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Connection Design Guide 1

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BOLTING

Design Guide 1:
Bolting in Structural Steel Connections

Design Guide 1:
Bolting in Structural Steel Connections

First Edition 2007

Author T.J. Hogan
Contributing author and editor S.A. Munter
Level 13, 99 Mount Street, North Sydney. NSW 2060. Phone 9931 6666. Email [email protected] Website: www.steel.org.au
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by

T.J.Hogan

S.A.Munter
Design Guide 1.

first edition - 2007

contributing author & editor
Bolting in structural steel connections
 AUSTRALIAN STEEL INSTITUTE
(ABN)/ACN (94) 000 973 839
Design Guide 1:
Bolting in structural steel connections

Copyright © 2007 by AUSTRALIAN STEEL INSTITUTE

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Published by: AUSTRALIAN STEEL INSTITUTE

All rights reserved. This book or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without
the written permission of Australian Steel Institute.
Note to commercial software developers: Copyright of the information contained within this publication is
held by Australian Steel Institute (ASI). Written permission must be obtained from ASI for the use of any
information contained herein which is subsequently used in any commercially available software package.
FIRST EDITION 2007 (LIMIT STATES)
National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry:
Hogan, T.J.
Design Guide 1: Bolting in structural steel connections.
st
1 ed.
Bibliography.
ISBN 978 0 909945978 (pbk.).
This publication originated as part of
1. Steel, Structural—Standards - Australia. Design of structural connections
2. Steel, Structural—Specifications - Australia. First edition 1978
3. Bolted Joints. Second edition 1981
4. Bolts and Nuts. Third edition 1988
I. Munter, S.A. Fourth edition 1994
II. Australian Steel Institute.
III. Title
(Series: Structural steel connection series).

Also in this series:

Design capacity tables for structural steel, Volume 3: Simple connections – open sections
Handbook 1: Design of structural steel connections
Design Guide 2: Welding in structural steel connections
Design Guide 3: Web side plate connections
Design Guide 4: Flexible end plate connections
Design Guide 5: Angle cleat connections
Design Guide 6: Seated connections

Disclaimer: The information presented by the Australian Steel Institute in this publication has been
prepared for general information only and does not in any way constitute recommendations or
professional advice. While every effort has been made and all reasonable care taken to ensure the
accuracy of the information contained in this publication, this information should not be used or relied
upon for any specific application without investigation and verification as to its accuracy, suitability and
applicability by a competent professional person in this regard. The Australian Steel Institute, its officers
and employees and the authors and editors of this publication do not give any warranties or make any
representations in relation to the information provided herein and to the extent permitted by law (a) will
not be held liable or responsible in any way; and (b) expressly disclaim any liability or responsibility for
any loss or damage costs or expenses incurred in connection with this publication by any person, whether
that person is the purchaser of this publication or not. Without limitation, this includes loss, damage, costs
and expenses incurred as a result of the negligence of the authors, editors or publishers.
The information in this publication should not be relied upon as a substitute for independent due
diligence, professional or legal advice and in this regards the services of a competent professional person
or persons should be sought.

design guide 1: ii
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 CONTENTS
Page Page
List of figures iv 6 DETAILING ...............................................27
List of tables iv 6.1 Bolt holes 27
Preface v 6.2 Limitations 29
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About the author vi

About the contributing author and editor vi 7 INSTALLATION OF BOLTS ......................31
Acknowledgements vii 7.1 Introduction 31
7.2 Snug-tightening 32
1 CONCEPT OF DESIGN GUIDES............... 1 7.3 Full tensioning methods 33
1.1 Background 1 7.4 Part turn of nut method 34
7.5 Direct tension indication method 36
2 INTRODUCTION ........................................ 2 7.6 Issues with tensioning bolts 40
7.7 Clearances 42
3 CHARACTERISTICS OF STRUCTURAL 7.8 Inspection of bolted connections 44
BOLTS ....................................................... 3 7.9 Blind bolts 46
3.1 Thread form 3
3.2 Bolt types 4 8 CORROSION PROTECTION ....................47
3.3 Identification 5 8.1 Corrosion protection of bolts 47
3.4 Commercial bolts 6 8.2 Corrosion protection of interfaces 49
3.5 High strength structural bolts 9
3.6 Testing of bolts 11 9 Certification to AS/NZS 1252:1996............51
3.7 Washers 12
3.8 Welding of bolts 14 10 REFERENCES..........................................56
3.9 Lock nuts 15
APPENDIX
4 BOLTING CATEGORIES ......................... 16 A ASI Design Guide 1
comment form 57
5 BOLT LENGTH CONSIDERATIONS........ 19
5.1 Plain shank lengths 19
5.2 Threads included in shear plane 21
5.3 Threads excluded from shear plane 22
5.4 Discussion 23

design guide 1: iii

bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 LIST OF FIGURES
Page Page
Figure 1 Bolt head marking identification...... 5 Figure 12 Bolt tension and turn of nut............32
Figure 2 Use of a tapered washer............... 13 Figure 13 Marking for part turn of nut
Figure 3 Cover plates for long slotted method ..........................................34
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holes............................................. 13 Figure 14 Load indicator washer ...................36

Figure 4 Lock nut configuration .................. 15 Figure 15 Load indicator washer assembly ...36
Figure 5 Threads included in shear plane... 19 Figure 16 Load indicator washer completion .36
Figure 6 Threads excluded from shear Figure 17 Location of load indicator washer
plane ............................................ 19 when bolt is rotated .......................37
Figure 7 AS 4100 requirements for thread Figure 18 Relationship between bolt tension,
projection...................................... 23 load indicator gap and turn of nut ..38
Figure 8 Worked example—Threads Figure 19 Swage lock fastener ......................39
included ........................................ 25 Figure 20 A drift pin made from a bolt ...........41
Figure 9 Worked example—Threads Figure 21 Area requiring masking..................50
excluded ....................................... 26 Figure 22 Sample high strength bolt
Figure 10 Edge distance and applied force .. 29 assembly test certificate ................55
Figure 11 Pitch and bearing force design
provisions ..................................... 30

LIST OF TABLES
Page Page
Table 1 ISO Metric screw threads to Table 16 Shank lengths and permissible
AS 1275.......................................... 3 grips—Threads included in shear
Table 2 Metric hexagon commercial bolts plane, M20 high strength
Property Class 4.6 .......................... 6 structural bolts ...............................20
Table 3 Metric hexagon commercial bolts, Table 17 AS 4100 provisions for slotted
bolt sizes generally available .......... 7 and oversize holes ........................27
Table 4 Metric hexagon commercial bolt Table 18 AS 4100 full size hole punching
thread lengths................................. 7 limitations ......................................28
Table 5 Nuts for use with metric hexagon Table 19 AS 4100 minimum edge
commercial bolts............................. 8 distances .......................................29
Table 6 High strength structural bolts Table 20 AS 4100 minimum bolt tensions ....33
Property Class 8.8 .......................... 9 Table 21 AS 4100 nut rotation from the
Table 7 High strength structural bolts, bolt snug tight condition .......................35
sizes generally available............... 10 Table 22 Dimensions of wrenches for
Table 8 High strength structural bolt determining erection clearances:
thread lengths............................... 10 Dimensions of open ended
Table 9 Nuts for use with high strength wrenches. Dimensions of
structural bolts .............................. 10 sockets—Hand wrenches ..............42
Table 10 Washers for use with metric Table 23 Dimensions of wrenches for
hexagon commercial bolts ............ 12 determining erection clearances:
Table 11 Washers for use with high Dimensions of impact wrenches ....43
strength structural bolts ................ 12 Table 24 Indicative cost-in-place ratios
Table 12 Bolt types and bolting categories.. 16 for an M20 bolt in a group..............47
Table 13 Simple (flexible) joints statically Table 25 Summary of slip factors .................49
loaded in shear ............................. 17 Table 26 CHECKLIST for compliance/test
Table 14 Rigid and semi-rigid joints certificate documentation...............53
statically loaded in shear .............. 18 Table 27 GUIDE to the key Australian
Table 15 Shank lengths and permissible Standard specification requirements
grips—Threads included in shear in checking compliance/test
plane, M20 commercial bolts ........ 20 certificate documentation...............54

design guide 1: iv
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 PREFACE
This new series of connection publications by the Australian Institute of Steel (ASI) covering
capacity tables, theory and design of individual simple connections will be known as the
Structural Steel Connections Series, Part 1: 1 st ed. 2007 (“Connection Series, Part 1”). This
Connection Series, Part 1 details the method of design and provides capacity tables and
detailing parameters for a range of simple connections commonly used for structural steelwork
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in Australia. Connections have a major engineering and economic importance in steel structures
influencing design, detailing, fabrication and erection costs. Standardisation of design approach
integrated with industry detailing is the key to minimum costs at each stage. This Connections
Series, Part 1 in conjunction with the future Connection Series, Part 2 for rigid connections
(collectively the Structural Steel Connections Series or “Connection Series”) replaces and
enhances an ASI flagship publication first released in 1978 at which time connection design
theories were developed for the purpose of generating and releasing connection capacity
tables. The first three editions were released in permissible stress format. The fourth edition
Design of Structural Connections (often referred to as the Green Book) was released in 1994 in
limit state format but there was no subsequent release of a limit state companion document
containing connection design capacity tables.
This series also revises the renowned third edition of Bolting of steel structures in Design
Guide 1 now known as Bolting in steelwork connections. The former publication has been
redeveloped into the new design guide format bringing the key designer reference material from
the former appendices into the relevant sections of this design guide. New technological
developments in the area of specialised direct tension measuring devices have been
incorporated along with high strength structural blind bolts that are becoming a key component
with the growing use of large closed sections in building construction. For this guide,
international standards have been reviewed and global manufacturers of erection equipment
investigated to provide updated guidance on the standard wrenches for determining erection
clearances.
Structural designs are now leaner as a direct result of advanced analysis, design tools and the
supply of higher strength structural members. This has increased bolt design actions often
making them the critical item in design. The most significant upgrade to this Design Guide lies
in the area of bolt quality and certification along with the dimensional and mechanical properties
of common structural assemblies. Minimising designer risk in certification of bolt quality is now a
necessary process and a necessary duty of care in the structural design. All Australian standard
high strength bolt assemblies are supplied from international sources following the increasing
trend to reduce project costs through these commodity items. A simple checklist and guide have
been developed to assist the designer in this design guide.
Following many Australian Steel Institute technical enquiries and feedback from the fabrication
industry, best practice in bolt installation has been reinforced with warnings not to weld any heat
treated high strength bolt assemblies. There are very few bolt experts and designers rarely have
dedicated courses at undergraduate level focusing on these key structural items. Bolts would
have the least design time but generally play the key role and this design guide has been
developed to consolidate the necessary bolt knowledge when using bolts in structural steel
connections.
An appendix to each publication in the series also contains an ASI comment form. Users of this
Connections Series are encouraged to photocopy this one page form and forward any
suggested improvements which may be incorporated into future editions

T.J. Hogan
S.A. Munter

design guide 1: v
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Tim Hogan is Director of SCP Consulting Pty Ltd. His academic achievements include a
Bachelor of Engineering from the University of NSW with 1st Class Honours and the University
Medal. Post graduate qualifications include a Master of Engineering Science and a Master of
Business Administration. Tim is a Member of the Institution of Engineers Australia with CPEng
and FIE Aust. status.
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His early experience was on bridge design and construction with the NSW Public Works
Department and subsequently as Development Engineer and then Engineering Manager with
the Australian Institute of Steel Construction until 1980. Consulting experience with SCP
Consulting since 1980 has included design and supervision of large steel framed buildings,
industrial buildings, mill buildings, retail developments, defence infrastructure and composite
steel-concrete buildings. His published works deal primarily with the areas of composite
construction, steel connections, fabrication and erection of steel structures and he was a major
contributor and editor of the Commentary to AS 4100. He is a member of a number of
Standards Australia Committees dealing with steel and composite structures and is currently
Chairman of Committee BD-001 Steel Structures and BD-032 Composite Construction. He
received an award from Standards Australia for his contributions to writing of Australian
Standards.

ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTING AUTHOR AND EDITOR

Scott Munter is now the National Structural Decking Manager for BlueScope Lysaght. He was
formerly the National Manager—Engineering & Construction for the Australian Steel Institute
(ASI) and worked in this role from 2000 to 2007. This key role involved setting the technical
leadership of ASI in support of design and construction to enable the efficient specification and
use of steel in construction. Responsibilities included ASI technical publications, advice on
industry best practice, ASI and Code committees, presentations and lecturing.
Scott is a Member of the Institution of Engineers Australia with CP Eng & NPER (Structural)
status. He holds a Bachelor of Structural Engineering from the University of Technology,
Sydney with 1 st Class Honours and the University Medal. His professional career includes 15
years in consulting civil and structural engineering working for Tim Hogan at SCP Consulting.
His consulting experience includes a strong steel focus with major infrastructure, industrial and
commercial developments plus domestic construction.

design guide 1: vi
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to extend special thanks to:
The ASI Connections Steering Committee consisting of Richard Collins (Engineering Systems),
Anthony Ng (OneSteel Market Mills), Arun Syam (Smorgon Steel Tube Mills) for their respective
contributions with the development and review of the technical and editorial content of the
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revised ASI Connection Publication.

Significant contributions were made by:
• Dr Saman Fernando—Ajax Engineered Fasteners for his expert review of the bolt
technical content and systems.
• Standards Australia for providing their technical typesetting expertise.
• Whizzcad Pty Ltd with drafting and graphics for publishing.
• ASI State Engineering & Construction Special Sub-Committees for progressive
engineering and industry review of manuscripts.
Together with support of:
• All facets of the ASI membership including design engineers, steelwork detailers and
fabricators in contributing industry best practice and standards through ASI surveys and
direct consultation to establish the theory and geometry in this new ASI Connection
Publication.

design guide 1: vii

bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 1 CONCEPT OF DESIGN GUIDES 1.1 Background

The ASI was formed in 2002 through the merger of Australian Institute of Steel Construction
(AISC) and Steel Institute of Australia (SIA). The former AISC published a design manual giving
guidance on the design of structural connections in steelwork (Ref. 2).
ASI is updating Reference 2 by way of the Connection Series including design guides, dealing
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with connection parts and individual connection types. The overall series of connections
publications will be known as the Connections Series.
The former AISC also published a manual containing standardised detailing for simple
connections, accompanied by load tables (Ref. 3).
Wherever possible each design guide for individual connection types contains standardised
detailing and design capacity tables for the connection type covered by that design guide
derived using the design models in that design guide.
The Connection Series is a specialist series devoted to the design of connections in structural
steel in accordance with current Australian Standard AS 4100 (Ref 1.), reflecting the current
state of knowledge of connection behaviour from test results. In some instances, the test
evidence is sparse and in other instances the evidence is contradictory or clouded. Each design
guide in the Connection Series has been written by weighing the evidence to provide
recommended design procedures based in part on the design procedures used in equivalent
publications and/or published papers.
Each Design Guide is intended to provide a design model which gives a reasonable estimate of
connection design capacity and effort has been expended in researching and developing design
models which can be justified on the basis of the available research and current design
practice. It is to be emphasised that for the connections model presented, the design model is
not the only possible model. It is therefore not intended to suggest that other models may
not result in adequate connection capacity and further reference is made to the
Disclaimer on page ii of this publication as to the required investigation and verification
by a competent professional person or persons in regards to the accuracy, suitability and
applicability of the materials provided in this Connections Series.
The connections dealt with are those presently in common use in Australia and reflect the types
of connections covered within the earlier AISC Standardized Structural Connections (Ref. 3).
This Design Guide deals with the bolting of steel structures and is based on an earlier AISC
publication ‘Bolting of steel structures’ (Ref. 6).

design guide 1: 1
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 2 INTRODUCTION

Bolts are widely used for making connections in structural steelwork, especially field
connections. An understanding of all aspects of the use of bolts is consequently vital to
designing, detailing, fabricating and erecting steel structures.
The selection of a bolt for use in a structural steelwork connection will need to have regard to a
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variety of factors including:

• the nature of the forces to be resisted;
• the design capacity of available bolt types;
• the amount of joint slippage desirable;
• the degree of flexibility/rigidity desired in the joint;
• the cost of the installed fastener.
This Design Guide is intended to provide a state-of-the-art summary of the following items as
they relate to the use of bolts in steel connections:
• the bolt types that are available and commonly used (Section 3);
• the characteristics of each bolt type (Section 3);
• the method of distinguishing and identifying each bolt type (Section 3);
• the bolting categories in use and their application in typical connections (Section 4);
• the method of detailing to arrive at required bolt lengths (Section 5);
• aspects of detailing of bolted connections (Section 6);
• the methods of installation of bolts (Section 7);
• the methods of corrosion protection, for bolts and interfaces (Section 8);
The scope of the publication is limited to:
• bolt types in common use for connections in steel structures in Australia;
• metric bolts;
• sizes of bolts in common use in steel connections;
• common methods of application.
The design of bolted connections in structural steel and the design capacities of bolts are
discussed in detail in Handbook 1.
The use of bolts and their design in individual connections in structural steel is discussed in the
design guide relevant to that connection.
Generally, best practice in structural connections would involve the use of more small diameter
bolts rather than fewer large diameter bolts.

design guide 1: 2
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 3 CHARACTERISTICS OF 3.1 Thread form
STRUCTURAL BOLTS

Australian metric bolts incorporate the metric coarse thread series specified in AS 1275
(Ref. 10) which is based on ISO (International Standards Organisation) recommendations.
Screw threads are to tolerance Class 6g or 8g of AS 1275 before corrosion protection is
applied. Note that Clause 2.2.4.2 of AS/NZS 1252 (Ref. 5) limits the tolerance to 6g for high
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strength structural bolts while AS 1111.1 (Ref. 4) allows 8g for commercial bolts. Bolt types are
covered in Section 3.2.
The items of interest in relation to screw threads are the core area (Ac) and tensile stress area
(As) and these are summarised in Table 1 for bolt diameters in common use. The formula used
for calculating As (tensile stress area) in AS 1275 is an approximation only, which has been
found to correlate reasonably with test results for steels having substantial ductility. Also of
relevance are the pitch (P) of the thread and the plain shank area (Ao) which are also quoted in
Table 1. The ratios of areas (Ac/Ao and As/Ao) are of interest in comparing the capacities of bolts
for different design conditions and these are also given in Table 1. Note that the ratios are not
constant for all bolt diameters.

TABLE 1
ISO METRIC SCREW THREADS TO AS 1275 (Ref. 10)

Areas Ratios
Nom. dia. Pitch Ac As Ao Ac As
df P core tensile shank Ao Ao
stress
(mm) (mm) (mm 2 ) (mm 2 ) (mm 2 )
12 1.75 80.2 84.3 113 0.71 0.75
16 2 150 157 201 0.75 0.78
20 2.5 235 245 314 0.75 0.78
24 3 338 353 452 0.75 0.78
30 3.5 540 561 706 0.76 0.79
36 4 788 817 1016 0.78 0.80

Explanation to Table 1: where

1 For the area of cross-section at the minor Ac = minor diameter area (core area)
diameter (core area) of external threads—
As = tensile stress area
π (d 1 ) 2
Ac = Ao = nominal plain shank area
4
D = basic major diameter of internal
2 For the area of the circle having a diameter thread (see AS 1275, Table 3.1)
equal to the mean of the pitch and minor
P = pitch (see AS 1275, Table 3.1)
diameters (tensile stress area) of external
threads— d1 = basic minor diameter based on Table
3.1 of AS 1275 taken as (D –1.0825P)
π
As = (D − 0.9382P ) 2
df = nominal bolt diameter = D
4
3 For the nominal shank area—
π 2 π 2
Ac = df = D
4 4

design guide 1: 3
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 3 CHARACTERISTICS OF 3.2 Bolt types
STRUCTURAL BOLTS

The two basic types of metric bolt in use in structural engineering in Australia are:
• the commercial (Property Class 4.6) bolt to AS 1111.1 (Ref. 4);
• the high strength structural (Property Class 8.8) bolt to AS/NZS 1252 (Ref. 5).
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Commercial bolts are made of low carbon steel with mechanical properties similar to that of
Grade 250 material. High strength structural bolts are made by heat-treating, quenching and
tempering medium carbon steel. Accordingly, heating or welding to a commercial bolt will cause
no significant change in its properties, but either process will cause a significant degradation in
the mechanical properties of high strength bolts (see Section 3.8).
Only a limited range of sizes of these bolts is of interest to structural engineers.
Note that the prefix M is used in this Guide to designate metric bolts with a thread complying
with AS 1275 (see Section 3.1).
The commercial bolt is commonly used in the following diameters in steelwork connections:
M12—purlin and girt applications;
M16—cleats, brackets (relatively lightly loaded);
M20, M24—general structural connections, holding down bolts;
M30, M36—holding down bolts.
Most commercial bolts for structural connections are to AS 1111.1 (Ref. 4) which is the key
reference in this Design Guide.
Purlin and girt bolts are typically commercial bolts to AS 1111.2 (Ref. 18) and are threaded up
to the underside of the bolt head.
Details of these bolts may be found in Table 2, details of the bolt sizes generally available may
be found in Table 3, details of thread lengths may be found in Table 4. Details of the nuts used
with these bolts may be found in Table 5.
The high strength structural bolt is most commonly used in the following diameters in
steelwork connections:
M16—structural connections in small members;
M20, M24—flexible connections, rigid connections. Larger sizes (M30, M36) of the high
strength structural bolt should be avoided when full tensioning is required,
since on-site tensioning can be difficult and requires special equipment to
achieve the minimum bolt tensions specified to be achieved (see
‘Installation’, Section 7).
Details of these bolts may be found in Table 6, details of bolt sizes generally available may be
found in Table 7, details of thread lengths may be found in Table 8. Details of the nuts used
with these bolts may be found in Table 9.

design guide 1: 4
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 3 CHARACTERISTICS OF 3.3 Identification
STRUCTURAL BOLTS

The identification of the two different bolt and nut assemblies can be readily made from the bolt
head and nut markings indicated on the bolts (see Figure 1). In addition, a distinguishing
feature is the larger bolt head and nut of the high strength structural bolt compared to the
commercial bolt.
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The strength of bolts is normally specified in terms of the tensile strength of the threaded
fastener. As a consequence, Property Class of bolts are identified in the following manner:
x • x

Approximately one tenth of the ratio between

nominal yield stress and nominal tensile strength
expressed as a percentage.

