blue sky, but black?
VII.156. On photographs made in the infrared rays, in contrast to the situation in visible spectrum
all the objects are clearly viewed till the horizon. How can you explain it?

Dispersion of Light

VII.157. After rain, sometimes we see a rainbow. Why «after» and in a sunny weather?
VII.158. Explain the arc shape of a rainbow.
VII.159. Can one observe a rainbow in the noon of a summer day in Moscow? In Tokyo?
VII.160. When a rainbow is higher: at 16 p.m. or at 17 p.m.?
VII.161. Standing at one of rainbow’s ends, may one see the proper rainbow?
VII.162. In what part of the sky can one see a rainbow in early morning?
VII.163. Refracting in a brilliant, why does the light give more sharp colors than in a strass (a glass
imitation of a brilliant) of the same form?

Interference and Diffraction of Light Waves

VII.164. In blowing a bubble and observing it in a reflected light, one can note that its surface is
colored. Explain the phenomenon.
VII.165. If a drop of kerosene falls on asphalt surface, the trace dot appears to be colored in
different colors. Explain the observation.
VII.166. In heating, the objects made of steel are usually covered by a visible color film. To see
this, take a used razor blade and heat it over a burning match. Then delete the smoke and consider
the film appeared on its surface. Explain the phenomenon observed.
VII.167. What does explain the visible coloring of the wings of dragonflies, beets, and some other
insects?
VII.168. If we cover the surface of an optical glass by a transparent film, whose index of refraction
is less than that of the glass, with a thickness λ/4≈137.5nm (here λ is the length of the wave of
falling light), then the glass surface will not practically reflect the light, it will almost all pass
through the glass. This method is called «lightening». Explain the reasons for lightening the lenses
of modern optical devices.
VII.169. To lighten a lens (see the previous problem), it must be coated with a film whose index of

82
refraction should be n = ng (here ng is the index of refraction for the glass). Why? What will
happen if this condition is violated?
VII.170. In a reflected light, the lenses of modern optical devices seem to be colored? Explain this
coloring.
VII.171. With what factor can you explain the rainbow colors of the compact disks for CD-ROM?
VII.172. To produce artificial mother-of-pearl buttons they make on the surface of buttons a very
fine hatch. After this operation, why do the buttons seem to be made of mother-of-pearl?
VII.173. What does determine the limit to which one may close the diaphragm of a photographic
camera?
VII.174. Whether a steel ball can be used as a lens to get a photo-shot?
VII.175. How can one determine the size of cells in feather by looking through it in front of the
sunlight?
VII.176. If you look on the light of a far lamp through a thin tissue, you may see a set of clear dots
set in a definite order. If you stretch the tissue or place it at a certain angle to the light source, these
dots change their position. Explain why.
VII.177. In frosty foggy days and at nights one can see concentric bright colored rings around the
Sun, the Moon, and even street illumination lights. How can you explain their nature?

83
 Chapter VIII
Basements of The Atomic and Subatomic Physics
VIII.1. What is the difference between atoms of the filament of a burning electric lamp and the
atoms of the same filament but if the lamp is in a cold state?
VIII.2. Now the dreams of alchemists, who wanted to transform the mercury into the gold, may be
fulfilled. Explain how can it be made?
VIII.3. Is it possible to replace X-rays used in metallurgy for X-raying metals with the gamma-rays
emitted by a certain artificial radioactive substance?
VIII.4. Why may the bombings of the uranium nuclei by slow neutrons give even greater effect
than that by quick neutrons?
VIII.5. In a piece of uranium, a single neutron may initiate the chain reaction producing huge
amounts of energy. How can arise a neutron in this piece? Where might it come from?
VIII.6. Why does the natural uranium fail to be an atomic fuel and why is its storage not related to
a danger of explosion?

6 7

2
1 3
4

5
5
F ig . V III.1 T h e sch em e o f th e a tom ic p o w er statio n : 1 - reac to r,
2 - tu rb o g ene ra to r, 3 - h ea t-ex c h ang er, 4 - co n d en so r, 5 -th e p u m p s,
6 - th e first p ip elin e (fo r w ater), 7- th e seco n d p ip elin e.
VIII.7. In Fig. VIII.1 the principal scheme of one of the first atomic power stations of USSR Academy
of Sciences is given. Explain this scheme.
VIII.8. Immediately after the experimental discovery of neutrons, D.D. Ivanenko and W. Heisenberg
suggested the proton-neutron model of the atomic nucleus. This model was confirmed by experiments
with nuclear transformations. In following the proton-neutron model, the nuclei consist of the
protons and neutrons. The quantity of protons in a nucleus equals the atomic number of the element
Z in the periodic table by D. Mendeleyev, while the quantity of neutrons equals N = A–Z, where A is
the mass number. No any other particles exist in the nuclei. However, in the radioactive beta decay,
an electron flies out from the atom. What is it originated from?
VIII.9. As known, greater are the density of a medium, greater is the resistance it produces to a
material particle moving in the medium. But why does a layer of lead weaken neutrons less than a
layer of graphite of the same thickness?
VIII.10. What is an animal which reacts on a radioactive radiation?

84
 Chapter IX
Basements of The Special Theory of Relativity
IX.1. A spacecraft flies near the Earth with the speed 0.8×c (where c is the light speed). Describe
how will change the length of 1 meter bar which is slowly rotated from a position perpendicular to
the motion of the spacecraft into a position parallel to its motion. Make it from a standpoint of a) a
member of spacecraft team, b) an observer standing on the Earth.
IX.2. Imagine the following situation: a runner looks it himself into a mirror which he holds ahead
on a stretched hand. Will he see himself in the mirror if he will run with a speed close to that of
light? Consider this question within the frames of the special theory of relativity.
IX.3. Take a pole of the length 20m. Toward its length we give him a motion with a speed such that
its length becomes equal to 10m with respect to the laboratory reference system. Then, at a certain
moment, this pole may enter completely into
a shed whose length is also 10m. But now
B’ let us consider the same in a reference system
A’ v' of a runner with a pole. For this runner, the
O’ shed turns to be half-shortened. Well. How
O B might a 20m pole be placed into a 5m shed?
A Do not you see that this quite impossible
v conclusion shows that something is very
strange and contradicting in the proper theory
F ig . IX .1 . of relativity?
IX.4. Two rockets, possessing equal length
in peace, fly toward one other with relativistic speeds v and v’ going to pass near each other (see
Fig. IX.1). An observer O has a fire-gun at the tail part of his rocket, the steam of the gun is directed

B’ B'
A’ A'
P ro je ctile
O’ O O' O
A B
A B

F ig . IX .2 . F ig . IX .3 .
perpendicular to the motion of rockets. At the moment when the points A and B’ are drawn even
with each other, he fires from his gun (see Fig. IX.2). In the reference system of O the passing
rocket is subject to the Lorenz transformation, so the observer O waits that his projectile will hit the
opposite rocket missile. But, in the reference system of other observer O’, the rocket of O seems to
be Lorenz shortened. Therefore, at the moment of time when the points À and B’ are opposite, the
observer sees a different picture as in Fig. IX.3. Will indeed hit the projectile the rocket or will it
pass by it? Give a detailed answer, point out onto errors in the problem statement and the error in
one of the diagrams.
IX.5. Let us suppose that the speed of light is infinitely large. What will happen with the predictions
of the special theory of relativity with respect to the slowing time, shortening of length, and increase
of mass in that case?
IX.6. A constant force is applied to a body with mass of rest m during an infinite time. How will
change within the time the speed and the mass of the body?
IX.7. A incandescent to white-hot iron stick was cooled to a room temperature. Will change its
mass?
IX.8. Are equal to each other the masses of a compressed and decompressed strings?
IX.9. Two spacecrafts start from the Earth in opposite directions with the speed 0.5×c with respect
to the Earth. Questions are: a) what will be the speed of the first spacecraft with respect to the
second spacecraft? b) what will be the speed of the second spacecraft with respect to the first
spacecraft?
IX.10. A spacecraft starts from the Earth with the speed equaling 0,68×c. The second spacecraft
starts from the firs one with the speed 0,86×c with respect to the first spacecraft. What is the speed

85
of the second spacecraft with respect to the Earth, if it starts: a) in the direction of the motion of the
first spacecraft (which already moves); b) in the direction opposite to the direction of the first
spacecraft (i.e., back top the Earth).
IX.11. Consider a simple problem concerning the electromagnetism. Assume that along a conductor
with a current an electron flies toward the current’s direction. The Ampere experiments show that
the electron will certainly be attracted to the conductor. In the inertial reference system, where the
electron moves with the charge–e has a speed v different from zero, this attraction can be easily
explained. The Lorenz force from the side of the magnet field of the conductor with the induction
B acts on electron by the rule F = evB, being directed to the conductor. However, if we pass to the
reference system related to the electron, this force becomes zero. We have arrived at an absurd
result: the phenomenon depends on a reference system arbitrarily chosen by us?! Explain the
matter.

86
 Answers

Answers to Chapter I

I.2. The meeting point is the middle of the path. The speeds of the automobiles are 25km/h and
75km/h, respectively. The time of motion is 30min. and 10min., respectively.
I.3. We have that on OA a uniform motion takes place with the speed 30km/h, AB is a stop for
30 minutes, BC is a uniform motion in the contrary direction with the speed 20km/h.
I.4. a) 4 buses are on that route; b) 18km/h; c) 40 minutes.
I.7.Both the accelerations are directed similarly (to the North).
I.8. Traces are different.
I.9. The wind-skater can move only along the
S ail T h e directio n
direction of skates. If with respect to the wind-
F o f w in d-skater m o tio n skater the wind’s velocity has a component
perpendicular to the direction of the motion,
then one can set the sail is that the force F,
R ea ctio n to w in d
acting on the wind-skater would pull it forward
Wind’s velocity (Fig. A1) thus the velocity of the wind-skater
can exceed the speed of the wind.
I.10. They may differ. The necessary condition
is only the equality (at stretched rope) of
F ig . A .1 . components (projections) of the velocities of
both skateboat onto rope’s direction.
I.11. This occurs because, first, you observed your motion with respect to a fast moving train, and,
secondly, after the train has passed, you observed you motion with respect to static landscape
around the railroad.
I.12. With respect to a bus, the drops participate in a complex motion in two directions: downward
and toward the bus’s motion. Touching in their motion the glass of bus’s window, the drops make
traces. Their slope depends on both the bus’s speed and the size of drops. Drops of different weight
fall with different velocities (we did not consider the wind).
I.13. a) yes; b) it will fall back to the place of threw; c) it falls in front of the place of threw; d) a
parabola.
I.15. Vertically upward.
I.17. The load will fall behind of the airplane.
I.20. Up to the value of free fall acceleration.
I.21. In the first case, we deal with a motion with a constant acceleration, while, in the second case,
the motion varies (namely, it grows because in approaching the magnet the force of the attraction
by the magnet grows).
I.22. The lower part of the track is steady with respect to the ground, therefore it moves backward
with respect to the tractor with the speed 9km/h. Consequently, the upper part of the track will
move forward with respect to the tractor with the same velocity. Thus, as concerns its velocity with
respect to the ground, the upper part of the track has the speed 18km/h.
I.23. The upper points of the wheel moves with a speed which exceed the speed of the bicycle (see
the previous problem). Therefore the particle of mud, which fly away from the upper part of the
wheel, certainly can overtake the cyclist.
I.24. The point of the wheel, touching the rail, has the zero velocity. The points of wheel’s frange,
which are below the rail, move into the direction opposite to the car’s motion.
I.26. The body revolves about a point which lies on the intersection of the straight line AB the
straight line passing through the ends of the vectors vA and vB.
I.27. The difference is two days.
I.28. When the cylinder moves without slipping over a horizontal plane, its generatrix is tangent to
the plane is fixed at the moment of touching; the proper cylinder is revolve around this fixed
straight line. Therefore the point tangent to the plank moves with the speed which is twice greater
than the speed of the cylinder’s axis. Within the time while the boy pushes the plank passes a path
l, the cylinder passes the distance l/2. Thus, to reach the cylinder, the boy must pass the distance 2l.
I.29. Four laps. In general, if the ratio of the number of teeth of large gear to the number of teeth of
small gear equals N, in revolving around the large gear the small one makes (N+1) laps (rotation)
about its axis.

87
I.31. Usually, the carrier is above the satellite thus has less period of revolution.
I.33. The velocity v2 of any of the stars in the reference system related
v2 v1 to the star 2 equals v2 = v1–u, where v1 is the velocity of this star in a
reference system related to the star 1, while u is the velocity of the
-u second star with respect to the first star (see in Fig. A.2). Since these
velocities are proportional to the corresponding radius-vectors, i.e.,
r1 r2 v1 =αr1 and u =αr12, we have v2 = αr1–αr12=αr2. The latter means that
being near the star 2, the cosmonauts will se the same picture of
stars’motion, as if they were near the star 1, because all the stars are
r12 2 going out with the velocities proportional to the distance to thee stars..
1 I.34. In the direction of the train motion.
I.35. It will forward; turn to the right; sharply move forward.
F ig . A .2 . I.37. Keeping the pen in hand, easily strike by hand on the edge of a
table, on which a blotting paper has been put. At this sharp stop, the
drop of ink will fly out from the end of the pen.
I.39. In the medical thermometer the basic reservoir of the mercury (at the end of the thermometer)
the capillary with a scale are connected through an even thinner capillary. After a measurement of
the temperature, the column if the mercury is fixed due to a breakup in the narrow capillary (the
mercury cannot sop there the glass walls). When one shakes the thermometer, the mercury returns
back into basic reservoir due to the inertia of its motion. However, the breakup in the narrow
capillary quickly restores.
I.40. Usually, an axe is settled upon a handle by striking the handle on a heavy thing or by hammering
upon the end of the handle. In the first of cases, they use the inertia of a moving heavy axe; in the
second case, they apply the inertia of a resting axe. So, in both the cases, they do use axe’s inertia.
I.41. The rod possesses a greater inertia.
I.42. The mass of a cosmonaut the mass of the station are very different. Therefore so do the
changes of the velocities of both subjects. Note that
these velocities are inversely proportional to the
masses. Т
I.43. It is required to change constantly both the
direction the value of the velocity, thus overcoming Т1 Т2
the inertia of the body.
I.44. To change the direction of a motion, a force is
necessary. The interaction between hands and a tree F
or a pole gives this force.
I.45. A small force F imparts large components T1and
T2 of the force T, which puts the cord in equilibrium F ig . A .3 .
(see in Fig. A.3). The breakup of the cord occurs under
the stretching forces T1and T2.
I.46. For the cable, this method allows to ensure a greater freedom for displacements of both ships
without varying drastically the stretching forces stipulated by the storm’s waves.
I.48. The arms must be vertical (i.e., at the distance of shoulders).
I.49. No, cannot. Any rope possesses a mass, which generates the sagging due to gravitation.
I.50. When they are almost horizontal.
I.51. The suitcase can be weight, for example, in the following Take a rope, bound it to the suitcase,
tie one end to a tree, put over under the handle of the suitcase, then tie to the balance. The balance
will show the half of the suitcase’s weight.
I.52. No. F F α <α
I.53. Under a lesser slope the pressure will be greater.
I.55. The force equaling the half of the man’s weight.
I.56. To decrease the force of a jerk in hooking a fish. α
I.57. The required force for a parallel joining is 2F,
it is F for a consecutive connection of the springs. v
F ig . A .4 .
I.58. If the overload pressure inside a sausage equals p,
then for a unit of length in cross direction we have the
force F1 = p⋅S/2πR = p⋅R/2, where R and S are the radius and the section of a sausage, respectively.
But along the sausage of the length l, for a unit of area we have the force F2 = π⋅l⋅2R/(2l+4R) ≈ p⋅R.
The force F2 is almost twice greater than F1.
I.59. In a move of a knife, its “cutting section” (see Fig. A.4) is not the section perpendicular to the

88
cutting edge (as in the case where we vertically press upon the knife), but a skew section which
makes an angle with the perpendicular section. This angle grows as the speed of our movements
grows. Thus, this “section” is “sharper” .
I.60. After repulsing the raft out of shore, one must determine the initial velocity of the motion of
raft. To this end it suffices to measure the distance which will be passed b the raft within the first
second. Knowing the mass of the raft, one can evaluate the initial impulse. By calculation of the
time of raft’s motion, one can determine the resistance force.
I.62. 45o and, practically, 90o, respectively.
I.63. Though the pressure in the steam of gun exceeds the pressure of gases of a jet engine, the
rocket in launching obtains a greater impulse because the action of the jet is longer. As for a
projectile, having obtained the initial velocity of order 10km/s, it loses this speed due to the air
resistance.
I.64. In the interaction between the human body over which a massive anvil is placed (whose mass
is greater than that of a man), the summary mass (human body + anvil) obtains a small acceleration.
Therefore, the small displacement of the anvil is not dangerous for a man.
I.66. The tracking force of the locomotive is balanced by the friction force.
I.67. First, we have a uniform motion; therefore the resultant force equals zero. Then the body
obtains an acceleration; therefore the resultant force differs from zero. After attaining a certain
velocity, a uniform motion takes place, which means that the resultant force is again zero since all
the forces acting upon the body are in equilibrium.
I.68. The forces of resistance, which give to the skater a negative acceleration (deceleration) are
thus increased.
I.69. The traction force is not sufficient to put into motion the whole train. If, before the motion,
all links between the train’s cars were stressed, a breakup may occur more close to the locomotive
because here the stress of links has a greater value.
I.71. Within the time ∆t a piece of snake of the length ∆l = v⋅∆t is involved into motion obtains the
impulse mv∆t⋅v/l. Therefore the force of the pressure produced by the snake upon the ground in
greater than its weight by the quantity F = mv2/l.
I.72. The force of ball’s stroke depends on the time in which its velocity decreases to zero. So, if
one touches the ball by hand moves the hand in the direction of ball’s flight with a deceleration, the
ball’s stroke may be weakened.
I.73. It is necessary to decrease the velocity at possible large path. Then the acceleration will be
smaller so will be the force which gives to the body a negative acceleration generating the termination
of the motion.
I.79. The center of gravity of the system will move with the free fall acceleration. Till the string is
expanded, the body À will fall with a greater acceleration and the body  with a lesser acceleration
than that of free fall. After compression of the string, the picture is inverse.
I.80. After a sufficiently large time, the balls will fall with same constant speed, the heavier one
being above. The second Newton law, rewritten for each ball in its projection onto the axis of
motion, gives us: m2g–T–F = 0, m1g+T–F = 0, where T is the force of line’s stretch, F is the force of
the air resistance acting on each of the balls. Hence T = (m2–m1)g/2.
I.81. One needs a certain time to open the parachute and transform a uniform accelerated motion
into a uniform motion without acceleration. Within this time the parachutist goes a very long distance.
I.82. No. The motion in a resisting medium is not a free fall.
I.83. By directing a projectile into higher layers of the atmosphere where the resistance of air turns
small the horizontal component of the velocity changes less, results in the greater range of the
projectile’s flight.
I.84. When a bullet passes through a box with water, the resistance force is Fr =α1v, while to pen-
etrate through a box with honey there is required the force Fr= α2v. Assume that the water is first is
water. In bullet’s passing through a thin layer of water, we may assume that the resistance is constant
equal to its mean value. By splitting the path into small pieces, we have that in passing through an
n-th interval, the bullet’s impulse decreases by the quantity:

vn + vn −1 ∆xn
∆ ( mv )n = Fr ⋅ ∆t = α1 ⋅ ⋅ = α1 ⋅ ∆xn ,
2 vn + vn −1
2

where ∆xn is the length of an interval passed through within the time ∆t. In passing through the

89
whole box, the impulse with change for the quantity ∆ ( mv )w = ∑ n α1∆xn = α1l , where l is the length
of the box. In a similar way, we can find that in passing through the box with honey the bullet’s
impulse reduces by the quantity ∆(mv)h=α2l. The complete variation of the impulse equals (α1+α2)l.
It does not depend on the order in which the boxes are passed. Therefore, the range of bullet’s flight
does not depend on the order in which the boxes are passed.
I.85. The loss in weight, which occurs in view of the fact that a part of sand is in the air, is
compensated by the force with which other sand is strike the bottom of lower vessel.
I.86. In the beginning of cowing the pressure on the balance is less than the gravity. The balance
shows a reduction of body’s weight. At the end of cowing, the stress of man’s muscles grows the
man’s body thus obtain an acceleration directed upwards. At this moment the balance will show a
greater weight.
I.87. For the estimation we shall assume that the balls’ collision takes place as follows: in the
collision the touching parts of the balls are deformed compression waves moves in the balls with
the speed of sound. These waves are reflected by ball’s surface and come back. The balls “are
diverged”. Then the desired time is τ= 4R/v, where R is the radius of balls, v is the speed of sound
in the ball’s material. For steel balls (v = 6×103 m/s) with the radius 5cm, we have τ≈3,3×10-5 s.
I.88. The time of the collision between the bullet and the door is very small, The deformation
stipulated by bullet’s pressure is not propagated for long distances. Therefore the impulse lost by
the bullet is transferred upon a small area, thus the bullet makes a small hole in the door.
I.89. The output velocity of the bullet when it leaves the glass is less than that when it starts to
penetrate the glass. Therefore the deformation generated by the pressure of the bullet is propagated
upon a greater area.
I.90. A slanting basement of the dam allows to change water’s velocity within a greater path, which
decreases the destructive action of the water on the dam’s body.
I.91. A note: take into account the friction forces acting between the bodies: carriage-ground and
horse-ground.
I.92. By the third Newton’s law, the springs are compressed in the same way.
I.93. Due to smallness of the friction force, the wheel practically makes no force upon the road in
the horizontal direction. Consequently, there is no reaction from the road onto the wheel.
I.94. No.
I.95. The man the load will go up with the same speed.
I.96. When the whole flow of the air hits the sail, the boat stands at one place. If the flow of the air
even partially passes near the sail, the boat moves in the opposite direction.
I.98. The range of the flight of a body thrown at a slope to the horizon is maximal at the angle 45o.
If we are interested in the minimal speed with which the grasshopper should jump, it must be at 45o
to the horizon. The law of impulse conservation gives us that within the jump of the grasshopper
the straw will obtain the velocity
m v
u= .
M 2

Therefore the horizontal component of the grasshopper velocity with respect to the straw is
v  m 
v′ = 1 + .
2 M 

The time of grasshopper flight is. During this time it flies the distance l with respect to the straw. It
means
v  m v 2
1 +  = l,
2 M  g

whence
M
v= gl .
m+M

90
I.98. No, the distance is greater in the first case.
I.99. That where the caretaker sleeps. Consider the carriage from which the snow is being thrown
and assume that its velocity is v. If within the time ∆t the mass of snow ∆m has been fallen onto this
carriage, then the velocity of the carriage v1 can be found via the law of impulse conservation:
Mv = (M+∆m)v1, where M is the mass of this carriage with the mass of caretaker taken into account.
If the caretaker throws the snow from his carriage, this does not change the velocity v1. From the
law of impulse conservation it is clear that (M+∆m)v1 = Mv1+∆mv1. Thus, after the next portion of
snow will have been fallen upon the carriage, the carriage’s velocity will be v2. Then, by the law of
impulse conservation, we have: Mv1 = (M+∆m)v2, whence v2 = Mv1/(M+∆m) = M2v/(M+∆m)2. In
throwing the snow, this velocity does not change. Obviously, after n-th portion of snow will have
been fallen upon the carriage, its velocity will be vn = Mnv/(M+∆m)n. As for the carriage, where the
caretaker sleeps, we have the following chain of equations: the velocity of the carriage u1 after the
first portion of snow can be found from the equation Mv = (M+∆m)u1; after the second portion we
have (M+∆m)u1 = (M+∆m+∆m)×u2, whence u2 = (M+∆m)u1/(M+∆m+∆m) = Mv/(M+2∆m) and so
on. As a result, after n-th portion of snow we get: un = Mv/(M+n∆m). Obvisouly, un > vn. Evaluations
cited above show that the snow when it falls upon a carriage changes it impulse as less as its mass
is greater.
I.100. At the moment when the cork will be melted, the pan will move into the direction where it
has the hole. Afterwards, it will sink as soon as will be filled with water.
I.101. Any rocket consists of a shell and the fuel contained in this shell. In launching the rocket, the
fuel burns and turns into a gas of high pressure and high temperature. Due to its high pressure, the
gas flows out from the nozzle of the rocket. By virtue of the impulse conservation law, the shell of
the rocket moves in the opposite direction. The velocity of the flow of the gas is much greater than
the velocity of the proper rocket. A heavy rocket moves up from the place of launching rather
slowly, while the gases move away in the opposite direction very quickly. But the gravity center of
the system remains fixed if the motion were in a vacuum.. In a real motion of a rocket one must
take into account the motion of the air, its interaction with the Earth. In this situation, the position
of the center-of-masses of the whole system (rocket-gases-Earth-atmosphere) does not change.
I.102. The velocity of the rocket depends on the mass of burned fuel which is thrown out within a
unit of time (mass consumption)the velocity with which the combustion’s products are thrown.
I.103. The velocity will increase. To understand this fact, consider the change of the impulse of the
rocket in the reference system with respect to which the rocket is resting.
I.104. Both the complete reserve of fuel and the device for its exploration require to design a
rocket with a greater mass. But as soon as the fuel is combusted, a part of this mass start to disturb
the jet velocity of the useful part of the moving rocket system. In the case of a multistage rocket, the
worked out parts are gradually divided from the principal part.
I.105. The meteorite’s impulse is transferred to the air molecules and thus to the Earth.
I.106. When one fires from a simple gun, the expanding gases give impulses to both gun bullets,
though directed oppositely. By virtue of the smaller mass of the bullet, it obtains the greater velocity.
The flight of a rocket is possible as a result of interaction between the rocket and the gas worked
out is thrown backwards. But, in the case of a hand launcher of anti-tank rockets, it represents a
pipe, the gas does not give an impulse to the launcher. Therefore, in firing from this launcher, there
is no return.
I.107. In turning on the braking engines for soft landing, a jet of gas is thrown along the direction
of the spacecraft’s motion thus reducing its velocity to zero.
I.108. When the bird will soar under the bell jar, the
equilibrium will not be violated, because the bird will throw
O the air downward to in order keep itself on the air. The air
thrown downward will create an additional force of pressure
upon the bottom, its mean value equaling the weight of the
bird. In the taking off, sharp motions, some oscillations of
balance pointer about the equilibrium position may occur
due to a change of this pressure.
I.111. The arm of the stress of wire with respect to the axis
O (see Fig. A5) must be equal to zero.
I.112. In braking, a non-compensated moment of friction
F ig . A .5 . force about the braking wheels arises, thus tending to rotate
automobile’s body. This results in a lowering motion of
the front part of the automobile. This lowering is compensated by the suspension device.

91
I.113. The bicyclist must first apply the rare brake and only then the front brake to avoid falling
caused by the rotating moment of the friction forces.
I.114. The thicker part of the rod has a greater weight.
I.115. Both the friction force and the applied force F constitute a pair of forces which results in a
rotating-onward motion of the ring. In this situation, the point À at the beginning makes fading
oscillations “to the right – to the left” with respect to the direction of the force F. After complete
fading of this oscillations, the ring will move onward.
I.118. A rolling coin is gyroscope with its horizontal rotation axis tending to conserve its direction
in the space as much as greater is the rotation speed.
I.119. The masses of balls are to be distributed not uniformly. The ball whose density grows from
center to peripheral surface will roll down more slowly. In this case a greater goes for initiating the
rotation of the ball. (The momentum of this ball is greater than that of ball possessing greater
density in its center.)
I.120. The ball in which a greater part of the mass is concentrated near the center will roll down
faster (see the previous problem). In our case it will be the aluminum ball (the density of the
aluminum is less than that of the copper).
I.121. Bicycle gives an advantage in speed by a loss in the force. Greater is the diameter of a wheel,
large is the gain in speed. Consequently, to move with the same speed the cyclist must press pedals
with a greater force.
I.122. The point of support is in the rowlock, hands are the small arm, the resistance of water is the
large arm. By using a row we gain in the force but lose in the path (our hands pass a path less that
the end of the row).
I.123. The way in which the planks must
be combined is clear in Fig. A6. The
plank which lies above must be set by
the adult man. Namely he must first
cross the trench. As for the boy, he must
stand on the edge of “his” plank to put
in equilibrium the momentum generated
by the adult man’s weight and the weight
of the upper plank. After crossing the
trench by the adult man, they change
places and then the boy crosses the
trench.
I.124. To create a greater arm and thus
reduce the force necessary to overtake
F ig . A .6 . the action of the string which presses the
trolley to the wire.
I.125. This gives a possibility to reduce the force applied to the ends of scissors’ handles.
I.127. The gain in force is as much as twice. In addition, one must choose the twice longer rope
than in the case when the log is bound to the rope. Therefore we have no gain in the work.
I.128. When the arm changes its angle, the momentum created by the load also changes. The largest
arm is when the crane’s arm is horizontal, therefore the load limitation will be minimal in this case.
As the crane’s arm goes up (thus increasing the corresponding angle) the arm will decrease thus
enabling us to increase the weight of a load.
I.129. The fastening screws are those which obey the inequality

 H 
tg   < µ,
 2πr 

where r is the radius of a screw, H is screw’s step, µ is the coefficient of friction between the screw
and the detail to be fastened. In this situation, one must also take into account the chemical inertia
of screw’s material, absence of string vibrations, etc.
I.130. When the step of screw increases, the force of normal pressure on a one turn of screw
decreases. This results in the reduction of the friction force which prevents an “unscrew”. For
greater step of a screw an automatic unscrew may occur under the action the elasticity force of the
detail deformed by the vices.
I.132. The conical form of screws serves to draw apart the fibers of the wood. For the screws which

92
are to be screwed into ready holes, the cylindrical form with slanting thread gives the greater gain
in force and thus ensures more firm fastening of metallic details. The thread step for a wood screw
must be greater than that for a screw applied in metals because the wood is less firm than metals
are.
I.133. In the first case, the friction in sheaves helps to support the load. In the second case, one
must apply additional force to overtake it.
I.134. Using reels, they get a gain in the force, in going by bicycle they gain in the speed (with a
loss in force).
I.136. The error is in neglecting the force of rolling friction. In Fig. I.14, the reaction of the inclined
plane is shown perpendicular to the plank passing through the gravity center if the ball. This draw

F1 F2 F1 F2
Q Q
R P R P

a b

F ig . A .7 .

could be right in the case where the elastic forces depended only on the value of deformation did
not depend on whether the deformation increases or decreases. In this case, if the coefficient of
friction in rolling were zero, the ball would roll down with an acceleration. Indeed, decompose the
weight of ball P into two components (see Fig. A.7a): the normal component F1 is balanced by the
force of the plank’s reaction R, while the component force F2, which is parallel to the inclined
plane, together with the static friction force Q compose a pair of forces whose moment increases
the angular velocity of the ball. Therefore the same is the speed of rolling. In practice, in the part
of the area, where the ball touches the plank the deformation increases, i.e., in the front part of this
area, the elasticity forces are greater than in the rare part (|where the deformation decreases). As a
result, the point of application of the reaction force in rolling of the ball (Fig. A.7b) is displaced
forward along the motion. The perpendicular component of the gravity F1 along with the reaction
of the plank R form the second pair of forces, whose momentum is opposite to the momentum of
the pair F2 and Q. If the sum of moments of these two pairs of forces is equal to zero, angular speed
of the ball is constant, i.e., the ball will roll down uniformly.
I.137. The friction between the wheel and the plane is namely the
rolling friction. It cannot be reduced to a horizontal force Ffr. In
O rolling, the wheel slightly deforms and is impressed into the plane,
N which results in the force N, directed (roughly) as shown in Fig.
A.8. Since the horizontal component of this force is directed to the
left, the velocity of the wheel will decrease. Obviously, at the same
time, the moment of this force with respect to the axis O brakes the
F ig . A .8 . rotation of the wheel.
I.138. In the motion of the stool at the moment when its front legs
touch the floor the center-of-mass describes an arc with the center
lying on a straight line passing through the rare legs of the stool. At the moment of stroke on the
floor, the center-of-mass will have both the vertical and horizontal components. The stroke is not
elastic, and the vertical component of the center-of-mass’ velocity is quenched. The horizontal
component of the velocity of center-of-mass vhor turns into zero if the friction force Ffr acts in a
certain time t. This time interval can be estimated via the equality Ffrt = mvhor, where m is the mass
of the stool. Within this time the stool will move a certain distance forward.
I.139. Let us consider the motion of dump-bells in the coordinate system related to the common

93
center-of-mass. In this system the dump-bells fly toward each other with same velocities. At the
moment of collision the balls 2 and 3 exchange the velocities
(Fig. A.9a), and the dump-bells start to rotate around the proper
1 2 center-of-mass (Fig. A.9b). Then a collision of balls 1 and 4
1 2 takes place, in which these exchange the velocities (Fig. A.9c).
3 2 1 4 After that the dump-bells will move into the same direction
3 4 which they followed before the collision and with the same
4 3 velocities.
a b c I.140. By virtue of the impulse moment conservation law. By
changing the position of center-of-mass, one can change the
arm of forces acting on the front wheel, which must lead to a
F ig . A .9 . change of moments of impulses of rotating wheels. Under fixed
velocity and mass, this results in a turn of the vector of angular
speed of rotation.
I.141. The role of a keel of a sailboat is to resist a big rotating moment which arises in action of the
wind upon the sail. When the sailboat is inclined, the gravity acting on the keel forms a moment
directed to return the ship into equilibrium position. Another purpose of the keel is the resistance to
side displacement of the ship (side driftage) of the sailboat by virtue of action of the wind on the
sail.
I.142. It is easier to apply the force to the upper edge of the wheels: we then have a greater momentum
(the arm of force equals the diameter of a wheel, while, in the first case, it was only its radius).
I.143. Sharp motions of legs give rise to a moment of forces which tries to turn the corpus about the
vertical axis. Therefore, a skater swing arms in order to compensate the motion of legs, so both
thew motions are in a counter-phase. In swinging arms, a moment of force arises which counteracts
to the moment generated by legs and thus compensating it.
I.144. The stability is reached by increasing the support area (wide paws of machine tools, wide
supports) and lowering the center-of-mass by placing the most heavy and large parts as low as
possible.
I.145. The construction of crane and the maximally admissible weight of load are such that the
vertical axis drawn through the center-of-mass of the crane always passes the area of support of the
crane.
I.146. That loaded with break, because in this case the center-of-mass occupies the lowest position.
I.147. Ducks have their paws more widely set that those of a hen. Therefore its center-of-mass is
longer from the support point. For a step (whose length is rather similar for both dug and hen), the
dug turns for a greater angle than the hen: the moment of gravity with respect to the support point
is greater. Therefore both the acceleration and the angular velocity are greater in the case of a dug.
I.149. Though the balance are in equilibrium, the loads of equal masses placed on its pans will
create different moments of forces with respect to the axis of scales’ beam.
I.150. No. The fuel tanks in an airplane are so placed that the center-of-gravity to remain at same
position either the tanks are full or not. If contrary, the aerodynamic properties of the airplane were
changing.
I.152. The center-of-gravity of a glass with water is at the lowest position if it coincides with the
level of the water in the glass. Indeed, of the level of the water is below the center-of-gravity of the
system, then by adding the water we add a mass with its center-of-gravity lying above the center-of-
gravity of the system. In doing so, we have that the center-of-mass of the system will lower. The
center-of-gravity of the system will also lower if it is below the level of the water and we flow out
the water which is above the center-of-gravity.
I.154. The quantity of the kinetic energy indeed depends on the choice u v
of the reference system, because, by the definition, Ek= mv2/2, where v -v
is the velocity of the body with respect to the chosen reference system. 0

In this problem the body with respect to the road possesses the kinetic
energy Ek= m(v+u)2/2, but with respect to the train Ek= mv2/2. In any of F
the cases, the answer Ek = mu2/2+mv2/2 is wrong.
I.155. In a reference system fixed with respect to the center of rotation,
the elasticity force F of the bar does not produce any work, because it is
always perpendicular to the vector of the velocity of the ball. In the
moving reference system, the angle between F and the velocity of the
ball u hanges from zero to 2π (Fig. A.10). Consequently, the force F F ig . A .1 0 .
produces a work. Thus, the kinetic energy of the ball changes due to the

94
work of the elasticity force of the bar.
I.156. In launching along the equator in the direction of Earth’s rotation. To launch a satellite onto
an orbit, it must obtain the first cosmic velocity with respect to the center of the Earth. In launching
from the equator in the direction of Earth rotation, the initial velocity with respect to the Earth’s
center equals v0 = v+vE, where v is the start velocity of the rocket, and vE is the linear velocity of the
equatorial points of the Earth. Obviously, v0 is greater if the launch is made along the meridian.
I.157. In braking, the automobile cannot stop instantly due to the inertia. The length of braking
path depends on both the quality of path and the speed of the automobile. On a wet asphalt road the
braking path is essentially larger than that on a dry sand road.
I.158. Let us find the work necessary to hoist Carlson at the height H: A1 = mgH and A2 = (m+mj)gH.
Here m is Carlson’s mass, mj is the mass of the eaten jam. On the other hand, A1 = Pt and A2 = P(t+∆t),
where P is the power of his engine, t is the time of hoist without jam, ∆t = 21s. Thus, mj = P⋅∆t/gH,
and after substitution of numerical data we get mj= 3kg.
I.159. If the man climbs upstairs by an escalator with a constant speed, the mean pressure upon the
stairs remains unchanged. Consequently, the same is the force with which the engine must drive
the stairs. However, the man going upstairs will earlier reach the top, and thus the path will be
shorter than that if the man stands still on the escalator. Therefore the work produced by the esca-
lator engine for lifting a moving man will be less than the work produced by the escalator engine
for lifting a steady man (the remaining part of the work is made by the proper man, not engine). The
power of engine remains same since a smaller work is made within a shorter time.
I.160. A sportsman makes the jump starting in vertical position and passing the height at horizontal
position. Therefore his center-of-gravity is at the height of 1.2m before the jump and 2.1m at
highest point. Consequently, he must hoist himself for only 0.9m. Producing the same energy on
the Moon, he could hoist his center-of-gravity for 6⋅0.9m = 5.4m. Thus, he could jump over the
height 1.2m + 5.4m = 6.6m. This is almost twice lower than one could think at the first sight. But
here we have not taken into account that sportsmen rather cower before jump and therefore the
general hoist of the center-of-gravity will be slightly greater.
I.161. The zero gravity is not related to stroke, because in striking one must regard for both masses
and velocities, but not the weight. The kinetic energy of the cosmonaut is spent partially for the
heating of bodies under collision, in part it is spent for their deformation. The pain of the cosmonaut
will depend on the ratio of masses spacecraft/cosmonaut. In any case, it will not be greater than if
a cosmonaut has fallen onto ground with the same speed (because the mass of the spacecraft is
much less than the mass of the Earth). In a collision with the spacecraft a noticeable part of the
kinetic energy will transfer to the kinetic energy of the spacecraft and the latter will obtain an
additional velocity.
I.162. Let F1 and F2 be the force of resistance against the motion. Then P1 = F1v1 and P2 = F2v2. For
the automobiles connected by a rigid hitch, P1+P2 = (F1+F2)⋅v = (P1/v1+P2/v2)⋅v. Hence v = (P1+P2)v1v2/
(P1v2+P2v1).
I.164. A loaded lorry presses with a greater force upon the road, which increases the rolling friction
force acting on the wheels. This is the main reason for decrease of the speed at the same power of
the engine. In addition, the increase of the mass of the lorry leads to the increase of the friction
forces acting on the axes of the lorry.
I.165. In the start, the power of the engine is spent not only to overtake the friction force and the
resistance of the air, but also to produce the kinetic energy of the automobile.
I.166. The gear box does not change the power of the engine but reduces the speed of rotation of
the driving wheel with an increase of the pulling force (P = Fpull⋅v).
I.167. At the same power of the engine, an additional work is to be made to increase the potential
energy of the automobile in the gravitation field.
I.168. There are some reasons. First, a significant part of the work is spent to overtake a greater
resistance of friction. Second, an additional work made against the gravity on ascending parts of
path not always is compensated by the gravity on descending parts. This is stipulated by limitations
in the speed: on descents the locomotive must brake, thus transferring the potential energy into
heat. Third, the proper cars have significantly greater weight with respect to a ton of load than
ships.
I.169. The increase of the potential energy of water, irrigation, control of water level.
I.170. 92%.
I.171. The speed of the water leaving the turbine turns lesser, because hydroturbine produces its
work buy expense of loss of the kinetic energy of the water flow.

95
I.172. The efficiency of the stroke is explained by the fact that the energy (permanently accumu-
lated before the stroke) is spent within a small time, therefore the mean power P = A/t is large. But
if the stroke is made upon an elastic body, then the path S in which the stroke was made will be
small. Therefore the force will be large: F = A/S = Pt/S.
I.173. In addition to the said in the previous problem: the action of an axe is strengthened by a
small area of the stroke, i.e., a large pressure is made.
I.175. From the laws of the conservation of the impulse mv = (M+m)u and the energy
mv 2
=Q+
(M + m)u2 ,
2 2
(where u is the speed of the bar with plasticine after the stroke) we get the next expression for the
desired quantity of heat:
mM
Q= v2 .
2 (m + M )
I.177. First the work is spent to overtake the friction forces; when the nail will have been hammered
in, the strokes will increase the interior energy, i.e., the nail will be heated.
I.178. Generally speaking, both are wrong, since they do not consider that within the stroke the
train obtains an additional impulse and the speed of the bullet after shock will not be equal to u.
However, if one takes the mass of the train infinitely large, the second pupil is right.
I.179. The potential energies of the bodies are same. The kinetic energy of the first body at the end
of motion is less than that of the second body.
I.180. If there were no air resistance, the time of ascent and descent would be same. Due to the
resistance of the air the kinetic energy of the ball in descending path is less than in the ascending
path, the difference equals the work spent for overtaking the resistance of the air. Consequently, at
any height the speed of ascent is greater than that for descent. Therefore, the time of ball’s falling
is greater than the time of rising.
I.181. The ball which moved before the collision will stop, while the rested ball will adhere its
velocity. The greater is the speed obtained by the ball at the elastic stroke.
I.183. If the stones possess a ball-like shape, the height of their jumps after fall upon a smooth floor
were gradually decreasing. The sea stone are not uniform, therefore they may start to rotate after
shock. In this case, two possibilities of producing the kinetic energy exist: one is determined by the
velocity of the onward motion of the stone’s center-of-mass and thus helps it to rise, other is related
to the rotation. It depends on a way in which the stone fall upon the floor. Its rotation may increase
and may decrease. Respectively, the kinetic energy of rotation will grow or lower. Therefore after
a jump the stone might make the second jump for a lower height. In the second case the result is
contrary. After the next jump,. A redistribution of the energy might take place and thus the stone
might jump higher than in the previous jump.
I.184. The vertical component of the velocity of the ball after n-th stroke over a plate is
the time of motion of the ball between the n-th and n+1-st shocks is
n
vn = 1 − k ⋅ vn −1 = (1 − k ) 2 v0 = 2 (1 − k ) gH ,
n

and the time of flight before the first collision with the plate equals
2 (1 − k ) H
n
2v
tn = n = 2 ,
g g
Then the complete time of ball’s motion is
2H
t0 = .
g
By summing the geometric progression within the square brackets, we get
2H 8H 
(1 − k ) 2 + (1 − k ) + ... + (1 − k ) 2 + ... .
1 n
t = t0 + t1 + ... + tn + ... = +
g g  

2H  2 1− k 
t=  1 +  .
g  1− 1− k 

96
Within this time the ball will cover the distance
2H 1 + 1 − k
l= ⋅ u.
g 1− 1− k
I.185. The complete mechanical energy of the satellite is the sum of its kinetic energy mv2/2 and
potential energy –gMEm/R, where m is the mass of the satellite, v is the velocity of its motion along
the orbit of the radius R, ME is the Earth’s mass, g is the constant of gravitation. The velocity of the
satellite motion along the orbit is determined from the condition that the centripetal acceleration of
the satellite is generated by the gravitation attraction force: mv2/R = gMEm/R2. Hence the kinetic
mass of the satellite motion along the orbit equals gMEm/2R, and the complete mechanical energy
of the satellite on the orbit is –gMEm/2R. Therefore the decrease of the radius of the orbit makes to
decrease both the negative complete and potential energies, while the kinetic energy increases.
Therefore the speed of the motion of the satellite along the orbit grows.
I.186. Let us assume that the stroke between the rod and the ball is elastic. Within the stroke, a part
of the energy of the rod is spent to the work for creation of non-elastic deformation of the proper
rod at the place where the rod and the stone touch each other. Therefore the stone gets less velocity
than the ball does.
I.187. In the jump in a “wave” manner a man has not to elevate his body’s center-of-gravity as high
as in jumping with “straight legs”. Therefore he must not make an additional job against the
gravity.
I.188. To analyze the problem, let us consider how the filling with the mercury takes place for the
cylindrical vessels. The mercury goes into an empty vessel forced by the pressure of the atmo-
sphere. In doing so, the mercury in the tube moves with an acceleration which is reduced by the
gravity of the column of the mercury in the tube and by the force of friction which grows as the
mercury speed grows. When the force of gravity and pressure compensate each other, the mercury
continues its path upwards due to the inertia. Finally, the forces of friction and gravity compensate
stop the ascent of the mercury column. At this moment the force of friction turns into zero, and the
gravity will exceed the pressure. Thus the column will start to fall. In the tube the oscillations of the
mercury column will fad due to the friction. Now let us turn the question formulated in the prob-
lem. In the setup shown in the right draw, the mercury will fill the cavity with higher speed. There-
fore in this cavity the greater energy is spent against the friction. Finally, the law of energy
conservation is not violated: in the setup show in the left draw the potential energy of the mercury
is larger, while the vessel in the right draw is more heated.
I.189. They use the potential energy of the water in the source. The work of the hydraulic ram does
not contradict the law of conservation of the energy, because not the
whole mass of water is hoisted at a high level, but a part. The potential ϕ
energy of the water in the source is transformed into kinetic energy
which makes a part of water to rise upwards.
I.190. The “softer” is the tire, the longer is the time for pull acting on l
the automobile. Therefore the less will be the force acting on the auto-
mobile. The pull’s energy in this case is transformed into thermal energy.
I.191. Let us choose the simplest model: the inclination angle ϕ is small x
at the moment of collision (i.e., x<<l, Fig. A.11), and the next domino
will fall due to stroke but this practically does not affect the reserve of F ig . A .11 .
its energy. By the law of the conservation of energy,
mv 2  l l cos ϕ  2 ϕ  mgl ⋅ ϕ 2 mgx 2
= mg  −  = mgl sin   ≈ ≈ .
2 2 2  2 4 4l
Then
v ≈ x g 2l ,
and for the mean velocity of the motion of one domino we get
v x g
v ≈
= ,
2 2 2l
whence for the get for the desired time the following estimate:
x 2l
t = 100 = 200 ≈ 20 s
v g
(with l = 4cm).

97
I.192. Assume that the interior energy of the excited nucleus equals E. In ejecting a quantum, a
part of the interior energy of the nucleus transfers into the quantum’s energy, while a part passes
into the kinetic energy of the nucleus W, so-called the recoil energy. This is related to the fact that
the quantum possesses a finite impulse. Therefore, the same by magnitude impulse must be ab-
sorbed by the nucleus. Here we see a complete analogy with a firing gun. In the absorption of a γ-
quantum by the nucleus, the energy of the latter must be distributed between the kinetic energy of
the absorbing nucleus and its interior energy. However, the latter cannot change by the quantity E–
2W, and there is no absorption of γ-quantum. The unique situation arises in some crystals, where,
by the expense of the connection between the nuclei, the impulse of recoil is transferred not to a
unique nucleus but to the whole crystal. In this situation, practically, the recoil energy becomes
zero and the γ-quantum can be absorbed by analogous nuclei in the crystal, which possess similar
inter-nuclei connections. The effect of absorption and recoil of γ-quanta by nuclei was discovered
by Rudolf Mossbauer in 1957; now it is called Mossbauer effect.
I.193. The energy of recoil (see the answer for the previous problem) is proportional to the square
of impulse, and thus to the square of the emission frequency. For the γ-scale, the frequency of
emission is of order 1020–1023Hz, for the optical emission it is 1015Hz. In other words, the recoil
energy in emission of quanta of the visible light is at least a factor of ten power of ten less than in
the emission of γ-quanta.
I.194. The law of the conservation of energy takes place only in inertial reference systems. Only an
non-inertial reference system can be related to the electric train moving with acceleration. In this
system you must make a work against the inertia force Fin=-ma (a is the acceleration of the electric
train, m is the mass of a man). Obvisouly, one may consider the situation also in an inertial reference
system. The forward motion of the man must be accompanied by rising of train’s acceleration
directed oppositely. Thus, the work of muscles is spent to change the kinetic energy of the train.
This change, however, cannot be observed since it is compensated with great abundance by the
work of the friction force between the rails and wheels, which accelerates the electric train.
I.195. One must pull the center of the balance beam. In this situation, in a difference between the
masses of body and loads, the beam must turn. But if the masses are equal the equilibrium will not
be violated. In other words, the balance will behave as if it were fixed in the field of the gravity.
Consideration of similar situations helped to Albert Einstein to formulate so-called the equiva-
lence principle. By this principle, all physical phenomena in a gravitation field occur same as if
they were in the corresponding field of inertia forces if the forces of both the fields coincide at the
respective points of the space and the initial conditions are same for all bodies of a closed system.
I.196. Consider the forces acting on the ball (Fig. A.12). As the tube does
not move, the ball experiments the gravitation mg, the reaction of the sup-
port N, determined by the presence of a component of the gravity which is N
perpendicular to the tube, and the elasticity force F of the compressed string. F
When the tube starts to fall freely, the gravity gives to both the tube and the
ball the same acceleration. Consequently, N = 0. Under the action of the
elastic force of the string the ball will move along the tube and then fly out
it. It will appear near the edge of tube with a horizontal velocity and will
further fly along a parabola as any body thrown at an angle to the horizon.
I.197. To explain the problem, one can apply the equivalency principle (see mg
the answer to the problem no I.195). By this principle, we may replace the
inertial force with the homogeneous gravitational field. Then the summary
(with regard for the gravity) gravitational field is directed downward and
against the acceleration of the torch. The behavior of the flame will be F ig . A .1 2 .
explained by the Archimedes’ force: the air which is more dense “sinks”
while the less dense flame “buoys”.
I.198. A watermelon will move forward, while the ball backward (see the previous problem).
I.199. From the side of the wall of the spacecraft a force acts on the cosmonauts which provides
him with an acceleration a. The pressure, i.e., the force related to the unit if area, equals p = ma/S.
Hence it is clear that the cosmonaut will feel lesser pressure when it is in the horizontal position,
where the force is distributed along a greater area.
I.200. In order for the body with the mass m to move with the speed v along the circle of the radius
R, an acceleration is necessary, directed to the center of the circle ands having the value v2/R, i.e.,
the centripetal acceleration. By the second Newton law, the force generating this acceleration (cen-
tripetal force) has the magnitude mv2/R and is directed to the axis of the circle. Now consider the
forces acting on the body on the Earth’s surface (Fig. A.13). Obviously, a force directed along the

98
parallel must act on the body to ensure its motion with the Earth’s frequency. It is also obvious
that the presence of the universe gravitation Fg directed almost to the
ω N center of the Earth (do not mix with the gravity), and the force of the
support reaction N directed perpendicularly to the Earth’s surface.
F fr.N However, these forces do not suffice to keep the body under a given
linear speed on a given distance from the rotation axis– there
F fr.E remains a probability to displace along the meridian (perpendicular
to the forces N and Fg). The friction force Ffr.N, directed to the
North, may be opposite to this action. Thus, the centripetal force in
Fg this case is the sum of projections onto the direction perpendicular to
the Earth’s rotation axis of the gravity, reaction of the support, and
the friction force Ffr.E.
I.201. Let us consider this problem in an non-inertial reference system
related to the rotating planet. The centripetal force acting on bodies on
the plane’s surface is maximal on the equator. To avoid the leaving the
equator by a certain element of the mass ∆m, the centripetal force must
F ig . A .1 3 . be balanced by the force of the gravitational attraction
∆mω2R = γM⋅∆m/R2, where ω is the maximally possible angular speed
of the planet’s rotation about its axis under which a substance does not leave the planet for the
space, γ being the constant of gravitation. Hence
M
ω = γ 3.
R
This means that the minimal time of a complete rotation is
R3
2π
γM
Note that the answer depends only on the density of the planet’s substance!
I.202. By the attraction of the Earth.
I.203. The right ones. The explanation depends on a reference system. In the inertial reference
system, this behavior of the automobile is explained by the inertia of the automobile’s corp. As for
a non-inertial reference system. The same is explained by the action of the centripetal inertial
force.
I.205. Let us give an explanation in an inertial reference system. In a centrifugal pump, the p[articles
of the water obtained the velocity from the blade of the wheel, cannot be kept by the centripetal
force on a circumference and diverge creating a rarified atmosphere in the center.
I.206. To the center of the circle of rotation.
I.207. The measurement by a level of a longitudinal slope can be made in a uniform motion of the
train, while the level in cross positions can be measured on rectilinear parts of the path.
I.209. To the axis (see the problem no. I.197).
I.211.The stretching force of the line is maximal at the highest point and is minimal at the lowest
point.
I.212. In such a motion along the axis of the bottle a hollow “tube” is formed. Through the tube the
air can freely enter into the bottle to replace the liquid which flows out.
I.213. When the load P assumes the positions C or D, it stresses the line with a force which is less
than Q: a) in this situation the load Q goes down. When the load D passes the position E, it stresses
the line with a force greater than Q and the load Q is hoisted. The oscillations of the load D
generates vertical oscillations of the system; b) under the friction in sheaves, which is comparable
with the change of the stress of the line of load D in the position C, there will be no oscillations of
the load Q.
I.215. The velocity of the body at the point B depends on the friction. Since the surface ÀMB is
convex and AKB is concave, the force of normal pressure onto AMB is less than on AKB. Therefore
the friction force on AMB is less than on AKB. The velocity of the body at the point B is greater in
the case when the body moves along the path AMB.
I.217. The mud stuck to the wheels is then ejected along a line tangent to the edge. It can reach the
cyclist and soil the bicycle. In order to avoid this situation, it suffices that the casks tts cover a
quarter of the front wheel and a half of the rare wheel.
I.218. In sharp bends of automobile at high speeds the friction force (which is a centripetal force)
can be insufficient for keep the automobile on the circle of road. Then the automobile will slip to

99
a side due to inertia.
I.219. The hitching forces between the particles may be insufficient to keep them on a circle of a
certain radius. In addition, the detail can destroy and the residues, moving with high speed, may hit
a man.
I.220. The Earth rotates from West to East. As known, the linear speed of different places on the
Earth’s surface depends on their geographic latitude. Higher is the latitude, lesser is the speed.
Therefore the water in a river which flows to the North, in passing to a higher latitude will deviate
to the East due to the inertia, thus washing its right shore. The same serves as explanation of the
fact that the rivers which flow to lower latitudes deviates to the West and wash their left shores. In
consideration of this problem in the non-inertial reference system related to the Earth, this phe-
nomenon is explained by the action of the inertia, so-called Coriolis force. The magnitude of the
latter is equal to 2mvωsinθ , where m is the mass of a body experiencing this force, v is its velocity,
ω is the angular frequency of the Earth’s rotation, and θ is the angle between the vectors v and ω.
The direction of the Coriolis force is perpendicular to the plane where the vectors v and ω lie and
coincides with the direction of the displacement of a right screw when the latter is rotated from the
direction of v to the direction of ω.
I.222. Note: take into account the answer to the previous problem.
I.223. In the equatorial regions the air mainly is warmer than on higher latitudes. Being more light,
the warm air is replaced upwards with the colder air from higher latitudes. The situation is even
more sharp due to absence if friction (see the problems I.200 and I.220) for keeping the circulating
masses of the air on higher latitude. This results in near-surface motion of the air from the higher
latitudes to the equator, so-called trade winds. In an inertial reference system, the deviation of the
trade winds to West is treated as a revelation of the inertia of the air.
I.224. A projectile launched along a meridian to higher (lower) latitudes will deviate to East (West).
Such its behavior, related to non-inertial reference system of Earth, is explained by the Coriolis
force.
I.225. Note: consider the action of the Coriolis force acting on the load.
I.226. Generally speaking, the answer is “no”. Each of the loads is undergo at least two forces: the
gravity and the gravitational interaction with the table. Both these forces depend on the mutual
position of massive bodies. For both the left and right loads these forces will add to and subtract
from each other, respectively. Thus, one can easily see that the equilibrium can be violated to any
side. The most interesting is the case where the table has a large mass while all the lines are small.
Then we may assume that gravity acting on the loads are same, and by the deviation of the balance
one can measure the force of the gravitation attraction of the loads to the table. As a result, we can
derive the constant of universal gravitation. In a slightly modified form, this experiment was carried
out in 1878 by the German physicist Philipp von Jolly.
I.228. If we assume that the density of the Earth is constant, then in penetrating the Earth the
weight of a load will not grow but decrease, because the attracting parts of the Earth will be dis-
posed at different sides from the load.
I.229. In considering the problem in non-inertial reference system related to the Earth, the weight
of the body is stipulated by the universal attraction force and the centrifugal force of inertia. The
first one does not depend on the Earth’s rotation, while the second one is proportional: to the square
of the angular velocity of Earth’s rotation and to the distance from the rotation axis determined by
the geographic latitude. The bodies possess the greatest specific weight on the poles and the least
one on the equator where the centrifugal force of inertia attains the greatest value. The density does
not depend on the geographic latitude of a place.
I.230. Spring scales realize the absolute measurement of the weight, which depends on the mass of
a body in different form for different places on the Earth (see, for example, the previous problems).
Arm balances execute a comparison between the sought-for weight and a sample weight. Such a
comparison does not depend on the place where is carried out.
I.232. One must take it into account.
I.233. No; to move upwards, a body must obtain a velocity, i.e., accelerate a body resting on the
Earth. Therefore the initial force must be greater than the gravity.
I.234. The weight of the load equals zero.
I.235. The accelerations which are given to both the Earth and the Moon by the Sun are approxi-
mately similar. Therefore both the Earth and the Moon form a unique system of two celestial
bodies which revolve around a common center-of-mass, and the center-of-mass of the system Earth-
Moon revolves around the Sun.
I.238. The motion of the Moon along its orbit occurs due to the attraction of the Earth. Therefore

100
 M M v2 M M
=γ M 2 E ,
R R
where ME and MM are the masses of the Earth and the Moon, respectively, R stands for the radius
of the Moon’s orbit, v is the velocity of Moon’s motion along the orbit. Hence we have
M
v= γ E.
R
On the other hand, the period of evolution of the Moon along its orbit is T = 2πR/v. Then
M
v = 2πγ E
v ⋅T
and we finally have for the velocity
M
v = 3 2πγ E ≈ 540 m/s.
T
I.237. In winter, because it moves near its perihelion.
I.238. The bridge will stay without supports since all its parts are attracted to the center of Earth
with a similar force. However, this bridge cannot be used. If a fly will “land” on this bridge, the
equilibrium will be violated and the bridge will fall.
I.239. One make take a flight around the Earth with a velocity less that the first cosmic speed if
one holds engines turned on. For example, it can be made on an airplane. The same concerns a
flight to the Moon. With engines turned off one can reach the Moon only if the spacecraft obtained
the second cosmic velocity near the Earth. As for the flight with engines permanently turned on, it
can be made at any speed. In this situation, the rocket will fly uniformly and rectilinearly. There
will be no overload, no zero gravity. Within the flight one must regulate the pulling force so that the
sum of the pull force and the gravity were equal to zero. In approximating the Moon, one must
brake the spacecraft in a certain way.
I.241. a) The water can be pressed out from the vessel by applying the compressed air or by press-
ing its walls if these are elastic; b) in heating, there will be no convection, therefore only a series of
local volumes of water will be heated up to a boiling. The vapor in its expansion will displace the
water from the vessel before it could start to boil; c) by means of additional jet engines fixed in a
special way or by changing the direction of flowing out combustion products from the main nozzle
of the rocket; d) one must act onto the body with known elastic force and measure the acceleration
obtained by the body; e) put the spacecraft into a motion with acceleration; in particular, start to
rotate the spacecraft about one of its symmetry axis.
I.242. The trajectory of a satellite is a spiral winding around the Earth.
I.243. The gravitation force of attraction to the surrounding mass of liquid act on the piece of metal
as well as the pressure of the liquid. If the volume occupied by the piece of metal were occupied by
the liquid, it would be in equilibrium, i.e., the resultant of the forces of gravitational attraction to
the remaining mass of the liquid would be equal to the resultant force of hydrostatic pressure. But
if instead of this volume of a liquid we place a piece of metal, then the resultant force of the
pressure does not change while the resultant force of the gravitation attraction increases. Moreover,
the resultant of the gravitation attraction is directed to the center of the cistern since a body which
is inside a spherical layer does not undergo its attraction. The resultant of all the forces acting on
the piece of metal is directed to the center and equals
4π
F =γ ρ 0r ⋅V ( ρ − ρ 0 )
3
(ρ0 is the density of the liquid, ρ is the density of the metal, V is its volume, r is the distance from
the center of the cistern). In other words, it is proportional to the displacement of the piece of metal
with respect to the center of the sphere. Hence it follows that, if there is no friction, the piece of
metal will oscillate harmonically about the center of the cistern. Due to the interior friction, these
oscillation are fading. If a bubble of the air is in the cistern, it will move to the shell of the space-
craft, because we have ρ<ρ0 for this bubble and thus the resultant force is directed outward the
center of the spacecraft.
I.244. In the first approximation, we may neglect the masses of all other planets of the system Sun-
Earth. Since the mass of the Sun exceeds many times the mass of the Earth, we may assume that the
center-of-mass of the system coincides with the center-of-mass of the Sun. If the mass of the Earth
were growing up to the mass of the Sun, the center-of-mass of the system would occupy the middle

101
of the distance between the Earth and the Sun, which reduces two times the orbit radius of the
Earth. If we denote by T1 the period of Earth’s evolution in the firs case and by T2 on the second
case, then by the Kepler law we can derive
T12 R3 T
2
= 3
, or T2 = 1 ,
T2  R  2 2
 
2
which means that the earth year will decrease by 2 2 times.
I.245. The answer is “no”. For a stable motion in a plane it is necessary that the acting forces lie in
the same plane.
I.246. The satellite must be launched in the plane of the equator. The radius of the orbit R and the
linear speed v of the satellite can be evaluated as follows. The centripetal acceleration is given to
the satellite by the gravity. Therefore mv2/R = gMEm/R2, where m and ME are the masses of the
satellite and the Earth. Denoting by T the period of satellite’s evolution (it equals 24 hours), the
same speed can be expressed as follows: v = 2πR/T. From these two equations we get
M ET 3 M
R= 3γ and v = 3 γ 2π E .
4π 2
T
I.247. The force of friction is rest, which is directed forward.
I.250. If we push it in front of you, the pushing force obtains a horizontal component directed
downward and thus increasing the weight. The friction also grows in this case. If you pull it behind,
the effect is inverse, the force applied by you reduces both the weight and the friction. Thus the
second variant is preferable.
I.251. The answer is “no”.
I.252. If a man stands on a rough ice, he makes a greater pressure on the support area because he
rests upon some salience and fragments of the rough surface. Greater is the pressure, much ice is
melted and therefore the rough ice is more slippery than a mirror-smooth one.
I.253. A saw is “set” to increase the width of the kerf (groove) since if the kerf is narrow the saw is
“squeezed” (the friction between the saw and the cut of wood becomes too large).
I.254. Granting to the friction between the grains and the grains and the floor.
I.255. In the motion, between the steering rough surfaces some their irregular parts of surface
clutch each other which leads to their gradual rubbing out.
I.256. To rub out and heat the rubbing surfaces.
I.259. No, it is not. If a nail is rather rusted over its surface, this cannot change essentially its
toughness, but helps to increase the friction between the nail and the walls of its hole.
I.261. It decreases the work made by friction forces in rotation of gears axes, because, with respect
to fixed parts of clock or watch, the points of axis end make a lesser path at any turn.
I.262. In this case we deal with an interesting feature of the forces of dry friction, because they do
not exceed the maximal force of the state of rest. In the case where the body moves, the friction of
slipping is directed against the velocity and practically has always the same value. Suppose that,
first, in order to take out a nail, you are only rotating it. If you, in addition, use pliers in the capacity
of a lever, therefore you have to apply less efforts to overtake the force of friction between the nail
and the wood. In this case, the slipping friction’s force is perpendicular to the nail axis and thus it
does not resist to a motion along the nail. If you will now try to take out the nail, a component of
friction will appear directed along the nail. Moreover, the ratio between the components of the
friction along the nail and in perpendicular direction equals the ratio of the corresponding components
of the velocity of any point at the nail’s surface. By increasing the rotation, one can reduce the ratio
of velocities mentioned above. This leads to a decrease of the component of friction directed along
the nail (because the magnitude of the friction force does not change), which gives you the desired
effect.
Note that arguments cited above concern the case when in the process of rubbing the state of
rubbing surfaces does not change. In practice, all is often contrary. The surfaces of touch between
the nail and the wood are polished in the rotation and thus make less difficult the extraction of the
nail.
I.263. First, under a sharp braking the force of rest friction between the wheels and the road tend to
its maximal value. In addition, the direction of this force (see the previous problem) is opposite to
the direction of the velocity of motion and does not prevent a drift to side which may be caused by
a rough road surface. Second, in sharp braking the wheels may start to slip over the road and the
slipping friction force is less than the friction force of the state of rest, which “works” in a motion

102
without braking.
I.264. The tread pattern serves to increase the friction (or the hitch between the wheel and the
road). The crosswise relief is necessary for accelerations in onward direction; lengthwise strips and
longitudinal relief prevent the displacement to a side.
I.266. They warn about the change of the motion of car’s wheels over rails covered by fallen leaves
(the hitch between the wheels and rails reduces and thus may lead to wheel-spin).
I.267. To start the motion of a resting body, one must apply to it a force which is greater than the
maximally possible friction force of a body in the state of rest. Since the wheels of both the locomotive
and the cars do not slip over rails, we have F1≤ k⋅P1 and F2≤ k⋅P2, where P1 is the weight of the
locomotive, P2 is the weight of cars, F1 is the friction force between the wheels of the locomotive
and rails, F2 is the friction force of cars’ wheels and rails, k is the coefficient of friction between
steel and steel. But from the inequalities written above and from the fact P2 >P1, it is clear that we
cannot derive F2 >F1. Obviously, F2≤F1. It is connected to the fact that the friction of cars’ wheels
and rails is the rolling friction while the friction between the locomotive wheels and the rails is the
friction of the sate of rest.
I.268. Electric locomotive must possess a big weight (so-called hitching weight) is order to ensure
the greater value of friction between its wheels and the rails, which is necessary to pull a train.
I.269. First, the wheels of a loaded automobile “sink” into coil more deeply and thus reach there
some solid layers, where the coefficient of friction is greater than that for a “liquid soil”. Second,
the force of friction is proportional to the force of normal pressure which is greater for a loaded
automobile.
I.270. On the lorry. In this case the pressure of rare driving wheels upon the road grows. Therefore
the hitch with the road also grows. If one puts a heavy machine on a trailer the probability of wheel-
spin grows (over a wet road, on ascents).
I.271. In general, the mechanism of sliding over ice is different for skates and sleigh. In both cases
the slipping is possible due to creation of a thin water layer between the ice and a sliding surface.
But in the case of sleigh, the water appears due to friction. In the case of skates (if the temperature
is not too low), the sliding layer of water is produced by a high pressure of a skate edge. When the
temperature is too low (which is not something unusual in Russian winters), skates “go hard”. We
should add that sleigh experience the same situation, the friction of their runners produces an
insufficient water for “easy motion”.
I.272. In order to increase the pressure upon the ice and thus ensure the creation of water layer in
high speeds of motion.
I.273. The wheels possess less area of support and thus sink into the snow. This changes the nature
of forces which hinder the displacement of carriage – the force of the friction of rolling is replaced
with the frontal resistance of the snow, which is many times greater than the friction of slipping. In
addition, in its slipping, the sleigh runners produce a water layer which reduces the friction.
I.274. The needle bearing sustain significantly greater loads because they have a greater support
area.
I.275. The ironed linen has a smooth surface which badly attracts the particles of mud and dust.
I.276. Within an easy moistening of a wood, its small fibers are swelling and thus increase the
friction between a hand and a handle.
I.277. The slipping bears are made of a material less hard than that of the shaft. So, in friction they
are worked out quicker than the main details. This enables a fast repair.
I.278. To decrease the friction. In addition, these minerals can be well-polished and possess a
greater hardness.
I.280. To cool the cutting tool and restore the speed of the stone.
I.281. The principle of ice-crushing consists of a crawling onto the ice and breaking it by the
weight of ice-crusher.
I.282. The wedge splits the end of the handle and press it with a greater force to the walls of the
tool thus increasing the friction between the wood and the steel. The tool becomes more strong in
work.