One hundredth of the nominal tensile strength (MPa).

For example a Property Class 4.6 bolt to AS 1111.1 bolt has:
Nominal tensile strength of 4 × 100 = 400 MPa
(Actual = 400 MPa)
Nominal yield stress of 0.6 × 400 = 240 MPa
(Actual = 240 MPa)
while a Property Class 8.8 bolt to AS/NZS 1252 has:
Nominal tensile strength of 8 × 100 = 800 MPa
(Actual = 830 MPa)
Nominal yield stress of 0.8 × 800 = 640 MPa
(stress at permanent set) (Actual = 660 MPa)

FIGURE 1 BOLT HEAD MARKING IDENTIFICATION

design guide 1: 5
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 3 CHARACTERISTICS OF 3.4 Commercial bolts
STRUCTURAL BOLTS

TABLE 2
METRIC HEXAGON COMMERCIAL BOLTS
PROPERTY CLASS 4.6
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(Superseded names: ‘black bolts’, ‘mild steel bolts’)

STANDARD SPECIFICATION: AS 1111.1 (Ref. 4)

THREAD SPECIFICATION: AS 1275 (Ref. 10) 8g tolerance
TOLERANCES—PRODUCT GRADE: C
NORMAL METHOD OF MANUFACTURE: Hot or cold forging (generally cold)
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES: Tensile strength 400 MPa (nom. and min.)
Yield stress 240 MPa (min.)
Stress under proof load 225 MPa (min.)
MOST COMMONLY USED SIZES: M12, M16, M20, M24, M30, M36

TENSILE AND PROOF LOADS: Desig- Tensile Minimum Proof

nation stress area breaking load load
(mm) (mm 2 ) (kN) (kN)
M12 84.3 33.7 19.0
M16 157 62.8 35.3
M20 245 98.0 55.1
M24 353 141 79.4
M30 561 224 126
M36 817 327 184
NOTE: Elongation after fracture = 22% min.
Hardness = 114 HB min.

GENERAL DIMENSIONS OF BOLTS: Pitch Shank Width Width Height of

(all in millimetres) Desig- of diameter across across head
nation thread flats corners
k
P df s e
nom. max. min. max.
M12 1.75 12 18 19.85 8.0
M16 2.0 16 24 26.2 10.8
M20 2.5 20 30 33.0 13.4
M24 3.0 24 36 39.6 15.9
M30 3.5 30 46 50.9 19.8
M36 4.0 36 55 60.8 23.6

design guide 1: 6
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 TABLE 3
METRIC HEXAGON COMMERCIAL BOLTS,
BOLT SIZES GENERALLY AVAILABLE

Designation Nominal lengths 'l' (mm)

mm 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
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M12 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
M16 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
M20 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
M24 X X X X X X X X X X X X X
M30 X X X X X X X X X X X
M36 X X X X X X X X X
Usually supplied as full thread screws
Commonly available finishes: Plain uncoated; hot dip galvanized.

TABLE 4
METRIC HEXAGON COMMERCIAL BOLT
THREAD LENGTHS

THREAD LENGTHS: Nominal length of thread

Desig- b nom. (mm)
Nominal thread length, b, (excluding thread runout):
nation
For bolts up to and including 125 mm long = 2df + 6 mm l ≤ 125 125 < l ≤ 200
For bolts over 125 mm up to and including M12 30 36
200 mm long = 2df + 12 mm M16 38 44
M20 46 52
For bolts over 200 mm long = 2df + 25 mm
M24 54 60
where d f = nominal diameter (mm) M30 66 72
M36 78 84

design guide 1: 7
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 TABLE 5
NUTS FOR USE WITH METRIC HEXAGON
COMMERCIAL BOLTS
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STANDARD SPECIFICATION: AS 1112 (Ref. 12)

THREAD SPECIFICATION: AS 1275 (Ref. 10)
PROPERTY CLASS: 5 or 8
PRODUCT GRADE: C
STYLE: 1
NORMAL METHOD OF MANUFACTURE: Hot or cold forging
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES: Proof load stress varies 610 to 630 MPa Class 5
880 to 920 MPa Class 8

PROOF LOADS: Tensile stress Proof load

AS/NZS 4291.2:1995 (Ref. 13) Desig- area (kN)
nation 2
(mm ) Class 5 Class 8
M12 84.3 51.4 74.2
M16 157 95.8 138
M20 245 154 225
M24 353 222 325
M30 561 353 516
M36 817 515 752

GENERAL DIMENSIONS OF NUTS (mm): Pitch Width Width across Height of

Class 5 and 8 Desig- of across flats corners normal nuts
nation thread s e m
P max. min. max.
M12 1.75 18 20.0 10.8
M16 2.0 24 26.8 14.8
M20 2.5 30 33.0 18.0
M24 3.0 36 39.6 21.5
M30 3.5 46 50.8 25.6
M36 4.0 55 60.8 31.0

design guide 1: 8
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 3 CHARACTERISTICS OF 3.5 High strength structural bolts
STRUCTURAL BOLTS

TABLE 6
HIGH STRENGTH STRUCTURAL BOLTS
PROPERTY CLASS 8.8
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STANDARD SPECIFICATION: AS/NZS 1252 (includes nuts and washers) (Ref. 5)

THREAD SPECIFICATION: AS 1275 (Ref. 10) 6g tolerance
PROPERTY CLASS: 8.8
NORMAL METHOD OF MANUFACTURE: Hot or cold forging, hardened and tempered
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES: Tensile strength 800 MPa (nom.), 830 MPa (min.)
Stress at perm. set 640 MPa (nom.), 660 MPa (min.)
Stress under proof load 600 MPa
MOST COMMONLY USED SIZES: (M16), M20, M24, (M30), (M36) ( ) available but rarely
used

TENSILE AND PROOF LOADS: Desig- Tensile Minimum Proof

(AS 4291.1—Ref. 14) nation stress area tensile load load
As
(mm) (mm 2 ) (kN) (kN)
M16 157 130 94.5
M20 245 203 147
M24 353 293 212
M30 561 466 337
M36 817 678 490
NOTE: Elongation after fracture = 12% min.
Impact strength = 30 J min.
Hardness = 114 HB min.

GENERAL DIMENSIONS OF Pitch of Shank Width Width across Height

Desig-
BOLTS: thread diameter across flats corners of head
nation
(all in millimetres) P df s e k
nom. max. max. max.
M16 2.0 16 27 31 10.8
M20 2.5 20 34 39 13.4
M24 3.0 24 41 47 15.9
M30 3.5 30 50 58 19.8
M36 4.0 36 60 69 23.6

PROOF LOADS OF NUTS USED Tensile stress Proof load

WITH BOLTS: Desig-
area (kN)
nation
(Property Class 8) (mm 2 ) Plain Galv.
M16 157 169 183
M20 245 263 285
M24 353 380 411
M30 561 603 654
M36 817 878 952

design guide 1: 9
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 TABLE 7
HIGH STRENGTH STRUCTURAL BOLTS,
BOLT SIZES GENERALLY AVAILABLE

Desig- Nominal lengths ' l' (mm)

nation
45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 110 120 130 140 150
mm
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M16 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
M20 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
M24 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
M30 X X X X X X X X X X X X
M36 X X X X X X X X X
Bolts with shortened thread lengths
min. body length = 0.5 × bolt dia.
Commonly available finishes: Plain oiled; hot dip galvanized.

TABLE 8
HIGH STRENGTH STRUCTURAL BOLT THREAD LENGTHS

THREAD LENGTHS: Nominal length of thread

Desig- b nom. (mm)
Nominal thread length, b, (excluding thread runout):
nation
For bolts up to and including 125 mm long = 2d f + 6 mm l ≤ 125 125 < l ≤ 200
For bolts over 125 mm up to and including M16 38 44
200 mm long = 2d f + 12 mm M20 46 52
M24 54 60
For bolts over 200 mm long = 2d f + 25 mm M30 66 72
M36 78 84

TABLE 9
NUTS FOR USE WITH HIGH STRENGTH STRUCTURAL BOLTS

GENERAL DIMENSIONS OF NUTS (mm)

Width Width
Pitch across across Height
Desig- of flats corners
nation thread
s e m
P
max. max. max.
M16 2.0 27 31 17.1
M20 2.5 34 39 20.7
M24 3.0 41 47 24.2
M30 3.5 50 58 30.7
M36 4.0 60 69 36.6

THREAD SPECIFICATION: AS 1275 (Ref. 10)

NORMAL METHOD OF MANUFACTURE: Hot or cold forging
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES: Proof load stress
Uncoated 1075 MPa
Hot dip galvanized 1165 MPa
HARDNESS: Hot dip galvanized 24–36 HRC
Other than galvanized 36 max. HRC

design guide 1: 10
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 3 CHARACTERISTICS OF 3.6 Testing of bolts
STRUCTURAL BOLTS

Tables 2 and 6 contain the proof loads of commercial and high strength structural bolts
respectively, taken from AS 4291.1 (Ref. 14).
Bolts are tested full size using methods specified in the relevant Standard AS 4291.1 (Ref. 14).
Methods specified in AS 4291.1 are:
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—tensile test for machined test piece

—tensile test for full size bolts
—proof load test for full size bolts
—tensile test under wedge loading for full size bolts
The tensile strength is determined using the tensile stress area while the proof load test
involves application of the nominated proof load and the measurement of any permanent
extension caused by the proof load. The stress under proof load specified in AS 4291.1 is as
follows:
Property Class 4.6 stress under proof load 310 MPa
Property Class 8.8 stress under proof load 600 MPa
(diameters 16 mm and over)
The proof load is the load up to which the bolt can be loaded and then unloaded without
permanent residual deformation (Ref. 9).
Details of how the above tests are conducted are contained in Reference 15.

design guide 1: 11
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 3 CHARACTERISTICS OF 3.7 Washers
STRUCTURAL BOLTS

Commercial bolts to AS 1111.1 (Ref. 4) are not normally supplied with a washer and therefore
washers to AS 1237.1 (Ref. 11) are ordered separately when required. High strength structural
bolts to AS/NZS 1252 (Ref. 5) are normally supplied as bolt/nut/washer assemblies.
Details of the washers for commercial bolts to AS 1237.1 are shown in Table 10, while details of
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the washers for high strength structural bolts to AS/NZS 1252 (Ref. 5) are shown in Table 11.
AS 4100 requires that a washer be used under the rotated part (usually the nut) for all bolting
categories. This is common practice in any case but is particularly important for 8.8/T bolting
category where the bolt is tensioned (see Section 4).