103
 Answers to Chapter II

II.1. In a marshland a space arise under a foot, to which the air cannot penetrate. Therefore, in
walking and elevating his feet a man must overcome the resistance of a viscous soil and the atmo-
spheric pressure.
II.2. By pressing upon the rubber balloon of a fountain-pen, we squeeze out the air. When the
balloon assumes its previous form due to elasticity of the rubber, a space with reduced air pressure
let the ink to flow in due to the suction.
II.3. The normal atmospheric pressure equals approximately 105 N/m2. Therefore the weight of the
air column with the basement area of 1m2 equals 105 N. Knowing the radius of the Earth globe
RE ≈ 6400km, one can find the area of Earth’s surface. By multiplying the result by 105 N/m2, we get
the weight of the whole atmosphere (approximately 5×1019N).
II.4. Does not affect.
II.6. By the expense of the potential energy of the liquid which is in the upper vessel.
II.7. The siphon will work in the first case and will not in the second case.
II.9. The air produces the pressure upon the walls of the vessel on the orbital station, because the
chaotic motion of the molecules exists as well in the zero gravity conditions. The cylinder for
keeping air under zero gravity must be as strong as on the Earth.
II.10. 2kPa.
II.11. As one lowers the pressure in a tire, the area of contact with the ground increases; consequently,
the pressure upon the ground decreases.
II.12. 1.9MPa.
II.13. The depth on which the bathyscaph rests can be found by the formula h = (p–p0)/gρ, where p0
is the atmospheric pressure, g is the acceleration of free fall, ρ is the density of the water.
II.14. The liquid will not go up. (Usually, the liquids move up under a piston under the action of
atmospheric pressure. In the case under consideration the air does not press upon the liquid.) To
make the water to flow out from the tube, one must pump in the air into the reservoir. Its pressure
will make the liquid to flow out.
II.17. Yes, he can.
II.18. The height of the mercury column in these conditions will be 6 times greater than on the
Earth and is about 456cm, because the gravity on the Moon is 6 times less. For the Trickle’s experi-
ment a tube of the length 5m would be required.
II.19. There will be not difference.
II.20. In Earth’s conditions the pressure 10.3Mpa could set into equilibrium the pressure of a nervure
column of the height 76m, but on the Venus the gravity is 1.2 times less. Therefore, the height of the
mercury column as much greater, which gives us 91m.
II.22. No, he cannot, because the mercury column makes not pressure since is imponderable; ba-
rometer-aneroid will serve well.
II.23. The reading of the liquid barometer depend on the vertical component of the airplane accel-
eration.
II.24. To avoid the collapse of the pipe under the pressure of the atmosphere.
II.25. In its penetration into the water, a bullet produces an elastic wave of compression (similar to
the hydraulic hammer) which destroys the glass.
II.26. If the air resistance were absent, the water would not flow out. Due to the resistance of air, the
water will flow more slowly than before the fall of the pail. In addition, the water will fall more
slowly than the pail does.
II.27. The answer is “yes ” if they both are merged completely.
II.28. The layer of water in the high tube produces a great pressure upon the walls of the barrel. As
a result, its material is highly stressed. If the stress exceed the limit toughness of the material of
barrel’s hoops, these will be broken.
II.29. In order for a man can breathe the difference between the pressure of the air inside and
outside the lungs must be near 0.1atm. Therefore, even at a depth close to 1 meter, a man cannot
breathe in the air from a tube over water surface, because the force acting on his thorax will be very
large (estimate the thorax area and the value of this force of pressure). However, is one fills a rubber
camera with the air and gives it to a diver, the diver will be able to breather when this camera is near
him under the water, because the pressure inside the camera will equal the pressure near the diver.
Though it is not very easy to dive with such a “balloon”. Therefore they use metallic balloons with
the compressed air. These balloons are provided with an automatic device (reductor) changing the

104
pressure of the air to flow into lungs in accordance with the depth of diving.
II.30. The weight of the automobile can be easily found by summing the pressure upon the road,
produced by each wheel. The pressure can be determined if one knows the pressure in the tires and
the are of contact between tires and a flat concrete road.. In the tires of the car “Volga”, for example,
the normal pressure is p = 170 kPa. Let us assume that the measurements show the contact area with
the road plane is near S = 280cm2, then the force of pressure is F≈ 4760N. If the load is distributed
uniformly upon all the wheels, the weight of the automobile is P = 19000N. The pressure in tires
can be measured by a manometer.
II.31. The force necessary to displace the pistons down turns to be several thousand times greater
than for displacing them up. The secret consists of the practical incompressibility of the water. In
the downward motion of the pistons, a compression of water takes place since the volume of space
between the pistons reduces. To this end, it is necessary to apply a force of some millions newtons.
In the upward motion of the pistons, the volume between then increases, above the water a satu-
rated vapor is created, whose pressure is much less than the atmospheric pressure. Therefore, in the
upward motion, a difference between the forces created by the atmospheric pressure acting upon
the upper edge of the greater piston and the lower edge of the smaller piston must be overtaken as
well as the weight of the water and the pistons with the rod. In a typical size of the device of order
some centimeters, the sum of these forces will be measured by only several thousand newtons.
II.32. The pressure at the points A and B will be same. At the point A it will be created by the
weight of the column in the left vessel. At the point B is equal to the weight of the water in the right
vessel and the reaction of the lid of this vessel. By the Pascal law, the last equals numerically the
weight of a column of the liquid with a height equal to the difference between the levels of liquid in
vessels.
II.33. The pressure upon the bottom is same in both the vessels (otherwise the liquid were not in the
equilibrium). Therefore the level of liquid in the vessel with a greater
p temperature and, respectively, with a lesser density, will be higher than
in the other vessel. Let us draw a graph of the dependence of pressure
at each of the vessels on the height (Fig. A.14). Here pa is the atmo-
p1 spheric pressure. On the height h, where the upper tube with a valve is
p2 set, the pressures in the vessels will be equal, respectively, to p1 and p2.
1 Since p1>p2, therefore in opening the valve the liquid will flow along
pa 2 the upper tube from the vessel with a greater temperature to the vessel
with a smaller temperature. But the level of the water in each of the
vessels must be unchanged, because only in this case the pressure
upon the bottom will be the same. Therefore, along the lower tube
h H connecting the vessels the liquid will flow from the vessel with smaller
temperature to the vessel with greater temperature.
F ig . A .1 4 . II.34. In both the cases the mercury will flow out along the tube of the
barometer which is placed at a greater height. In addition, the level of
mercury in the tubes will not change. The mercury will flow from the
ditch of the right barometer to the ditch of the left barometer.
II.35. The answer is “no”. Otherwise the water will not flow along the riverbed.
II.36. Two glass tubes must be connected with a long rubber tube and filled with the water. Holding
one of the tubes on a certain level, the other tube must be displaced along the perimeter with
marking a horizontal line.
II.37. In the leg ÀBC a water cork is formed which prevent the penetration of gases from sewerage
into rooms.
II.38. The petroleum foam has lesser specific weight than that of the proper petroleum. Therefore
the height of column of the foam will be greater than the column of petroleum which supports the
pressure in the oil layer. This results in a fountain of petroleum foam.
II.39. It is valid.
4m
II.40. The level of the water in both the vessels rises by the height ∆h = .
ρ( D1 + D22 )π
2

II.41. The increase of the kinetic and potential energies of the bubble tales place by the expense of
reduction of the potential energy of the water, because when the bubble buoys its place it occupied
by the water.
II.42. Yes, because, if a body floats, the buoyant force equals its weight.
II.43. The bar is floating in the water, therefore its weight equals the Archimedes’ force mg = ρwgVw,

105
where Vw is the volume of the displaced water, ρw being the density of the water. But the bar was
floating as well in the oil, therefore the weight of the bar equals the weight of the displaced oil.
Since the density of water ρw is greater than the density of oil ρo, the volume the displaced oil
exceed by a2⋅h the quantity Vw. Therefore ρwVw =ρo(Vw+a2⋅h); hence Vw=ρo⋅a2⋅h/(ρw–ρo), and from
the first equation we get m = ρw⋅ρo⋅a2⋅h/(ρw–ρo).
II.44. Both the center-of–gravity of the bar and that of the water displaced by the bar lie on the
same vertical straight line; besides, the center-of-gravity of the bar is directly up the center-of-
gravity of the displaced water. The equilibrium of the bar is stable if its floats on its greater face: the
center-of-gravity of the system bar-water occupies the lowest among the possible positions.
II.45. This position is stable because the center-of-gravity of a rod with a stone is above the center-
of-gravity of the displaced water and thus occupies the lowest position.
II.49. In the kerosene.
II.50. 1 stands for a river, 2 is the summer sea, 3 is the winter sea.
II.51. The kerosene floats up over the surface of water and continues to burn.
II.52. The reading of the dynamometer will decrease.
II.53. Will lower.
II.54. The answer is “no”.
II.55. It will not change.
II.56. If the musk-rat will pull the rope with a force F, then the force acting on the arm of the beam
of the balance, where the lever is fixed, increases by a quantity equal to this force. As for the force
applied to another arm, it equals the resultant force of the weight of glass with water and the force
Q, which by its value equals the buoyant force, acting on the musk-rat but directed oppositely. As
the musk-rat will appear from the water, the force Q will decrease. The equilibrium of the balance
will be violated and the pan with lever will go down.
II.57. In the motion of the vessel upwards with an acceleration a, the second Newton law for a
floating body will be written as follows: FArch –mg = ma, or ρw(g+a)V1 =ρ(g+a)V, where ρw is the
density of the water, ρ is the density of the substance of the floating body, V is the volume of the
body, V1 is the volume of its merged part. Hence V1 =ρV/ρw. Since in the motionless vessel
ρVg =ρwgV/n, we have ρ/ρw= 1/n. Therefore, V1 =V/n, i.e., the depth of body’s merging in the motion
of the vessel upward with the acceleration will not change. The same takes place in the motion
downward.
II.58. If the submarine lie over the bottom so that there is no water between the submarine and the
bottom, then the pressure upon the lower part of the submarine is absent. The latter means that there
is no buoyant force. Moreover, the pressure of water prevent the floating up.
II.59. The buoyant force F, acting on the body, equals F =ρVg–pS, where p = p0 + ρgh (p0 = 105Pa is
the atmospheric pressure, ρ = 103kg/m3 is the density of water). The first addend in the expression
for F is the Archimedes’ force, which would act on the body if it was not lying tightly upon the
bottom. Note that the expression for F may be both positive and negative in dependence on the ratio
between the volume of the body V and the area S of its touching the bottom, i.e., on the form of the
body. The condition for floating up is given by the inequality F >mg. Thus, ρVg–p0S–ρghS >mg,
whence
V p m
h< − 0 − = 1.5 m.
S ρ g ρS
If the level of water in the pool h is less than 1.5m, the body floats up. Consequently, the level of
water should be lowered by ∆h = h0 – h = 1.5m.
II.60. In the Fig. A.15 the value of the segments is as follows: 1 is
P the small pan with water, from the large pan the light liquid is dis-
placed, 2 the small pan stands on the bottom of the large pan and is
4 being filled with water, 3 the small pan has been filled with water,
3 water displaces out the light liquid from the large pan, 4 both the
1 2 pans are filled with water.
II.61. In cases a), c), and d) the level of the water in the glass will
not change. In the case b) the level will be lower.
t II.62. The rolling down of the ball from the cube lowers the level
of water by h1 = m/ρwS, while the sink of the ball in the water el-
F ig . A .1 5 . evates the level by h2 = m/ρmS. This results in a lowering of the
water level in the glass by the quantity

106
 m (ρ m − ρ w )
∆h = h1 − h2 = .
S ρmρw
II.63. The ball will slightly floats up with respect to the level of mercury.
II.64. No, cannot, because buoying force does not act on bodies merged in water.
II.65. The condition for floatation of this piece of ice gives us: ρiVg =ρwg(V–100), whence V ≈792,3
cm 3.
II.66. The ball made of a thin rubber will rise higher because it will increase in volume as it rises.
II.67. The buoyant force for balloons and blimps is determined by the difference between the den-
sity of the air and the density of the gas filled into a balloon. For the hydrogen this difference equals
1.293 g/cm 3– 0.09g/cm 3 = 1.203g/cm 3. For the helium it is 1.293g/cm 3– 0.18g/cm 3= 1.113g/cm3.
In other words, the buoyant force of two blimps filled one with helium and other with hydrogen will
be almost same.
II.68. No, because there is no an atmosphere on the Moon.
II.69. The buoyant force acting on a balloon decreases as the height grows in view of reduction of
air’s density. This is the reason explaining why cannot a balloon float up as high as one wants.
II.70. Inside the shell of the balloon the pressure is greater than the atmospheric pressure, which
leads to its convex form.
II.71. In this argument there is a rational idea because no buoyant force acts on the vessel. How-
ever, in practice, this way of rising cannot be realized because the weight of a strong vessel which
could resist against the ambient atmospheric pressure will be greater than the buoyant force of the
air.
II.72. The philosopher was not acquainted with the Archimedes’ law. The blown bull bladder un-
dergoes the buoyant force which equals the weight of the air in it. To weight the air, one must take
a vessel whose form does not change in pumping out the air.
II.73. Let us denote by V the volume of the cork, by V1 and V2 the volume of the part of the cork
which is above the water before and after pumping, respectively; ρ is the density of the cork. Write
the condition for the cork be floating before and after pumping: ρVg =ρw(V–V1)g+ρ0V1g and
ρVg =ρw(V–V2)g. Whence
ρ − ρ0
V2 = V1 w .
ρw
ρ0
The part of the cork above the water level lost in volume ⋅100%.
ρw
II.74. The density of oil (petroleum) is less than the density of the water, therefore the balloons with
oil not fastened to the bottom would float on water’s surface. A pump is not necessary, because the
pressure of the oil column is less than the pressure of the water upon the balloon. The oil will flow
out due to the difference between the pressures.
II.75. The gravity acting on the special costume with a man must be set equal by the Archimedes’
force.
II.76. 14m3.
II.78. The result of the experiment will be same on the Moon and on the Earth. Indeed, the stone
weights six times less than on the Earth, but the weight of displaced by the stone liquid is also six
time lesser.
II.79. The ball will not rise. There is no Archimedes’ force in the zero gravity.
II.80. No, will not.
II.81. In weighting a material whose average density equals that of the loads.
II.82. In following the Archimedes’ law, the pan with a wooden cube undergoes greater buoyant
force than on the pan with loads. Therefore, if the air is sucked out from the bell jar, the wooden
cube will lower the balance.
II.85. In the first case the equilibrium remains; in the second case the heavier eight will go down.
II.86. In the third pail the wooden bar is merged less than in both first and second, therefore it has
displaced less water. Consequently, the third pail is heavier than both first and second ones.
II.87. Since the opened end of the long vessel is merged on a depth larger than the open end of the
wide vessel, the air in the long vessel is more compressed. Therefore the long vessel displaces less
water than the short does, and by the Archimedes’ law one must apply a lesser force to merge it into
water in comparison with the force necessary for the short vessel.
II.88. The bars sink because their average density is greater than the density of water.

107
II.89. The weight of the body is 2.0N and it lost in the solution 1.5N, therefore the weight of the
solution in body’s volume is 1.5N. The body weights 1.0N in the water. Therefore its volume is
100cm3. If the capacity of the vessel is 250cm3, the volume of the solution will equal 150cm3. Since
the vessel was filled with the solution up to the middle, for the cylindrical form of the vessel the
volume of the solution must be 250/2 = 125cm3. In fact, it is 150cm3. Therefore the vessel is a
truncated cone with the area of bottom being grater than the area of the upper hole.
II.90. The balance will show an increase of the vessel’s weight. When a finger is merged, a buoyant
force starts to act on it, which grows with the depth of merging. By the third Newton law, the finger
also will act on the liquid with a force numerically equaling the buoyant force. This force is trans-
mitted onto the balance.
II.91. By the Archimedes’ law, the buoyant force is proportional to the volume of the part of a body
merged into the liquid. As for the rubber ball, the volume of the merged
R part is determined by the two factors: 1) by the downward displace-
r ment of the center-of-gravity of the ball and 2) by the compression of
the ball by forces of the hydrostatic pressure. The first of these factors
h “works” till the ball is merged partially. The influence of the second
factor grows as the ball is being merged and turns decisive tts when the
whole ball sinks in the water. As we need to find an approximate func-
tional dependence of the buoyant force on the depth h, for an elastic
F ig . A .1 6 . ball we may neglect its compression for h ≤ 2R. For h ≤ 2R, the volume
of the merged part of the ball (see Fig. A.16) is determined by the
expression V =πh2(R–h/3). Therefore, for h ≤ 2R, we get the plot of
F the dependence of the buoyant force on the depth of merging, shown
b in Fig. A.17 (the segment a). In further merging, the volume of the
a ball is determined by the compressing forces acting from the side
of the liquid. Besides, the pressure of the air in the ball is balanced
by the hydrostatic pressure on a given depth ρgh, where ρ is the
density of the water. From the equation for the state of the gas
inside the ball: ρgh⋅V = νRT (ν is the quantity of moles inside the
2R h ball), we get the volume of the ball V ∝1/h. Therefore, for h ≥ 2R,
the buoyant force decreases as the ball is merged (the segment b)
F ig . A .1 7 . in the Fig. A.17).
II.92. The pressure of the liquid in the cases a) and b) is same since
the piston is movable. The condition for the floating for the case a)
can be written as follows: p = patm+m1g/S0, for the case b) it will be p = patm+(m1+m0)g/S0–ρgh, where
m1 is the mass of the cork, m0 is the mass of the load, ρ is the water’s density, patm is the atmospheric
pressure. Hence m0 =ρS0h.
II.93. By the expense of the air resistance the motion of the tennis ball is not a free fall with accel-
eration g. But the force of resistance depends on the velocity and its action starts to be noticeable
under a certain speed of falling. One of the possible ways to solve the problem is to verify the
dependence between the initial height h of the ball and the time of falling t: h = gt2/2. The height h0,
for which the difference between evaluated and measured times will exceed a given value (for
example. 10%), will be the desired height. As we know h0, it is of interest to estimate by the formula
v=√2gh0 the velocity of the ball under which the air resistance plays an essential role.
II.94. Let S1 be the area of discharge hole, h the height of the water level in the bath. Consider a
water column of the height h and base S1, which is directly above the discharge hole. Clearly, the
time of flowing out of this column can be roughly estimated (neglecting the friction) by the formula
.t=√2h/g . If S2 is the area of the bath, the quantity of such columns is N = S2/S1, and the time of
discharging the water from the bath is
2h S2
T =t⋅N = .
g S1
Taking h = 0.3m, S2 = 1m2, S1 = 10–3m2, we get T ≈4min.
II.95. The speed of the flow slows down in the deboucher and particles earlier suspended in the
water sink over the bottom.
II.97. Due to the friction between the air and the Earth’s surface with objects over it.
II.98. The paddle-wheel will rotate clockwise.
II.99. The paddle-wheel will not rotate.

108
II.101. In the tube with a narrowing the pigment will earlier reach the end, because by the Bernoulli
law the velocity increases. The time of the motion of the pigment in tubes does not depend on the
position of a bulb or a narrow place.
II.102. Let the center of the ball have slightly moved
with respect to the jet’s axis (see Fig. A.18). Upon the
ball under a jet of the water two forces act: the pressure
Fp, which tends to expulse the ball from the jet, and the
friction force Ffr, directed along the tangent and tending
to rotate the ball. Since the ball has been partially merged
into water, the viscous friction forces Fv act on it. The
rotation of the ball gives rise to its rolling to the jet. The
greater is deviation of the ball from the axis, the less is
the horizontal component of the force Fp and greater if
the action of the friction upon the ball. Therefore the
ball will return under the water jet. Thus, the ball will
oscillate under the jet. If the jet is weak, the returning
Fv forcers will be weak, too; the oscillations will be slower
F fr and with a greater amplitude. If the amplitude will ex-
ceed the radius of the jet, the ball will jump out it.
Fp II.103. Forward.
II.104. The stability of a rocket in its flight is ensured by
F ig . A .1 8 . tail stabilizers. If the axis of the rocket starts to deviate
from the direction of the velocity, the force acting on the
stabilizer return the rocket axis to the least resistance
position. Clearly, if a rocket will be launched with its tail forward, the same forces will return it into
a normal position. The speed of a rocket with respect to the air depends (it is the sum of the speed
of airplane motion and the velocity of the rocket with respect to the airplane) at the initial moment
is directed to the same side as the velocity of the airplane, i.e., the rocket moves with its tali for-
ward. Stabilizers return it into “normal position”.
II.106. It is better to move from A to B near the shore, and return near the middle of the river.
II.107. Due to the greater speed of the water in the middle of the river with respect to the speed of
water near its shores. Within the high water, the water arrives from high part of the river in quanti-
ties larger along the middle current than along the shores. Namely this explain the convexity. In low
waters, the water passes in the middle current faster than near shores. Its surface turns concave.
II.108. Swirls are formed behind the automobile. The cause of their rising is the toungn tts between
the air layers moving with sharply different velocities.
II.110. Because the formation of swirls in the motion of a train leads to an increase of the necessary
tracking force and thus increase the expense of fuel.
II.111. The expense of a viscous liquid (gas) decreases.
II.112. First, upon the interior walls of pipes the water is condensed and frozen (see the previous
problem); second, the diameter of pipes reduces due to lower temperature.
II.113. From the law of the continuity of a flow of water is follows that through a lesser section of
the flow the same quantity of water must follow in a unit of time, therefore a partially closed hole of
a crane is passed by the water with a higher velocity.
II.114. The viscosity of oil decreases in heating.
II.115. It will be easier to put into rotation the bottle with water since, in this case, there will rotate
the proper bottle and a thin layer of the water near its walls. The rising friction is small in the water
since the viscosity of water is also small.
II.116. It is possible. To this end the egg must be pout upon a table and turned to rotates a consequence
of the action of forces of viscous friction, the fresh egg will stop earlier that the cooked one.
II.117. The gravity produces a work to overtake the forces of interior friction and those of the
friction with the bottom. The potential energy of the water in its passing from an upper level to a
lower level is completely spent to make this work.
II.118. Under attainment of a certain vertical velocity, the fall of drops becomes uniform.
II.119. Behind the first runner the pressure of the air is lesser than in front of him, because here the
front resistance force is not present. For the second runner the pressure of air in front of him and
behind him are almost the same.
II.120. The force of front resistance decreases.

109
II.121. In this order the resistance of the air for each bird is the least. In the waving of the wings of
the leader, a wave of air is formed. If the waving produced by other birds are well-coordinated, a
force supporting the next bird and making its flight easier arises. Observations made on the flights
of a flock of cranes shows that the ends of their wings are lying at a sinusoid.
II.122. The resistance is different of the frontal and rare sides of a half-sphere. This leads to a
revolution of the wings of the device.
II.123. To reduce the property of being streamlined.
II.124. Through the hole a jet of the air compressed by the parachute flows out. Without such a
hole, the parachute turn less stable, auto-oscillation may arise in descent of a man
II.125. The inclination reduces the air resistance and thus a jump can be more far. On the other
hand, at the moment of landing the body of ski-jumper is in a more stable position.
II.126. The water drops from clouds in their fall do undergo a great resistance, which explain why
do clouds lower so slowly. This can be explained by the fact that the area of a drop is large with
respect to its volume, so the force of resistance is close to the gravity acting on the drop. Therefore
the upward air flows may “hoist” small drops of water.
II.127. Let us select a small volume ∆m of a liquid near its surface. From the neighboring layers of
the liquid this volume obtains action of forces perpendicular to its surface (since the liquid moves
and something integer). If we take this volume as a part of a thin layer, the forces acting on its lateral
faces will be very small and the resulting force of the reaction N of the lower layers will be normal
to the surface of the selected volume. In addition to the force N, the gravity ∆m⋅g will act on the
volume. These two forces must give to the selected volume an acceleration which equal the accel-
eration with which a vessel moves along an inclined plane, which is g×sina. Thus, the resultant of
the forces N and ∆m⋅g must equal ∆m⋅g⋅sinα and be directed along the inclined plane. Therefore, N
is perpendicular to the inclined plane, and the surface of the liquid is parallel to it.
II.128. Within the vaporization of a drop, its radius r decreases. In addition, the air resistance,
which is proportional to r2, reduces more slowly than the gravity does (which is proportional to r3,
their ratio, which is inversely proportional to r, grows as the radius decreases.) Therefore the veloc-
ity of a drop decreases as the drop is falling.
II.131. The parts of the stone has a very large surface with respect to their weight and thus meet a
greater resistance of the air, which explain why do they fall more slowly.
II.132. In a very rarified atmosphere of Mars the velocity of the fall of drops could attain hundred
meters per second (on the Earth, it is near 10–12m/s). At this speed the drops were possessing a
significant kinetic energy and could easily destroy an umbrella made of a tissue. But there is a very
small quantity of water in the atmosphere of the Mars, and string rains are hardly possible.
II.133. In a flow of a liquid the pressure decreases with an increase of the velocity of the flow. The
velocity of the flow of the water in the vessel is certainly less than the velocity of the flow in the
tube. Consequently, the pressure of water in the vessel is greater than the pressure of water in the
tube Therefore the ball placed on a grid will be pressed to this grid and will not float up.
II.134. The tea has the greatest velocity at its surface and near the center since here it has no friction
with walls and bottom of the vessel. In view of a difference between the velocity of the motion of
tea near the surface and the bottom, a gap of pressures arises generating two flows: the central flow
from the bottom to the surface of the glass, and the bottom flow which moves from the walls to the
center. These flows overtake the centrifugal force and join the tea at the center of the glass.
II.135. The presence of a paddle-wheel makes it impossible to make the parts of vessel completely
hermetic. The pressure will gradually equalize and the machine will stop when the difference be-
tween the pressures in lower and upper parts will be insufficient for hoisting the water to the upper
part.
II.136. If the storm wind has a great velocity, the difference between the pressures above the roof
and below the roof will attain large values, which destroys the roof.
II.137. These small windows make possible top balance the difference of the pressures (see the
previous problem).
II.138. The swirls which are formed when the wind flows around dunes, create zones of a lower
pressure. The result is that the sand particles are involved into this domain by an over-pressure from
the flowing wind. Due to the smallness of the pressure from the windward side of dunes, the gerbils
cannot fly on air jets and fall. The same mechanism tales place for sand banks.
II.141. The experiment can be explained by the Bernoulli tts law: with an increase of the velocity in
a jet of air the pressure there decreases.
II.142. A motor boat which does not move is merged into water to balance its weight and the
weight of the displaced water. When it moves fast, a buoyant force arises conditioned by the grow

110
of the dynamical pressure of water ρwaterv2/2 (of courser, the dynamical; pressure of air also grows,
but it is small with respect to the dynamical pressure of the water since the water is more dense).
This dynamical pressure balances the most weight of the motor boat and it almost “flies” slipping
over water surface.
II.143. Due to the large area of the wings (airfoil). For instance, if the wings have area 50m2, we
hoisting force is 50m2×103N/m2 = 5×104N.
II.144. As the angle of inclination with respect to the horizon grows (the angle of attack), the lifting
force grows by expense of the growing difference between the speeds of the air flows over and
under a wing. After attaining a maximum value at a certain angle, the lifting force will decrease (a
smooth flowing of an airfoil is destroyed by appearing swirls which come off from a wing and thus
increase the resistance). The frontal resistance permanently increases with the increase of the angle
of attack.
II.145. The lifting force of an airfoil decreases with growing altitude due to reduction of the air
density. Each airplane has a certain altitude, above which neither the construction of wings and
structure, nor the engines’ power might ensure a lifting force equaling the weight of the airplane.
Airplane cannot fly higher than this “ceiling”.
II.146. The density of the atmosphere decreases with altitude. Therefore the higher is the flight the
less resistance of air must be overtaken and greater speed an be attained.
II.147. The wings (airfoils) made on automobiles are designed to press the automobile to the road
at high speeds in order to increase the stability of the automobile.
II.148. The wing of an airplane is motionless with respect to its fuselage and the lifting force is
created by the flowing air flowing around the airfoil. The wing of a bird obtains the lifting force by
expense of its motion: masses of air are thrown downward by the wing and the bird rises up.
II.149. A motion of air around the kite arises. In this situation, the force of the pressure of the air
can be decomposed into the resistance force and the lifting force.
II.150. The lifting force grows with the speed of airplane with respect to the air.
II.151. Against the gravity and the friction of the air.
II.152. By rotation of the ball. The flying ball involves into motion the layers of air around it. If the
ball is rotating, the side where the linear speed of the points of the ball’s surface with resect to the
center-of-gravity coincides by its direction with the direction of the ball, an additional pressure
arises. The matter is that at this side of the ball the speed of the air flow is minimal with respect to
the ball, because the coming air flow faces the flow involved by the ball rotation. The arising of an
exceeding pressure is called the Magnus effect.

111
 Answers to Chapter III
III.2. In spite of the huge speed of the molecules, the diffusion is slow. This can be explained by a great
quantity of collisions of molecules in their motion. An average free run of the molecules of the nitrogen, for
example, is only 6⋅10-8m.
III.4. By the strokes of the hammer, the smith draw close to each other two pieces of iron so that they join
die to the forces of molecular attraction.
III.5. By a gradual diffusion between two well-polished in their join pieces of metal.
III.6. Formation of the carbide of iron is certainly a chemical process. However, for it could take place
even at a small depth, the diffusion of the atoms of carbon into the iron has to take place.
III.7. With an increase of temperature both the velocity of diffusion and the solubility of the sugar in the
water grow (the heat of dissolving of sugar in water is negative).
III.8. To draw close plates with large surface, a small difference between the pressures from outer and
interior sides suffices. This difference though creates a sensitive force drawing the plates to each other. The
presence of this force results in gradual displacement of the air between the plates. The latter makes to
increase the difference between pressures and this results in growing of the attracting force. This force
may attract plates so that between the molecules of touching surfaces a strong interaction appears.
III.11. The essence of gluing is in the creation of connections between the molecules of the objects and
gluing substance; the glue displaces the air from the interval between the objects to be glued and involves
these molecules into the domain of the action of glue’s molecules.
III.12. Inter-molecular forces work on small distances. Therefore the quality of the gluing depends on
how great is the surface of a close contact between the glued objects. For solid bodies it is more difficult
because they contact only in some parts ort points of their surfaces. Hence one can derive the value of
pressing force in the gluing.
III.13. The molecular hitch between the stucco and water is less than between the stucco and break.
III.14. Modern physics explained the Maxwell paradox. To distinguish the molecules approximating the
door, the robot must see them or have another information. The transfer of any signal requires additional
energy, say one quantum (there is a lesser energy). A modern robot is a complex cybernetic device. It
works by all the rules of modern science: put light on molecules and receives answers as a reflected light.
Exact calculations that even most sensitive robot which may distinguish a molecule by a single reflected
quantum will spent more energy to know the information about molecule’s motion than a power station
produces using the difference of temperatures created by the robot. We do not take into account other
expenditures (for instance, the energy to open and close the doors). So, even the expenditures for a robot
cannot be covered by a useful production. Therefore, this device will not work as necessary.
III.15. In one cubic meter of air 1.6⋅1017 molecules are present. A man sucks in one breathe near a liter of
the air. Therefore ~1014 molecules of the smeller pass through the nose of the man. Let us note that the
sensitivity of men to some molecules is so great that they can feel the response of even several molecules
in the air.
III.17. A permanent and order-free motion of water molecules which bomb the particles of flower pollen
supports them is a suspension. The distribution of these particles in water is not uniform, more particles in
lower layers and less particles in lower layers.
III.18. The most cause for suspended particles not to fall as a sediment is their heat (Brown) motion. If the
volume of a particle decreases, so does its mass. For a very tiny particles their weight becomes
commensurable with the force of non-balanced pressure which is determined by the change of the summary
impulse of the molecules “bombing” a particle in view of its heat motion. Within a size lesser than 0.1 µm
the particles are in rather balanced suspended state.
III.21. Since the stability of a suspension is conditioned by heat motion of molecules, to settle faster a
suspension, one must reduce the motion. In a cooled milk the cream settles faster.
III.22. The vessel will not heat because in some collisions with walls the molecules transfer their kinetic
energy to the walls and become “cooler”, while in other collisions with hotter walls they get a part of energy
from those walls. The process results in the thermodynamic equilibrium.
III.23. The mercury ball possesses the lesser thermal capacity and the greater thermal conduction that
that of water.
III.24. A greater thermal conduction and lesser heat capacity of the mercury with respect to the ether or
alcohol reduces the time for measuring the temperature.
III.25. The alcohol one, because the coefficient of volume thermal expansion is greater for the alcohol
than for the mercury.
III.26. Mainly due to the anomaly of water expansion. The same readings of the scale were corresponding
to different temperatures. The lowest point of the scale were the temperature +4 °C, because in freezing

112
the water expands. In addition, the water thermometer were possessing a small range of the temperatures
to measure: the point of boiling of the water is rather low, while the point of freezing is rather high. Finally,
the specific heat is great while the thermal conduction is relatively small. This results in a greater time of
measurement, and in the case is the heat capacity of the object to be measured is about or less than that of
a thermometer, the result of the measurement can carry errors due to the change of temperature within the
measurement.
III.27. This is not possible since the temperature of the drop will be strongly changed.
III.28. In measuring the temperature the thermometer must be heated from the room’s temperature to the
temperature of a body, i.e., 15–17 oC. One can “shake” the ther-
T, o C mometer when its temperature is lowered by 2–3 oC, because
the scale of the thermometer starts at 34 oC. We should also note
37 that in heating or cooling of bodies the speed of the change of
34 H e a tin g temperatures is proportional to the difference of the temperatures
of the body and the ambient. Therefore the dependence of the
C o o lin g temperature of the thermometer (do not mix with the readings of
the thermometer!) on the time has the form shown in Fig. A.19.
This leads to the fact that the time in which the thermometer is
t0 t1 t cooled to a temperature when at one may shake it, is much lesser
than the time of measuring the temperature.
III.29. The answer is “no”. The energy of the body does not
F ig . A .1 9 . depend on its position in exterior fields.
III.30. The decrease of the potential energy of the stone mg(H+h)
is equivalent to the increase of the potential energy of the water by the quantity ρwaterVgh and the emission
of the heat Q = mg(H+h)–ρwaterVgh.
III.31. The work of gases is made by the expense of the decrease of their interior energy. In addition, the
gases are cooled due to heat exchange in the muffler.
III.32. The heat capacity of the body is greater than its mass.
III.33. The use of the water is economically advantageous: possessing large specific heat capacity, the
water is present almost everywhere and makers no chemical harm to man’s health.
III.34. There are two reasons: 1) greater heat capacity of the water leads to a slow water heating; 2) the
cooling of the water goes due to the vaporization from its surface.
III.35. By the greater heat capacity of the water.
III.36. By removing the flame from candle’s filament, the jet of the cool air lowers the temperature of the
vapors of the paraffin below a value at which the paraffin may join with the oxygen of the air.
III.38. The sand possesses small heat capacity and thus is quickly heated and quickly cooled.
III.39. The temperature changes which occur in the calorimeter will be more noticeable due to the lesser
heat capacity of the kerosene.
III.40. The thermal energy emitted in the explosion goes mainly to the work against the forces of the
hydrostatic pressure and is a much lesser degree to the formation of vapor in the bubble (within the time of
explosion a great volume of water has no time to be heated and evaporated by virtue of large heat capacity
and large heat of vaporization): Q = p(Vfinal–Vinit) ≈ pVfinal (p = ρgh is the hydrostatic pressure at the depth
h, ρ is the density of the water). Hence it follows that
3mλ
mλ ≈ ρ gh ⋅ 4π r 3 / 3 and r ≈ 3 ≈ 0.5 m.
4πρ gh
III.41. In the braking, the mechanical (kinetic) energy of the airplane transforms through the friction into
the interior energy of the brake shoes. The brake shoes with a low temperature of inflammation and small
specific thermal condition may quickly tts inflame.
III.42. The kinetic energy of a molecule of the air with respect to the spacecraft is large first of all due to
its large speed. Within in collisions of molecules with the sheeting of the spacecraft, a part of their energy is
transferred to the sheeting. This result in overheating of the sheeting up to melting and vaporization of the
sheeting materials.
III.43. The answer is “no”. The sheeting of the spacecraft is strongly heated by the friction between it and
the air in penetration into dense layers of the atmosphere is spite of their low temperature. As for the
altitude 150–200km, the density of the atmosphere is there 109 times lesser than on the sea level. Under so
small density, the heat capacity is so small that it is not dangerous for the spacecraft.
III.44. One cannot heat the large mass of a steam with a very small mass of these gases even by expense
of their heating to a high temperature. So, the steam cannot be heated to the temperature of melting. Take
into accept also the heat necessary to overpass the melting process. In addition, the steam is permanently

113
cooled by the ambient air.
III.45. To heat the ball standing on a support one must use more energy because within the heating the
center-of-mass of the ball will go up and this requires an additional heat energy to increase the potential
energy of the ball. As for the ball which is hung, its center-of-mass lowers.
III.46. In the calorimeter one must use a liquid with a lesser heat capacity, for example, the kerosene.
III.47. In heating the gas under a constant pressure, it expands. If the cylinder is in the position 2, the gas
in its expansion makes a work spent to the hoisting of the piston, i.e., to the increase of its potential energy
and the potential energy of the proper gas. Take into account that expanded volume will have a higher
center-of-mass. This work is made by expense of the heat drawn to the gas. But if the cylinder is in the
position 1, the piston goes down. The work spent to reduction of the potential energy of the gas and
potential energy of the piston is done by the gravity. Thus, from the law of the conservation of energy it
follows that, in this case, top heat the gas up to the temperature T one needs less heat than in the case
considered above.
III.48. Yes, it can. If the work produced by the gas exceeds the heat draw to the gas, the gas will be
cooled and thus its heat capacity will be negative. Let us write out the
p definition of the heat capacity and use the first principle of the thermo-
dynamics:
A d ia b at ∆Q ∆U + p ∆V
C= = ,
∆T ∆T
2 where ∆Q is heat drawn to the gas, ∆T is the corresponding change of
the temperature of the gas, ∆U is the change if the interior energy of
1 an ideal gas (∆U = CV∆T, CV is the heat capacity at a constant vol-
ume), ∆V is the change of the volume of gas, p is the pressure which is
V related to the temperature and the volume via the equation p = νRT/V
F ig . A .2 0 . (ν is the quantity of the moles). In order to have C<0, the following
inequality is necessarily required , i.e., with ∆T >0 one must have
∆V < 0. Consider on the plane (p,V) the two isoterms corresponding
to the temperatures T and T+∆T (∆T >0) (see in Fig. A.20). Any adiabatic curve on the plane (p,V) meets
two isotherms. Consider the sates 1 and 2. In the transition from the state 1 to the state 2, the temperature
grows by ∆T, and the volume lowers (∆V<0). But, in an adiabatic process we have ∆Q = 0 and thus C= 0.
Therefore the process with a negative heat capacity will be shown on the plane (p,V) by a line which is
more slanting than the adiabatic curve, but more steep than the isotherm.
III.49. At the beginning the temperature in the room will decrease: the frozen food in the refrigerator will
go to a thermal equilibrium with the ambient. Then the refrigerator, tending to return a low temperature, will
start to work intensively. In this situation, the heat drawn from the food will be transferred to the air in the
room. In addition, the efficiency of a refrigerator is less that 1, the energy spent for cooling the food is
greater than the quantity of heat drawn from the food. A part of this exceeding energy is transferred into
heat (friction, Joule heat, etc.). This leads to the situation, in which the temperature in the room will grow
and thus will exceed the temperature which took place before we opened the door of the refrigerator.
III.50. The gun-powder cannot be use as a fuel in view of: a) large speed of its combustion; b) small
specific heat of combustion. The gasoline cannot replace the gun-powder in view of its combustion being
carried out due to the oxygen in the air, which is not present in sufficient quantities in a steam of a gun. As
for the gun-powder, it contains the oxygen as a component and thus does not need the air in its combustion.
III.51. The speed of cooling is proportional to the difference between the temperatures of the heated
body and the ambient air. Therefore, one should cool the coffee by adding the milk to slow the posterior
cooling.
III.52. Let cp be the specific heat of the substance of the pot, t1 being the temperature to which the pot will
be heated when the mass of water mw at the temperature of boiling tb will be added. Using the equation of
heat equilibrium, we find t1 = (x⋅tb+t)/(x+1), where x = mwcw/mpcp. Obviously, as greater is x, so greater is
t1. Therefore, if an external cooling is not present, the copper pot is more advantageous for preparing a tea
(carry our the numerical evaluations by applying the necessary data). In a preliminary heating by a boiling
water, the pot takes a heat and the water poured for tea becomes hotter. The previously warmed up
porcelain teapot has a greater heat capacity and lesser thermal conduction than a copper one, therefore it
is better than that of the copper.
III.53. At the same temperature the walls of glasses possess different thermal conduction. The thermal
conduction of the aluminum is essentially greater than of that made of glass.
III.54. When we touch the mug by lips, we thus cool a part of the mug, a greater quantity of the heat is
transferred to lips through the aluminum mug than through that made of porcelain (the thermal conduction
of the aluminum is greater than that of the porcelain.)