TABLE 10 TABLE 11
WASHERS FOR USE WITH METRIC WASHERS FOR USE WITH HIGH
HEXAGON COMMERCIAL BOLTS STRENGTH STRUCTURAL BOLTS

STANDARD AS 1237.1 (Ref. 11) STANDARD AS/NZS 1252 (Ref. 5)

SPECIFICATION: SPECIFICATION:
PRODUCT GRADE: C MATERIAL: Hardened and tempered steel
MATERIAL: Mild steel HARDNESS: Not hot dip galv. 35–45 HRC
Hot dip galv. 26–45 HRC
GENERAL DIMENSIONS OF WASHERS (mm) GENERAL DIMENSIONS OF WASHERS (mm)
Thickness Inside Outside Inside Outside
Nominal (nom.) dia. dia. Bolt dia. dia. Thickness
size of desig-
d1 d2 d1 d2 h
washer nation
h min. max. min. max.
12 2.5 14 24 M16 18 34 3.1 (min.) –
4.6 (max.)
16 3 18 30 M20 22 42
Normal 20 3 22 37 M24 26 50 3.4 (min.) –
series
24 4 26 44 M30 33 60 4.6 (max.)

30 4 33 56 M36 39 72
36 5 39 66

Note that the hardness requirement for hot-dip galvanized washers was lowered in
AS/NZS 1252 (Ref. 5) to 26 HRC (Rockwell hardness). The specified hardness range for
Property Class 8.8 bolts to AS 4291.1 (Ref. 14) is 23–34 HRC. It is therefore recommended that
washers are made to 35–45 HRC range (as required in AS/NZS 1252 for other than hot-dip
galvanized) to avoid scouring of the washers when tightening the assembly.

Where the slope of the surfaces between the parts in contact with the bolt head or nut and the

design guide 1: 12
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 bolt axis exceeds 1:20 (5%), then a tapered washer must be provided against the tapered
surface and the non-rotating part must be placed against the tapered washer (Figure 2).
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FIGURE 2 USE OF A TAPERED WASHER

Note that under no circumstances shall the bolt bend in the assembly or at installation.
For slotted or oversize holes, hardened washers or plate washers must be used on each side of
the joint under both head and nut (see Section 6.1).
Where long slotted holes are used (i.e. up to 2.5 × bolt diameter in length), a special washer or
cover plate must be installed to completely cover all of the slots. Such a washer or plate shall
be at least 8 mm thick. In long joints it is often more economical to provide such a cover plate
from a rolled edge flat bar drilled to the nominal bolt centre (as in Figure 3) so that it is provided
as a single item.

FIGURE 3 COVER PLATES FOR LONG SLOTTED HOLES

design guide 1: 13
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 3 CHARACTERISTICS OF 3.8 Welding of bolts
STRUCTURAL BOLTS

The successful welding of bolts requires knowledge of the chemical composition of the steel
used in manufacturing the fastener.
For commercial bolts (Property Class 4.6) welding is achieved by using the same welding
procedure as is used for Grade 250 steel, since the steel general has a carbon content above
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0.40% and a low sulphur content. Note that the mechanical properties of cold forged
commercial bolts may be reduced due to the stress relief generated by welding process.
For high strength structural bolts to AS/NZS 1252, welding requires pre-heating or post-weld
heat treatment of the weld area in order to avoid brittle steel or cracked welds. This is due to
the formation of martensitic steel during the welding process if such treatment does not occur.
Because such treatment may not be available (especially for a site weld), welding of these bolts
is not recommended.
The same comments as above also applies to the nuts associated with each bolt type. A range
of weldable nuts made from a weldable steel are available (Ref. 15).
Warning:
This Design Guide recommends that any heat treated high strength structural
bolt, nut or washer not be welded under any circumstances. This includes the
tack welding of retained nuts in one-sided bolting details.

design guide 1: 14
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 3 CHARACTERISTICS OF 3.9 Lock nuts
STRUCTURAL BOLTS

Lock nuts are often used in order to avoid a nut working loose in a connection where tension
force and/or vibration is present. A standard nut is usually used with a lock nut and a longer bolt
is consequently required.
The lock nut should be the bottom nut in the assembled joint as shown in Figure 4. The lock nut
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should be installed first on the thread and snug-tightened only. The standard nut is then
installed and tightened so that the threads in the lock nut first bear upwards on the bolt threads,
then are free, and finally bear downwards on the bolt threads while the threads of the top nut
bear upwards on the bolt threads. Since the two nuts are bearing in opposite directions, the
nuts are effectively jammed (after Reference 15).
During the tightening of the top nut with a wrench, the lock nut should be held to prevent it from
turning.
Lock nuts are available with ISO metric coarse series threads (Ref. 15) to AS 1112 (Ref. 12)
Class 04 and 05 or to DIN standards. With lock nuts the important parameters are that it should
be a half nut and should ideally have a strength less than the bolt.

FIGURE 4 LOCK NUT CONFIGURATION

design guide 1: 15
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 4 BOLTING CATEGORIES

In Australia a standard bolting category identification system has been adopted in AS 4100
Steel structures for use by designers and detailers. This system is summarised in Table 12.

TABLE 12
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BOLT TYPES AND BOLTING CATEGORIES

Minimum bolt Minimum bolt Bolt

Method of
Bolting category tensile strength yield strength Bolt name standard
tensioning
(MPa) (MPa) specification
4.6/S 400 240 Commercial AS 1111.1
Snug (Table 2) (Ref. 4)
8.8/S
8.8/TF
(friction
type High strength
AS/NZS 1252
joint) 830 660 structural
8.8/T Full tensioning (Ref. 5)
(Table 6)
8.8/TB
(bearing
type
joint)

Category 4.6/S refers to commercial bolts of Property Class 4.6 conforming to AS 1111.1,
tightened using a standard wrench to a snug-tight condition (see ‘Installation’, Section 7.2).
Category 8.8/S refers to any bolt of Property Class 8.8, tightened using a standard wrench to a
snug-tight condition in the same way as for category 4.6/S. Essentially, these bolts are used as
higher grade commercial bolts in order to increase the capacity of certain connection types. In
practice they will normally be high strength structural bolts to AS/NZS 1252, but any other bolt
of Property Class 8.8 would be satisfactory.
Categories 8.8/TF and 8.8/TB (or 8.8/T when referring generally to both types) refer specifically
to high strength structural bolts of Property Class 8.8 conforming to AS/NZS 1252, fully
tensioned in a controlled manner to the requirements of AS 4100.
The popularity of high strength structural bolts to AS/NZS 1252 used in a ‘snug-tight’ condition
leads to the situation where this bolt may need to be fully tensioned on one occasion while on
another occasion snug-tightening is sufficient. This could lead to misunderstandings and it is
necessary for a designer using this bolt type to indicate clearly what level of tensioning (either
full or snug) is required in each connection in order to avoid any confusion on site. The bolting
category notation given in Table 12 provides a simple way for the designer to specify their
requirements.
The system of category designation identifies the bolt being used by using its Property Class
designation (4.6 or 8.8) and identifies the installation procedure by a supplementary letter
(S—snug; T—full tensioning). For 8.8/T categories, the type of joint is identified by an additional
letter (F—friction-type joint; B—bearing-type joint).
It is most important to note that the high strength structural bolt may be specified in three ways:
• Snug-tightened —category 8.8/S
• Fully tensioned, friction-type —category 8.8/TF
• Fully tensioned, bearing-type —category 8.8/TB
The level of tensioning being, of course, the same for both 8.8/TF and 8.8/TB categories.
In practice, 8.8/S category would mainly be used in flexible joints where the extra capacity of
the stronger bolt (compared to 4.6/S category) makes it more economic (Table 13).

design guide 1: 16
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 It is recommended that 8.8/TF category be used only in rigid connections where a no-slip joint is
essential. Note also that 8.8/TF is the only category requiring attention to the contact or faying
surfaces—see Corrosion protection of interfaces, Section 8.2.
A summary of the usage of bolting categories is contained in Tables 13 and 14.
Design engineers’ structural drawings and shop detail drawings should both contain notes
summarising the category designations.
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TABLE 13

TABLE 14

design guide 1: 17
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
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design guide 1:
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
18
 5 BOLT LENGTH CONSIDERATIONS 5.1 Plain shank lengths

Plain shank bearing lengths for each bolt type are defined in the relevant Australian Standards
(AS 1111.1 and AS/NZS 1252) as the distance from the bearing surface of the bolt head to the
last scratch of the thread.
Using the notation in these Standards (refer also Figures 5 and 6):
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ls = plain shank length

=l–b–a
where
l = nominal length of bolt
b = length of thread
a = thread run-out
In practice the value of plain shank length ls depends upon the manufacturing tolerances for b
and a, so that—
ls(max) = l – b min – a min
ls(min) = l – b max – a max
Values of ls(min) are given in Tables 15 and 16 for M20 bolts in commonly used lengths of
commercial and high strength bolt types respectively.

LEGEND:
a = thread run-out
b = length of thread
l s = plain shank length
l = nominal bolt length
m = nut height
w = washer thickness
δ = allowance to cover any variation
in ply nominal thickness

FIGURE 5 THREADS INCLUDED IN FIGURE 6 THREADS EXCLUDED FROM

SHEAR PLANE SHEAR PLANE

design guide 1: 19
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 TABLE 15
SHANK LENGTHS AND PERMISSIBLE GRIPS—THREADS INCLUDED IN SHEAR PLANE,
M20 COMMERCIAL BOLTS (AS 1111.1 AND AS 1111.2)

Bolt length (mm) l 45 50 55 60 65 70 80 90 100

Classification Screws to AS 1111.2 (Ref. 18) Bolts to AS 1111.1 (Ref. 4)
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Minimum plain shank

— — — — — — 21.5 31.5 41.5
lengths l s (Note 2)
Average minimum grip
10 10 10 10 10 10 34 44 54
(Note 3)
Average maximum grip
19 24 29 34 39 44 54 64 74
(Notes 1 & 3)
NOTES:
1. The Table assumes a minimum of 2 threads (5 mm) projection through the nut and one washer installed
under the nut (as in Figures 5 and 6).
2. Directly from AS 1111.1.
3. mave taken as 18, w ave taken as 3, max. grip = (l – 26) mm.