114
III.55. When we touch wooden things possessing poor thermal conduction, only a small part of a thing is
heated under our fingers. The metals possess a good thermal conduction, therefore in touching metallic
things we should heat a larger part of them. This leads to a greater evacuation of heat from our fingers.
III.56. The quantity of heat transferred to the bar which is in the flame is proportional to its lateral surface
area. The heat evacuation along the bar is proportional to the cross-cut section of the bar. The ratio of
these quantities is proportional to the radius of the bar. Therefore the thermal equilibrium of a nail takes
place at a significantly less temperature that that for a thin wire.
III.57. The heat capacity of the cast iron frying pan is than that of an aluminum frying pan of the same size,
and thermal conduction of the cast iron is less than of the aluminum. This ensures a more uniform distribu-
tion of the temperature over the frying pan..
III.58. The heat runs away the surface of the filament. Since a draw of heat to the surface of the filament
also takes place and the temperature inside it is greater.
III.59. An isolated wire is less heated since its “dress” (the oscillation) possess greater thermal conduction
than the air.
III.60. A solid cylinder will seem to be cooler.
III.61. First, then drops hit a hot frying-pan, they hiss and quickly evaporate. As the pan turns hotter, the
process turns becomes quicker, but till a certain limit. There is a moment, when the drops fallen upon the
pan are not evaporated but roll in the form of balls (as the ball if mercury). It is explained as follows. The
drops touching the pan’s surface start to being vaporized very quickly. The vapor under them supports
them and they seem to “fly” over the heated pan as upon an “air pillow”. The layer of vapor which supports
them simultaneously isolates the drops from the pan, which results in their long dance over pan’s surface.
III.62. The thermal conduction of stones is greater than that of the water. Therefore the heat is easily
transferred along the stones from lower stones to the upper ones. Therefore the ice here is thicker.
III.63. Into the ice, because the presence of the air in the snow reduces its thermal conduction and
decreases its heat capacity with respect to the ice.
III.64. A layer of scum on the walls of an old teapot decreases its thermal conduction and increases its
heat capacity.
III.65. As a consequence of evaporation, the temperature of a humid plank is lower than that of a dry
plank. In addition, the heat runaway from the surface of a hand in its contact with a humid wood is greater
in view of greater heat conduction of the water.
III.67. The thermal conduction and the heat capacity of the water is essentially greater than those of the
air.
III.68. To these objective they widely apply porous breaks, foam materials, mineral wadding, other thermo-
isolating materials possessing a small heat conduction.
III.69. Greater is the density of a polyfoam, greater is its thermal conduction. A polyfoam with low
density has much pores filled with the gases, therefore it has a lesser thermal conduction.
III.70. When a “goose-flesh”, the heirs on the skin try to occupy a vertical position thus preventing a free
motion of air layers above the skin. This created an “air-coat” around the body helping to conserve the
heat emitted by the body. Seemingly, the same process takes place for cats. They usually are more feath-
ery when walk on a cold winter air.
III.71. One must take into account the action of two factors: the evaporation of the moisture from the skin
surface and the heat convection between the skin and the air flow.
III.72. The wind’s velocity is small with respect to the velocity of chaotic motion of the molecules. There-
fore the cooling of the nose by expense eof the heat transfer is essentially above the friction between the
nose and the air.
III.73. The copper possesses a greater thermal conduction, therefore when a copper end of a solder
cools after meting the tin, it quicker restores its temperature.
III.74. In frosts the birds are ruffling their feathers and thus create an air shirt Aaron their bodies. In the
flight the air around a bird always changes taking away the heat. These losses can be so huge that the bird
frozen tts.
III.75. A metal has a greater thermal conduction and a smaller specific thermal capacity, which results in
a quick balance of temperatures inside a calorimeter and small expenditures for its heating. In addition, the
heat emission of a metal is significantly less than that of a glass, which reduces the heat losses.
III.76. No, it does not. Because the rate of cooling of the balls depends not only on their thermal conduction,
but also on their heat capacity. The specific heat capacity of the lead (130 J/kg) is lesser than for most
metals. As for the thermal conduction of the lead, it is lesser that of many metals.
III.77. Of course.
III.78. No, a fur coat has a poor thermal conduction and thus only keeps the heat of a human body.
III.80. The air contacting with a soil not covered by snow is always in a motion and is being mixed. This

115
moving air removes the heat of soil and increases the evaporation of the moisture As for the air which is
inside the particles of snow, it is rather motionless and prevents the soil against being frozen solid since it
is a poor conductor of heat.
III.81. The quantity of the heat emitted to the ambient in the unit of time is proportional to the difference
between the temperatures of the body and the ambient. Therefore to heat the water in the second case it
is require much time because the greater quantity of heat will pass to the ambient (air).
III.82. By the that of power 1kWt since in this case the water is heated more rapidly and thus less heat
will be given to air ambient.
III.83. The heat is proportional to the difference between the temperatures. Let us introduce the notation::
Ts1, Ts2 and Tr1, Tr2 are the temperatures on the street and in the room for the first and second cases. The
heat given by the battery in the unit of time equals k1(T–Tr), where k1 is a certain factor and T is the
temperature of the battery. The heat given out from the room to street in the unit of time is k2(Tr–Ts), where
k2 is another factor. The equations of heat balance for the two cases are: k1(T–Tr1) = k2(Tr1–Ts1),
k1(T–Tr2) = k2(Tr2–Ts2). By dividing one equation by other, we find (T–Tr1)/(T–Tr2) = (Tr1–Ts1)/(Tr2–Ts2),
whence it follows T = (Tr2Ts1-Tr1Ts2)/(Tr2+Ts1–Ts2–Tr1) = 60 oC.
III.84. Even in most calm weather some vertical convection flows of the air over ground exist. The leaves
of aspen have thin and long hafts and thus are sensitive to a very small displacements of the air.
III.85. The basic cause is in weakening of air convection flows at night with respect to the day-time.
III.86. Convection flows guarantee a higher temperature about the surface of a liquid. Since in the disso-
lution of sugar and salt an energy is absorbed, the dissolution of these substances is faster at a higher
temperature.
III.87. For mixing the air and creation of a uniform temperature.
III.88. In the fall of the glass pan with candle the latter goes out. It is explained by interruption of convection
as a result of zero gravity. Hence it is clear that, in particular, for mixing the air in a spacecraft it is necessary
to provide a special ventilation.
III.89. The gases created in the burning and vapors expand due to heating and become less dense. There-
fore their leave their place and are replaced upwards by the clean air.
III.90. The ice-cream melts because it absorbs the heat from ambient. As the air near the ice-cream turns
cooler, it goes down and becomes replaced with a more warm air. Quicker is this exchange, faster will melt
the ice-cream. The fan makes the melting even faster.
III.91. In any room, there are always invisible air flows generated by heating and cooling of the air. Having
been heated, the air expands and its density decreases. The cooled air have thus greater density. The cool
air goes down from the window to the floor, then it is heated again and thus “travels” over the space of the
room. Namely this motion is felt by us when we stand near a window.
III.92. To avoid the losses of energy by the convection of air between the walls.
III.93. The flows of convection hoist tiny particles of dust which then form sediments on a lamp-shadow
or over a ceiling.
III.94. In the increase of the velocity of circulation, more heat is drawn away from the sources of heating
and thus less losses take place.
III.95. In compressing a string, the air flows out the ball and doe snot reserve the energy necessary for
going up
III.96. As the pressure grows and the temperature decreases, the air dissolves better in water. When the
water flows out from a tap, a part of the air solved in the water goes out as a huge quantity of air bubbles.
Due to multiple reflections in water, it turns like a milk. After a certain time, by the Archimedes’ force
action these bubbles leave water and it turns transparent again.
III.97. The buoyant force is proportional to the volume of the bubble. When a bubble floats up, its volume
grows and the buoyant force also grows.
III.98. The volume of the ball can be determined by the volume of the displaced liquid. The ball displaces
slightly greater amount of hot water because its volume grows due to heating and thus expansion of the air.
III.99. The interior pressure of gases of a deep-water fish is greater than the atmospheric pressure. Therefore,
in the air, fish’s bubble expands and blows up the fish’s body.
III.100. The Boyle-Mariotte law is valid for a constant quantity of an ideal gas. In one’s blowing his
cheeks, the quantity of the air grows and thus the Boyle-Mariotte law is not fulfilled.
III.101. The pressure of the air which is contained in the pores of a wood grows in heating. The fibers of
the wood blow up and we hear a crackle and the particles of hot charcoal jumps over a log.
III.102. In a valley, because a greater amount of cold air is accumulated there due to its greater density.
III.103. The smoke pipes are built high to increase their pulling force: at the bottom end of the pipe the
pressure is greater than at the upper end. This exceeding pressure grows as grow the temperature of a gas.
Therefore the break pipes are better than the iron ones, because the heated gas emits tts less heat to the

116
ambient air through a break wall.
III.104. When the heated air is cooled in the glass its pressure upon the walls and bottom decreases. This
sucks the water into the interior of the glass.
III.106. When the gun-powder explodes namely in the thicker part of a steam, it produces giant pressure
in rather small room. Namely to prevent an explosion the walls are thicker in the part where the beginning
of the explosion takes place.
III.107. Mainly to for ignition of the fuel by a heat emitted under strong adiabatic compression.
III.108. It varies. It is less in summer. Clearly, it follows from Clapeyron-Mendeleev’s law (ν= pV/RT).
III.109. To avoid the exceeding by nitrogen of the atmospheric pressure in heating of incandescent fila-
ment of the lamp.
III.110. The pressure will grow, because the temperature of the air, which has been lowered in practically
adiabatic (due to high speed) expansion, will go up until an equilibrium with the temperature of the ambient
air. By the value of this pressure and by the pressure before the air was liberated, one can evaluate the
power of adiabatic curve and the heat capacity of the ideal gas under a constant volume and pressure (the
Clement-Desormes method).
III.112. The Earth’s troposphere obtains a heat energy in the exchange with the Earth’s surface, which is
heated by expense of the strong absorption of the solar radiation. In its way upwards, the air cools due to
expansion. Finally, in the troposphere, the lower layers have, as a rule, a higher temperature with respect
to the upper layers. Which leads to a convection.
III.113. Expands.
III.114. A humid air is a mixture of a dry air and a water vapor. The water vapor is lighter than the
atmospheric air. Therefore a liter of dry air weights more than a liter of a humid air under other condition
being equal.
III.115. Considering the expansion, one can neglect the pressure of saturated vapors in the pail, because
at temperatures near the temperature in a room this pressure is almost
50 times lesser than the atmospheric pressure. The pressure of the air
under a pail is determined by the weight of the load and remain un-
∆h changed. Therefore in a decrease of the temperature, the volume of the
h air also decreases. Since the value of the atmospheric pressure does not
change, the difference of the levels of the water in the lake and inside the
pail does not change. This means that the pail will slight sink deeper into
water.
III.116. The pressure inside the glass p is same for both the tempera-
tures ands is determined via the condition for the equilibrium of the glass
mg = (p–p0)S. Under the initial temperature the pressure in the glass
F ig . A .2 1 . equals that of the air. After heating up to 100°C the pressure of the
saturating water vapor in the glass becomes equal to the turns atmo-
spheric pressure p0. By the same quantity the pressure must decrease by expense of its expansion. To the
air in the glass we can apply the equation of the state of gas: pV1/T1 = (p–p0)V2/T2. Since p = p0+ρgh (see
Fig. A.21), V1 = Sh, V2 = S(h+∆h), we get
( p0 + ρ gh ) hS = ρ gh (h + ∆h ) S .
T1 T2
Taking into account that mg =ρghS, we have
m ρ g  m + ∆h 
p0 + g  ρS 
S =  .
T1 T2
Hence
1  mg  T2 mg 
∆h =  p0 +  − .
ρ g  S  T1 S 
III.117. On the segment AB the volume of the gas increases, it does not change on BC. To understand
this, draw isochors in the plane p,T.
III.118. The process which takes place in the system may be divided into two stages. First takes place in
the turn of the vessel. The state of the gas here does not change (the vessel is thermally isolated and the
walls are motionless). The second stage takes place after deliberation of the piston. In this situation, since
the weight of the piston now is compensated by both the gas’s pressure and the reaction from the walls of
vessel, the gas expands. Since the vessel is isolated against heat transfer and has firm walls, the energy

117
conservation law takes place. Denote by ν the quantity of moles of the gas, m is the mass of the piston, T1,
V1 and T2, V2 are the initial (their value does not change after rotation of the vessel) and final temperatures
and volumes of the gas, respectively, S stands for the area of the piston. Write out the law of conservation
of energy for the process of adiabatic expansion of the gas
3 3 V −V
ν RT2 − ν RT1 = mg 1 2 cos α
2 2 S
For the initial and final state of the gas we have from the Clapeyron–Mendeleev equation V1mg/S = νRT1
and V2mg⋅cosα/S =νRT2, whence
V2 3 + 2 cos α
= = 1, 6.
V1 5 cos α
III.119. The ball will float up if the buoyant force is greater than the weight of the sheet and the hot air
inside the shell: FArch >(m+m1)g, where m is the mass of the shell, m1 is the mass of the hot air. The buoyant
force equals the weight of the displaced cold air FArch = m2g (m2 is the mass of the displaced air). Then the
condition for ball’s taking off is m2>m+m1. Considering the air as an ideal gas, we have m2 = MpV/RT,
m1 = MpV/RT1, where Ò is the temperature of the cold air, T1 is the temperature of the hot air. From the
condition of taking off we have
mRT 2
T1 − T = ≈ 5 K (!).
MpV − mRT
III.120. Yes, it is possible. One may turn this substance into gas state and determine the density of the gas
obtained. . Using the density of a known gas, which is under the same conditions, one can determine the
molecular mass of the unknown substance: the ratio of the molecular masses of these gases equals the ratio
of their densities.
III.121. This is explained by a small and insignificant expansion of the liquid in the hydraulic press when
the pressure is taken off. But if an explosion of a water boiler occurs and vapor quickly runs off out the
boiler, the pressure over the liquid surface sharply decreases and the almost all volume of water turns
immediately into a vapor. The latter in its expansion produces huge destruction.
III.122. The molecular pressure in the liquids is not a pressure in the ordinary sense. This is the effect of
the mutual attraction between molecules, which makes them to draw closer to each other as if somebody
compressed the liquid from exterior space. We cannot directly measure the molecular pressure. By merging
a manometer into a liquid we only read the hydrostatic pressure. The attraction forces acting on the
molecules of the surface layer of the liquid are directed inside the liquid and thus they do not affect an
object which is in the liquid. Practical incompressibility of liquids testifies that this pressure is great by its
value.
III.123. On the value of the sagging two factor are acting: the surface tension and the weight of the water
suck by the rope. If the moistening is not strong, the force of the surface tension overtake and the sagging
is less. The stronger is moistened a rope, the greater is its sag-
ging.
III.126. As a consequence of the surface tension, the melted
end of the tube takes a round form which gives the least sur-
face.
a III.127. Between the molecules of the water attracting forces
are acting. Large force of wind is required to overcome these
forces. As for the particles of the sand, these are easily hoisted
by the air since there are practically no forces of mutual attrac-
tion. However, if the sand is moistened with water, the wind
cannot so easily hoist them, the surface tension starts to work.
b III.128. First, to reduce the temperature of the air by expense
of the absorption of hidden heat of vaporizing. Second, to
p2 p2 p2 reduce the dust in the air (see the answer to the previous prob-
A B lem).
p3 p1 p4 III.129. The mercury does not moisten the glass, therefore it
cannot to flow under the glass plate.
III.130. The paper sinks in view of the water which penetrates
c into its pores and displaces the air. A small needle which is not
moistened by water does not sink due to surface tension.
III.131. Consider the interaction between the match ends not
F ig . A .2 2 . covered by paraffin. In this case the surface of the water takes
the form shown in Fig. A.22a. The pressure in the part of the

118
liquid which goes up becomes lesser than that of the atmosphere. The latter tends to draw the ends of
matches closer to each other. When the end of moth matches are covered by paraffin, the surface of water
takes the form shown in Fig. A.22b. In this situation, the pressure of the air is less than the pressure of the
water on other sides of the matches. The ends of the matches are attracted to each other. The surface if
water in the case of “different charges” of the ends is shown in Fig. A.22c. Given that these ends are near
each other, the surface of water between them is not horizontal. It has a saddle point somewhere between
the matches. The result is that the water between these matches rises greater near the left match and does
down more near the right match in comparison with the water in remaining part. Namely this factor gener-
ates the “repulsion” between the “different” ends of matches. The pressure of the water at the point À is
equal to the pressure of the outside water p3 at the same height. The pressure of the air p2 is greater than
p1, because the surface near the left match is turned to the air by its concave side. The pressure p3
decreases with height, meanwhile p2 remains practically same. Therefore the difference between the pres-
sures tends to displace the left match to the left. At the point  the pressure of the water p4 is greater than
p2, since the surface of water is turned to the outside by its convex side. The same is also correct for the
pressure below this point. The resulting difference between the pressures p4-p2 will displace the right
match to the right.
III.132. The water after moistening the corks closely drawn to each other will keep them close by the
surface tension forces.

III.134. Q = mgh − 2π r 2σ ( 3
)
n −1 .

III.135. The lines of the tarpaulin of which the tent is made form a capillary system which are not moisten
with water. In this capillaries a little columns of water are kept, their radii equaling a half of the size d of a
cells formed by lines of tarpaulin. These columns will be pressed through cells if their height (the thickness
of rainwater covering the tent’s ceiling) is greater than
2σ
h= .
d
ρg
2
If one touches the wet tissue from inside the tent, some columns give a drop of a greater radius. This drop
already cannot be kept by capillary forces (the force of the surface tension which keeps the drop grows
proportionally to its radius while the weight of a drop grows as a square of the radius (the drop is flat), i.e.,
which quicker). The ceiling stops to sustain against the rain.
III.136. The coefficient of the surface tension of a soap solution is less than that of water, therefore the
water tend to shorten its surface (turn into a drop) stronger than the soap solution.
III.138. We merge an edge of the sheet of paper into liquid, keeping the sheet vertically. Then we measure
the height of water rising h. By the formula r = 2σ/(ρgh) we find the radii of capillaries.
III.139. A soap solution will “flow out” the frame, involving the surface of water due to a lesser surface
tension; the whole frame will move in opposite direction (a kind of a jet engine).
III.140. Denote by l the height of liquid which gone up in a straight capillary height l = 2σ/ρgr. In order to
elevate the water along the tube it is necessary that l >h. To start to flow out from the lower end, there must
hold H >l. Then we get that the liquid will flow out if
r r
ρ gh ⋅ < σ < ρ gH ⋅ .
2 2
By substitution of the data, we get 69,3 mN/m <σ < 73,5 mN/m. Hence we get the desired range of the
temperatures 17°C <t < 45°C.
III.141. It turns into some drops of soap water, whose surface is much smaller than that of the soap
bubble.
III.142. The ends of the legs of insects are not moistened with water and thus cannot penetrate its surface
film.
III.143. The force of surface tension. Though in the Earth conditions a liquid may be kept in volumes and
each time takes their form, in the zero gravity conditions any quantity of a liquid can freely “fly” or “hang”
in a space. Under the action of the surface tension the liquid takes the form of a sphere (if the temperatures
are same in all parts), not needing any vessel to keep it inside. This phenomenon obtained the name of
levitation.
III.144. No, in this case the casting cannot be drawn away of the form or matrix.
III.145. The forces of attraction between the molecules of the oxides are weak, there is no moisturizing.
The cleaning of the metallic surfaces before soldering is necessary for obtain the moisturizing of surfaces by

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the solder.
III.146. Aluminum cannot be moisten by the melted tin.
III.148. Both the kerosene and gear machine oil well moisten the iron. Penetrating into thin slots between
contacting surfaces, these liquids play role of a lubricator in unscrewing a nut.
III.151. Non–moistening liquid will tend to take the form of a ball, the moistening one will flow over the
surface of the vessel.
III.152. They must. A lubricant moistening a metallic surface fills its cavities. After that a dry friction
between metals is replaced with a lesser friction between the layers of a lubricator.
III.153. A liquid which does not moisten the surface of the glass.
III.154. These tissues are poorly moistened by water.
III.155. The chalk is porous; it will absorb the water, i.e., its cap9illaries will be filled with a moisture from
the tissue. The chalk stops to write.
III.156. The chalk possesses the capillaries of lesser diameter than the foam.
III.157. The moistening of a paper by glue reduces its porosity (name the latter provides the capillaries of
the paper, which “helps” to ink “run away” of pen’s trace).
III.160. The ramming of soils and the cultivation after plowing lead to destroying its capillaries, the water
inside the soil then cannot go up, and the soil keeps water inside itself better than with old capillary system.
III.161. By pressing upon a pen, we draw apart the cut at its end, thus making this “capillary” thicker. Ink
gradually goes on the paper. If there were no such a cut, the ink cannot be kept over pen.
III.162. The mercury moistens a pure lead. Closely packed sheets of the lead form small capillary channels
and slots which “suck up” the mercury from the vessel.
III.163. Adherent tts is the mercury in the upper tube and water in the lower tube. The mercury will be
pushed in the direction of the thicker end of the tube, the water to the narrow end.
III.164. The soil becomes more dense, along the capillary system the water goies up and moisten the
trace.
III.165. The level of the water in the tube will grow.
III.166. The bubbles of the air stick to particles whihc are not moistened by water and thus hoist them up.
III.167. Without a “ground painting” by drying oil the solvents of paints are suck by capillaries into wood.
This increases the consumption of a paint, while on the painted surface a powder of its pigment remains
which can then be easily removed. The “ground painting” fills the capillaries and a later painting creates a
glancing firm and beautiful covering.
III.168. Consider two drops of water: one has just left the tube, while other has fallen a certain distance,
moving with an acceleration caused by the gravity. The velocity of the lower drop is greater than that of the
upper drop. This means that the distance between the drops will grow with time. The jet of water will turn
more and more narrow until the force of surface tension will cut it into drops. Therefore in the breaking
apart of the jet of water falling in the gravity field not the exterior force (shakes) are guilty, but the forces of
surface tension.
III.169. The surface tension of a hot water is less than that of a cold water. Therefore the weight of a drop
of the hot water kept by surface tension is less than that of the cold water.
III.170. Yes, it is. For a definite drug under a permanent temperature and the same diameter of dropper’s
end, the weight of drops will be practically same..
III.171. 1. The soap bubble with a hole contracts its size. Due to the action of the surface tension forces
the soap film of spherical form presses the air inside it. 2. Let us mentally cut the bubble through the center
of its sphere. Then each half of the film will act upon the other with the force F = 2πrσ (r is the radius of the
bubble). The film will also act on the circle hole through the air p = F/πr2 = 2σ/r. Since the soap film has
two surfaces, the air will experiences additional pressure p = 4s/r.
III.172. Usually, the exceeding pressure under the spherical surface is ∆p = 2σ/r, but the soap bubble has
two boundaries liquid-air. Let p0 –be the atmospheric pressure, p1, p2, and p the pressures of air in the
bubbles of the radii r1, r2, and r, respectively. Then p1–p0 = 4σ/r1, p2–p0 = 4σ/r2, and p–p0 = 4σ/r. The
Clapeyron-Mendeleev equation for the air inside the bubble gives
4 m 4 m 4 m + m2
p1 π r13 = 1 RT , p2 π r23 = 2 RT , p π r 3 = 1 RT ,
whence 3 M 3 M 3 M
pr 3 = p1r13 + p2 r23 .
Then the atmospheric pressure is
4σ (r12 + r22 − r 2 )
p0 = .
r 3 − r13 − r23

120
III.173. In a close packing each molecule has 12 neighbors: 6 around it, 3 at each side of the plane of ring.
In creating a free surface, we delete three neighbors of twelve, which is we break out a quarter of connections.
If s is the coefficient of the surface tension (which is the energy necessary to increase the area of a surface
by a unit), and r is the specific heat of vaporizing, then A =σS = r⋅m/4 = r⋅ρV/4 = r⋅ρSd/4, where d is the
diameter of a molecule (the height of one layer). Hence d = 4σ/ρr. For the mercury we have σ= 0,47J/m2,
r = 2,95⋅105J/kg, ρ= 13,5⋅103kg/m3 and d ≈ 4,7×10-10m.
III.174. The phenomena observed are explained by diffusion whose velocity in one direction (to the
interior of a fruit) is greater than in opposite direction (out of the fruit). This phenomenon, called osmosis,
is similar to the diffusion of gases through a porous membrane.
III.176. Any crystal, can be represented as elementary combinations of atoms called elementary cells.
The symmetry of any crystal is determined by the symmetry of elementary cells. The elementary cell of the
crystal of salt has the form of a cube. Therefore the piece of this salt can take only the forms with direct
angles.
III.177. Different orientation of small crystals leads to the fact that poly-crystal bodies possess features
equals in all directions.
III.178. In the physics they understand by a solid body a crystal. The glass in this sense cannot be called
a solid body; it is related to the class of amorphous bodies, whose state is not stable and changes with time.
III.179. As a consequence of the anisotropy of a crystal, it may expand differently in different directions.
III.180. Usually, the metals have a poly-crystallic structure. In this situation, correct mono-crystals are
chaotically joined. By virtue of a great number of macro-crystals, in a sample of a macroscopic size
anisotropy is not detected..
III.181. The pattern is a result of crystallization of the zinc.
III.182. To obtain the residue deformation of a steel sample (for example in bending) less force is required
than for a sample of cast iron.
III.183. A poly-crystal consists of a set of grains-crystals. In a plastic deformation this makes difficult the
sliding of atom surfaces in grains and the displacement of proper grains.
III.184. A huge set of snow-flakes (crystals) is being broken.
III.185. The water inside the salt in boiling breaks the crystals.
III.186. For creation of a diamond the high temperatures (2×103 oC and higher) and high pressures (near
105atm) are necessary. The diamonds might be formed only in depths of Earth. The graphite might be
formed at lower temperatures and pressures. These domains are many on the Earth.
III.187. Under a slow cooling a large quantity of heat will be emitted. In the hardening of a steel, the
surface energy of faces of small crystal grains “is kept”.
III.188. One of the advantages is the absence of heat convection. The quality of the samples made in zero
gravity is essintially higher than in Earth. Thus, in the crystals obtained in the space, the density of disloca-
tions is several thousand times less than in Earth samples. In the space one can obtain the alloys of metals
which differ essentially by their densities, grow from the liquid phase crystals of semiconductors and di-
electrics with homogeneous distribution of addends and components, prepare superclean biomedical sub-
stances. In addition, the experiments of covering with a thin metallic layer (thin films) of various objects by
vaporizing in absolute vacuum conditions are of a significant interest.
III.189. A tree is an anisotropic fiber material, its properties differ in different directions. Dividing the
fibers require less efforts than the cross-cutting.
III.192. The metallic patterns are necessary to make the column harder, to increase its resistance against
the compressing deformations. Deformation does not result in a destruction if the compression of the
reinforced concrete and the metallic patterns are same (this takes place if the steel is used to reinforce the
concrete) and their load does not exceed the limit of elasticity.
III.193. The shafts in work undergo the torsion deformation. A tubular shaft with thin walls under rather
small deforming loads overpasses the limits of elasticity and crushes (turns flat).
III.194. 230m.
III.195. 9,5 MPa.
III.196. The crystal structure of a diamond has higher symmetry than the crystals of graphite. In the crystal
of graphite distances between atoms exceeds those for a diamond is some directions. The graphite may be
broken apart in directions perpendicular to these segments.
III.197. Since the plastic deformation precedes the destruction, to make metal stronger one must augment
its resistance against plastic deformations. The main mechanism in a plastic deformation of ac crystal is the
relative sliding of the atomic layers, which rises when dislocations are moved. Other defects prevent the
motion of dislocations. The quantity of defects grows under doping (the adding of tinges), mechanical or
thermal treatment. In low temperatures the distances between grains also prevent the motion of disloca-
tions in poly-crystals. Therefore, the fining of grains by means of mechanical or/and thermal treatment also

121
increases the resistance against plastic deformations.
III.198. As the purity of a metal grows, so does its toughness. For example, copper samples of high purity
sustain the loads up to 6 GPa.
III.200. In the hardening, both the hardness and the toughness of a steel grow. The steel adheres a tiny-
grain structure.
III.201. Since the temperature of the boiling of mineral oils is significantly higher than that of the water, in
cooling a sharp contrast of temperatures does not appear, which resells in less frailty of the steel and higher
hardness and toughness.
III.202. To give to the metals necessary combination of the hardness, toughness, and elasticity they anneal
metals. After this procedure the density of dislocations sharply decreases, the anisotropy is practically
vanishes..
III.203. These parts could lose their toughness due to string heating by the friction with air.
III.204. In sharpening, the tools are strongly heated by friction. If one will not cool them, they lose their
hardness.
III.207. In same degree.
III.208. A metal possesses a larger thermal conduction than a stone. In oscillations of the temperature, no
rifts appear in metal because no thermal tensions happen.
III.209. If the vessel is made of a thin glass, its parts are heated almost simultaneously and expansion of
vessel’s walls goes almost uniform.
III.211. The aperture will grow.
III.212. Must heat both the cylinder and the ring.
III.213. No; Yes.
III.214. In heating, the spoke expands and bends not causing the deformation of the wheel in the whole.
III.215. Because the washing with cold water gives rise to non-uniform cooling of separate parts and thus
dangerous interior tensions in these parts. These tensions may cause destruction (for example, a breakup
of the tubes in the boiler which are cooled first of all).
III.216. This property is explained by a very small coefficient of the thermal expansion of the quartz.
III.217. Even a small change of the temperature (e.g., given by holding the device in hands) may cause a
serious and intolerable error of measurements in view of thermal expansion of details. The invar tts pos-
sesses a very small coefficient of thermal expansion.
III.218. The steel and the concrete have the same coefficient of thermal expansion. Therefore under
expansion the concrete remains close to the steel reinforcement patterns. Neither cavities, nor interior
tensions arise which could lead to a destruction (the latter could take place in the steel patterns were
expanding quicker than the concrete).
III.221. As the hot water heats the tap, its metallic details also expand and close the flow of the hot water.
III.222. Will not change if we neglect vessel’s expansion; will be smaller if the expansion of the vessel is
observable.
III.223. The level will grow. In the expansion of the tube , the reading of the device will be lowered.
III.224. The body will sink if the initial temperature is greater than 4°C.
III.225. Under a heating the density of water decreases, but its level increases. It is necessary to note that
the pressures upon the bottom of the vessels are stipulated by different factors. In the cylindrical vessel the
pressure is determined by the weight of the liquid and thus is independent of its expansion. In a vessel
which turns narrower to its bottom, the reaction of the lateral walls is added to the weight of the liquid (by
virtue of the Pascal law). In such a vessel under thermal expansion o the liquid the force of the reaction of
lateral walls increases (due to the increase of the are of their contact with the liquid) as well as the pressure
upon the bottom. In a vessel which is expanding to its top, the reaction of the lateral walls decreases the
pressure on the liquid upon the bottom. In heating of the liquid in such a vessel, the force of the reaction of
walls is also increasing, which in the present case leads to a decrease of the pressure upon the bottom.
III.226. The balance will show a smaller weight because in heating the volume of the kerosene increases.
Consequently, the volume of the air displaced also grows.
III.227. The matter is in the thermal expansion of materials. Since the air possesses the greater compressibility
than water does, the change of the volume of the bubble is determined by the change of the volume of
water.
III.228. It will remain.
III.229. The lead sheet is heated by the Sun and thus expands. Since the gravity helps it to move down-
ward, the upper edge will go up for less distance than the lower one will go down. In its cooling during the
night, the upper edge goes down slightly more than the lower goes up, and thus the sheet goes down in the
whole.
III.230. A significant role was played by the point of melting of the bronze, which is lower than that of the

122
iron.
III.231. The high temperature of melting of the quartz (1625 °C) requires greater expenses of energy in its
production.
III.232. The motion of the water carries up more warm water from the bottom of the river.
III.233. usually, the water formed in melting of ice runs off immediately. But if the ice is covered with a wet
newspaper, the heat from outside must first pass through the layer of water “arrested” by the newspaper.
Therefore its access to the ice decreases. In addition, the heat is spent with the evaporation of the water.
III.234. The water possesses the greatest density at the temperature 4 °C. Therefore the layers of water,
possessing the temperature near 0 °C, are on the top due to the Archimedes’ law.
III.235. The water freezes at 0 °C. First it is cooled to this temperature and then the ice starts to form.
However, of the vessels are made of a thermo-isolating meterial, the heat transfer through the walls will be
very small, and the cooling will proceed only through the evaporation from the surface. In evaporating, a
vapor appears over the surface of liquid, whose pressure changes with time. If the vessel is closed, this
vapor quickly becomes saturated with the pressure psat, equaling the pressure of the saturated vapor at the
given temperature. Then the further cooling takes place only by the expense of heat transfer. In our case,
both the vessels are closed. The pressure psat depends on the temperature and grows as it increases.
Therefore over a hot liquid the pressure the vapor is much lesser and the liquid quickly cools in view of
intensive evaporation. In evaporation the mass of the liquid permanently decreases, therefore when the
temperature of the water reaches 0 °C, in the “hot” vessel there will be noticeably less water than on the
cold one. The crystallization in both the vessels will follow in same conditions. Thus, under certain conditions,
when the exchange with ambient is difficult and the open surface is large, the boiling water will freeze faster
than the water taken under a tap.
III.236. The plant is filled not by water, but a physiological solution, which freezes at a temperature below
zero. While the plant has not been frozen, the current of the solution continues (though at a slow speed). In
addition, the temperature of the liquid pumped from the root part of the plant is slightly but above the zero.
Moreover, many plants have small hairs which delay the motion of air. A layer of the air around the plant is
a good isolator.
III.237. With an increase of the pressure the temperature of ice melting decreases. Within the melting of
ice, the heat of melting is absorbed by the ice and the temperature under a wire or a line falls to the
temperature of the ice melting at this pressure. The further melting of ice is determined by the heat which
incomes to the domain of lower temperature due to the thermal conduction. When a wire is used, the heat
will income also by virtue of high thermal conduction of metals from the water above the wire and the ice
will quickly be cut. If a nylon line is used possessing lower thermal conduction the heat will mainly arrive by
expense of the cooling of the whole mass of ice, and the process will be very slow.
III.238. In the melting of ice at the bottom of a glacier its height lowers by ∆h. The decrease of the
potential energy equals q⋅∆m, which is spent to the melting of ice of the mass ∆m =ρS∆h (ρ is the density
of the ice, S is the section of the glacier, q = 333kJ/kg is the specific heat of melting of the ice). For a glacier
of height H we get ∆mgH = q⋅∆m, whence H = q/g ≈ 35 km.
III.239. In a compression of snow at a small frost the snow starts to melt (see the previous problems). In
addition, the forces of surface tension keep snowflakes together. After discharge of the pressure, the water
created in melting may freeze again, which even more strengthens the connections between some separate
snowflakes. Under a strong frost the pressure for melting of snow must be so great that it cannot be
produced by human muscles.
T,K III.240. The vapor breathed by men in a room in its touch to cold
glasses of window is condensed as water. The water freezes and
form crystals.
III.241. The process of crystallization similarly to that of condensation
Tk must take place if there already are centers of crystallization in the
form of a very small crystals. If there are no such crystals, one can
overcool a liquid in a quick cooling. This state is shown in Fig. A.23
t,c by a dotted curve. In a sufficiently strong overcooling, an spontane-
ous process of crystallization may start and the liquid is quickly
crystallized. In the crystallization of an overcooled liquid, its tem-
F ig . A .2 3 . perature grows due to emission of the hidden heat freezing and if the
cooling was not to strong, it attains the normal temperature of
crystallization Tc.
III.242. Note: consider the answer to the previous problem..
III.243. In a district of a city, specially in days when fabrics and plants are working, the air contains a huge
quantity of dust particles in suspension, each serving in cooling as a center for condensation of the atmo-

123
spheric vapor.
III.245. The water vapor which is at large altitudes is over-saturated. Tiny particles resulting of fuel
combustion in the airplane engine turns to be centers of condensation, thus forming a cloudy trace behind
the airplane.
III.246. The time serves as a cover for plants and thus prevent their overcooling.
III.247. When a humid soil freezes, a significant quantity of heat is emitted (the hidden heat of the melting
of ice), which is spent to heating of the soil.
III.248. A gas contains the water vapor, which touch the cold walls of a pipe, are condensed, then freeze,
and thus stop the flow through a pipe.
III.249. These organic substances under a sufficient heating turn into coal and burn without melting.
III.251. Generally speaking, it will change if the thermometer is sufficiently sensitive. The matter is that in
heating a glass we deal with a non-balanced process in which the temperature of water can be higher than
that of ice.
III.252. I the dissolving of a salt an energy is spent, the temperature thus lowers.
III.253. The solution of salt in water has the temperature of freezing below 0 °C, therefore in adding a salt,
a quick melting of ice (snow) takes place.
III.254. Note: consider the answer to the previous problem.
III.255. In a freezing water an icicle is the center of crystallization, i.e., on its surface the molecules of
water are settled (in the same way as drops of water are centers of condensation in overcooled vapor).
Since the temperature of freezing of salted water is below the temperature of pure water, it does not
crystallize when an icicle is merged into it. Moreover, the icicle dissolves in a solution of salt as the sugar
crystals dissolves in the hot tea.
III.256. An antifreeze is an ethylene-glycol mixture which does not freeze even at the temperature –40 °C.
In addition, the antifreeze posses properties which stops the corrosion and prevents scum formation.
III.257. Because the temperature of freezing of a salt solution can be significantly below 0 °C (for ex-
ample, –10, –15 °C); special machines cool this solution and it is pumped over a system of pipes in
cameras where the food is stored.
III.258. In view of a large specific heat capacity and large hidden heat of melting of water, the vessel with
water will play a role of heat energy accumulator. In the formation of ice in the vessel a large quantity of
heat is released, which results in a certain delay of a further cooling of the air. For example, within the
complete freezing of a pail of water, approximately 3,3×106J of heat are produced which is equivalent to
the heat emitted by a 1kWt heater which works 55 minutes.
III.259. Due to large heat of the ice melting, the melting of snow and ice is gradual in spring, and the
melted water has the time to penetrate into the soil. The decrease of the heat of melting could lead to a
sharp increase of high water (inundation) and overdrying of soils in summer.
III.260. The icicles arise at the temperature of the air below 0 °C. But in the day-time the temperature of
a roof is above the temperature of the air. The matter is in two factors: the roofs are inclined and thus may
posses a better declination angle for absorption of the solar energy and may be covered by a dark material
which also helps to accumulate the part of the absorbed solar energy.
III.262. The formation of the crystals of snow and ice is related to the emission of heat into the ambient.
Therefore it turns warmer when snow falls.
III.264. The snow (ice) may pass from the solid state into the gaseous state not passing through the liquid
state.
III.265. Yes, he/she can if the pack has walls well-conducting the heat. The temperature of the packing
material if the milk is inside it cannot be much greater than the temperature of the milk boiling. Usually, this
temperature is not enough to destroy the package.
III.266. When another body has a lower temperature.
III.268. One surface dries quicker and thus contracts quicker.
III.269. One can pour an oil over the surface of water. Oils are slowly vaporizing substances..
III.271. The vapor outside the room is saturated. In the room, when the window is closed, due top
evaporation from wet linen, the vapor may quickly become saturated and the drying of linen will stop.
However, the temperature outside the room is lower than this inside the room. Therefore the density of
vapor is lesser in street than in the room. Therefore a part of vapor will flow out the room through the open
window and the vapor in the room will remain non-saturated. The linen will be dry earlier than if the had not
open the window.
III.272. The sweating and evaporation of the sweat prevent our organism against the overheating. In
addition, sweat extract unnecessary substance from the body.
III.274. If the air is dry, the sweat is quickly evaporated and cools the human body.
III.275. When you go out the water, the evaporation of the drops of water which remain on your body

124
starts. Require a lot of energy, this process takes the heat from both air and you. The body is cooled and
the air is felt colder than the water.
III.277. The ball of the left thermometer is wrapped by a material sucking the water. Due to its porosity,
the material has very large exterior surface, which helps water to turn to a vapor. In a dry air the greater art
of water is evaporated from the wet cover of the thermometer’s ball. A heat necessary for evaporation is
obtained from the water. When the layer of water in the porous cover of the ball will be significantly
cooled, the water starts to absorb the heat of the thermometer glass, which takes the heat of the mercury.
This results in a contraction of the mercury and its lesser volume. The thermometer shows a lower tem-
perature.
III.279. No, it will not. Assume that the hot water does not mix with the water in the pot. Then the
problem is double: to make to boil the water in pot and the added hot water.
III.280. The alcohol evaporates much quicker than water does and emits in a unit of time a greater
quantity of heat than water can. This makes you to feel cold of
the alcohol sprinkled upon your hand.
III.281. The levels of water in vessels are different, therefore
the pressure of the vapor over their surfaces will be different.
The pressure of vapor over the quarter in a vessel with a smaller
h quantity of liquid will be greater by the weight of column of va-
por of the height h with the area of base 1m2 (see in Fig. A.24).
Consequently, the vapor will be always formed over the surface
which is at a higher level and condensed near the surface which
F ig . A .2 4 . is lower.
III.282. To nights the heating and rising of the air stops and the
process of its cooling by the soil which turn cold in evening
starts. The clouds which consist of tiny drops of water start to go down. Hitting the more warn layers of air,
they are heated and turn into invisible water vapor.
III.286. In winter there exists a large difference between the temperatures of the air in a room and outside
at rather same absolute humidity of the air. Therefore on winter the relative humidity is in a room is signifi-
cantly lower than that on a street. In summer the difference between the temperatures in the room and on
the street is significantly less than in winter.
III.287. After equaling of the temperatures in the tank and in the vessel, the heat transfer to the water in
vessel will be terminated. It will not start to boil because it will not receive heat necessary for formation of
vapor.
III.288. Yes.
III.289. No.
III.291. The non-boiled water will start to boil earlier, because in the water which already boiled there is
a lesser quantity of the dissolved air.
III.292. When the burner is turned on, the vapor of water hits into currents of hot gases thus remaining
invisible. When the burner is turned off, the vapor hits the cold room’s air and is condensed as a visible tts
fog.
III.293. To hard-boil an egg on the Mars is not possible. Due to a rarified Mars atmosphere, the water will
boil at a temperature insufficient for coagulation of egg’s white.
III.294. In these thermometers the space of the capillary over the mercury is filled with nitrogen under high
pressure, which leads to a significant increase of the temperature of boiling .
III.295. To the evaporation of the moisture which is contained in a humid match the most part of the
energy obtained in friction with the match box cover. Therefore the match cannot be heated to a point of
ignition.
III.296. The vaporization of water lowers the temperature of the burning wood so that the burning dies. In
addition, the vapor surrounds the burning body and thus ceases the access of oxygen to the zone of
burning.
III.297. Under the action of the water on the surface of hot coal rifts arise. The surface of the contact
between coal and air increases and it starts to burn better. In addition, the mixture of the carbon oxide and
the hydrogen which is created in this process burns very well.
III.298. The temperature of the boiling for resins and bitumen is higher than that of water, therefore when
water hits the surface of burning resin is quickly evaporates and turns into vapor sprinkling the boiling resin.
III.299. Note: use a handbook and the previous problem.
III.301. The column of water of the height H is supported in the pump by expense of the difference
between the atmospheric pressure p and the pressure of the saturated water vapor ps: ρgH = p–ps. Since
with an increase of temperature the pressure of the saturated vapor also increases, the height to which the

125
water can be hoisted lowers. It should be noted that with an increase of temperature the density of water
decreases, but this decrease is not significant and does not affect the whole situation..
III.303. A layer of water which contacts the heated bottom of the vessel has the greatest temperature. In
addition, on the surface of the vessel there are more centers of vaporization.
III.304. Bubbles of vapor formed near the bottom of the vessel go up and hit colder layers of water. Here
the vapor is condensed and the bubble is “blowing out”. The massive disappear of vapor bubbles creates
the noise.
III.305. A drop of water is quickly evaporated. The vapor expands and creates some oscillation in the air
which are heard as hissing.
III.306. If salts are dissolved in the water, the temperature of boiling of a solution will be greater than the
temperature of the water vapor over it. If the water is distilled, the temperature of the water and the vapor
will be same.
III.308. By the distillation, because the point of boiling of the mercury is lower than those for zinc and tin.
III.309. No, because, if the temperature of water is already reached 100 °C, it will not grow further until
the while water will be evaporated. It is only necessary that the supplied heat be sufficient to keep the
boiling and compensate the losses of the heat.
III.310. Without this hole the vapor can expel the water through the nozzle of pot.
III.312. The absolute humidity will not change, while the relative humidity will be lower.
III.315. The vapor will go both from bath-house’s window to the street and from the street to the bath-
house. Intake bath-house air contains the saturated vapor. If the window is open, the warm air flows out to
the street and condenses. The penetrating into bath-house cold air mixes with the contrary flow of the hot
vapor and this results in a condensation.
III.317. The absolute humidity of the water over a river is greater than that over the ground.
III.318. In autumn the cold layers of the air are closer to the Earth surface than ion summer. Therefore the
condensation and formation of clouds take place at a lower level.
III.319. The dew is formed when the ground is cooled. The clouds prevents such a cooling.
III.323. The temperature of oil boiling is significantly higher than that of water. Therefore if the water hits
into boiling oil, it boils earlier causing the mentioned phenomena.
III.328. To prevent the burning of the sugar. Evaporation is hold in special vacuum machines under low
pressure.
III.329. The temperature of boiling of water in autoclaves is significantly higher than 100 °C, because a
high pressure of water vapor is kept in them. The high temperature kills micro-organisms in the within the
sterilization process.
III.330. The iron is heated to 300 – 400 °C and may burn tissue in a direct contact. In the process of
ironing through a wet clothe, a part of heat goes for creation of the vapor at temperature near 100 °C,
which does not damage the tissue. The moistening in ironing plays an additional role: the surface of wet
tissue is more smooth (due to the surface tension) and thus may be ironed better.
III.331. In heating the milk forms a film on its surface. Under this film a saturated water vapor is accumu-
lated and it hoists the film (they say that the milk “runs away”). The “milk-guard” makes a small jet of the
hot milk from the bottom to go up and break this film. Thus the vapor gets its way up.
III.332. In smelting metals in vacuum both the processes of oxidation and dissolution of gases in melted
metals are absent.
III.333. The liquid gets heat from the ambient. But we should note that its temperature is rather lower than
that of the ambient.
III.334. In the center of a city the temperature of the air is always slightly higher than in its suburbs. The
reasons are: 1) the asphalt and buildings accumulate more heat than soil; 2) in the center of city the wind
blows weaker and thus the evaporation which is accompanied with absorption of a great quantities of heat
is also weaker; 3) other (but not less significant) factors are the emission of heat by various machines,
cleaning of snow, etc.
III.335. The blowing air evaporates the small crystals of ice which are formed on the glass.
III.336. By the expense of holes the surface of evaporation grows.
III.337. In the vacuum, the inverse process (condensation of moisture on vegetables and fruits) is absent
(the water vapor is pumped out by equipment).
III.338. Since the air is permanently pumped out from the vessel, intensive boiling takes place at tempera-
tures below 100 °C.
III.339. In the evaporation of the liquefied carbonic acid, an energy is absorbed and the temperature
lowers. The vapor of the carbonic acid and the water vapor contained in the air form crystals of “snow”.
The carbon dioxide lowers the temperature and prevents the access of oxygen to the zone of burning.
III.340. The gas in the reservoir is formed by evaporation of oil derivatives: its quantity depends on the

126
temperature of ambient.
III.342. The gas may be cooled to make to condense the water vapor and then easily remove it in its liquid
phase.
III.343. To liquefy the air. The nitrogen boils out first from the liquefied air, because its boiling temperature
is lower than that for oxygen.
III.344. In any liquid and at any temperature, there are “quick” and “slower” molecules. If the quick
molecules are withdrawn, the average speed of the remaining molecules decreases, the temperature of the
liquid also decreases. A heat exchange becomes possible.
III.345. In shaking the tube, the column of water moves from one end to another. In this situation, both
the ends are filled with saturating vapor. The pressure of the saturating vapor depends only on the tem-
perature and does not depend on the volume. Therefore the pressure of the vapor at both ends of the tube
is always same. Consequently, the forces of the pressure upon both ends of the water column are balanced
and its motion can be taken as free if we neglect the friction between the column and the walls of the tube.
III.346. The heat balance equation gives us the initial mass of the ice: m = Q/(0,1⋅q) = 18kg. To determine
the new level of the water h’ we write S⋅h = V0+m/ρice, S⋅h’ = V0+m/ρwater, where V0 is the initial volume of
water. Hence h’ = h–m(ρwater–ρice)/Sρwaterρice = 19cm.
III.347. One may assume that the fly consists only of the water. The law of conservation of energy gives
us
v = 2⋅ (c ⋅ (tb − t0 ) + q),
where c= 4.18kJ/kg ×K and q = 333kJ/kg are the specific heat capacity and the specific heat of vaporiza-
tion of the water, tb is the temperature of boiling of the water, t0 is the room temperature. Hence v≈1200m/
s.
III.348. Almost insuperable difficulties arise in the creation of the refrigerator.
III.349. The heat supplied to the body in heating increases the energy of the thermal motion of molecules
of body and also is spent to the work to overcome the forces which prevent heating and other related
changes.. For example, if we heat a gas in a cylinder covered by a motionless piston, a part of the heat
energy goes to hoist the piston. As known, the thermal capacity of a gas in this case is greater than that of
a gas heated in a constant volume. In the slow cooling of the cylinder with the gas, the piston goes down
and thus returns the energy spent to its hoisting, and the quantity of the heat emitted by the gas in cooling
will be equal to the quantity spent in its heating. The situation changes if the piston cannot return to the gas
the work spent by the gas for its displacement. This is the case of any (thermal) heat engine. Here in the
cooling of vapor of gas the quantity of the heat emitted is less than the quantity of heat spent for heating.
The missing heat has been transferred into mechanical energy which is supplied by the engine.
III.350. To improve the heat condition of the walls of boiler and thus increase its efficiency.
III.351. the overheating of the vapor excludes its condensation of walls of pipes which increases the
efficiency.
III.352. Under a large compression, a self-ignition of the fuel mixture may occur before the piston reaches
the “dead-point”.
III.353. The efficiency of an ideal heat machine grows in winter with respect to summer. However, the
losses of energy spent for friction in winter increase due to greater viscosity of the oils in engine, gear box,
bearings, etc. Therefore the real efficiency of an automobile in winter is less than in summer. In addition, in
winter more gasoline must be spent for heating cold engine in start. In the whole, the consumption of the
gasoline is greater in winter.
III.354. With growing temperature the density of air decreases, and thus the mass consumption of the air
which is supplied to the engine.
III.355. Engines of internal combustion have the greater temperature of the working body.
III.356. The flywheels accumulate the mechanical energy, which is obtained in the working stroke of
engine. The flywheel energy is used for auxiliary strokes of the engine.
III.357. To the internal combustion engines.
III.358. The value of the advanced ignition time depends on the speed of rotation of the crankshaft: at
greater speed a greater advancing is necessary. In addition, the value of the advance (measured in angular
degrees) depends on the speed of combustion: if the fuel mixture is rich and burns quicker, the advance
must be lesser.
III.359. If the advance is too large some strange strokes can be heard in the engine: the expanding gases
push the piston earlier than it run to the upper “dead” point. If the ignition is too late (small advance), the
fuel mixture will not burn out completely and will be evacuated to muffler together with worked-out gases.
Thus explosions of mixture in a heated muffler are possible. In both cases the efficiency of the engine
becomes lower.

127
III.360. The smoothness of the shaft rotation is ensured,, first, by the presence of flywheel in the engine,
second, be presence of several cylinders in the engine (4, 6, and more), which work not simultaneously,
but each at its turn.
III.361. One must make an additional work against the forces of the pressure of the worked-out gases,
which are in the muffler.
III.362. In a jet engine all the strokes take place simultaneously, but in different parts of the engine. In an
internal combustion engine, all strokes are at the same place (cylinder), but take place in diferent time. The
working stroke in a jet engine is the output of the worked-out products of combustion.

128
 Answers to Chapter IV

IV.1. No. The direction of the tangent to a stream line coincides with the direction of the force acting on
the charge. Therefore it coincides with the direction of acceleration of the charge. The trajectory of the
motion of the charge is the line whose tangent coincides with the direction of the velocity of a charged
particle.
IV.2. Yes, it can.
IV.4. Electrifying in a touch is explained by a displacement of electrons from one body to other through the
point of touch. In the rubbing, the bodies touch in greater quantity of points than in a usual touch.
IV.5. In its flowing out a tube, the gasoline is electrified so that an electric spark may rise which ignites the
gasoline. To avoid a dangerous situation, the cisterns must be grounded.
IV.7. The answer depends on how one understands the word “electrify”. In its strict meaning, the word
means “to give an electric charge”. In this interpretation the answer to the question must be positive with
the unique clause: both the bar and the body applying which the bar was rubbed must be isolated from
each other. However, often the word “electrify” is understood as “give an observably large electric charge”,
e.g., so large that one can hoist small pieces of paper. In this situation, one must remember that a human
body is a good conductor. Therefore in attempts to electrify a copper wire without isolating it from the
body, the observer does electrify its proper body. Moreover, if he/she is not isolated from the Earth, he/she
also tries to electrify the Earth. Due to a huge size of the object to be electrified (bar + man + Earth), the
charge which is distributed over a small part,e.g., the bar, does not generate a field around itself which
could be observed.
IV.8. If the friction between the shell of the balloon and the air the first one has been electrified so that an
electric discharge arisen. If the shell were filled with hydrogen, the latter would burn in discharge.
IV.9. Yes, it is possible.
IV.10. In connecting to the wire a high voltage source, the feather of the bird obtains the natural electro-
static charge, which makes the feather to pucker and diverge. This scares the bird and it leaves the wire.
IV.11. No.
IV.12. In order to remove from a charged conductor placed on an isolator a half of its charge, it is
necessary to touch this conductor by a conductor of the same form and properties. Namely this way was
used by Coulomb in his experiments.
IV.15. The paint must contain substances which are electrified positively in their contact with the air.
IV.17. If we draw to a charged ball (not touching it) two other balls which are drawn to each other and
isolated from ambient, then under the action of the field generated by the positively charged ball, these two
will obtain opposite changes. After drawing apart these two balls, these will have charges of opposite
signs.
IV.20. A speck of dust may levitate if its gravity is balanced by the electrostatic force. If the charge of the
speck decreases, it starts top fall. To restore the equilibrium, one must increase the charges on plates. This
idea was used by Ioffe and Milliken in experiments for determination of the elementary charge.
IV.22. A fire may start due to electrifying of the oil and its sprinkling in the air. If the weather is dry, the oil
is greater electrified..
IV.23. The electrostatic field kills the microorganisms which initiate deterioration of the food.
IV.24. The fibers of the cotton are straightened along the stream lines of the electric field which results in
their easier cleaning .
IV.26. Both the graphite and metallic powder are good conductors of an electric current. Their addition to
the rubber helps to remove charges and reduces the probability of inflammation of fire by sparks.
IV.27. Sufficient ventilation, sprinkling of water, increase of humidity of the air, and its ionization.
IV.28. The charge molecules of the air are attracted to parts of machines and products which has the
opposite charge and thus neutralize them.
IV.29. Charged particles under the action of the electrostatic field lay uniformly over the surface to be
painted and give away no sprinkles.
IV.30. The charge (by contact or rubbing) particles of a matter fall and are deviated at a different angle
depending on their mass.
IV.31. Tiny drops of the chemical agents are charged in the electrostatic filed. Be virtue of the electro-
static induction, on the leaves opposite charges arise, thus attracting the agents to leaves.
IV.32. The problem can be solved by using the theory of dimension. The rupture of the ring takes place
under the action of the mechanic stress σ arising in it. From the arguments of dimensions we have
σ∝F/S, where F is the force, S is the section area of the wire, and the force is F∝Q2/R2, where Q is the
charge, R is the radius of the ring. Since the rupture takes place at the same stress σ, we have

129
 Q2 Q12
= , whence Q1 = n 2Q.
R 2 S n2 R 2n2 S
IV.33. For the economy of the metal, because the static charges are distributed over the exterior surface of
a conductor.
IV.34. Equally.
IV.35. The electrostatic field polarizes the ball, which leads to deformations in the direction of the vector
of the tension of the field. Moreover, if the field is inhomogeneous, the polarizing charge from a side of the
ball, where the tension of field is greater, stronger interacts with the latter. A non-compensated force arises
directed to the side of the greater tension of the electric field.
IV.36. Specks of dust positively charged will move to the wire, negatively charged will move to the tube.
Having been polarized, the neutral specks will move (in majority) to the side of increase of the tension of
the electric field, i.e., to the wire.
IV.37. If we consider the ball B as a rigid dipole, then F∝R-3. But since the charge induced (or polarized)
on the ball B decreases as R grows, the force F decreases faster than R-3.
IV.38. They can.. First, in the case of small charges, a prevalence of gravitation forces over the electric
forces is possible (for example, if the charge of the ball will be less than 10-14 Ql, and the mass is greater
than 1g). Second, in the case where the charge of one of the balls is essentially less than the charge of the
other ball. Here a decisive role can be played the polarization of this ball (see the previous problems).
IV.39. For example, in the case of concentric hollow balls.
IV.40. The ball D will be positively charged.
IV.41. No if the ball is in the field of other charges.
IV.42. The charges are distributed over the whole exterior surface of a conductor. There-
fore the problem can be resolved by touching by the ball the interior surface of the vessel
with a narrow hole. For example, it can be a cylinder fixed on an electroscope (see
Fig. A.25).
IV.43. The density of the electric charge is greater at the edge than on a smooth surface,
therefore near the edge electric fields arise sufficiently strong to ionize the air. The latter
increases the consumption of the electric power and makes the use of electric devices
dangerous.
IV.44. Over the surface of a conductor the electric charges are distributed not uniformly:
the most dense distribution can be observed on sharp angles and convex parts, and also
on the specks of dust which settle over devices. The air around such places becomes a
F ig . A .2 5 . conductor, and the body loses its charge. To prevent the discharge the devices of that
kind are made with round corners and without sharp angles. In their exploitation they must
be kept clean.
IV.45. First, as a result of polarization of the second conductor, on its edge the negative charges will
accumulate. By virtue of the large tension of the electric field the charges will flow from the edge until the
tension of the field of the positive charges on the second conductor near its edge would become equal to
the sum of tensions of the field of negative charges on the first edge and its field. The negative charges
flowing from the second conductor will, mainly, settle on the first conductor and decrease its charge. This
will result in a partial discharge of the first conductor and a positive charging of the second conductor.
IV.46. The second body will be negative charged. The explanation can be found after an analysis of the
previous problem .
IV.47. The pointer will move with its nearest end to the electrified bar. Magnetic properties of the pointer
has no importance in this situation.
IV.49. No, the action of the lightning-conductor thunder is in that on its edge in the field of a charged cloud
charges opposite to the charge of the cloud are accumulated. A strong electric field near the edge leads to
ionization of the air (breakdown) of the air and arising of the electric current (lightning) between the edge
and the cloud. This current “discharges” the cloud.
IV.50. The lightning-conductor is dangerous for a building if it is poorly grounded.
IV.51. These wires a re the lightning-conductors.
IV.52. In the thunderstorm on the antenna (edge) under the influence of the electrostatic field of a heavy
cloud a large density charge is accumulated. This results in a discharge (lightening) and, if the antenna is not
grounded, the radio-station may be damaged and the operator can be injured and even killed by the
lightning. .
IV.53. At the placed where the upper soil better conducts the electric current, a charge of a greater
quantity is accumulated, therefore the electric field between the could and this place is greater. Therefore,
the probability of the air ionization grows and therefor a lightning may arise.

130
IV.56. From a microscopic “hills” of the metallic surface a greater quantity of electrons flows out than from
the “valleys”. Therfore o the screen these places will be lighter.
IV.57. à) the field will exist everywhere except for the interior oif the conductor of which the sphere is
made; b) on the interior surface of the sphere the negative charge will arise, on the exterior side the positive
charge will appear; c) the electric field inside the sphere will change; d) only the electric field outside the
sphere will change.
IV.58. During the experiment the workers of the laboratory must be inside metallic hutches.
IV.59. It will charge if the ball B is not inside the ball A.
IV.60. To this end the shielding serves, which is surrounding the vacuum tube within a metallic shell with
posterior its grounding. In the rise of electric field, about the tube charges are induced o the shell, whose
field compensates the exterior electric field inside of the shell.
IV.61. The speed will increase because on the interior surface of the tube the charges of opposite sign are
induced, and in the narrowing of the tube a component of the force arises directed to the side of narrowing.
IV.62. The complete energy of the system does not change. The kinetic energy of the particle grows by the
expense of reduction of the electrostatic energy of the interaction with the walls of the tube (when a particle
approximates to walls this energy decreases).
IV.63. As a consequence of the polarization of the dielectric, in the field of the charge on the ball on the
interior surface of the dielectric connected charges of opposite sign (on the exterior surface – of the same
sign as the charges on the ball arise. As a result, the tension of the electric field
(and therefore the “richness” of streamlines) inside the dielectric will be lesser;
+ − outside the dielectric it will be same as if is were absent.
− + IV.64. The force will grow, because to the force F a force acting from the side
of the polarized ball will be added. The direction of the additional force can be
readily seen in the Fig. A.26 – the force of attraction of each of the point
charges to the ball is greater than the repulsing force.
F ig . A .2 6 IV.66. The result will depend on whether the shell of the electroscope is
grounded or not. If it is grounded, the angle at which its leaves stand apart will
show the potential of the body, touching the electroscope’s head, with respect to the Earth. Therefore, if
the head will be grounded, the leaves will fall independently of their initial charge. In the case where the
container of the electroscope is grounded, the solution depends on how the container of the electroscope
has been charged previously.
IV.67. The container of the electroscope was previously charged.
IV.68. There are not contradiction. The ball drawn to the interior surface of the sphere will have the
potential of 1001V, because in carrying the ball the work has been made which increased its potential by
1000V.
IV.69. Set, for example, that the conductor A is hollow, while the conductor B is inside of A.
IV.70. Will not change.
IV.71. The potential of the interior ball will decrease, the potential of the exterior ball will remain un-
changed. Let r and R be the radii of the interior and exterior balls, respectively. Assume that before their
connection by a wire, the charge of the interior ball was q, while the exterior ball had the charge Q. Then
ϕ1 = q/(4πε0r)+Q/(4πε0R), ϕ2 = q/(4πε0R)+Q/(4πε0R), where ϕ1 and ϕ2 are the potentials of these balls
before they were connected by wire. After connection, the balls will have the potential ϕ= (q+Q)/(4πε0R),
because the interior ball will be uncharged and the charge of the exterior ball will equal q+Q. Obviously,
ϕ<ϕ1 and ϕ =ϕ2.
IV.72. Since the clearance between the balls is small, their potentials before connection were close. After
connection, the potential of the ball A start to decrease with increase of the potential of the ball B. The
potentials of both the balls changed insignificantly.
IV.73. This is not obligatory. For example, if the first conductor is a hollow ball with a hole and the second
is a small ball which is drawn into the first ball and connect with the surface of the first ball. In this case, the
positive charges flow out from the second ball to the first one. You
must take into account that within a displacement of the balls with
respect to each other their potentials do not change..
A B IV.74. By changing the position of surrounding conductors.
C+ IV.75. Upon any mentally selected volume of the kerosene in the
left leg in addition to the gravity directed downward electrostatic
forces do act. This results is a weakening of the hydrostatic pres-
sure of the kerosene in the left leg as if its density had been were
F ig . A .2 7 . decreased. Therefore the summary Archimedes’ force acting on
the balls in the left leg will be same as in the right leg.