TABLE 16
SHANK LENGTHS AND PERMISSIBLE GRIPS—THREADS INCLUDED IN SHEAR PLANE,
M20 HIGH STRENGTH STRUCTURAL BOLTS (AS/NZS 1252)

Bolt length
45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 100 110 120
(mm) l
Minimum plain
shank lengths l s 10 10 10 10 11.5 16.5 21.5 26.5 31.5 36.5 46.5 56.5 66.5
(Note 3)
Average
minimum grip 17.5 17.5 17.5 17.5 19 24 29 34 39 44 54 64 74
(Notes 2 and 4)
Average
maximum grip 16 21 26 31 36 41 46 51 56 61 71 81 91
(Notes 1 & 4)
NOTES:
1. The Table assumes a minimum of 2 threads (5 mm) projection through the nut and one washer
installed under the nut (as in Figures 5 and 6).
2. Deduct one washer thickness from grip if additional washer used under head (4.6 max., 3.4 min.
thickness).
3. From Table 2.2 of AS/NZS 1252.
4. mave taken as 21, w ave taken as 3, max. grip = (l – 29) mm, min. grip as defined in AS/NZS 1252.

design guide 1: 20
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 5 BOLT LENGTH CONSIDERATIONS 5.2 Threads included in shear
plane

For the case of threads included in the shear plane, (Figure 5) the average maximum grip
(assuming a 5 mm projection of threads through the nut) is given by—
average maximum grip = l – 5 – n ave – w ave
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The absolute maximum grip would be (l – 5 – nmin – w min) but for detailing purposes it is not
possible to presuppose the n and w values applicable. The average minimum grip is assumed to
be—
average maximum grip = l – b nom
Tables 15 and 16 list the average range of grips for M20 bolts for the case where threads are
included in the shear plane for commercial and high strength bolts respectively.

design guide 1: 21
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 5 BOLT LENGTH CONSIDERATIONS 5.3 Threads excluded from shear
plane

For the case of threads excluded from the shear plane, the situation is as shown in Figure 6.
The critical dimension is t1, the thickness of the ply under the bolt head, and the bolt length
must be chosen such that—
t1 ≤ ls – δ
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where δ is an allowance (usually 3 mm) designed to cover any variation in ply thickness from
the nominal thickness.
If a washer is used under the bolt head (for cases where the head is rotated rather than the nut)
then—
t1 ≤ ls – δ – w
where w is the washer thickness.
When the designer elects to exclude threads from the shear plane, the desired bolt length is
given by selecting a bolt whose minimum plain shank length ls is equal to the thickness of the
ply (or plies in the case of double shear) adjacent to the bolt head plus an allowance δ.
Hence, ls = (ply thickness adjacent to head) t1 + δ.
In practice it is usually not possible to determine in advance which way the bolt will be installed,
and so it is necessary to calculate the bolt length for the worst case. This will be where the
thicker external ply is under the bolt head.
For single shear cases, the critical dimension is this ply thickness. In multiple shear cases the
critical dimension is the sum of the thicknesses of the thicker external ply and all internal plies.
In both cases the plain shank length of the bolt must be at least equal to the critical dimension
+ δ. In addition, the overall length of the bolt must be sufficient to accommodate the total grip.

design guide 1: 22
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 5 BOLT LENGTH CONSIDERATIONS 5.4 Discussion

Thread projection
AS 4100 requires that the length of a bolt be such that at least one clear thread plus the thread
run-out is clear beyond the nut after tightening in either /S or /T bolting category (Figure 7).
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The methods of calculation presented in Sections 5.2 and 5.3 meet these requirements.
The minimum projection through the nut of about one thread pitch is intended to ensure that full
engagement of the nut thread is achieved i.e. no incomplete threads shall be engaged with the
nut. While this is accepted good practice for /S bolting category, it is crucial with /T category in
order to achieve the specified minimum bolt tension.
Note that some bolts may require two threads sticking out depending on manufacturing
processes and tolerances.
The clearance under the nut is intended to ensure that a nut is never run up to the thread
run-out on the bolt which constitutes the end of the threaded portion of the bolt. If the clearance
is not provided, the nut will not sit firmly against the washer and in the case of /T category, the
necessary turn-of-nut may not have been achieved.
Material in the grip
AS 4100 requires that all material within the grip of the bolt is steel and that no compressible
material such as gaskets or insulation be within the grip. This requirement is needed because
predictable performance is only possible with material identical to that for which the design
criteria was established (Clause 14.3.6.1 of AS 4100).

FIGURE 7 AS 4100 REQUIREMENTS FOR THREAD PROJECTION

(Clause 14.3.6.1)

Threads included versus threads excluded

Although an apparently substantial increase in bolt shear capacity (up to 35 to 40%) can be
achieved by excluding threads from the shear plane, this gain must be measured against some
of the problems which arise during the erection of structures where threads are specified are to
be excluded.
The following matters should be considered before deciding whether or not to exclude threads
from the shear plane—
(1) Bolt length for the threads excluded case must be selected to provide plain shank in the
shear plane for installation from either side of the joint. This usually results in longer bolts
than would otherwise be the case.

design guide 1: 23
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 (2) Because of the relatively long thread lengths of ISO metric bolts to AS/NZS 1252 and
AS 1111.1, a bolt with sufficient plain shank to exclude threads from shear plane may
project well past the nut-washer assembly (called stick-out). This stick-out can cause
difficulty in installation because adjacent bolts in a connection may foul one another. The
physical interference of bolts can often be relieved by disposing the bolts to avoid the
problem. However in joints where tensioning to AS 4100 is required (categories 8.8/TF
and 8.8/TB) it will not always be possible to apply the socket of an air wrench to the nuts
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of bolts with long thread stick-outs.

(3) In joints with thin plies (e.g. 8 mm angle legs or 8 mm end plates), it is often necessary to
use extra washers under the nut where threads are to be excluded from the shear plane
in order to ensure that the nut does not run up to the end of the thread.
(4) Because the location of the plain shank relative to the shear plane position is critical for
the threads excluded case, such a joint is very sensitive to bolt length selection. This
means that bolts have to be selected usually in length increments of 5 mm and results in
the stocking of a great number of different bolt lengths and the subsequent difficulty in
distinguishing correct bolts for a particular joint on site. Alternatively, excessive stick-out
must be accepted.
(5) in general structural steelwork, where each joint typically contains only up to 10 bolts, the
design economies available using the threads excluded case appear to be outweighed by
the subsequent detailing, fabrication and erection difficulties.
Considering that AS 1111.1 and AS/NZS 1252 have adopted the ISO metric bolt dimensions
which provide long thread lengths, it is felt in general that designers are better to accept the
reduced capacity penalty and design for threads included in the shear plane. There should
never be a reason for considering Grade 4.6 bolts with threads excluded—it is certain to be
more economic to adopt 8.8/S procedure with threads included.
However in large structures using Property Class 8.8 bolts to AS/NZS 1252, and where joints
contain upwards of 50 bolts, a good argument can be advanced for the design to be based on
threads excluded. In structures such as major power stations where a total of 200,000 bolts is
common, the savings can be substantial if consideration is given to alleviating the difficulties
mentioned above. These savings result from fewer bolts, fewer holes to be drilled, smaller
gusset dimensions and reduced installation time.
Furthermore, on large projects there is generally much better control and supervision than on
smaller jobs, and it must be stressed that good supervision is required to ensure that the correct
bolt length is installed to provide for the threads excluded situation. It is necessary to identify
the bolt length required for each joint and for an inspector to ensure that the correct bolt length
is used in that joint. Such checks are not necessary for the threads included case.

design guide 1: 24
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 Examples
The following examples compare the ‘threads included’ and ‘threads excluded’ situations for
their practicality:
(i) M20 bolt—threads included in the shear plane (bolt dimensions to AS/NZS 1252)—
joint as in Figure 8.
Joint grip (the total thickness of the plies in the joint) = 35 mm
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From Section 5.2:

Minimum bolt length = (grip) 35 + 30 = 65 mm where 30 mm accounts for the thread
projection (5 mm), the nut height (21 mm average) and the washer thickness (4 mm
average).
From the dimensional data in AS/NZS 1252 and Table 16 it will be found that a 65 mm
long bolt has a thread length of 46 mm nominal. To this must be added an allowance for
thread run-out (7.5 mm maximum), giving a total thread length of 53.5 mm, and leaving a
plain shank length of only (65 – 53.5) = 11.5 mm. This dimension, ls(min) is as tabulated in
Table 16.
Since this short plain shank length is of no consequence, a 65 mm long bolt could be
selected, although in practice the industry has tended to rationalise as far as possible on
bolt lengths in increments on 10 mm, in which case a 70 mm length would be used. These
10 mm increments are more easily identified on site and provide for speedier selection
and installation of the bolts.

FIGURE 8 WORKED EXAMPLE—THREADS INCLUDED

design guide 1: 25
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 (ii) M20—threads excluded from the shear plane (bolt dimensions to AS/NZS 1252)—
joint as in Figure 9.
Joint grip = 35 mm as before, maximum external ply under bolt head.
From Section 5.3: t1 = 20
Minimum plain shank length, ls = t1 + δ
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= 20 + 3
= 23 mm
Thread length, including thread run-out for M20 bolt = 53.4 mm as before.
Therefore minimum bolt length required = 23 + 53.5 = 76.5 mm.
Rationalising to next standard length: bolt length selected would be 80 mm.
This bolt has a minimum plain shank length of (80 – 53.5) = 26.5 mm. This dimension is
as tabulated in Table 16.
An 80 mm bolt is also adequate as far as total grip is concerned. Joint grip = 35 mm;
maximum grip for 80 mm long bolt = 80 – 30 = 50 mm, where 30 mm is an allowance for
thread stick-out, nut height and washer thickness (see Section 5.2). Actual grip is only
35 mm giving a projection beyond the nut of (50 – 35 + 5) = 20 mm.
It will be seen (Figure 9) that this bolt can be installed from either side of the joint and will
provide plain shank across the shear plane in both cases. This is an important
consideration since bolts will normally be placed in joints from the more convenient side
for the erector, or to provide nuts on the easier side for tensioning in the case of 8.8/T
procedures. It is therefore essential that in selecting bolt length for the case where
threads are to be excluded from the shear plane, attention be paid to the individual ply
thicknesses as well as the total grip of the joint.

FIGURE 9 WORKED EXAMPLE—THREADS EXCLUDED

design guide 1: 26
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 6 DETAILING 6.1 Bolt holes

The diameter of bolt holes in bolted connections are stipulated in Clause 14.3.5.1 of AS 4100 to
be larger than the bolt diameter by either—
2 mm for M24 bolts or smaller
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3 mm for bolts larger than M24

6 mm for holes in base plates
The large oversize holes permitted in base plates is to assist on column erection and is related
to the out-of-position tolerance of anchor bolts permitted in AS 4100.
In some applications, the use of slotted or oversize holes may be justified in order to ease
erection difficulties. AS 4100 makes provision for the use of short and long slotted holes and
oversize holes, and the detailed provisions for such holes are summarised in Table 17. Table 17
requires a hardened or thicker plate washer to be installed over such holes. The hole size has a
greater impact on fully tensioned bolts as the bearing area under the bolt head or nut is a
function of the hole size.