131
IV.76. If these conductors are in the electric field generated by other bodies, the difference between
potentials may be absent. For example, let uncharged metallic balls A and B be in the field of a positively
charge ball C (Fig. A.27). If one connects the balls À and B with a wire, the ball B will be charged
positively and the ball À negatively; moreover, their potentials will be equal to each other. Taking the wire
off, we get two oppositely changed conductors without a difference of potentials between them.
IV.77. The accelerations of the bars are same and equal g/2. To give to an electron inside bar this accel-
eration, one must apply the force mg/2, where m is the mass of an electron. Therefore in the bars a
redistribution of electrons takes place such that inside the bars an electric field exist directed oppositely the
velocity of the motion. Denoting by E1 and E2 the tensions of this filed for the horizontally and vertically
moving bars, respectively, we have mg/2 = eE1 and mg/2 = eE2, respectively. Consequently, E1 = E2 = mg/
2e. Since all the electrons move with the same acceleration, the field in bar is constant along its length, i.e.,
is homogeneous. Therefore, for the desired difference between potentials, we have ∆ϕ1 = ∆ϕ2 = mgl/2e.
IV.78. As the distance between the plates decreases under unchanged charge, the potential difference
U = Q/C between the plates with a decreased distance and unchanged charge will decrease because the
capacity increases. With an increase of the distance between plates the potential difference will grow.
IV.79. The readings say that the electric capacity of the capacitor is 10 µF, and the maximal designed
tension (voltage) between its plates. If the voltage will be grater than that marked on the capacitor, a
puncture of the isolating layer may occur, and the capacitor will be damaged.
IV.80. The electric capacity of a sphere is less than that of the system of its splinters. Let us give to the
system splinters a charge q>0. If we start to join a sphere from this splinters, the joined part will have a
positive, and in drawing to it a next charged splinter we must produce a positive work À>0. The charge of
the already joined system will equal q, and its electrostatic capacity will be equal to Wsph = q2/2Csph, where
Csph is the eleactric capacity of the sphere. The energy of the system of splinters is Wspl = q2/2Cspl, Cspl is
the electric capacity of the system of splinters. By the law of conservation of energy we have Wsph =Wspl+À,
whence Wsph > Wspl and Csph < Cspl.
IV.81. The direction of the motion of positive charges is taken as the direction of an electric current.The
current always flows from a greater potential to the lesser potential. In equal charges, the greater potential
belongs to a body with less electric capacity (the small ball in our case). (Certainly, this concerns the case
of insulated bodies.) If we take into account that the charge on the balls is negative, we may assert that the
greater potential before the connection of balls was at the large ball , and the current will flow from it to the
smaller ball.
IV.82. The electric force of the field generated by one of the plates of the capacitor equals E/2. Therefore
the force acting upon another plate is Q⋅E/2.
IV.83. It is obvious that the plate was placed into an external homogeneous field E directed to the right.
Assuming that this direction is positive, we get for the projections of the tension E’–E = E1, E+E’ = E2,
whence E = (E2–E1)/2. Here E’ is the proper field of the plate. Therefore the action of the force from the
external field upon the plate is F = Q⋅(E2–E1)/2.
IV.84. As a consequence of the decrease of the electric capacity of the system detail–form.
IV.85. It is possible if the balls are in an electrostatic field generated by other bodies.
IV.86. Will not change.
IV.87. To avoid the voltage of a puncture of the dielectric, in high tensions a thicker layer of the dielectric
is required. In order to preserve the given capacity, one must increase the area of plates.
IV.88. The error is on that we have not taken into consideration thew work for merging charges into water
and hoisting them from water. When approximating of charges to the boundary water-air, an ordered
arrangement of molecules arises on the water surface. So, we cannot omit the work for transportation of
charges in vertical plane. Thew work spent in vertical displacement of charges drawn apart will be greater
than for drawn to each other (because the field on the boundary of a dielectric is greater), and the complete
work of a cycle will be equal to zero.
IV.89. Yes, it follows. By the angle at which the leaves of the electroscope are drawn apart we may know
the potential of the ball, which is known to be defined by the formula ϕ = q/C, where j is the potential of the
conductor, q is its charge, C is the capacity of the ball, equaling 4πεε0R (ε0 is the dielectric constant, ε is
the dielectric permeability). In the present case the radius R of the ball changes, which namely determine
the change of the potential.
IV.90. To place an electron into the electric field of a flat capacitor one must produce the work against the
forces of his field. Therefore in the space between the plates of capacitor, the electron will possess a
potential energy. By the expense of the transformation of a part of this energy into kinetic energy, the
electron in its motion between the plates of a flat capacitor will accelerate.
IV.91. The answer is “no”. The formula C =εε0S/d is valid only for small (with respect to linear size of
plates) d. Let us give to the plates of the capacitor the charges q and –q. Then, if the plates are rather far

132
from each other, we can write that the potentials of both plates are ϕ1 = q/C and ϕ2 = –q/C, where C is the
capacity of one plate, which can be considered as a solitary conductor. Consequently, the capacity of the
capacitor formed by these plates is
q 1
C1 = = C > 0.
ϕ1 − ϕ 2 2
IV.92. The energy of the capacitor equals W = Q⋅E/2, where E is the electromotive force of the battery, Q
is the charge of the capacitor. The work produced by the battery is equals to A = Q⋅E. Consequently,
À = 2W = 2 J. In this situation, a part of the energy of the battery of the value À–W = 1 J was transferred
into the heat. This magnitude does not depend on the resistance of the connecting wires.
IV.93. A wrong solution may arise: since the tension of the field in a flat capacitor is
σ
E=
εε 0
(σ is the surface density of the charge on plates), in merging the capacitor into a dielectric the potential of
the field seems to decrease ε times. But in this argument we have not taken into account that to keep a
constant tension U between the plates (the capacitor is connected to an accumulator), the charge on the
plates q (and therefore σ as well) must increase ε times:
εε S
q = CU = 0 U ,
d
(S is the area of plates, d is the distance between them). This results in unchanged potential. Another
solution is also possible. As known, for a homogeneous field we have E = U d . Since the difference
between the potentials of plates has not changed, the tension of the field also will not change.
IV.94. If the dielectric completely fills the space between the plates, the capacity of the capacitor increases
as well as the charge ε times. But the tension of the field inside the capacitor will not change, because so
does the difference between the potentials of plates. Therefore the attractive force is increased in ε times.
IV.95. Let the potential the ball S1 be equal to ϕ1, and the potential S2 to ϕ2. Since the small ball s is
significantly than the balls S1 and S2, in connecting it with these balls the potentials of the latter will not
practically change. Therefore q1 = Cϕ1, q2 = Cϕ2, where C is the capacity of the small ball s. Under a
simultaneous connection of the small ball s with the balls S1 and S2, the potentials of these two balls will
become same and will equal ϕ= (ϕ1+ϕ2)/2. Therefore, the small ball s will gain the charge q = Cϕ= C(ϕ1+ϕ2)/
2 = (q1+q2)/2.
IV.96. No, will not. Because the connection of the capacitor changes the difference between the potentials
of the points À and B. Let the electromotive force of the accumulator be equal to 2U. Then ϕA–ϕB= U. If
we now connect to the points À and B the capacitor shown in the dotted line, the capacity of the segment
ÀB will be 2C, and the difference between the potentials will be ϕA–ϕB = 2U/3.
IV.97. In addition to the energy of electrostatic interaction between the balls, they possess proper electro-
static energy W = Q1⋅Q1/2C+Q2⋅Q2/2C , where C is the capacity of each. In connection by a wire, their
proper energy decreases. The complete electrostatic energy of the system also decreases, because a part
of the energy transfers to the Joule heat when the current flows along the wire.
IV.98. Check the absence of a contact between the terminals and metallic body and also the presence of
a puncture in the dielectric.
IV.99. The dielectric permeability of a dielectric must depend on the electric force of the electric field and
the temperature. To the substances of this class so-called “ferroelectrics” do belong (for example, the
tytanate of barium).
IV.100. In a sharp increase of the tension, the power transmitting lines are grounded via the spark interval
and vilite disks and thus are discharged. With decreasing potential difference between the vilite disks, their
resistance increases and the power transmission line is again isolated from the ground.
IV.102. The left-hand rule implies that in parallel position of conductors in the case of the similar direction
of currents the attraction between conductors appears. If the currents move oppositely, the repulsion
arises. In the third case the conductors will tend to turn so that the currents flow in them to one side. This
does not contradict the third Newton’s law, because in the last case the resultant force acting on each
conductor equals zero.
IV.104. The electromagnet with sharpened ends of the core.
IV.106. Rings will turn so that the currents in them flow parallel.
IV.107. If the wire is twin-core, the pointer remains calm.
IV.108. No, it will not.
IV.109. The arc goes aside and dies.
IV.110. The Coulomb force for any speed of motion of charges which is less than that of light, exceeds the

133
Lorenz force. In the case of currents flowing along the wires, the electric field of moving electrons is
shielded by the field of movable ions of the crystal lattice.
IV.111. The compression of plasma is a result of the Lorenz force action on charges moving in parallel
directions.
IV.113. Outward the observer.
IV.114. ma>mb.
IV.115.The wire is to be folded in two (bifilar) and the coil is to be winded as
shown in Fig. A.28.
IV.116. If the currents have opposite directions, then the field outside the cable
does not exist. In similar directions of currents the field outside the cable is
twice stronger than the field of the sane current passing through a unique wire.
IV.118. It is better to make this experiment when they transmit the grid for
F ig . A .2 8 . tuning the TV picture. If in the center of such a grid a small circle were shown
(this standard was earlier applied tuning on Soviet TV), the experiment would
be very impressive. Draw the magnet to the screen so that the magnet plane be
horizontal and one of its poles be closer to screen. The circle at the center of tuning grid will displace up or
down. The image on the screen is made by a beam of electrons which goes from the rare part of TV
toward the screen. The magnet deflects the moving electrons and thus the picture is disturbed. The direc-
tion of action of the magnet upon the charge is determined by the left-hand rule. The lines of the magnetic
induction go from the north pole to the south pole of the magnet. By the direction of the current in the left-
hand rule we shall take the “technical” direction from pus to minus. The positive charges were moving that
way. In the kinescope the electrons move (fly!) toward us. Therefore the fingers of the left hand must be
directed toward the screen. By the shift of the central circle of grid we determine which pole of the magnet
was drawn to screen: north or south.
IV.119. In view of the Lorenz force action, the free electrons will be distributed along the ball’s surface so
that the resulting electric field inside the ball be homogeneous and compensating the action of the magnetic
field: qE+qvB⋅sinα= 0, |E| = vB⋅sinα. After that, the directed motion of the electrons will by ceased. The
maximal difference between the potentials ∆ϕmax will arise between the end points of
ball’s diameter which is perpendicular the plane at which the vectors v and B lie:
B ∆ϕmax = 2R⋅vB⋅sinα.
IV.120. Deeper, at a small distance l = 2R a particle penetrates the field, with the ve-
m + q R mv2/R directed
locity in parallel to the wall and perpendicular to B, as shown in Fig. A.29:
=FL= qvB. Hence B = 2mv/ql. Consequently, with B > 2mv/qd the particles will
v not penetrate the domain situated at the right from the magnet wall.
IV.121. The action of the magnetic field upon the ball will be dual: first, the ball will be
magnetized in the direction of the magnetic field; second, the already magnetized ball
undergoes a force directed to the side of the increase of the magnetic field and propor-
d tional to the velocity of the change of the magnetic induction along this direction. If the
magnetic field is homogeneous, the force acting upon the ball equals zero. Consequently,
F ig. A .2 9 . the case described in the conditions if the second field will be more homogeneous than
the first one.
IV.122. The iron at a temperature greater than 770 °C (the Curie point) becomes a
paramagnet. In this situation, by some powers of ten the force of interaction between a blank and the field
of electromagnet reduces.
IV.123. In heating, the iron may pass from the ferromagnetic into the paramagnetic state.In this situation,
the orienting action of the exterior magnetic field weakens.
IV.124. No, it will not be magnetized. In connecting a capacitor to a wire winded about a nail, in the
formed tuned circuit fading oscillations of current will rise. They will lead to a series of re-magnetization of
the nail, and its magnetization will fall from step to step and thus will turn to zero.
IV.126. 1. Electromagnetic supports do not bound the displacement of the tools, do not damage the
surface of details, allow to change quickly blank details. 2. A detail is kept on the machine by the force and
magnetic interaction.
IV.127. Steel things will be attracted to the constant magnet placed into the bronchoscope.
IV.128. Change the direction of current in winding of the electromagnet.
IV.129. The nails are closer packed in a box.
IV.130. The magnetized cork joins tiny metallic particles which may appear in the work of engine, and
does not give them to hit again the interior parts of the engine.
IV.131. To avoid the keeping of a detail to be displaced by remaining magnetic field of the core after
switching it off.

134
IV.132. The thicker is the layer of paint, the less is the attraction of the magnet to the object. The scale of
the device is graded with the use of known thickness of samples.
IV.133. Toward the observer.
IV.134. In ferromagnetic substances the losses stipulated by the heating of a sample by the Foucault
currents: under the same electromotive force of induction, the resistance of ferrite materials is higher than
that of metallic ferromagnetic materials, because by the Joule law the quantity of heat emitted on the
segment of a circuit with the resistance R within the time t in the potential U is equal to Q = U 2t/R.
IV.136. The steel possesses ferromagnetic properties and is magnetized in a magnetic field. Hence the
attraction of the steel to constant magnets follows. Under a heating, the ferromagnetic properties vanish,
therefore new parts of wheel are attracted to the magnet. This results in the rotation of the wheel. Note that
this heat engine does not work without a refrigeration.
IV.137. When we draw down the magnet along the bar, a closing of a magnetic circuit takes place due to
the iron bar, and the magnetization of its end stops.
IV.138. the induction of the magnetic field of the Earth has a vertical component.
IV.139. On the North geographic pole.
IV.141. Under strokes, elementary tiny magnets are oriented in the magnetic field of the Earth. On the
north end of the band the north pole will arise.
IV.142. From the South to the North, because the North magnetic pole of the Earth is situated near the
South geographic pole.
IV.145. Replace a wind with a rectangular frame with a current (Fig. A.30).
Upon each of the sides of the frame (say, AB) there act forces stipulated by
B I C magnetic fields of currents which flow over other sides of the frame (BC,
CD, and AD). By applying the right-hand rules we determine near the side
F AB the direction of the vector of magnetic induction created by the currents
flowing along the sides BC, CD, and AD (outward the observer). By the
left-hand rule we find that, on the side AB of the frame, a force acts directed
A D to the left. Similar arguments carried out for other sides of the frame show
that it undergoes an extension deformation.
IV.146. The form of a ring.
F ig . A .3 0 . IV.147. The winds of the solenoid are attracted to each other.
IV.148. This will not happen.
IV.149. Different. Larger in the first case.
IV.150. Will.
IV.151. Arises. The greatest electromotive force arises in a motion along a magnetic parallel, the least is
when one moves along a magnetic meridian. The value of the electromotive force depends on the speed of
the automobile (on the speed of intersecting lines of magnetic induction of the Earth’s field).
IV.152. No, because the flux of the vector of the induction of a magnetic field through an area bounded by
a frame (contour) does not change.
IV.153. A magnetic field of the alternating current which changes with the frequency 50Hz excite alternat-
ing currents of sound frequencies in the telephone wires. We shall hear a character “noise” in the phone.
IV.155. Powerful magnetic fields which are generated by the discharge of a lightning give rise to an elec-
tromotive force of induction in various conductors as well as in the power supply. The generated currents
may cause the phenomena mentioned in the problem.
IV.156. Appearance of a non-homogeneity in the material of the construction leads to change of the
magnetic flux which permeates the coil of the defect-scope, and thus to excitation of an electromotive
force in it.
IV.157. The magnetic field arising around the electromagnet excites in its winding an electromotive force of
the self-induction which generates a current directed oppositely to the current created by the power source.
Namely this makes the current to grow gradually.
IV.158. To formation of the electromagnetic field around the conductor.
IV.159. When the ring works the circuit is periodically disconnected and in its electromagnet the electro-
motive force of induction arises. It is rather large in view of the large number of winds in the electromagnet’s
coil. This force generates the feeling of sharp pushes.
IV.160. Because of large losses of the electric power in this case of transmitting. The alternating magnetic
field which surrounds the cable will excite in the metallic pipes the Foucoult currents producing the Joule
heat.
IV.161. In the metallic parts of the lamp in fast changes of the magnetic field induction currents are excited,
their energy being transferred into the Joule heat.
IV.162. In a superconducting contour the electromotive force cannot act, because by the Ohm law the

135
current in this contour must be infinitely great. Consequently, the magnet flux through a superconducting
contour must always be unchanged. As known, the magnetic flux Φ and the current I, flowing in a system,
are related as follows Φ= L⋅I (L is the inductance). The inductance of a ring Lr is proportional to the square
of the radius. Therefore each of the rings of the “eight” described in the condition will possess inductance
four times lesser than that of the initial ring. In calculation of the inductance of the system of two folded
rings, one must take also into account the mutual influence between the rings. This leads to a square
dependence on the inductance of the system of winds on their quantity. Thus, the inductance of the system
will not change and the current in the ring remains same.
IV.163. If the ring is superconducting, in its motion the current will change so that the complete magnetic
flux through the ring be unchanged (see the previous problem). At a certain moment the force, acting upon
the ring from the side of the magnet, will balance the gravity. Moving by the inertia, the ring will pass over
the point of equilibrium and will move further until the increasing force of its interaction with the magnet will
turn its velocity to zero and will make it to move backward. In the second pass through the point of balance
the ring will possess a velocity directed upwards. It will again pass over the equilibrium point, and so on.
Since in passage of a current through a superconductor no heat is emitted, in absence of the air resistance
non-fading oscillations of the ring about the equilibrium point will arise. If the ring is not superconducting,
the value of the current will be determined by its resistance and the electromotive force at a present instant
of time, i.e., by the speed of motion. In this case, the ring also will oscillate but with a fading.
IV.164. If the magnet has been removed, in the ring the induction current arises, its magnetic field generat-
ing the flux Φ through the ring.
IV.165. When the magnet starts to fall, ion the pan the induction current arises with its magnetic field acting
upon the magnet with the force directed upwards. The force quickly increases and stops the magnet. Since
the pan is made of a superconductor, the induction current does not cease and we see the levitation of
the magnet.
IV.166. When the tail close the circuit, a superconducting contour arises, the magnetic flux through this
contour cannot change. Therefore, the same does the current through the solenoid.
IV.167. In a pipe the magnet will fall for a longer time.
IV.168. In the second case a greater charge (∆q = E⋅∆t/R≈∆Φ/R) will flow through the device. In both the
cases the magnetic flux through the contour decreases, but in the first case the flux varies from one positive
value to another (lesser), while, in the second case, from the same initial value to the same by absolute
value but with the opposite sign.
IV.169. The magnetic field inside the coil is proportional to the quantity of winds. Since each line of
induction of this field penetrates the contour of the coil as many times as the quantity of winds is, the flux of
induction through the coil (and therefore its inductance) is proportional to the square of the number of
winds.
IV.170. Since the current is constant, its value before and after straightening of the coil is determined by
the electromotive force of the battery and the Ohm resistance of the wires. When the wire is straightened,
the flux of the magnet field through the coil will decrease, therefore the induction current will be co-directed
with the current of the battery. Thus, in straightening of the coil, the current will first increase and then
become equal to its initial value
IV.178. If we simply disconnect the engine from the circuit, the rotor will turn due to the inertia. If the
winding of the engine will be set in a short circuit, it will become a generator, in which the arising induction
current is directed so that in interaction with the magnetic field of the generator it brakes the rotation of the
rotor and thus brakes the train. In a large speed of the train (and thus quick rotation of the rotor),m this
current may damage the engine. In this connection, they usually connect to engines special rheostats.
IV.184. The wood then is warmed up along the whole volume, which results in a uniform drying. In this
way of drying, the wood will not have rifts in it.
IV.185. The currents of a high frequency exist only in a small superficial layer of the metal. Namely this
layer will be heated and then hardened. The hardening the superficial layers allows to combine in a detail
the hardness of the surface with the elasticity.
IV.186. The absorption of the electromagnet field of the primary coil depends on the thickness of the
metal.
IV.187. As a consequence of the electromotive force of induction, which arises in connection and discon-
nection of the circuit.
IV.188. Under change of the current in the arc, in the coil (stabilizer) an electromotive force of self-
induction arises counteracting with the change of the current’s force.
IV.189. As a consequence of the electromotive force of self-induction arising in the choke under discon-
nection of a circuit, in the circuit of the lamp a tension arises sufficient for ignition of the discharge.
IV.190. It is better to use the current arising at the moment of disconnection of the circuit, because it has a

136
large value (in a decrease of a current in the coil, the self-induction current is co-directed with the current
created by the power source).
IV.191. In disconnection of these circuits a high tension may arise (due to the electromotive force of the
self-induction), which is dangerous for human life.
IV.192. At the place of disconnection of circuits a sparking discharge arises due to the self-induction,
which passes to the arc discharge. The discharge is more intensive in disconnection of a circuit. To prevent
the destruction of the contacts, these can be, for instance, placed into oil which isolates better than the air.
IV.193. Due to the large electric capacity of the capacitor the tension arising in the flow of the self-
induction’s current does not suffice for a “puncture” of the air.
IV.194. 1. The electromotive force of self-induction arises in disconnection of the circuit. 2. Lamps pos-
sess a neglectible inductance.
IV.195. To decrease the electromotive force of self-induction .
IV.197. The flux of the magnetic induction through the rotating frame changes by the law
Φ(t) = B0S⋅sinΩt⋅cos(Ωt+ϕ) = B0⋅S⋅[sin(2Ωt+ϕ)–sinϕ]/2, whence we see that the frequency of the elec-
tromotive force of induction equals 2Ω.

137
 Answers to Chapter V

V.1. The electric current may flow from a lower potential to a higher potential under the action of external
forces, for example, inside a galvanic element.
V.2. Does not mean. In practice, the speeds of the directed motion of free electrons is some millimeters
per second, which is smaller than even heat speeds by seven powers of ten. If the current were propagated
with this speed, a telephone conversation between Moscow and Kazan would be as long as some dozen
years. Moreover, in alternating current the free electrons make oscillations about a mean equilibrium posi-
tion and are not displaced for pong distances. What is the matter of this paradox? The matter is in impossibility
to consider the motion of electric charges without accompanying change of the electromagnetic field.
Namely the changes (propagated practically at the speed of light) in the electromagnetic field stipulated by
a directed motion of charges in a certain place of an electric circuit make electric charges to move along the
whole electric circuit.
V.3. The difference between the potentials of the Earth’s surface and conducting layer of the atmosphere
is about 400000V. In addition, the summary current through the air of the atmosphere equals 1800A.
Thus, the complete power of such an “atmospheric power station” is only 720MWt. For a comparison:
the power of all power stations of USSR in 1980 was 300GWt. Therefore, with regard for technical
difficulties in designing and constructing atmospheric power stations, it “does not worth” (literally in Russian,
“the game does not worth the candles for its illumination”).
V.4. Only the sum of works made in the internal and exter-
nal parts of the circuit is constant. With the growth of ex-
ternal resistance so does the work on the external part and,
respectively, the work made in the internal part of the cir-
3 cuit decreases.
V.7. The scheme of the experiment is given in Fig. A.31.
If, avoiding their direct touch, we draw closer metallic plates
1 1 and 2 to each other, we get a capacitor. In connecting its
plates with a power source 3, on the plates charges of dif-
2 ferent sign arise, which will be attracted to each other. Let
the value of the charge at each plate be q. The tension of
F ig . A .3 1 . the electric field between the plates E will be E = U/d, where
U is the tension on terminal of the source, d is the distance
between the plates 1 and 2. In this situation, U = qC, where
C is the capacity of the created capacitor. Taking into account that for a flat capacitor we have C = ε0⋅S/d
(for simplicity we assume ε = 1) and that E is created in equal degree by both the plates, we get of the force
acting on the upper plate F = q⋅E/2 = q⋅U/2d = = U2/2Cd = U2/2ε0S. Hence
U = 2Fε0 S ,
where the value of the force F is determined via the condition of the equilibrium of the balance. However,
it seems very difficult to realize this experiment in practice, because the force of interaction between the
plates is significant only for very small distances.
V.8. The leaves of the electroscope are drawn apart independently of the sign of the charge of the leaves
and container, becuase these charges are always opposite. In the case of an alternating current, the leaves
will be attracted to the container within each semi-period and the angle at which they will be drawn apart
will increase as a greater tension is applied. However, in the experiment with the voltage 220V, the leaves
of the electroscope will not diverge in view of a small magnitude of the tension amplitude. Therefore the
measuring method described above works at voltage of tens an thousands of kilovolts (for example, in the
case of use an electrophorus machine).
V.9. To solve the paradox recall that by an electric U12 between the points 1 and 2 of an electric circuit we
understand the work done by Coulomb and external forces for displacement of a unit positive charge
between the points 1 and 2. Let us turn to the problem. The induction current is same in all sections of the
conductor, the conductor is homogeneous and has the same thickness along its length. This means that the
density of electric charges of any sign is same in all points of the conductor. Consequently, the potential of
different points is same. Therefore, in our case, the electric tension is determined by the work of external
forces. The role of an external force here is played by the tension of the swirl electric field arising in the
contour as a consequence of the electromagnetic induction. The work of forces of the swirl field depends,
in contrast to the work of the Coulomb forces and other forces, on a trajectory along which the charge
moves from one point to other. For our case this means that UArA ≠UBRA! When we can write for the cur-

138
rent in the contour I = UArB/r and I = UBRA/R. Hence, in particular, I = (UArB+UBRA)/(r+R) = Ei/(r+R), where
Ei is the complete electromotive force of induction in the ring determined by the Faraday law.
V.10. The resistance is 4 times less.
V.11. 1. To decrease the resistance of the end-rails’ contact (and thus to diminish the energy losses in this
passage). 2. To ensure sufficient elasticity electric joining in the oscillations of rails caused by train motion
and their thermal expanding.
V.12. At the room temperature the glass is a good isolator, and in the melted state (at temperatures above
300 °C) is a conductor.
V.13. After the lamp will be switched on, the current decreases.
V.14. The second one.
V.15. Connect the stove with open spiral to the supply. Holding two electrodes which are connected to
the lamp and are close to each other, touch the middle of the spiral. Then draw apart one of the electrodes
permanently touching the spiral and observing the incandescence of the filament of the lamp.
V.17. It would strongly complicate the isolation: the layout of wires and connection to devices should be
made as on a submarine – its wires nowhere contact the water.
V.19. Absolute insulators do not exist, therefore between the wires and the ground a leakage current
arises. It grows as isolators are covered by a layer of water. But their shape minimize the leakage because
the interior part of an isolator is dry.
V.20. To prevent an electric current through the human body.
V.21. It is not sufficient. In a contact with two poles of a power source, a man isolated from the ground
might be the victim of electric shock.
V.22. A permanent jet of water (conductor!) might injure man by electric shock, because between the
wire and the Earth (man) a high voltage exists. The ground-
ing of the fire-pump is necessary for the case of its fault.
V.23. The resistance of the segment of detail with a cavity
is greater, therefore the tension is also greater on this seg-
A ment.
V.24. In a deformation of the construction the wire is also
deformed and its resistance changes.
V.26. For example, on both ends of a cable one may
connect two wires through an indicator and a source of
current (see Fig. A.32).
F ig . A .3 2 . V.28. With an increase of tension of terminals ÀB the current
in thermistor grows which leads to its heating and reduction
of its resistance. This originates the redistribution of the tension between R1,
I R2, and Rt.
V.29. A thermistor can be surrounded by a spiral with a current. In a change
E/r of the air (water) flow, the thermal conduction also changes and therefore the
I0 temeprature of the thermistor (thermoresistor) .
V.30. If we join into a circuit a power source, an ammeter, and a thin wire, in
E U the circuit a constant current of a certain force will be established, which will
heat the wire to a certain temperature. If we blow upon the wire, it will be
F ig . A .3 3 . cooled and the resistance will decrease, the ammeter will show an increase of
the current in the circuit. This principle may be put into a model of an
anemometer. In the capacity of a gauge one can use the filament of an
ordinary broken lamp.
3 V.31. The resistance will be practically infinitely large. The matter is
that, in such a current, only a layer of water with section of order of
1 4 2 the surface of merged electrodes will participate efficiently. In this
5 situation, the gain in the area of section of conductor (water) turns
6 into an essential loss in the specific conductivity (this is much greater
for the water than for a metal).
V.32. Obviously, E =U(I)+I⋅r, where U(I) is the voltage on the di-
ode. The current I0 in the circuit can be found as the coordinate of the
point of intersection of volt-ampere characteristic of the diode U(I)
with the straight line E-I⋅r (see Fig. A.33).
F ig . A .3 4 . V.33. The resistance between two nails, say 1 and 2, does not de-
pend on the disposition of remaining nails. Let us dispose mentally
the nails as in Fig. A.34. The figure shows that, if we connect the points 1 and 2 to a power source, the

139
points 3,4,5 and so on will have the same potential. Therefore we may neglect the conductors connecting
these nails. We shall get as a result a parallel connection of 1994 similar circuits with the resistance 2R0 and
a conductor with the resistance R0:
1 1 1994 998
= + = , Rx = R0 998.
Rx R0 2 R0 R0
V.34. The graphs are given in Fig. A.35.
rR − r 2 rR
R1 = r , R2 = , R3 = .
R r+R
V.35. First of all let us consider the scheme given in right draw. If we move the crawler, say to the left, the
resistance of the part of the rheostat, which is connected into the cir-
cuit, will decrease and same will do the readings of the voltmeter. The
R total lamp, in this case, will get a greater tension from the source and will
R burn brighter. In moving the crawler of the rheostat of the left scheme,
say to the left, its resistance will decrease, approaching the resistance
of the ammeter . In this case,the reading of the ammeter will decrease,
R /2 because the current is divide into two comparable parts. Thsi motion
of the crawler will not affect the brightnessos the lamp, because the
decrease of the tension on the segment rheostat-ammeter with regard
for its small resistance in parallel connection will be neglectable.
R /2 R r V.36. The resistance of the circuit:
Rr
F ig . A .3 5 . Rtotal = 2 = 16 Ohm.
R+r
Therefore through the battery the current is I = 5/8A. At the point A
(see. Fig. A.36) this current is branching into non-equal parts I1 and
R C r I 2
. At the point C the current I1 “chooses” the direction CD, because
the resistance is null on the segment CD while on the segment CP is
differs from zero. The same arguments make the current I2 at the
P A I 1 I A point D “to choose” the direction DC. Thus, the current through the
2
ammeter is I A = I 1 -I 2 . In addition, obviously, we have
r D R UAP = I1⋅2r = I2⋅2R. Then with regard for I1+I2 = I, for the current
through the ammeter we finally have
IA = I
( R − r ) = 3 A.
(R + r ) 8
F ig . A .3 6 . V.37. The current shown by ammeter is greater than that flowing
through the resistor, it is the
summary current through the resistor and voltmeter. The greater
will be the resistance of the voltmeter, the lesser will be the error in Rx
determination of the force of current flowing through the resistor,
because the resistance of the part of circuit with voltmeter and A I1 V U 1
resistance connected in parallel will be approximate to the value of
the resistance of resistor. In addition, intrinsically, the accuracy in
the determination of the resistance will grow.
V.38. It suffices to make to measurements (Fig. A.37). The firs al-
lows to measure the internal resistance of the ammeter ra = U1/I1, Rx
V U2
while the second gives us the value of the unknown
resistanceRx+ra = U2/I2. Hence Rx = U2/I2–ra. The problem has been A I2
resolved. But if we make also the third measurement, then we can
get the value of the internal resistance of the voltmeter rV= U3/I3.
V.39. The ends of the cable from the side BC (Fig. A.38) must be A
Rx I3
connected; from the side ÀD the ends must be connected with a V U3
rheochord (a linear open resistor) EG and then supply to the latter
a certain difference of potentials. Having grounded one of the ter-
minals of the ammeter, by the wire of other terminal one must a F ig . A .3 7 .
point with potential equaling zero. In this situation, the lengths of the
cable ABCL and LD relate as the segments of the rheochord EK

140
and KG. We arrived at the scheme of so-called Wheatstone bridge.
V.40. The answer depends on what device is more exact. If the resistance Rx is measured by the right
scheme, the voltage U is determined on this resistance, and the current flowing through it is certainly
unknown. The error in the measuring of the current
E ∆I under unknown voltage results in an error ∆Rx in
the determination of Rx, which can be easily found
by the Ohm law I⋅Rx = U; I⋅∆Rx+Rx⋅∆I = 0. Denot-
B A ing by RV the internal resistance of the voltmeter, we
C L D K have |∆I|RV = I⋅Rx. Therefore,
∆Rx = Rx ∆I / I = Rx2 / RV .
A
For the left scheme we have in a similar way ∆Rx = Ra,
G where Ra in then internal resistance of the ammeter.
Thus, if
Rx RV < Ra Rx ,
F ig . A .3 8 .
the it is more advantageous to use the right scheme
and vice versa.
V.41. The tension is less than the electromotive force in view of a present internal resistance. The differ-
ence between the tension on the poles of the source and the electromotive force equal the rpoduct of the
current through the source by the internal resistance of the latter.
V.42. By a voltmeter of electrostatic system.
V.43. The current will grow, because the internal resistance of the element will decrease.
U U B
U2 2 1 C E
U2
U 2’
U 2’ D
A
I 2’ I 1 I 2 I r1 r2 r
a b
F ig . A .3 9 .
V.44. The greater internal resistance of an old battery leads to a decrease of the current in the circuit.
V.45. If the current I flows in a circuit, the decrease of potential on the resistance r will be I⋅r. Therefore,
under a given value of the resistance, the current in the circuit and the voltage on this resistance converge
graphically as coordinates of the point of intersection of the straight line U = I⋅r with the volt-ampere
characteristic curve of the source (Fig. 0.39a). Under an increase of the resistance of the rheostat the angle
of inclination of this straight line to the axis I will grow. In addition, the potential on the resistance (the
segment AB in Fig. 0.39b) will also grow. The resistance, which corresponds to the position of the straight
line 1, is denoted by r1. Starting from this value, the current in the circuit may take three values. However,
up to the resistance r2 (the straight line 2) the current will continuously change. The current I2 corresponds
to an instability in the system. A slight decrease of the current leads to its jump-like weakening to the value
I2' (Fig. 0.39a). Moreover, the potential on the resistance will fall by a jump (the segment CD in Fig. 0.39b).
In further increase of the resistance of the rheostat the tension on it will grow continuously (the segment DE
in Fig. 0.39b). In switching off the rheostat, an instability arises if the resistance is r1.
V.46. The battery of galvanic elements has a finite internal resistance. Therefore the voltage on the lamp is
less than the electromotive force of the battery by the quantity of the decrease of the tension on the internal
resistance. If one discharges a capacitor through the lamp, all the tension will fall on the lamp. As the
capacitor discharges, the tension on the lamp will decrease, but if the capacitor possesses a large capacity,
the charge accumulated in it will be larger and within a certain interval of time the difference between the
potentials of the plates of the capacitor (therefore the tension on lamp) will be practically constant.
V.47. The lamp did not burn on.
V.49. When the ground is wet. The human body and the ground between its feet are parallel parts of a

141
circuit, where the currents are inversely proportional to resistances. In order for a small current to flow
through the body, it is required that Rh>>RE. Since the resistance of the human body Rh is constant, the less
of the resistance of ground RE (wet ground), the more safe is the situation.
V.50. Since ideal insulators do not exist, a leakage current exists (in rainy and dusty weather it grows). If
a man touches a support (a pole), almost all current of leakage might pass
through his body, because the resistance of his body is much less than the
resistance of the part of supporting pole from the place of touch to the ground
(especially in the case of concrete supports).
V.51. In repairing a socket one might make a short circuit, but not in repairing
a switcher.
V.52. The scheme of switching a lamp from two
different places is given in Fig. A.40.
V.53. One of the possible schemes of erroneous
F ig . A .4 0 . connection is given in Fig. A.41: in simultaneous
switching on two switchers, only the upper lamp
burns, because the lower lamps are in a short circuit.
V.55. In switching the circuit the tension on the lamp is less than the electro-
motive force.
V.56. We denote by r the desired resistance. Then the resistance of the infinite 1
circuit lying to the right from the points C and D will also equal r. Consequently,
the initial circuit is equivalent to that shown in Fig. A.42, and for its resistance 2
the relaiton is valid R+Rr/(R+r) = r, whence we get
F ig . A .4 1 .
1+ 5
r= R.
2
A C
V.57. The summary current flowing in both the resistors will decrease. As for R
the currents passing through each of these resistors, one will decrease while
other may both decrease and increase. For example, if we sharply increase R1
R r
but slowly R2, the current in the conductor R2 will grow.
V.58. The reading of the ammeter will grow. The cooling of the spiral results in B D
a decrease of its resistance and therefore to an increase of the current under a
constant tension. F ig . A .4 2 .
V.59. To augment the area of cooling of the conductor.
V.60. The lamp are connected consecutively.
V.61. The currents in the branches (the segment of wire between the toes and the body connected through
toes to the wire as another branch) are inversely proportional to the resistance of the branches. Since the
resistance of bird’s body is many times greater than the resistance of the segment of the wire between its
toes, a very insignificant current will flow in the body of bird.
V.62. The change of the tension in the external circuit is related to the change of its resistance due to the
fact that under a change of the current in the circuit the decrease of the tension on the power source poles
also changes, because the source possesses internal resistance. In a parallel connection of power sources,
the interior resistance of the battery obtained will decrease. Therefore less will change the tension on the
battery in variation of the current and, in particular, also due to the load resistance.
V.63. The different thermal expansion of the joined plates results in their bending when a current passes
and to the disconnection of the terminals 5,6,7. The current stops, and the lamp turns out; in cooling, the
bi-metallic plate restores its form and closes again the terminals: the closing of the circuits of the spiral takes
place (the terminal 5) and the lamp (terminals 6 and 7). In heating, the spiral again deforms the bi-metallic
plate and so on. The lamp will blink.
V.64. 2. Fuses, which somewhere are called “corks”, are usually situated in places of common use (in the
entrance to flats and houses). 3. In an overload of the supply due to switching large devices consuming
much power (Russian standard fuses are designed for the voltage 220V and the current 6.5A). 6. To avoid
the electrical shock in broken switches (in wet rooms the conductivity of both air and some surfaces (to
which a man may touch) grows).
V.66. Under the tension 127V the filament of an electric lamp will be less incandescent, i.e., it will have a
lower temperature and thus lesser resistance. Therefore the power consumption of the lamp will decrease
less than 3 times.
V.67. The voltmeter will show the electromotive force of the source (if this voltmeter is of electrostatic
system). Voltmeters of other systems will show value of the tension on their own.

142
V.68. The desired direction depends on the circuit in whole. For example, if it has the form shown in
Fig. A.43, the first pupil will be right. But if the circuit will be as in Fig. A.44, and E2 will generate on the
segment ACB a current which is greater
than E1 does, then the second pupil will
E1 be right.
V.69. When the tail is connected to the
A B A B source (position 1), the capacitor
C C charges up to a certain tension U. In
addition, on its plates the charge
E2 Q = C⋅U arises. In switching the tail to
the position 2, a discharge of the
capacitor tales place. Thus, the
F ig . A .4 3 . F ig . A .4 4 . shoulder AB of the bridge has the av-
erage current I = C⋅U⋅ν in a potential
on this shoulder equaling U. Consequently, effective resistance of this shoulder is 1/Cν. The balance
condition of the bridge can be written if ones looks again on the solution of the problem no. V.36. We get
R1 1 Cν R 1
= . Hence C = ⋅ .
R R2 R1 R2 ν
V.70. Both the formulas are identical since U = I⋅R. In the consecutive connection of two conductors the
quantity of heat emitted on them is proportional to their resistances P∝R, since at a current of same force
the quantity of heat will depend on the tension, which is greater on a conductor with a greater resistance.
In the parallel connection of two conductors the quantity of heat emitted in each conductor is inversely
proportional to their resistances, i.e., P ∝1/R, because at the same potential the quantity of heat will de-
pend on the force of current, which is greater for a conductor with a lesser resistance.
V.71. The misunderstanding is originated by forgetting to take into account the inverse proportional de-
pendence between the current and the resistance at a fixed potential. Then for a definite tension we cannot
take an arbitrary resistance, because by the Joule-Lentz law P = U2/R, whence it is seen that the increase
of the resistance implies the decrease of the quantity of heat emitted in a conductor with a current.
V.73. It will increase.
V.74. The consumed power decreases.
V.75. In a cooling of a part of wire it complete resistance decreases, the current increases. In addition, the
fall of potential on non-cooled part of the conductor increases. As a result of an increase of both potential
and current on this part, the quantity of the emitted heat grows.
V.76. The resistance of a cold metal is less than that of a hot one. There-
fore at the same potential in the switching on the quantity of the heat
emitted per the unit of time will be greater.
r1 r2 r n V.77.
where
An equivalent scheme of electric circuit is represented in Fig. A.45,
R is the summary resistance of the generator and wires, ri are the
R resistances of the devices connected to the circuit. In connecting to the
circuit devices with a small resistance, the complete resistance of the part
of circuit r, where ri are connected parallel, decreases. This results in a
F ig . A .4 5 . fall of potential on the resistor R and, as a consequence, to decrease of
the power emitted on r.
V.78. This means that firmly soldered wires are almost not heated by the
passing current and remain cold, while the winded together wires without soldering are heated at the place
of contact due to its significant resistance.
V.80. By the augment of forces of friction, the work of the electric engine, which should be spent to
treatment of details, goes to heating in a greater degree.
V.81. Connection made by a thick copper wire allows to avoid the fall of potential on its and thus reduce
the losses to its heating.
V.82. To emit greater quantity of heat.
V.83. The resistance of sheets at the place of their contact is greater than the resistance through electrodes,
therefore greater heat is emitted at namely this place.
V.84. To reduce the losses of energy for heating of the wires.
V.86. In the consecutive connection a half of potential goes to each engine, in the parallel connection each
works in normal regimen. In the last case the power will be greater and the tram will be able to go with a
greater speed.
V.87. In the parallel connection the heat emitted will be four times greater than in the consecutive connection.

143
V.88. a) in the copper one; b) in the steel one.
V.89. Under a short circuit the resistance of the external circuit is zero. Therefore by the Ohm law the
potential is also zero. The work of external forces is completely spend in this case to overcome the internal
resistance of the power source.
V.90. a) the less is the resistance of the external circuit, the greater is the current in it. Therefore, the greater
is energy spent to overcome the internal resistance of the power source; b) the losses of power on the
resistance of the source can be made zero only if the external circuit is disconnected, when the current is
absent.
V.91. By means of an ammeter, voltmeter, and watch. Having evaluated the real consumed energy W = UI⋅t,
we compare it with the difference between the reading of the electric counter in the same interval of time.
If the resistance R of the power consumer is known, then is suffices to have watch and ammeter (or
voltmeter).
V.92. The quantity of heat which is emitted in a circuit under a constant potential of the source, is inversely
proportional to the resistance of the circuit. Let the resistance of a half of ring be r. In moving the runner
from point B to an oppositely posed point A, the resistance of one part of the ring increase, which decrease
for other part, say by a quantity x. Then the resistance of the circuit is
(r + x)(r − x) r x 2
R= = − .
r + x + r − x 2 2r
Obviously, R is maximal if x = 0, i.e., when the runner is at the point B.
V.93. This situation is not real, because the internal resistance of the source was not taken into account.
V.94. The magnetic flux through the ring is proportional to the current I in the coil: Φ= L⋅I (L is the mutual
inductance). If the current in the coil changes linearly, then in the ring a constant electromotive force arises
∆Φ ∆I
Ei = − = −L ,
∆t ∆t
where ∆I is the change of the current in the time ∆t. The current in the ring which has the resistance R
equals E L ∆I
Ir = i = − .
R R ∆t
Within the time ∆t in the ring the next heat energy will be emitted 2
L2 ( ∆I )
W = I r2 R∆t = .
R ∆t
In the first case
L2 ( ∆I1 )
2

W1 = ,
R ∆t1
in the second case
L2 ( ∆I 2 )
2 2
 ∆I 2  ∆t1
W2 = = W1   = 6 J.
R ∆t 2  ∆I1  ∆t2
V.95. With an increase of the charge of a body, the same does the electric force of the electric field
surrounding this body. At a certain value of the force of the electric field, the molecules of air are ionized.
The air ceases to be an isolator, and the body start to lose charges through the air. Obviously, one cannot
charge infinitely bodies even under the vacuum, because the charges will start to flow out the body due to
the electric field which they have created.
V.96. There is no reason since in the normal conditions the air is an insulator.
V.97. It is possible. In the capacity of ionizing substance, the quick cosmic particles may act, the particles
irradiated by a radioactive substance in the Earth, etc.
V.98. The mechanisms of ionization are different: in the first of cases, it is the high potential which ensures
the ionization of gas molecules in collisions of molecules, atomic electrons, and ions with each other, in the
second case, the presence of a high temperature leads to ionization of the air (by expense of the kinetic
energy of the particles in a collision) and arising of thermoelectric emission from electrodes.
V.100. If a rarifying of a gas its electric conduction first grows in view of growing free pass of ions. In a
string rarifying, the electric conduction decreases in view of decreasing concentration of charges particles.
V.101. Evaporation of the wolfram in its heating and consequent condensation on the surface of a container.
V.102. The electric force of an electric field in related to the difference between potentials via the relation
E = ∆ϕ/∆l, where ∆l is an infinitely small distance at which the change of the potential by ∆ϕ arises. The
electric force of the field is most large near the electrodes (the points O and C) and vanishes on the

144
segment AB.
V.103. Depends on the kind of a gas.
V.104. If air hits the tube, the pressure there rise and the free pass of electrons turns lesser; the potential
becomes insufficient for the existence of a glowing discharge (electrons fail to obtain the energy necessary
to ionize the molecules of gas).
V.105. For glow of the gas in neon lamp an electric field must be created there, which is reached by
rubbing the glass.
V.106. A neo lamp starts to glow in a tension sufficient for arising of a glowing discharge. The brightness of
incandescent lamps grows as tension grows, because, in this situation, gradually increases the temperature
of the filament of a lamp.
V.107. By virtue of bombing of the cathode by positive ions of the gas.
V.108. The interior resistance of a stabilitron is inversely proportional to the anode current, which results in
an unchanged potential on the stabilitron.
V.109. The cathode is the source of electrons and in its cooling the thermoelectric emission may end.
V.110. A thin-wall detail must be connected to the negative pole of the power source, because the nega-
tive electrode heats less than the positive one.
V.111. Through these needles the structure of the airplane gradually discharges at relatively low potentials
and the radio noise is reduced.
V.112. In an increase of the diameter of a wire the tension of the electric filed near it decreases, which
leads to a decrease of the intensity of ionization of the air. Hollow wires are used for economy of metals,
however, with a provision that their resistance be small.
V.113. Replacement of one wire with three wires is equivalent ot an increase of the diameter of a wire,
which results in a reduction of losses for glowing discharges.
V.114. The electric conduction of the air grows.
V.115. The seeds with different physical properties are charged differently.
V.116. For arising of a spark discharge a high voltage is necessary.
V.117. Over outstanding places of the surface the electric force of the field is great, sparks arise meting
these outstanding places.
V.118. Electric-spark treatment of metals does not depend on its hardness, nor frailty. The evacuation of
the metal takes place over the whole treated surface which corresponds to the shape of the electrode and
does not depend on the shape of a detail. In this situation, a preliminary treatment of the surface of detail is
necessary in order to remove a large scale asperity.
V.119. In the first of cases the incandescent lamp does not burn, because the heat from the filament is
evacuated through the hydrogen which is placed into bulb. After sinking bulbs into helium, the hydrogen
freezes out and the lamp burns again. In the neon lamp, the neon also freezes and the discharge disap-
pears.
V.120. a) In the switching the lamp on, the leaves of the electroscope converge. This is explained by
charges’ “flowing down” from the electroscope to the foil, because inside of the bulb a negative charge
arise due to electrons emitted by the filament of the lamp. b) In a negative charging of the electroscope, its
leaves in the switching lamp on do not converge, since the gas of the lamp practically contains no free
positive charges. c) In string incandescence of the lamp’s filament, a partial ionization of the takes place. In
this case, the leaves of negatively charged electroscope are draw to each other. The mechanism of the
phenomenon is similar to the case a).
V.121. Positive ions of the air bomb and destroy the cathode.
V.122. In a strong electrostatic field the electrons obtain large kinetic
energy, which turns into heat in the process of bombing of the anode.
V.123. The live of lamps become longer since in the atmosphere of
inert gases the incandescent metal is less evaporated. A
V.124. A gauge for the counter of ionized particles can be done of a
glass tube with inert gas under a definite pressure and two electrodes
sealed in (Fig. A.46). If we give on the electrodes a high voltage, then
each ionizing particle will cause an impulse of a current in the gauge,
which can be registered by a sensitive device. Such a gauge is called F ig . A .4 6 .
the Geiger gauge.
V.125. The electrolyze takes place, with which upon the duct, as on a cathode, the metals settle supplied
from the ground which works as an electrolyte.
V.126. The molecules of salt in water are dissociated into ions which chaotically move in it. If in such a
solution one creates the electric field by merging two plates connected to poles of the power source, then
the ions start to move orderly thus creating a current in the solution.

145
V.127. To renew the ions in the solution, the anode is taken as a plate of the same substance which is
accumulated on the cathode. Ions flow down from the anode and pass to the electrolyte.
V.128. The ions of copper from the places without wax will pass into solution thus creating cavities
(embossment over copper). The places covered by wax remain untouched.
V.129. The dissolution of the sulfuric acid with water makes to increase due to dissociation the quantity of
ions in the solution. The local currents, arising in such a solution (electrolyte) by virtue of the electrolyze,
cause the corrosion of the vessel.
V.130. The presence of salts in a simple water makes it to conduct currents (electrolyte). The resulting
within the secondary reaction in electrolysis products of dissociation of water give birth the hydrogen and
the oxygen; besides, the volume of the hydrogen is twice greater than the volume of the oxygen. Therefore,
on the negative pole of the power source a greater quantity of gas will be formed.
V.131. If the rails were connected to the positive pole of the power source, then by virtue of the electro-
lyze of the underground waters (the Earth would possess a negative charge) the oxygen were produced on
the rails. This will significantly accelerate the corrosion of rails. In addition, it were very dangerous to cross
tram rails.
V.132. The vapors of water contained in the air in their condensing and settling on wires may cause a short
circuit, since the water formed in this process is an electrolyte.
V.135. The zinc-coated iron is an anode covering, the tin-plated iron is a cathode covering.
V.136. This result in the increase of the forces of interaction (attraction) between the molecules of a prod-
uct and the molecules of the metal which is used to cover the product.
V.137 By the conditions of exploitation and the chemical properties of the metal.
V.138. For a uniform covering by the metal, because in this process the covering goes on both sides.
V.139. The rotation of baths facilitates uniform covering of the details and accelerates the electrolysis due
to washing out the mud from drums, which decreases the current in the electrolyte.
V.140. The metal settled on convex micro-relief is partially dissolved and the surface of the treated details
becomes smoother.
V.141. This depends on the way in which the resistance of the electrolyte changes with a change of dis-
tance between electrodes. The latter affects as well the force of the current. This leads to a variation of the
intensity of the electrolyze.
V.142. Thew cutting tool must be connected with the positive pole of the power source, and the metallic
disk for sharpening with the negative pole.
V.143. It is necessary to make the surface to conduct the electric current by covering it a layer of a
conducting substance (for example, graphite).
V.144. In the passage of an electric current through an elec-
trolyte, near the electrodes charges of opposite sings are
accumulated, whose electric field is directed oppositely to
the electric field generated by the capacitor. When the elec-
tric forces of these fields will become equal by their value,
1000

the current will be stopped. More baths are connected

consecutively, the less charge passes through them.
V.146. To obtain the potential of 600V, 600 V/0,15 V = 4000
electric pockets must be set in a series. To obtain a current
of 1A, 1 A/0,001 A = 1000 electric pockets must be in par-
4000 allel. This gives near 4 millions pockets. The way of their
commutation is given in Fig. A.47.
V.148. The current in the circuit is I = (E1+n⋅E2)/(r1+n⋅r2+R),
F ig . A .4 7 .
where r1 and r2 are the internal resistances of the accumula-
tors, R being the external resistance. This expression does
not depend on n as dI/dn = 0, i.e., when E1/(r1+R) = E2/r2. In this case, I = E2/r2.
V.149. This is possible.
V.150. Near the terminals of the accumulator the electric field is too weak.
V.151. Among the plates and the solution of the acid non-electrostatic forces act. In this case, the different
parts of the conductor will have different potentials.
V.152. Inside the element the electrolysis takes place in the passage of a current directed from the negative
pole to the positive pole. The ions of hydrogen go along the direction of the current.
V.153. This term is not very correct, electrolyte is a viscous liquid. Therefore the element is covered by a
resin.
V.154. In “rumpling” an element we mix the electrolyte.
V.155. The signs of electrodes in a galvanic element are determined by relative position of chemical elements,

146
which are they made of, in the electrochemical series of tensions. Each element displaces from salts all
other which are at right from it in this series. The zinc stands to the left from carbon and copper in the series
of tension, therefore in a pair with them it is a negative electrode. Once can make a galvanic element with
positive zinc electrode one selects the cathode material among substances which are at the left from zinc in
the electrochemical series, for instance, the calcium or the manganese.
V.156. The chemically pure zinc is less solvable in acid than that with addends.
V.157. Destruction of the tank occurs due to formation of galvanic pair aluminum-copper and the simple
water is an electrolyte. Under the action of this “galvanic element” the dissolution of the metal (aluminum)
and the formation of hydrogen on the copper take place.
V.158. In a leakage we must add a ready-to-use electrolyte; in evaporation from the surface we may add
a portion of the distilled water
V.159. If an accumulator is charged, the density of the electrolyte increases by expense of reduction of the
water contained in it. The matter in a secondary reaction, which result in decomposition of water. The
hydrogen goes to cathode; a molecule of SO4, being unstable and ejecting an ion of the oxygen O2-, turns
into a molecule of sulfuric anhydride SO3, which forms with water the sulfuric acid. If the accumulator is
discharged, the density of electrolyte decreases.
V.160. The internal resistance of the dry elements is significantly greater than the internal resistance of
accumulators. Therefore, at the same the electromotive force, the fall of potential on a lamp connected to
dry elements is less than if it were connected to an accumulator.
V.161. No, cannot. Because the most part of the potential will fall inside the battery. The potential on the
starter will be insufficient for a work.
V.162. I = E⋅n/(r⋅n+R), where n is the quantity of elements, E and r are the electromotive force and the
internal resistance of one power element, R is the resistance of the external circuit. Hence I = E/r for R = 0.
Therefore one cannot obtain a current of arbitrarily large force.
V.163. The acid accumulators possess small internal resistance. If the resistance of the power source is
small, then, in a short circuit, a huge current arises in the circuit, which may lead to a destruction of the
source.
V.164. In the alkaline accumulators a greater power goes to overcome the proper internal resistance.
V.165. The starter consumes a large current (about hundred amperes), therefore in the alkaline accumula-
tors there were a big fall of potential and in a change of the temperature (in view of the change of resistance)
the voltage on the poles of accumulator also would change.
V.166. To reduce the internal resistance of the accumulator and thus increase its efficiency.
V.167. Use the parallel connection of elements, in this case the internal resistance of the battery is minimal.
V.168. In the range of temperatures from 0 to 600 °C – the first, because in heating by 400 degrees it
generates the electromotive force of 30 mV, while the second gives only 12 mV.
V.169. The electrons and positive ions in plasma are deviating in a magnetic field to different plates. In the
given direction of the magnetic field (see Fig. V.27), the electrons are deviated to the lower plate while the
positive ions go to the upper plate. Between the plates an electric potential arises. The current is directed
from the upper plate to the lower plate through the resistance of load.
V.170. The greater is a degree of ionization of a gas which enters in a magnet field, the greater is the
quantity of charged particles which hit the plates (electrodes). This results in a greater value of the poten-
tial.
V.171. By virtue of the electromagnetic induction, it the rotor the induction current arises, upon which
Ampere forces act from the side of the magnetic field of the stator and thus brake it.
V.172. In the disconnection of the circuit 4, into the circuit of bypass winding of the inductor 5 a resistance
in included, which by weakening the current in the bypass winding reduces the tension of the magnetic field
of the generator until the electromotive force excited in its armature 6 decreases. Then the electromagnet
will release the terminal which will put the resistance in a short circuit. This process repeats, the contact 2
will vibrate.
V.173. The primary excitation in the machine is by expense of the residual magnetism of the core of the
inductor.
V.175. Excited in the armature when it rotates in opposite direction current will weaken the magnetic field
of residual magnetism but not support it. There will not be an excitation of the machine.
V.176. a) When the engine of machine does not work or work at a slow speed, the lamps are supplied
from accumulator battery; poor incandescence of the lamps testifies a discharge of the battery; b) when
the rotation of the engine has been increased and the rotor of the generator will turn with a necessary
speed, the lamps burn with the normal brightness, but the latter lowers as soon as the rotation speed has
been lowered (because the accumulators are not switches on to work).
V.177. A large current is necessary to obtain a greater power, which is necessary to turn on the crankshaft

147
of the engine. In a rather long work with such a great current, the winding of the starter is strongly heated.
V.180. By the Lorenz law, the momentum with which a magnetic field of the stator acts upon the generator
winding of the rotor is contrary in its direction to the momentum of the winding of the rotor working as an
engine. By their value the both momentums must be same (it is assumed that the rotor rotates uniformly).This
means that the forces of currents in both windings of the rotor are also equal to each other. It is clear that
the electromotive forces of induction E are also equal. Therefore I = (U– E)/R, I = E/(R+r). By excluding
E, we get I = U/(2R+r).
V.181. To change the direction of tram’s movement there is a device in it which change the polarity in
windings of the engine. The terminal, which in the forward move is connected to the air wire, in move
backward is connected to the rails.
V.182. A tram may return the energy into the supplying circuit. Electric engine of a constant current, which
is applied in the tram, is reversible, i.e., in a rotation of the shaft of engine it generates a current as a dynamo
machine. In very fast rotation of the rotor, e.g., when a tram moves downwards over a hill, it may happen
that the voltage generated in the windings of the engine will be greater than the voltage in the circuit; thus
this tram will supply an energy to the circuit.
V.183. In the rotor of an electric engine, an induction current arises directed oppositely to the current
which puts engine to work. The electromotive force of induction is proportional to the angular speed
rotation of the rotor. The greater is this angular speed, the lesser is current supplied from the circuit to the
engine.
V.184. In order to avoid sliding contacts in the transmission of a current of a large power into external
circuit (sparking and arcs lead to quicker destruction of both the brushes and rings).
V.185. The answer is “no”; the constant magnetic field of the inductor is generated by the dc source, which
is a special generator of dc called “exciter”.
V.186. In Russia, the ac frequency standard is 50 Hz. For fast-rotation machines (vapor turbines), which
rotate at the speed 50 rps (rotations per second), it suffices to have one pair of poles for e a generator.
Then one complete rotation gives one period. As for a generator which is moved by a slow-rotation
hydraulic turbines, it must have as many pairs of poles as much times its rotation speed is lesser than that of
a vapor turbine. Then the frequency of the generated current will equal 50 Hz.
V.188. To avoid the electrolysis which may cause errors in measurement of the value of resistance.
V.189. The brightness of the both lamps is similar in the mean.
V.190. The resistance of the wire against a direct current has not changed. For ac its resistance has been
increased.
V.191. The reactive resistance of the circuit decreases.
V.192. The complete resistance of the circuit of ac in consecutive connection of a resistor, coil, and a
capacitor is determined by the expression
2
 1 
Z = R + ω L −
2
 ,
 ωC 
where R is the resistance of the lamp, ω⋅L is the inductive resistance, 1/(ω⋅C) is the capacity resistance.
Hence the result described in the condition of the problem is evident. The essence of the phenomena is in
the specificity of the resistance produced by the coil and capacitor against an alternating current. In definite
phases of the oscillations of the current, its energy passes into other forms (the energy of the electric field
of the capacitor and the energy of the magnetic field of the coil). In other phases this energy, accumulated
by the coil and the capacitor, is returned into the circuit. Since the oscillations of the potential at the coil
and capacitor are in counter-phase, by the choice of the capacity and inductance one can make so that the
energy, say returned into the by the capacitor be exactly equal to the energy drawn from the circuit by the
coil and vice versa. Obviously, in this case the energy of the power source is spent only for overcoming the
active resistance of the circuit.
V.194. The incandescence of the lamp’s filament will decrease. A part of the battery power will be spent
to magnetizing and hoisting of load.
V.195. The zero wire has usually a smaller diameter.
V.196. 300 Hz.
V.197. For the second one: the phases are loaded non-uniformly.
V.198. The consumers are connected consecutively and receive a part of the tension (Fig. A.48). In the
three-phase supply with zero (Fig. A.49) such a situation is impossible.
V.199. In the second case each winding gets a linear (inter-phase) voltage while in switching “in star”
between any two phases not one but two windings are present; in this case, each gets a lesser phase
voltage.
V.200. a) the ends of three windings are connected together by means of a jumper – this is the connection

148
“in star”; b) the end of one winding is connected with the start of other winding – this is the “triangle”.
V.201. In switching on to the right, the windings are connected into circuit “in star” and get a lesser
voltage; afterwards, when the engine will get sufficient rotation,
the complete voltage is supplied to its windings by re-switching
1 to the “triangle” scheme of connection (turn of interrupter handle
2 to the left).
V.202. Further transmission without transformation implies large
3 losses of power in wires to the Joule heat. In a near transmission
these over-losses can be avoided by applying thick conductors,
called “bus” (which are applied, for example, in electric power
stations in the transmission of energy from a generator to the
distribution panel). In a longer transmission it is not worth to
F ig . A .4 8 . apply thick conductors (buses).
V.203. It changes, but insignificantly (decreases by 1–2%).
1 V.204. A burning out of the coil is very probable, because its
inductive resistance will strongly decrease and therefore the flow-
2 ing current will strongly grow.
3 V.206. An interrupter is necessary to stop the action of the elec-
tromagnet: then the clapper is drawn apart from the bell, it closes
again the circuit. In applying ac, the changing magnetic field gen-
0 erates the vibration of the clapper.
V.208. In moving the handle from A to B the quantity of winds
in the primary winding decreases; therefore the potential on the
F ig . A .4 9 . grips of electrodes will grow and the force of the current in the
secondary winding decreases.
V.211. The wind with a short circuit loses approximately twice its inductive resistance, which results in a
significant increase of the heat emitted on this part of the winding. The transformer may be heated up to a
high temperature and be thus damaged.
V.212. In re-magnetizing of a steel sound waves arise with the double frequency of re-magnetization, i.e.,
100Hz.
V.213. In supplying the current from the mains, it passes through the winding of an electromagnet which,
holding the armature, disconnects the terminal C. If the supply it cut, the armature under action of the
spring goes back, closing the circuit of the accumulator battery; lams are switched on.
V.214. In a reduction of the rotations of engine, the potential produced by the generator goes down, the
magnetic action of the electromagnet 1 weakens, and the spring 2 draws back the armature 3 thus discon-
necting the terminals 4. In this situation, the accumulator battery is switched off from the generator.

149
 Answers to Chapter VI

VI.1. Will grow.

VI.2. The periods of oscillations of the balls will be practically same. In both the vacuum and the air first
will stop the pendulum with water, because a part of its energy will be spent to interior friction between the
layers of water.
VI.3. Potential energy of the system of three balls in the equilibrium state is assumed to be equal to zero.
Then in a deviation of the construction for a small angle α the potential energy of the system will be equal
to
α 1
Ep = mg ( L -L cos α ) = 2mgL sin 2 ≈ mgL ⋅ α 2
2 2
while the kinetic energy is
3
Ek = mL2 (α
) ,
2

2
w h e r e α
is the derivative of with respect to the time, equaling the angular speed of rotation. The
complete energy of the system remains constant Ek+Ep = const. By substituting in it the expressions for
both Ep and Ek and after differentiation the result with respect to time, we have after some simplifications:
g
α

+ α = 0.
3L
This is a differential equation describing harmonic oscillations with the cyclic frequency
g
ω=
3L
and the period
2π 3L
T= = 2π .
ω g
VI.4. On the pole the clock will go faster, on the equator it will go slower.
VI.5. For two periods of oscillations we have:
l l
T1 = 2π and T2 = 2π ,
ME ME
γ + a γ
( RE + h ) ( RE )
2 2

where l is the length of the pendulum, RE and ME are the radius and the mass of the Earth, respectively, h
is the height at which the rocket is now, γ is the constant of gravitation. By equaling these quantities we get
 
 
1
h = RE  − 1 .
 aRE2 
 1− γ М 
 E 
VI.7. For the system described in the problem a good approximation is given by the model of the
mathematical pendulum. If the pail is filled completely, first its period will increase, because, if the water
flows out, the center-of-gravity of the system (pail–water) will first lower, and thus
the length of the pendulum will grow. Then an decrease of the period will take
place by virtue of an upward growth of the center-of-gravity of the system (pail–
m water). When the water fill be exhausted, the period of oscillations will turn to be
equaling the initial one, because the initial length of the pendulum is restored.
VI.11. Assume that the deposit of ore has the shape of a ball, then the attraction
r force of the bob of pendulum of mass m to the Earth at the given place (Fig. A.50)
is M m V
F = γ E2 + γ ( ρ O − ρ E ) O2 m
RE RE r
and provides it with the acceleration
F 16π 2VO
F ig . A .5 0 .
. a = = g + γ ( ρO − ρE ) 3 ,
m 9

150
where VO=4πr3/3 is the volume of the ball of ore, γ is the constant of gravitation, g is the acceleration of
the free fall far from the ore deposit, ME is the mass of the Earth. The period oof oscillations of the
pendulum far from the ore deposit is
l
T0 = 2π ,
g
and near the deposit is
l
T1 = 2π .
a
Then
T0 γ ( ρ O − ρ E ) 3 16π 2VO
η= = 1+ .
T1 g 9
Hence the mass of the ore deposit equals
3
 η2 −1  9 ρO
≈ (η 2 − 1) ⋅1023 tons.
3
М O = ρ OVO =  g
 γ ( ρ O − ρ E )  16π
2

VI.12. By the phenomenon of resonance (closeness of the frequency of free oscillations of the pail and the
frequency of the compelling force created by the movement of a man). To decrease the swinging back and
forth, one must change the rhythm of walk.
VI.13. The work of engine generates vibration of the body of automobile and all its parts. The most strong
oscillation of glasses happens when the period of vibration of engine becomes equal to the period of
proper oscillations of the window glasses.
VI.14. The piece of wood floating in water prevents formation of waves of a large amplitude.
VI.15. To avoid transition of vibration to the structure of the building.
VI.16. 72km/h.
VI.17. The acceleration is a2= 4π2l/T2.
VI.18. The oscillations of one tuning fork can be modulated by their amplitude by periodical closing and
opening the resonator with hand. If we close the resonator of the first tuning fork periodically with the
frequency Ω. Then the change of the amplitude of the sound which it generates follows the law:
1
A (t ) = A0 cos Ωt ⋅ cos ω1t = A0  cos (ω1 − Ω ) t + cos (ω1 + Ω ) t  .
2
If Ω = ω1–ω2, or Ω =ω1+ω2, the second tuning fork will start to sound.
VI.19. In following the technique of the method of dimension, we represent the solution in the form
R = E a t b ρ 0c .
By requiring the coincidence of dimensions in the right-hand side and in the left-hand side of this formula,
we get a system of equations for determination of a, b, and c: a+c = 0, b–2a = 0, 2a–3c = 1. Finally,
15
 Et 2 
R=k  ,
 ρ0 
where k is a certain dimensionless constant.
VI.20. By the method of dimensions we get [v]2 = [p]/[ρ], whence
v1 p1 ρ 2
= .
v2 p2 ρ1
VI.23. In approximating to the shore the lower layers of water are braked by the friction between them
and the bottom, while the upper layers are moving forward and thus ahead the lower ones. They take a
sharp shape so that their vertices come off and molder forming a foam ridge.
VI.24. At least, there are three reasons. First was explained in the previous problem. The second cause is
the current. The third is that some objects represent a kind of a sail.
VI.25. An analogy with the geometric optics takes place here. In shallow waters the speed of waves
decreases. Therefore we may assume that a wave enters a zone with a greater coefficient of refraction.
The law of refraction gives us that the direction of the wave’s propagation in passing from one medium to
another medium with a greater index of refraction occurs more close to the normal of the boundary of a
media interface.
VI.26. Arising in a discharge of a lightning, sound waves as they approximate the ground hit the layers,

151
where their velocity becomes greater, and therefore the lesser is the index of a refraction of a medium.In
addition, the direction of propagation of sound waves more and more goes upward (Fig. A.51). Under a
definite height of the discharge and a certain
distance from the ground, a situation is possible
T h e d irec tio n o f th e soun d w av e
p ro pa g atio n fro m th e lig htn in g
in which the waves, before they reach the ground,
are reflected from a warmer layers of the air.
The fire of heavy guns are made on the surface
of Earth. Their sound, heard by us, runs directly
in layers with the same temperature and is not
refracted. The length of its propagation is subject
to only a reflection on surface barriers (buildings,
T h e su rface of th e E arth relief. forests) and the absorption by the air.
T h e d irec tio n o f th e soun d w av e VI.27. Because propagated by marching sol-
p ro pa g atio n fro m th e heav y g u n ders and their orchestra, the sound needs a cer-
tain time to reach our ears: the speed of sound in
F ig . A .5 1 . the air is not huge, being about 340 m/s; as for
the speed of light, it is greater by many orders of
ten (about 3×108m/s).
VI.28. In summer, because the speed of sound in the air grows as temperature grows.
VI.29. The speed of a jet airplane is close to the speed of sound or exceeds the latter. Therefore we see
the airplane not at the place from which the noise of engines reaches us, but somewhere ahead of this
place.
VI.30. The sound waves are not propagated from the surface of the Earth to a latitude exceeding 2.5–
3km. Passing into the air of a lesser density, these are refracted and return to the surface. The cause is that
with a decrease of air’s density the speed of propagation of sound waves grows and thus the coefficient of
their refraction decreases. In other words, here we deal with an effect analogous to the effect of complete
internal reflection in the optics.
VI.31. In a misty weather the air is more homogeneous (in the scale of sound waves) and the convection
flows are absent.
VI.32. By the oscillations of the wings of the insects.
VI.34. After filling with honey, the bee emits a sound of a lower frequency.
VI.35. The stroke of the hammer generates the oscillations of the wheel which generates a sound. An
integer and good wheel and a wheel with a rift make different sounds, which is used by the observer.
VI.36. To increase thew friction between the bow and the string, one must develop conditions for excita-
tion of oscillations in the string.
VI.37. First, the speed of rotation of the saw decreases; second, the mechanical parameters of the system
“saw-support-plank” are changed.
VI.38. To decrease the frequency of oscillations.
VI.39. Lowers.
VI.40. In view of a heating produced by hand, the length of the tuning fork increased and the frequency of
proper oscillations changed. Therefore in adding oscillations some beating appear.
VI.41. With the growth of the pressure, the sound frequency in the cylinder increases.
VI.42. The length of a sound wave is approximately equal to four times of the length of the air column
inside the tube.
VI.43. The interior space of the bottle serves as a resonator, selecting from the noise a tone of a certain
frequency. As the content of the bottle increases, the length of the resonator shortens and the height of the
tone goes up.
VI.44. Will not change.
VI.45. The sound is amplified by expense of a shorter duration. The leg of the tuning fork excites in the
table compelled oscillations which create the laud sound.
VI.46. The answer is “no”. In non-elastic bodies (cotton, etc.) elastic oscillations, which are transferred
from one point of body to other, do not arise.
VI.48. On the open air only sound waves which go directly from the source of sound, are perceived. In
closed rooms a man perceives also waves reflected from walls, ceiling, and other objects.
VI.49. Closed doors and windows are damping sounds, because the sound waves which hit their surface
are partially reflected and the quantity of energy which enters into a room reduces significantly.
VI.51. The walls of the can may oscillate generating a sound. A can sounds more aloud when the fre-
quency of its proper oscillations is equal to the frequency of one of tones of the sound produced by you
(resonance).

152
VI.53. The sound is propagated in solid bodies better than in gases.
VI.54. Yes, because the sound goes over the solid details of the fuselage and inside it through the air.
VI.55. No at any distance, because in the space vacuum there are no condition for propagation of sound
waves. However, if the cosmonauts will touch each other by their helmets, they may hear each other.
VI.56. The human organism is a resonator of sound waves, which also changes its frequency spectrum. A
man perceives his proper voice as a combination of oscillations which go both in the air and through his
proper body. Listening to his own voice in a Hi-Fi record, he hears only the waves which are propagated
in the air.
VI.57. To widen the spectrum of eigenfrequencies.
VI.58. The melody will sound same, because the frequency of sound in any medium remain same.
VI.60. First we shall feel the sounds of the stroke propagated by the pipe. After that we shall hear the
sound propagated in the air.
VI.61. A bullet shot from a gun moves with a supersonic speed. Therefore, a shock wave is created which
gives the sound of a high tone.
VI.62. As a disharmony.
VI.63. The sound of high frequencies is stronger absorbed than the a low-frequency tone. This makes the
speech illegible.
VI.64. The echo may be both useful and harmful. If it amplifies the sound and slightly increases its dura-
tion, it is useful.
VI.65. To avoid a superposition of sounds reflected from buildings on the new sounds. The length of a
pause depends on the size of square.
VI.66. If the lightning is close, we hear only the sounds accompanying the lightning. If it is far, we hear also
the sounds reflected from various barriers.
VI.67. The size of a room is rather small. The sound from a source and its reflections are arriving practi-
cally simultaneously to our ears.
VI.70. On corners of buildings short-length sounds diffract on some small angles in view of their small
length.
VI.71. The mouth serves as a resonator of sounds.
VI.72. By amplification of weak sounds, whose frequency coincides with the frequency of free oscilla-
tions of the air in the mentioned objects.
VI.74. In a wind, the wires make chaotic oscillatory motions thus acting upon the isolators fastened on
poles. In these poles the standing sound waves are excited.
VI.75. A bat excites an ultrasonic sound and then perceives its reflection from barriers. Human hairs well
absorb ultrasonic waves, there fore the bat “does not hear” this barrier.
VI.76. Ultrasonic waves are reflected from objects possessing a size exceeding the length of an ultra-
sound wave. In this situation, a high accuracy of location is ensured.
VI.77. From the condition of interference minimums for the point M we have
λ
∆d = d 2 − d1 = (2k + 1),
2
and for the point M’ we have
λ
∆d ′ = d 2′ − d1′ = (2k + 3).
2
By measuring in the Figure both ∆d and ∆d’, we evaluate λ= ∆d’–∆d and v = λ⋅f.
VI.78. When the capacitor discharges completely, the current in the tuned circuit attains the maximal
value. To this instant the energy of the magnetic field reserved in the coil attains its maximal value. Namely
the presence of a reserve of this energy causes an uninterrupted process of the discharge of the capacitor.
The further change of the current in direction of its weakening generates an electromotive force of induc-
tion of a direction at which by expense of the decrease of reserved magnetic energy both the value of the
current and the former direction are supported. This process results in vanishing of the magnetic energy
and also in recharge of the plates of capacitor. The last state of the capacitor is not an equilibrium, and its
discharge in opposite direction starts.
VI.80. The metallic shell of a mine increases the inductance of the tuned circuit. In addition, the frequency
of sound oscillations decreases.
VI.81. By means of consecutive connection to the circuit of a capacitor (it makes to pass only the alter-
nating component of the current) or a coil with large inductance, called choke, which possesses large
inductive resistance for ac.
VI.82. The oscillations of high frequency of a generator are varied under action of oscillations of sound
frequencies obtained in the modulator; their power is increased in a special amplifier. The antenna emits
modulated electromagnetic waves.