TABLE 17
AS 4100 PROVISIONS FOR SLOTTED AND OVERSIZE HOLES
(Clause 14.3.5.1, d f = nominal bolt diameter)

Hole Maximum size (mm)

Limitations
type General M20 M24
Short Width: d f + 2 22 26 May be used in shear connections. In friction-type joints, slots
slotted may be used without regard to direction of loading. In bearing-
Length: ≤ 1.33 df 27 32
type, slots must be normal to the direction of the load, bolts must
or df + 10
bear uniformly and the joint cannot be eccentrically loaded. May
be used in any or all plies of both types provided hardened
washers or plate washers are used under both the bolt head and
nut.
Long Width: d f + 2 22 26 May be used in shear connections, but only in alternate plies. In
slotted friction-type joints, may be used without regard to direction of
Length: ≤ 2.5 d f 50 60
loading. In bearing-type, slots must be normal to the direction of
the load, bolts must bear uniformly and the joint cannot be
eccentrically loaded. Special washer or plate ( ≥ 8 mm thick) must
cover all exposed long slotted holes, under both the bolt head
and nut.
Oversize ≤ 1.25 d f 25 30 May be used in any or all plies of bearing-type and friction-type
connections provided hardened washers or plate washers are
≤df + 8
installed over the oversize holes, under both the bolt head and
nut.

The possibility of additional slip with oversize holes must be considered, as should the difficulty
in maintaining beam levels in a steel-framed floor. In practice, within normal fabricating
tolerances, the total movement in a bolt group using say 4 mm oversize holes will never be
4 mm, 2 mm being more likely. Oversize holes have the advantage that they provide the same
clearance in all directions, while slotted holes can be used to make allowance for adjustment in
a selected direction.
Bolt holes may be machine flame cut or drilled full size for all grades of steel and all types of
bolts, or alternatively, sub-punched 3 mm undersize in diameter and reamed to full size (Clause
14.3.5.1 of AS 4100).
Punching of holes has become a common method of holing structural members. AS 4100
contains detailed provisions and Table 18 summarises its requirements in regard to full-size
punched holes. Additionally, a punched hole is only permitted in material whose yield stress
does not exceed 360 MPa.

design guide 1: 27
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 TABLE 18
AS 4100 FULL SIZE HOLE PUNCHING LIMITATIONS

4.6/S and 8.8/S 8.8/TF and 8.8/TB

Bolting category
Static loading Static loading Fatigue loading
Limit on thickness that can be ≤ 5600/f y ≤ 5600/f y 12 mm
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punched (Clause 14.3.5.1) (Clause 14.3.5.1) (Clause 11.9)

Max. thicknesses: fy = 250 MPa 22.4 mm 22.4 mm 12 mm
= 260 MPa 21.5 mm 21.5 mm 12 mm
= 300 MPa 18.7 mm 18.7 mm 12 mm
= 320 MPa 17.5 mm 17.5 mm 12 mm

The limit on the thickness which may be punched is intended to restrict the amount of local
deformation and work-hardening which may occur. The limits in AS 4100 are empirical, based
on satisfactory results over 20 years.
The Commentary to AS 4100 (Ref. 7) offers two reasons for restricting the thickness for which
full-size punching is permitted.
First, under competent fabrication practices, to avoid an excessively dished area in the
immediate vicinity of the hole which may impair the strength of the joint. Second, and
particularly in the case of dynamically loaded structures, to avoid metallurgical defects such as
severe work-hardening which may impair the strength of the joint.
A slotted hole is either machine flame cut or punched with a die that matches the slot
dimensions or formed by drilling two adjacent holes with machine flame cutting between the
holes used to complete the slot.
Hand flame cutting is not permitted by Clause 14.3.5.1 of AS 4100 except as a site rectification
measure for holes in a column base plate, where it is recognised that some inevitable site
correction may be necessary. Hand flame cutting generally produces rough edges of
unsatisfactory appearance, although evidence does exist that hand flame cut holes do not
adversely affect the performance of the connection (see review of this in Reference 7).

design guide 1: 28
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 6 DETAILING 6.2 Limitations

Minimum edge distance

Minimum edge distances from the centre of a bolt hole to the edge of a plate or the flange of a
rolled section are specified in AS 4100, Clause 9.6.2.
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These minimum edge distances are:

1.75d f for sheared or hand flame cut edges
1.50d f for machine flame cut, sawn or planed edges
1.25d f for rolled sections
where d f is the nominal diameter of the fastener.
These minimum edge distances are based on past successful practice, are related to the
expected edge roughness, and are comparable to those in equivalent specifications.
Table 19 lists these minimum edge distances for commonly-used bolt diameters.
AS 4100 also requires that the edge distance in the direction of a component of force, a e,
should be not less than Vb* / φt p f up (see Figure 10). It is this requirement which may control the
minimum edge distance in many cases (refer to Handbook 1).

TABLE 19
AS 4100 MINIMUM EDGE DISTANCES

Rolled plate:
Nominal diameter Sheared or hand machine flame Rolled edge of a
of fastener flame cut edge cut, sawn or rolled section
planed edge
mm mm mm mm
12 21 18 15
16 28 24 20
20 35 30 25
24 42 36 30
30 53 45 38
36 63 54 45

FIGURE 10 EDGE DISTANCE AND APPLIED FORCE

Maximum edge distance

AS 4100 specifies the maximum edge distance from the centre of a bolt to the nearest edge.
This is defined as 12tp or 150 mm, whichever is lesser, where tp is the thickness of the thinner
outer ply (Clause 9.6.4 of AS 4100).

design guide 1: 29
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 The values specified for maximum edge distance are purely empirical, based on past successful
practice. They are intended to exclude moisture between the connected plies, thus preventing
corrosion between the plies, the products of which may force the plies apart. Lesser values
should certainly be considered in corrosive applications. The provisions are also believed to
prevent curling-up of plate edges.
Minimum pitch of bolts
Minimum pitch of bolts is specified in Clause 9.6 of AS 4100 as not less than 2.5 times the
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nominal diameter of the bolt. However, if it is intended to tension bolts with a special tensioning
tool, the minimum distance between the centres of bolt holes shall be appropriate to the type of
tool used (see Section 7.7).
The minimum pitch is actually more related to the tools required to install the fastener and most
practical pitches are more like 3.5 times the bolt diameter.
The minimum pitch may be governed by the AS 4100 bearing stress requirement since the end
distance (a e) is deemed to include the edge of an adjacent fastener hole in AS 4100 (as in
Figure 11).

FIGURE 11 PITCH AND BEARING FORCE DESIGN PROVISIONS

Maximum pitch of bolts

Maximum pitch of bolts is stipulated in Clause 9.6.3 of AS 4100 as the lesser of 15tp and
200 mm where tp may be taken as the thickness of the thinner outside ply. However, in the
following cases the maximum distances shall be:
(a) For fasteners which are not required to carry design actions in regions not liable to
corrosion—the lesser of 32tp and 300 mm.
(b) For an outside line of fasteners in the direction of the design action—the lesser of
(4tp + 100) mm and 200 mm.
Maximum pitch of bolts must be observed as a safeguard against connected plates getting out
of flat, and against the entry of moisture into the joint.
The values specified in AS 4100 for maximum pitch are empirically based on past successful
practice, but closer pitches may be preferred if corrosion between the connected plies is
considered to be a problem.

design guide 1: 30
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 7 INSTALLATION OF BOLTS 7.1 Introduction

In bolted structural connections, the installation of bolts involves the initial lining up of the bolt
holes, the insertion of the bolt/nut assembly and the subsequent tightening operation. It has
been established that bolt installation can be at least as costly as the initial cost of the bolt/nut
assembly, and so it is necessary to consider the installation operation in determining the overall
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economics of bolted structural connections. In practice, it is the level of bolt tightening which is
the governing cost factor in bolt installation.
There are two levels of bolt tension required in structural joints—see Section 4:
(i) ‘snug tightening’—bolting categories 4.6/S and 8.8/S; and
(ii) full tensioning to the requirements of AS 4100—bolting categories 8.8/TF and 8.8/TB.

design guide 1: 31
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 7 INSTALLATION OF BOLTS 7.2 Snug-tightening

This level of bolt tightening is used to describe two situations:

(a) a final level of bolt tightening in general bolting (such as bolting categories 4.6/S and
8.8/S);
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(b) an intermediate level of tightening prior to full tensioning in high strength structural bolting
(bolting categories 8.8/TF and 8.8/TB).
The term ‘snug tightening’ was introduced into the industry with the advent of tensioned high
strength structural bolting in the 1950’s since it is necessary to first snug tighten each bolt in a
joint to fully compact or bring together the individual plies of the joint before the final tensioning
is undertaken. Snug tightening is defined in AS 4100 as ‘the tightness obtained by the full effort
of a man using a standard podger spanner’. It is in reality the tightness that exists when all plies
in a joint are in full contact. Obviously this is not a very scientific definition, but in fact it
describes fairly accurately the level of tightening that has always been attained in general
bolting. The important point is that the actual bolt tension achieved in bolted joints using /S
categories is not of significance—the behaviour of the bolt under applied loads is well known
and accepted. Nor is the actual bolt tension achieved of significance when snug tightening joints
which are to be subsequently fully tensioned, for reasons explained below.
Snug tightening will induce small clamping forces which in practice will be of highly variable
levels. This is illustrated in Figure 12.
Whilst AS 4100 defines snug tightening in terms of hand tools, it can also be carried out using
power tools, and this is often a more efficient method. A distinct change in note in the wrench
as the air wrench starts to impact indicates the achievement of snug tight condition.

NOTE: This is a simplified graph providing an indicative curve for

one bolt geometry/configuration and shall not be used for any
design purposes. Refer AS 4100 provisions outlined in Section 7.3.