153
VI.83. Modulated oscillations of high frequency, excited in the antenna circuit , then are amplified by the
high frequency amplifier. In the detector the low-frequency (sound) component of the signal is detected
and then increased in their amplitude by the low-frequency amplifier. After that the electric oscillations thus
obtained are transmitted to the speaker (phones), where are transformed into the sound.
VI.84. In the left circuit which is connected into a circuit of generator (the latter is not shown in the figure),
unfading oscillations of high frequency arise, which excite same oscillations in the antenna circuit. By means
of a key, short and long teams of electromagnetic waves are transmitted, which realizes the transmission of
signals by radio (so-called “manipulation”) by means of the Morse alphabet. In the antenna circuit of the
second scheme, unfading oscillation of high frequency are also generated, whose amplitude, however,
does not remains same, but changes permanently, being modulated. These changes take place granting to
the action of the magnetic field of the coil of the microphone circuit. I this circuit, as soon as sounds reach
the microphone, constant by direction but varying in force electric currents are excited (|currents of sound
frequency). Modulated oscillations in antenna generate modulated electromagnetic waves, which carry the
sound over space.
VI.85. In winter and summer the layer of ionosphere which absorbs radio-waves is at a higher altitude
(300– 600km above the sea level). In daytime this layer stays lower (80–100km) and absorbs the radio-
waves more intensively. The difference in reception is more sensible on middle and long wave bands; it is
less sensitive on short wave bands; the latter are refracted and reflected by the ionosphere.
VI.86. The “dead zones” are generated by two peculiarities of the propagation of electromagnetic waves:
a) their strong absorption by the Earth’s surface; b) refraction and reflection in ionosphere (the ionized
layer of the atmosphere, which is situated on altitudes 80–600km above the Earth).
VI.88. To decrease the sizes of a receiving device. Reception by short antennas gives a weaker signal
which then is amplified by the high-frequency amplifier. Thus, this fault of antenna is compensated by high
features of the amplifier of the radio-receiver.
VI.91. The signal reflected from the airplane hits the antenna of the TV slightly later than the direct signal
from the TV tower. On the screen of TV the image created by the direct signal appears. A weak “twin”
moves along the screen as the airplane approaches or leaves the zone of TV antenna. The second image is
to the right from the real image because the unrolling of electronic beam is left-to-right if we see on the
screen.
VI.93. The TV centers work on ultra-short waves (λ<10m). These waves are not diffracted on hills,
ravines and so on, therefore the receiving TV and the transmitting TV antenna must be in a direct sight.
VI.94. Being a conductor, the sea water absorbs radio waves.
VI.95. In the interference of waves a redistribution of energy takes place. In some places the summary
energy of oscillations equals zero, but if other places it exceeds the sum of energies of waves which
interfere.
VI.96. The rule exposed in the problem for interference maximum is valid for sources which send waves
at the same phase. If the difference of phases of oscillations sent by sources is π, then at the point À we get
an interference minimum.
VI.97. No. In this position of antennas an additional energy is drawn from the power source. Such posi-
tioning of antennas is widely used in practice.

154
 Answers to Chapter VII

VII.1. This effect is stipulated by illumination of the Moon by the Sum. Moreover, through the Sun only
the straight line drawn by a straightedge will pass. A mentally drawn line will not pass the Sun in view of
erroneous perceive of the sky’s cupola.
VII.4. The light from fluorescent lamps is emitted from a surface whose area is many thousand times
greater than the surface of the filament of an incandescent lamp. Therefore on the retina of human eye the
image of the fluorescent lamp covers many photosensitive cells. The quantity of the light energy per one cell
will be essentially less than from an incandescent lamp.
VII.5. Due to dissipation of the light by small drops of water.
VII.6. The domain of shadows is illuminated by reflections of the daylight from surrounding objects.
VII.7. Because the rays of the Sun rays which is under the horizon are reflected and diffused by the higher
layers of the atmosphere.
VII.8. Outside house the objects are illuminated much better than in a room and therefore more reflect the
sunlight.
VII.9. For free reading the luminosity (luminous intensity) at least on level of 40 lx is required. The luminosity
in a full Moon without clouds is near 0.1 lx.
VII.10. Stars are not visible because the sunlight diffused by atmosphere is significantly brighter than
starlight.
VII.11. The starlight passes a long way in Earth’s atmosphere and therefore is more diffused.
VII.12. It is possible in equatorial countries.
VII.13. The cause is in vertical position of the light
source (flame of a candle). When the fork is vertical,
then for each teeth the boundary of light and shadow
on the screen is situated at almost same places. When
it is horizontal, the boundary of the light and shadow is
shifted on the screen and intersect the boundaries of
A B other points, therefore we see its shadow in blur.
VII.14. Place more lamps.
VII.15. In diffused illumination it is more difficult to
D C recognize the true shape of object.
VII.16. The shadow of wires is parallel in a plane
which is parallel to wires, while the shadows of poles
F ig . A .5 2 . are projected onto a plane which is vertical to them.
Therefore these shadows behave differently. The length
of the shadow of a wire is practically same during the
day. This can be readily seen in Fig. A.52. If the wires are illuminated by a parallel beam of light, whose
rays are, in particular, the rays AD and BC, then the quadrangle ABCD, formed by these rays, the wire,
and the shadow of wire is a parallelogram.
A M VII.17. Let us consider the path of rays in a
C conic tube (Fig. A.53). In this figure AN and
β1 β1 β2 β2 α
BM are normal to the conic surface of the tube.
O Let us establish the between the angles of
β3
reflection for the first reflection β1 and for the
B D second reflection β2. It is easily seen that
N β2 = 180o–(∠BAO+∠AOB+∠OBM), where
F ig . A .5 3 . ∠BAO = 90o–β 1, ∠OBM = 90o. Hence it
follows β2=β1–α. Then the angle of reflection
for the third reflection β3=β2–α=β1–2α, and
for the n-th reflection βn=β1–(n–1)⋅α. Under a certain n the angle βn may turn zero and even negative.
Therefore only a very small part of the falling light will reach the lesser hole of the conic tube. So, it is not
possible to achieve a noticeable concentration of the energy in this beam of light.
VII.18. In Fig. A.54 it is seen that the image of the candle will be closer to the mirror. By the letter A we
denote the path of rays without plate, B stands for the pass of rays with plate.
VII.19. The man will see a piece of paper on the place of the image of closed eye.
VII.20. Make this experiment and explain results.

155
 VII.21. From Fig. A.55, where the path of rays is
shown, it is seen that independently on the distance
A between the mirror and the man, the latter cannot see
below the part of his body on the height H over the
B floor.
VII.22. Maximally, you may see three your images. In
the middle image we shall see yourselves as you are seen
to other people. The images on sides are same as if you
have used a single mirror.
VII.23. The waving surface of the water represents a
series of convex and concave mirrors, which give differ-
ent images.
VII.24. When glass of windows get older it will be
covered by tiny scratches (made by dust specks, brushes
F ig . A .5 4 . in washing, sand, etc), the side windows will have more
horizontal scratches. This results in the following. If one
sees through such a glass light sources, on a dark back-
ground he can see many reflections from the faces of
M irro r scratches (the effect of “moon way”).
VII.27. The mirror has a thickness, and the reflection is
produced by its rare wall. Such a phenomenon takes no
place in mirrors of surface silver-coating.
VII.28. The concave mirror joins the light beam from a lamp,
which stands behind a patient, into a narrow beam. This
H beam illuminates the necessary place, say the throat of the
patient, thus sharply increasing the luminosity of the places
it hits. Through the hole in this mirror the doctor observes
these sharply illuminated places.
F ig . A .5 5 . VII.31. The coefficient of the reflection of the light from the
asphalt tends to the unit as the angle of incidence approxi-
mates to the direct angle.
VII.33. When fish is considered from a bridge, the rays which go from this object have a small angle of
incidence and therefore their reflection from the water surface is small in comparison with the case when
the fish is seen from a low shore. In addition to these rays, in the latter case the sunlight reflected from
water surface is added. They add the bright background to the whole picture. If the observer stands on a
bridge, less sunlight is reflected from water and thus the picture has less bright background than if he stands
on a shore. This happens because less rays are reflected from water due to small angle of incidence.
VII.34. Note: consider the answer to the previous problem.
VII.36. The doctor may ask patient to consider the image of the table through a mirror.
VII.37. First, the exterior surface of the glass partially reflects the light and creates an additional (though
non-bright) image of the object. Second, a part of the light rays which are reflected from the amalgam of
the mirror, is also reflected from the boundary glass–air and again hits the amalgam and repeatedly reflects
in it. These causes create the second image.
VII.38. To decrease the intensity of the reflection of sunlight from propeller and protect the pilot against
their blinding effect.
VII.39. Because the foil reflects the infrared rays.
VII.40. Transparent windows reflect less light than walls of buildings.
VII.43. The eye refracts light. If the water touch the eye, the rays of light weakly refract, because the
refractive index of water is close to that of the lens of the eye. In a diving mask a layer of air remains
between the eye and glass and the rays refracts in the usual way.
VII.45. A set of prisms in this glass collects the light and declines it downward to the road.
VII.47. The refractive index of the insect’s body is close to that of water, but not the refractive index of its
eyes. Through completely transparent eyes the light were passing not exciting the optic nerve. In the air
these insects are visible.
VII.48. The refractive index of the air depends on the temperature and density, therefore the convection
flows of non-uniformly heated air generate an oscillation of the starlight.
VII.49. In spring the soil is differently heated in different places. The air over these places possesses
varying density an its refractive index changes. Due to convection the air moves, light passes through the
layers of air with changing refractive index. This results in oscillations of the visible disk of the Sun. This

156
“play” of the Sun can be seen in any day when the thermal and thus optical non-homogeneity of the air
arises
VII.50. The stars would be “displaced” to horizon.
VII.53. Less than the unit; for example, the silver and the gold.
VII.54. The opacity is stipulated by the diffusion of light in an inhomogeneous medium; in each transition
of the light from one medium to other, a partial reflection of the light. The part of the light reflected on the
boundary between two mediums is greater when so is the difference between their refractive indices.
VII.56. The color can known by sinking the powder into glycerine, whose refractive index is close to that
of the glass.
VII.58. The dull surface diffuses uniformly into all sides the rays which fall on it. If the glass is put with its
dull surface down, the luminosity of this surface is not uniform. Therefore the intensity of the light diffused
by different parts of this surface is different. If the glass is put with its dull surface up, the reflected beams
from various places of the draw are overlapped on the dull surface. The dull surface is illuminates almost
uniformly and therefore it is difficult to read the draw
VII.65. the answer is “no”. If the lens is in a medium whose refractive index is greater than that of the
material of the lens, then the convexo-convex lens will be diverging and the concavo-concave will be
converging.
VII.66. The positions of the focus of a lens differ for light of different length of wave.
VII.67. If the assumptions made in this problem are valid, the quantity of the impulse of a light wave in
passing through the lens does not change. If the light source S (Fig. A.56) is on the optical axis of the lens,
then the complete change of the impulse of the light wave which falls on the lens equals zero. Therefore on
the lens a force is acting which is parallel to the optical axis. In the case of a converging lens, with 0 < x < 2F
the projection of the impulse of the light wave onto the optical axis before the its passage through the lens
is less that the projection of the impulse of the light wave which has passed through the lens (Fig. A.56).
Therefore the force acting on the lens is directed to the source. If x > 2F, then this force is directed outward

P1 Q

P2
x
F F 2F x
S S’

F ig . A .5 7.
F ig . A .5 6 .

the source. A rough graph of the dependence of the force Q, which acts on the lens, is shown in Fig. A.57.
VII.68. The refractive index of the water n = 1,33, alcohol n = 1,36. The rays after passing through the
retort with alcohol will converge more than after passing the retort with water.
VII.69. From the triangles OCB and BCO’ (Fig. A.58) we get
Sscreen = l + R cos α − R, R sin α = l ⋅ tan ( β − α ).
By the law of light refraction we have n⋅sinα= sinβ. Then

Sscreen = R  2
 n
 n −1
( )
n cos α + 1 − n 2 sin 2 α − 1 .


In the second case (Fig. A.59) we see on the screen a clear dot of the radius
r = tan ( β 0 − α 0 )  Sscreen − R (1 − cos α 0 + sin α 0 ⋅ cot ( β 0 − α 0 ))
(from the geometrical similarity of the triangles OB’C’, B’C’O’ and O’AP). Evaluation for
3 π
n= , α 0 = , R = 10 cm
2 4
gives us r = 1,98R = 19.8 cm.

157
 R S scre e n
B’
B
β β0 A
O α α0 r
C O O P
O

R co s α l
F ig . A .5 9 .
F ig . A .5 8 .

VII.70. In the first part (∞>x≥2F) the image moves away from the focal point to a point on a double focus
distance from the lens. If x=2F, the candle and its image will stay on same distances from the lens. In the
second part, F≤x<2F, the image continues to move away from lens to the infinity (for x=F). In the third
part, x<F, the image becomes imaginary, and in drawing candle closer to the lens it also tends to infinity.
On the first part (∞>x≥2F) the movement of the image is slower than that of the object. On the second
(F≤x<2F) the situation is contrary.
VII.71. There will be no any image of the fly. It covers a part of the lenses thus playing a role of a
diaphragm. The luminosity of the film will slightly decrease, but the image will remain same.
VII.72. Reduction of the resolution is related to a “parasite light” reflected from scratches on the lenses.
The filling of these scratches with black Indian ink reduces the possibilities of such a reflection.
VII.73. The lenses should be placed so that the right focus of the left lens and the left focus of the right lens
coincide (telescopic system).
VII.74. Of course the parallel beam emerges form the ocular, but passing through the lens of the eye and
refracting it becomes by converging beam and gives the object image on the retina.
VII.76. It will be greater.
VII.77. No; the lens which is a magnifying glass has a small focal distance, significantly less than 25cm,
which is the optimal distance for a man. The
lesser is the focal distance of a magnifying
glass, the greater magnifying is obtained.
VII.86. One can get fire by means of ice in
a sunny day. To this end one must make a
convexo-convex lens of the ice which may
converge parallel rays into a point. At this
α point a high temperature may be obtained
β and thus an inflammable material can be
lighted.
VII.88. In following the law of refraction,
n1 n2 n1sinα=n2sinβ, where n1 and n2 – are the
absolute refractive indices of the mediums,
α and β are the angle of incidence and the
angle of refraction, respectively. The ray
from a far source undergoes the refraction
twice on the two surfaces of the lens of the
human eye (Fig. A.60). When the air is in
front of the eye, the ray on the entering sur-
F ig . A .6 0 . face of the lens is refracted greater than in
the case when the water is in front of the
eye. Therefore, if in the water the image of
a far object is formed on the retina, in the air the image of this object will at a small distance in front of the
retina. Therefore the man is shortsighted.
VII.89. The quantity of light which hits the eye increases as much times as the area of the telescope
objective is greater than the area of pupil of the eye. A photocell one which the starlight falls becomes more

158
intensively illuminated, therefore the stars seem to be brighter for us, and we can see those which cannot be
observed without a telescope.
VII.90. If the absorption of the energy by lens is absent, then the grain absorbs the energy E, which falls
from the source on the lens. This energy is proportional to the solid angle at which the lens is visible fromthe
point, the source is set. The solid angle is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the
source to the lens. Therefore
E1 a22 ∆t a2
= 2 , and thus, 1 = 22 , i.e., ∆t2 = ( a1 a2 ) ∆t1.
2

E2 a1 ∆t2 a1
VII.91. The irritation of the optic nerve and any way gives the sense of a visible light.
VII.92. First, to select these signals among the others. Second, to avoid fatigue of the eye; the light
whichfalls at the same place of the retina decreases its sensibility.
VII.93. An eye may keep an image for a certain time.
VII.95. The illumination produced by lightning is very short, so the moving objects make a small displacement
which is not noted by the eye.
VII.96. It is an illusion. All objects which are not sharply visible are thought placed at a long distance.
Therefore the man mentally magnifies the size of lamp and thinks that it is hung high.
VII.97. Strong irritation produces by a light or bright object is propagated over the retina of the eye.
Therefore bright objects on a dark background are seemed greater than their are indeed (phenomenon of
irradiation).
VII.98. As a consequence of irradiation (see the previous problem) the source of light is seemed greater
by its size than it is indeed, and therefore we think it is closer.
VII.99. In two eyes two images arise, which are perceived by the brain as a unique image only if they are
lying in identical points of the retinas.
VII.100. In the darkness the human eye is tined to perceive small doses of light. A sharp light may make
a man blind for a while.
VII.101. The electric arc possesses powerful radiation in ultraviolet and visible parts of the light spectrum.
Ultraviolet radiation is well absorbed by the usual glass. The darkening of the spectacles of a welder is
necessary to decrease the radiation in the visible part of the spectrum.
VII.102. The color will be additional to the initial one, which is the color which with the initial light gives the
white color. If the book is light- red, then we shall see a green its image, and vice versa. For the yellow
color, the blue color is additional , etc.
VII.103. The area of the image of the lantern produced by the lens of an eye is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between the eye and the source. The light flux which falls on the eye is also
inversely proportional to the square of the distance to source. Therefore the luminosity of the image does
not depend on the distance to the lantern.
VII.104. The eyes of a hare are
posed so that give it the maximal
F
th e a r panoramic view, but this does not
h ea o b j allow to see objects in front of it. To
d i e c ts mm
s lo , 4 5 consider these objects, the hare must
we
N o rm al re d m turn its head, or “to skew” in
43 m
d ista n ce Russian.
40 m m
VII.105. In contrast to a human eye,
, the eyes of insects have no retina.
b j e cts e d 40 Therefore their brain decides and
s e o l i ft mm
C lo e ad is determines how far objects are by
h
th e analyzing the images of objects in
different cells of their eyes.
VII.106. To see him better. The lens
of the horse eye cannot accommo-
date in a range of the human eye.
F ig . A .6 1 . This is compensated in significant
measure by non-spherical of the eye
of horse (Fig. A.61). To distinguish the objects of different distances the horse changes the inclination of its
head and thus achieve a sharp vision on a certain part of its retina, disposed at different distances from the
lens of horse eye.
VII.107. The power of the radiation of a heated body is proportional to the fourth power of the tempera-
ture. A stove has a greater heat emission than a lamp does, so it does not heat up to the temperature of the

159
filament of the lamp.
VII.108. Absorbing the energy, the cavity simultaneously radiates it. The power of the radiation quickly
grows with rising temperature, which leads to establishing of an equilibrium: the cavity gets as more heat as
it radiates.
VII.109. a) The common area of the interior surface of the container is S = πd⋅h +2πd2/4 = 0,102 m2,
where d is its diameter, h is its height. The losses of the heat in the unit of time by virtue of radiation are
W = 0.1⋅S⋅σ⋅(T4–T04) ≈6,9 Wt, where T is the temperature inside the container, T0 is the temperature of the
ambient. b) Denote by W1 the flux of the heat from the internal wall of by W2 that for the external wall.
Then the general flux of the heat between the walls of the container without additional wall is W0 = W1–W2.
If we set the additional wall, it will take an intermediary temperature and will radiate in the unit of time to the
both sides the flux of heat W3. The flux of heat in the internal interval will be W1–W3, in the external interval
it will be W3–W2. These two fluxes must be similar by the condition of the thermodynamic equilibrium, i.e.,
W1–W3 = W3–W2 = W’. Hence W3 = (W1+W2)/2. This gives us W’ = W1–W3 = (W1–W2)/2 = W0/2.
Consequently, in introduction of the intermediary wall the heat flux decrease by two times.
VII.110. Note: consider the answer to the previous problem.
VII.111. In the present case, two bodies possessing different temperatures are interchanging heat by
means of heat radiation. In this situation, the more heated body (thermometer) radiates more heat than the
cooled one. Respectively, the cooled body absorbs more heat than radiates. With the time the tempera-
tures of the bodies become equal and the heat balance takes place. The mirrors are concentrating the flux
of energy of the infrared radiation.
VII.112. Those with black soil.
VII.113. The air is heated mainly by expense of the radiation of the soil. The radiation of the soil increases
with growth of its temperature. The largest temperature is reached by soil afternoon, therefore the air
afternoon is heated greater.
VII.115. In the smoked.
VII.116. The sense of the light is related to the frequency of the wave of light. The frequency does not
depend on the medium where the light is propagated, because with the change of the speed of light in a
medium, by same times the length of its wave will change.
VII.117. Reflection of the ultraviolet radiation is different from the natural green leaves and those on
disguise. Therefore the different is their action on the photographis film. The sensitivity of an eye and the
film are different in various parts of the spectrum.
VII.118. The water absorbs the ultraviolet radiation .
VII.119. Almost black.
VII.121. In the spectrum of the radiation of the electric incandescent lamp the yellow and red rays prevail,
which changes the intrinsic color of bodies.
VII.122. These umbrellas reflect well the orange, red, and infrared rays.
VII.123. The visible light will not pass through.
VII.124. The solar crown which is visible in a solar eclipse, is a gas external shell of the Sun, which is in
heated state; it gives the linear spectrum. As for the dark lines of the usual solar spectrum, they are formed
in absorption of the radiation leaving the interior part of the Sun by exterior more “cold” shell (solar
crown).
VII.125. Here they deal with glowing vapors of the metals of electrodes which give a linear spectrum. By
this spectrum they determine the substance which the electrode is made of.
VII.126. Infrared radiation penetrates the glass worse than the visible light. Due to this feature the heat
supported in a house by heating is hold in a room. The infrared rays irradiated by heated bodies in the
room are partially reflected by glasses of windows and poorly leave the room for the ambient. However,
in the construction of modern buildings made of “glass and concrete” the losses of heat significantly
increase by expense of the augmented size of windows. Therefore in the recent time they started to apply
a special coating for glass. This coating allow the glass to reflect almost completely the infrared rays.
VII.127. Poorly; in this relation the usual glasses are not convenient because they do not allow penetration
into a house of rays which kill bacterias and are necessary for normal development of human organism.
VII.129. The linen possesses rather yellowish tone; the blue color is additional to it and gives in a super-
position with yellow the white color.
VII.130. Note: see the answer to the previous problem.
VII.131. As a result of quick deceleration of electrons, the braking X-rays arise.
VII.133. X-rays passing through a casting with cavities are absorbed in different places in a different
degree. In passing through places with cavities they are less absorbed and thus an increased resulting
radiation hits the screen or film with a greater force. Multiple scanning allows determine relative size,

160
position, and contours of the cavity.
VII.134. A man consume in the food both the products of agriculture and stock-breeding; animals also
consume plants. The growth and development of the plants directly depend on the Sun (photosynthesis).
VII.135. Shorter (by the length of waves) is the radiation, greater is its influence upon a photo-sensitive b/
w film. As for the red light, the molecules of the silver bromide almost do not react in ordinary black and
white films. We should mention that in the present time they widely use materials sensitive in a wider
spectral range, its development requires the complete darkness.
VII.136. Note: consider the answer to the previous problem.
VII.137. It is possible: in the infrared and ultraviolet rays.
VII.140. The white surface is subject to a stronger pressure.
VII.141. The alkaline metals possess an energy of output which is relatively small.
VII.142. Irradiation of the electromagnetic energy by the heated bodies.
VII.143. In the atoms of metals under an action of heat the electrons rather easily pass to higher energetic
levels. In their afterward returning to a state with a less energy, they eject light quanta. In the glass the
electrons are stronger connected to the nuclei and thus a greater energy is necessary for their excitation.
Therefore the temperature must be higher.
VII.145. The quartz glasses must absorb heat (infrared) rays. In doing so, these glasses should not melt
(i.e., they have to have a greater temperature of melting).
VII.146. The sunlight is poorly absorbed by the atmospheric air. These rays are absorbed by the Earth’s
surface and then the atmospheric air is heated by expense of the heat exchange with the ground and
absorption of the infrared radiation of the ground. Passing through the glass, the sunlight heat the soil. For
the infrared rays which are irradiated by the soil the glass is poorly permeable. The hotbed is a kind of trap
for the heat. In addition, inside the hotbed the water vapor attains the saturation point, which prevents the
evaporation of water from soil and thus works against a cooling of the soil by expense of the hidden heat
of vaporization.
VII.147. The formation of a “bronze sunburn” covering of the skin is a kind of a self-defense of the human
organism against the exaggerated action of the ultraviolet rays. The ultraviolet radiation is strongly ab-
sorbed by the pigment of sunburn, thus producing only a harmless heating. Therefore a well sunburn man
is heated under the Sun more than that without sunburn and, in addition, the first does not experience the
dangerous action of the ultraviolet rays.
VII.148. Blue ones.
VII.150. By the following phenomenon: in water drops the rays with a shorter length of wave are better
diffused.
VII.152. The path of the rays in sundown is greater; in addition, the air and particles in the air (dust,
vapors, etc.) diffuse mainly shorter waves.
VII.153. The most diffused by air are the deep-blue and blue rays.
VII.154. Passing through various mediums, the light is diffused on various non-homogeneous domains:
fluctuations of the density, impurities. As the size of particles grows, the dependence of the intensity of the
diffused light on its length changes. On large particles the light with a greater length will be well diffused. In
shallow waters, the impurities in water grow (different microorganisms, the sand hoisted by waves, etc.)
which determines the “green shift” of the water.
VII.155. On the Moon, there is not atmosphere which could diffuse the sunlight.
VII.156. In the atmosphere only the infrared rays of certain definite lengths of wave may be propagated
with rather small diffusion. Since the lengths of the infrared rays are greater than those of the visible light,
the intensity of their dissipation on the atmosphere will be significantly less.
VII.158. The rainbow arises as a consequence of the complete interior reflection and dispersion of the
sunlight in raindrops. In this situation, the rays of different colors are reflected with the largest intensity in a
direction which forms the angle 42o with the direction of sunlight. The geometric place of the points which
generate the rays directed at the angle 42o to the line of an observer is an arc of circumference.
VII.159. The rainbow can be seen when the height of the noon Sun above the horizon does not exceed
42o. But the height of the noon Sun at the geographic latitude of these cities exceeds 55o.
VII.160. In 5 p.m.
VII.161. It is not possible. The eye of an observer is always in the plane passing through the center of the
rainbow and the center of the disk of the Sun.
VII.162. In the western side.
VII.163. A brilliant (diamond) possesses a greater refractive index and thus a greater dispersion.
VII.166. Colored dots (the colors of iridescence or the oxide tint) is the result of interference of the light
reflected by the thin film of the oxide.
VII.167. By the interference of the sunlight in a transparent film covering the wings of insects and possess-

161
ing different thickness in various places.
VII.168. The rays of light reflected by the front and rare surfaces of the film, interfere with and cancel each
other (|the optical difference between their paths is λ/4+λ/4 =λ/2).
VII.169. For a complete cancellation of waves reflected by the boundaries of a film, in addition to the
phase difference equaling π, they must have the same amplitude. This is ensured by the corresponding
selection of the thickness and refractive index of the film.
VII.170. It is practically impossible to make the lightening cover for the whole visible range. Therefore the
lenses are lightened for the most intensive (yellow-green) domain of the spectrum. Obviously, namely these
colors are absent in the reflected light.
VII.171. By the diffraction of light on the paths of a compact disk.
VII.174. Yes, it is possible if the ball covers a small quantity of the Fresnel zones.
VII.175. A bird feather represents a kind of diffraction lattice. By determining the angular distance be-
tween neighboring maximums, one can evaluate the size of cells.
VII.176. The holes are regularly disposed in a tissue and thus form a diffraction lattice for visible rays.
Disposition of dots depend on the structure of this lattice. By extending and declining the tissue, we change
the period of the lattice, which causes the variation of dots’ displace.
VII.177. This phenomenon is explained by the diffraction of the light upon the tiny particles of water dust
and crystals of ice which are always present in the air.

162
 Answers to Chapter VIII

VIII.2. By realizing the nuclear reaction. In the nature, one stable isotope of the gold (Au197) exists as well
as seven isotopes of the mercury (Hg196, Hg198, Hg199, Hg200, Hg201, Hg202, Hg204). Therefore in the pro-
cess of a nuclear reaction, we must remove from the nucleus of the mercury one proton and either add one
neutron or delete one, two, three, four, five neutrons.
VIII.3. It is possible; the γ-rays penetrate bodies, besides, even in a greater degree than the X-rays.
VIII.4. Quick neutrons are often emerged from the body of uranium, not having a time to initiate or
participate in a nuclear reaction. Slow neutrons spend more time near a nucleus, therefore the probability
of their arresting by a nucleus increases.
VIII.5. A neutron may arise by expense of a spontaneous fusion of uranium nuclei; each such fission gives
2–3 free neutrons.
VIII.6. Neutrons which result in a spontaneous fusion of uranium nuclei (see the previous answer), as a
rule, are absorbed by nuclei of U238 without initiation of the chain reaction. But their collisions with nuclei of
U235 take place very rarely due to small (0,7%) quantity of them in the uranium ore.
VIII.7. The reactor 1, where the nuclear fusion chain reaction holds, heats a substance possessing high
heat capacity up to a high temperature. The substance then passes to the heat exchanger 3, where gives its
heat to water which is transformed into a vapor; after cooling the heat carrier by the pump 5 is again
returned into the reactor. The vapor goes to turbines 2, which put into move the electric generators. In the
condenser 4 the flowing water is heated by expense of the worked-out vapor; it is used for central heat
supply.
VIII.8. In the β-fusion a nucleus undergoes some changes. This is explained by the transformation of one
of the neutrons entering the nucleus into three particles (proton, electron, and antineutrino); besides the
proton remains in the formed nucleus, while both the electron and antineutrino emerge from the nucleus.
This makes to increase the charge of the nucleus by unit. The charge of the atom’s nucleus determines the
order number of the element in the Periodic Table by Mendeleev as well as all its chemical properties.
VIII.9. The lead is composed of heavy atoms, the graphite consists of light atoms (carbon). In an elastic
collision with a heavy nucleus, the neutron changes it trajectory of motion, practically without changing its
speed. In the collision with a nucleus of a carbon atom, which is closer by its mass, the neutron transfers
to it the most part of its energy. Therefore, in the capacity of a moderator , they use substances which are
composed by light molecules, for example, the water or the graphite. The substances mentioned above
differ by a high concentration of molecules and possibility to conserve their features in absorption of large
quantities of energy (the water possesses a high heat capacity, the graphite possesses a high temperature of
melting).
VIII.10. A snail is a sensitive indicator of radioactive radiation. It is a kind of an alive Geiger counter.

163
 Answers to Chapter IX

IX.1. a) The bar has the length of 1m in all orientations, because with respect to the observer on the board
of spacecraft the bar is in the state of rest; b) the length of the bar varies from 1m in a position perpendicu-
lar to the motion to 0.6m in the position coinciding with the direction of the motion.
IX.2. Yes, he will se his reflection in the mirror. In his reference system, as in any other inertial reference
system, the light possesses the same speed. The runner will see his image as if it is seen at any other speed
of motion with respect to the track.
IX.3. This paradox can be resolved as follows. In the reference system of the runner the front end of the
pole leaves the shed before the rare end will enter in the shed. Therefore, from the standpoint of the runner,
the whole pole never is in the shed.
IX.4. The stumbling-block is in the concept of the simultaneity – “in the instant when”. The points A and
B’ in their motions may occur to be in front of each other only in other place on the trajectory of the relative
motion of thr rockets, but not at the point, where the shot has been made. Therefore the moment when the
points A and B’ are in front of each other can coincide with moment of the shot only in one of the two
reference systems. By the condition of the problem, such a simultaneity tales place in the reference system
O, so the Fig. IX.2 is correct by the definition. As for Fig. IX.3, it is not correct: to at the time when in the
reference system O’ the points A and B’ will occur to be in front of each other, the shot will already have
been made. The projectile will not hit the target with respect to the both reference systems.
IX.5. The interval of time, the length, and the mass were not change in passing from one inertial reference
system to another.
IX.7. It would change by ∆m = Q/c2, where Q is the quantity of heat removed out from the stick. One can
easily estimate that with the mass of 1kg and the difference between the temperatures being 1500K, the
change of the mass is about 7×10-5mg. In general, the Einstein formula E = mc2 represents the complete
energy of a body without regard for the potential energy of the body in external force fields.
IX.8. The mass of the compressed string if greater by the quantity ∆m = k∆x2/2c2, where k and ∆x are the
coefficient of elasticity and its lengthening, respectively.
IX.11. The imaginary paradox can be explained within the framework of the special theory of relativity.
For the explanation it is principally important that the complete electric charge remains same in a transition
from one inertial reference system to other inertial reference system, while the size of the charges bodies
changes, which results in the change of the density of the electric charge distribution. For the sake of
simplicity we assume that the speed of an electron v in a laboratory reference system S equals the drift
speed of the electrons forming the current in a conductor in the same reference system, i.e., in a reference
system S’, related to the external electron the electrons of the substance are moving only chaotically. In the
reference system S’ the length of the conductor is
LS ′ = LS 1 − β 2 ,
where β=v/c , c is the speed of light. Then the density of a positive charge of ions of the crystal lattice of
the conductor in this reference system is
ρ S+′ = Q ( LS ′ ⋅ AS ′ ) = ρ S+ 1 − β 2 ,
where AS’=AS is the are of section of the conductor. Let us note that, in the laboratory reference system, no
electric field around the conductor exists, therefore
ρ S− = − ρ S+ .
Then, as the electrons have in this reference the drift speed v, we get
ρ S−′ = ρ S− ⋅ 1 − β 2 = − ρ S+ ⋅ 1 − β 2 .
Therefore in the reference system S’ the conductor possesses a charge per the unit of length, which is
λS ′ = ( ρ S+′ + ρ S−′ ) ⋅ AS ′ = λS ⋅ β 2 1 − β 2 .
The electric force of the electric field of the straight conductor with the charge λ per a unit of length is
known to equal λ
E= ,
2πε 0 r
where r is the distance from the conductor to the point of observation. Taking into account that the induc-
tion of the magnetic field with a current in this reference system S is
µ I µ vρ + A
B= 0 = 0 S S
2π r 2π r

164
and that
µ 0ε 0 = 1 c 2 ,
for the force acting on the electron we find
FS ′ = eE = FS 1 − β 2 .
Finally, taking into account the second Newton law ∆p=F∆t (∆p is the change of the impulse within the
time ∆t) and that
∆t S 1 − β 2 = ∆t S ′ ,
we get
∆pS ′ FS ′ ∆tS ′
= = 1.
∆pS FS ∆tS
This means that the forces acting on the electron in the reference systems S and S’, result in the same
change of the impulse, but, if the force has in the reference system S the magnetic nature, in the reference
system S’ its origin is purely electric! This, in particular, testifies the necessity to consider the electric and
magnetic fields in their unity, not dividing them from each other. The imaginary paradox has been resolved.

165