FIGURE 12 BOLT TENSION AND TURN OF NUT

design guide 1: 32
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 7 INSTALLATION OF BOLTS 7.3 Full tensioning methods

For joints designed in accordance with AS 4100 either as friction or bearing-type, bolts must be
fully tensioned to the minimum shank tensions stipulated in Table 20. Note that only Property
Class 8.8 bolts to AS/NZS 1252 can be tensioned.
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TABLE 20
AS 4100 MINIMUM BOLT TENSIONS

Minimum bolt tension

Designation
(kN)
M16 95
M20 145
M24 210

These values are approximately equivalent to the minimum proof loads specified in
AS/NZS 1252 (see Table 6).
Tests have indicated that neither the tensile strength nor the shear strength of a bolt is affected
by the level of induced tension in the bolt.
Methods of full tensioning
AS 4100 permits two methods of full tensioning:
(a) part turn of nut (Section 7.4);
(b) direct tension indication (Section 7.5).
Both methods result in local yielding in the threaded portion, which mostly occurs in the region
between the underside of the nut and the thread run-out (Ref. 9). As the bolt continues to
elongate due to the nut continuing to be tightened, the tension in the bolt versus elongation
curve flattens out (Figure 12).
Quality assurance in certifying high strength structural bolts is essential to ensure that the
minimum mechanical properties required for full tensioning to AS 4100 are actually present
(refer Section 9). Misalignment of bolts must also be avoided.

design guide 1: 33
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 7 INSTALLATION OF BOLTS 7.4 Part turn of nut method

Controlling tension by the part turn of nut method is primarily a strain control procedure and the
desired tension in the bolt can be obtained with accuracy. Since the bolt tension–bolt elongation
curve is relatively flat (Figure 12), variations in the level of snug tightening result in only small
variations in final bolt tension.
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Tensioning of bolt/nut assemblies by the part turn of nut method should be carried out in
accordance with the following procedure (from AS 4100):
(a) Snug tightening
On assembly, all bolts in the joint must be tightened to the snug condition already
described in Section 7.2.
It must be noted that snug tightening, as the first step in full tensioning for 8.8/TF and
8.8/TB categories, is intended to ensure that the steel plies of a joint are fully compacted
before final tensioning is undertaken. For this reason in large joints—say of 10 bolts and
more—it is necessary to snug tighten from the stiffest part of the joint towards the outer or
free edges. If this is not done, uniform compaction may not be achieved, which can lead
to variations in final bolt tension and uncertainties in the performance of the joint. If it is
not possible at the snug tightened stage to fully compact plies due to out-of-flatness at the
interfaces, it is necessary to shim large distortion gaps (in excess of 2 mm) to prevent the
energy of final tensioning being used to force the distorted plies together, rather than to
induce clamping of the plies by bolt shank tension. With joints with large numbers of bolts
two runs over the joint is suggested to check for full snug tight, as the gradual drawing in
of the plies may cause those bolts snug tightened first to gradually loosen.
(b) Match marking
After snug tightening, location marks are established on both the nut face and bolt shank
(Figure 13) which mark the relative positions of bolt and nut, as a control on the extent of
final nut rotation.

FIGURE 13 MARKING FOR PART TURN OF NUT METHOD

(c) Final tensioning

Nuts are finally rotated by the amount specified in Table 21. In some instances due to
problems with accessibility to the nut, the bolt head may be rotated. During final
tensioning, the component not turned by the wrench shall not be allowed to rotate. The
tensioning operation should be carried out using a pneumatic impact wrench with
sufficient torque to apply the full amount of rotation within about 10 seconds. Special
impact-type sockets should be used, and these should be given some form of peripheral
marking so that the amount of rotation can be observed (usually by painting a length
around the circumference of the socket which matches the nut rotation required).
Final tensioning by hand tools is difficult and costly but, if there is no alternative, they can
be used. A heavy duty ratchet wrench will be required with a lever length of about 1 m for
M20 bolts, and 1.2 m for M24 bolts.

design guide 1: 34
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 TABLE 21
AS 4100 NUT ROTATION FROM THE SNUG TIGHT CONDITION

Disposition of outer face of bolted parts

Bolt length (see Notes 1, 2, 3 and 4)
(underside of head to One face normal to
Both faces normal to
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end of bolt) bolt axis and other Both faces sloped

bolt axis
sloped
Up to and including
1/3 turn 1/2 turn 2/3 turn
4 diameters
Over 4 diameters but not
1/2 turn 2/3 turn 5/6 turn
exceeding 8 diameters
Over 8 diameters but not
exceeding 12 diameters 2/3 turn 5/6 turn 1 turn
(see Note 5)
NOTES:
1 Tolerance on rotation: for ½ turn or less, one-twelfth of a turn (30°) over and nil under tolerance; for
2/3 turn or more, one-eighth of a turn (45°) over and nil under tolerance.
2 The bolt tension achieved with the amount of nut rotation specified in this Table will be at least equal
to the minimum bolt tension specified in Table 20.
3 Nut rotation is rotation relative to the bolt, regardless of the component turned.
4 Nut rotations specified are only applicable to connections in which all material within the grip of the
bolt is steel.
5 No research has been performed to establish the turn-of-nut procedure for bolt lengths exceeding 12
diameters. Therefore, the required rotation must be determined by actual test in a suitable tension
measuring device which simulates conditions of solidly fitted steel.
6 A review of the research on which the values in this Table are based may be found in References 8
and 9.

Part turn tensioning may occasionally induce too high a bolt tension in very short bolts, despite
the reduction in the required amount of rotation indicated in Table 21 for short bolts. The
occurrence of this condition manifests itself in an abnormal number of bolt breakages during
tensioning. If such a condition arises, it may be necessary to establish a reduced degree of nut
rotation by carrying out nut rotation–bolt tension tests using a calibration load cell. The reduced
rotation values for short bolts given in Table 21 reflect this problem.
The reliability of the part-turn method depends greatly upon correct snug tightening and upon
accurately measuring the degree of nut rotation. It is primarily a method of control which relies
on controlling bolt elongation. Some problems may be experienced with galvanized bolts (see
later discussion under ‘Condition of bolts and nuts’).

design guide 1: 35
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 7 INSTALLATION OF BOLTS 7.5 Direct tension indication
method

Of the two methods permitted by AS 4100, the direct tension indication method provides the
simplest procedure for achieving the specified minimum bolt tension of Table 20 while
permitting relatively easy subsequent inspection of the installed bolts.
Several tension indication devices have been developed to provide a means of checking
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whether the specified minimum bolt tension of Table 20 has been achieved. In Australia, at the
present time, the two most commonly used of these devices are:
(a) Load indicator washers (used with conventional high strength structural bolts); and
(b) Swage lock fasteners (proprietary special fasteners).
Specialised direct-tension measuring devices (which are generally proprietary and more costly)
are also available. They are utilised in situations when a high degree of bolt tension accuracy is
required for bolt performance.
Load indicator washers (see Figure 14):
The load indicator washer is a hardened steel washer carrying 4 to 7 protrusions, the actual
number depending on the bolt diameter. The washer is normally assembled with these
protrusions bearing against the underside of the bolt head leaving an initial gap (Figure 15). The
bolts are then snug tightened, after which final tensioning is completed, until the gap between
the washer face and the bolt head is reduced to approximately 0.25 mm by flattening of the
washer protrusions (Figure 16). At this gap, the bolt tension achieved will be at least the
minimum specified in AS 4100 and Table 20. The gap is checked using ordinary feeler gauges,
but after a little experience is readily judged by eye. The actual gap required can be calibrated
using a load cell to relate gap dimension to bolt tension.

FIGURE 14 LOAD INDICATOR WASHER

FIGURE 15 LOAD INDICATOR WASHER FIGURE 16 LOAD INDICATOR WASHER

ASSEMBLY BEFORE NUT IS ROTATED FOLLOWING NUT ROTATION

design guide 1: 36
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 Where it is necessary, because of joint disposition, to tension bolts by rotating the bolt head,
the load indicator washer must be assembled on the nut side of the joint with an additional nut
face washer against the rotating nut (Figure 17). Under no circumstances should the load
indicator washer be adjacent to the rotating part.
It is important to note that using this method of tensioning, it is still necessary to observe the
two-stage tightening procedure, namely initial snug tightening to bring joint plies into effective
contact, followed by full tensioning.
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Comparing this procedure to the part turn of nut method, it is important to note that a slightly
higher nut rotation will be required to produce the minimum specified bolt tension when using
load indicator washers than that required without them. This is because in a joint without load
indicator washers, all gaps are fully compacted steel-to-steel at the snug tightened point,
whereas with the washer extra energy or nut rotation is required to squash the washer
protrusions. Thus it is quite common to find cases where the nut rotation required to obtain the
correct gap can be three quarters of a turn up to one full turn of the nut.

FIGURE 17 LOCATION OF LOAD INDICATOR WASHER WHEN BOLT IS ROTATED

Figure 18 indicates a typical relationship between washer gap, induced tension and the turn of
the nut.
In reaching a nut rotation of one turn, no danger exists of breaking bolts—in tests, breakage of
the bolt only occurs between 2¼ and 2½ turns typically.
The most important thing to remember when using the load indicator washer method of
controlling tensioning, is that it is not necessary to measure nut rotation. When the washer gap
is reduced to 0.25 mm, then the specified minimum bolt tension has been achieved.
When a structure is exposed to aggressive corrosive conditions, it is recommended that the gap
be just closed to prevent ingress of corrosive moisture. Again Figure 18 indicates that a zero
gap is achieved at a safe level of bolt tension.
Sometimes problems have been reported in the use of the load indicator washers. These are
usually found to be associated with overall bolting procedures and only rarely with the load
indicator washers themselves. Sequence tensioning of large bolt groups can alleviate any
potential for unloading of bolt tension in previously tensioned bolts. Avoiding bolt misalignment
will ensure uniform pressure and compaction of the load indicator washer.
More recent developments with load indicator washers now include silicone cells that squirt onto
the steel elements thus indicating correct installation, since gap size is still related to bolt
tension. Sometimes known as direct-tension indication devices, these washers when calibrated
provide both visual and permanent indication of correct bolt tension for quality assurance
purposes.

Surface protection should be performed by the manufacturer with test certificates provided to
confirm that the hardness or load resisting characteristics of the washers have not been altered.

design guide 1: 37
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 They should always mechanically tumble galvanize washers to avoid this potential issue.
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NOTE: This is a simplified graph providing an indicative curve for

one bolt geometry/configuration and shall not be used for any
design purposes.

FIGURE 18 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BOLT TENSION, LOAD INDICATOR

WASHER GAP AND TURN OF NUT

Some instances of cracked or broken washers were found during the introduction of galvanized
load indicator washers. This was due to embrittlement of the washer material during galvanizing
and was quickly solved by the galvanizing industry, which developed procedures to eliminate
the problem.
Other cases of broken washers have been traced to the fact that the load indicator washer has
reduced clearance on the neck of the bolt and, during tightening, the resulting interference
tended to burst the washer. It is most important to confirm that the washer has at least the usual
2 mm clearance on the bolt shank diameter at the junction of shank and bolt head. This is
usually very easily checked by examining a random sample of bolts and washers in a batch,
and is a necessary first step in establishing correct procedures which will lead to the efficient
use of the method.
In spite of the additional cost of the load indicator washer itself, on many projects this method is
economical. Experience has shown that the extra cost of such washers is offset by savings in
the cost of installation and inspection of joints where bolts are required to be fully tensioned.
Currently the cost of a load indicator washer represents about 30% of the total cost of a high
strength bolt, nut and flat washer assembly.
There is no Australian Standard covering load indicator washers but there is an ASTM Standard
(F959 according to Reference 9).
Reference 9 notes the following in connection with this type of bolt:
(i) Factors that control the pretension are bolt material strength, thread conditions, diameter,
condition of any lubricant, surface condition at nut/washer interface.

(ii) Tension achieved is a strong reflection of friction conditions on bolt thread, on nut face
and on washers.

design guide 1: 38
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 (iii) Calibration is important to ensure that the required pretension is achieved.
Generally, the use of load indicator washers should be restricted to M20 and M24 bolt sizes of
shorter lengths, since Reference 9 reports some difficulties with larger diameters and longer
bolts.
Swage lock fasteners
The swage lock fasteners used in Australia at the present time are of the type shown in
Figure 19. This type of bolt is also known as a tension-control bolt (Ref. 9).
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The bolt in Figure 19 is a two-piece high strength fastener consisting of a grooved pin and
locking collar. The pin has a forged head, shank, annular (not helical) locking grooves, a
breakneck and pin tail. The collar has a plain bore in the pre-assembled state. The bolt, nut and
washer are supplied as a set.
The fastener is installed by means of a special installation tool, the collar being swaged onto the
locking groove on the pin while the pin is subject to a tensile force. After the locking collar is
swaged, the pin tail section breaks off at the breakneck when correct tension in the shank of the
bolt is reached. Thus, direct tension indication is provided by the fastener assembly itself.
Losses in bolt tension after pin tail break off can be significant due to load transfer at the
locking groove collar interface and should be considered if a fully tensioned assembly is
required.
This type of high strength structural fastening is of particular value where the prevailing working
environment subjects the bolted connections to severe shock, vibration or dynamic loading.
The system is acceptable within the terms of AS 4100. There is no Australian Standard for
these bolts but there is an ASTM Standard F1852 according to Reference 9.

FIGURE 19 SWAGE LOCK FASTENER

Specialised direct-tension measuring devices

This is the most accurate system for measurement of bolt tension. The most advanced
proprietary systems available monitor the elongation of the bolt using a highly sensitive and
accurate electronic strain measuring device that connects to the bolt head. The specialised
bolts have sensors installed and a hand-held sensor unit can be simply placed on the bolt head
to measure the tension at any time.
These systems can deliver an accuracy within the 1–3% range. Accuracy is a function of cost
with bolt tension measurement. These specialised devices are generally employed in
connections where tracking the continuous changes in tension due to dynamic operating loads
is important. This reliable fastening system then becomes a cost effective solution compared to
the cost of failure.

design guide 1: 39
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 7 INSTALLATION OF BOLTS 7.6 Issues with tensioning bolts

Tools
It is of the utmost importance to ensure that only proper tools are used for tensioning. If only
hand tools are available, the correct size of podger spanner must be used to snug tighten, while
the final tightening must be undertaken by the use of a heavy duty ratchet wrench with a lever
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length of about 1 m for M20 bolts or about 1.2 m for M24 bolts.
More economical bolting will generally result from the use of air impact wrenches. These can be
used both to snug tighten and subsequently to fully tension the bolts. Obviously the air wrench
must be of a suitable capacity for the bolt sizes under consideration and it is essential to specify
the bolt size when ordering the air wrench. Similarly, the wrench will only be effective if a
constant compressed air supply at the right pressure is available.
In general, full tensioning of M20 bolts from the snug tight state should be completed in a
maximum of 10 seconds with an air wrench. This ensures that the nut is progressively running
on the bolt thread over the shortest practical time, and therefore inducing shank tension rather
than becoming seized on the bolt thread due to heating over a long impacting time. Experience
shows that for M20 bolts, an air pressure of at least 700 kPa at the wrench is required to
tension bolts in the recommended time.
Condition of bolts and nuts
In the installation of fully tensioned high strength bolts, the majority of problems are more often
than not traced to the condition of the bolt and nut threads at the time of installation.
It is essential that good house-keeping be observed on site. Bolts should be stored in
containers in a dry covered area until they are required. If this is not done, some corrosion may
take place and while this is not of concern in the overall final behaviour of the bolt, it is critical in
the tensioning procedure. Small amounts of corrosion in the thread region of either bolt or nut
can create a relatively high coefficient of friction between these threads and this, during the
tensioning, will induce high torsional stress in the assembly. The energy of the tensioning will
therefore be going into overcoming thread friction rather than serving the real purpose of
inducing shank tension.
When using load indicator washers in the connection assembly, this situation will be revealed by
the full effort of the wrench seemingly having fully tightened the bolt but with the washer gap not
closed to the recommended value. This situation is frequently encountered when using plain
uncoated bolts if thread corrosion has been allowed to occur.
For galvanized bolts, AS/NZS 1252 requires that the galvanized nuts be supplied with a
lubricant coating. There is no doubt that this greatly assists in overcoming thread friction and in
fact some bolt manufacturers apply a lubricant to the entire bolt after galvanizing. This lubricant
of course has a limited life and once lost due to exposure to weather, galvanized fasteners
exhibit similar thread friction problems even though no corrosion has taken place. The problem
can be overcome by the application of a molybdenum disulphide lubricant at site. This should
be applied sparingly to the entire thread length of the bolt and will invariably provide free
running of nut on bolt.
The real answer to thread condition variation lies in protecting the bolts and nuts during storage
on site. Too many times bolts can be found in heaps on the site where not only moisture but
also sand or cement can be seen on the threads. Keeping the bolts in bags or drums out of the
weather for as long as possible will pay great dividends during the tensioning procedure.
Bolts driven into holes
In the assembly of structural joints, the members should be aligned correctly so that the bolts
can be installed without undue force. This is particularly important when using fully tensioned
bolts. A bolt which has been driven into misaligned holes will be difficult to tension correctly
because the shank, including the threads, could be severely damaged during the driving.
Obviously the damaged thread will cause interference to the nut during tensioning and may
cause seizing of the nut on the bolt before the required bolt tension has been achieved.

design guide 1: 40
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 The use of drift pins is recommended to overcome this problem. The drift pin is made from a
bolt blank of the size being used and will align holes in steelwork far more accurately than
normal podger spanners (Figure 20).
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FIGURE 20 A DRIFT PIN MADE FROM A BOLT

Relaxation
Tests have indicated that immediately following completion of full tensioning, there is a 2–11%
decrease in bolt tension, the average decrease being 5%. This is believed to result from elastic
recovery. Creep and yielding of the bolt due to the high stress level might result in a minor
relaxation as well (Ref. 8).
The grip length and number of plies are believed to affect the degree of relaxation, and the
extent of relaxation increases over time but most occurs in the first 24 hours. Reference 8
reports that the relaxation with galvanized bolts is twice that for plain bolts, with the amount of
relaxation dependent upon the thickness of the galvanized coating.
The tensioning procedures of AS 4100 are designed to allow for this relaxation effect.
Re-use of fully tensioned bolts
Since full tensioning induces a bolt tension usually in excess of the elastic limit of the threaded
portion of the bolt, re-use and re-tensioning of these bolts will result in a reduced deformation
capacity during tensioning, so that the desired minimum bolt tension may not be achieved when
the tensioning procedure is repeated. Reference 8 advises that plain uncoated bolts may be re-
used once or twice provided proper control is established. It does not recommend using coated
bolts again.
AS 4100 Clause 15.2.4.4 requires that re-tensioning of plain uncoated bolts which have been
fully tensioned shall be avoided wherever possible. If re-tensioning must be carried out it is only
permitted where the bolt remains in the same hole in which it was originally tensioned and with
the same grip. Bolts which have been fully tensioned may not be re-used in another hole. This
Guide recommends not to re-use a previously fully tensioned plain uncoated bolt.
AS 4100 does not permit re-tensioning of galvanized bolts due to the relatively soft layer of zinc
on the threads. AS 4100 accepts the principle that there will be occasions where bolts may have
to be slackened and then re-tensioned, but prefers that this not occur since the bolts will
generally be tensioned beyond their proof load with some plastic deformation likely to occur. It
is accepted that a bolt may be re-tensioned once in the same hole without the danger of bolt
breakage on re-tensioning, but that continued retightening is regarded as undesirable. Tests
reported in Reference 8 indicate that each successive re-tensioning achieves less induced
tension than the previous tensioning, so that the probability of achieving the correct induced
tension is reduced. AS 4100 notes that touching up bolts in a joint which may have been
loosened during tensioning of other bolts does not constitute re-tensioning.

design guide 1: 41
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 7 INSTALLATION OF BOLTS 7.7 Clearances

In the detailing of bolted steel structures, attention must be paid to the clearances necessary to
install and tighten the bolts.
When using bolts required only to be snug tightened (i.e. 4.6/S and 8.8/S categories) and
therefore only requiring the use of standard podger wrenches for tightening, space will be found
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to be adequate if clearances in accordance with Table 22, and standard gauges of members are
used. Some accessibility problems may be encountered when design is based on the principle
of excluding threads from the shear plane in some joints. Because of the relatively long
standard thread length on ISO metric bolts the exclusion of threads from shear planes requires
the selection of rather long bolts. This was discussed under ‘Bolt length selection’, Section 5.4.

TABLE 22
DIMENSIONS OF WRENCHES FOR DETERMINING ERECTION CLEARANCES

DIMENSIONS OF OPEN ENDED WRENCHES

ISO 3318 (Ref. 20)

CLEARANCES—4.6/S CATEGORY CLEARANCES—8.8/S CATEGORY

Clearance Clearance
Nom. bolt AF Nom. bolt AF
X max. X max.
dia. dia.
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
12 18 45 16 27 64
16 24 57 20 34 78
20 30 70 24 41 93
24 36 83 30 50 112
30 46 104 36 60 133
36 55 123

NOTE: Refer to Table 23 ‘Please Note’

section.

DIMENSIONS OF SOCKETS—HAND WRENCHES

ISO 2725-1 (Ref. 21)

CLEARANCES—8.8/TF AND 8.8/TB CATEGORIES

Sockets*
Clearance
20 mm drive
Nom. C max. C min. D max. E
bolt dia. (Normal) (Long)
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
16 60 85 40 25
20 65 85 48.3 30
24 70 85 57.1 35
*Bolt diameters above M24 cannot be tensioned with
a hand wrench.

design guide 1: 42
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 The installation and tightening of high strength structural bolts for friction or bearing-type joints,
with full tensioning to AS 4100 (i.e. 8.8/TF and 8.8/TB categories), requires more attention to
clearance requirements. At the present time the most efficient and economic method of
tensioning these bolts is by the use of pneumatic impact wrenches and designers and detailers
have to consider the physical dimensions of such tools in relation to clearances required in
joints. Table 23 shows the dimensions of typical pneumatic impact wrenches and sockets.
Some connection geometries are more sensitive to clearance requirements than others. In
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particular, the bolted moment end plate connection can have clearance problems if not detailed
properly. It will be seen from Table 23 that the minimum dimension required from the top of the
beam flange to the bolt centreline is determined by the dimension ‘A’—from the back of the
wrench casing to the bolt centreline axis.
The use of a universal joint does offer some possibility of reducing this dimension, and while
this may be seen as an advantage from a design point of view, it should be noted that an impact
wrench with a universal joint and socket is generally difficult to handle for an operator some
height from ground level and located in a boom lift or scissor lift. In addition, the use of a
universal joint reduces the efficiency of the impact wrench and this can make it difficult to
achieve the specified minimum bolt tension, especially if the bolted joint is located some
distance from the source of the compressed air supply.

TABLE 23
DIMENSIONS OF WRENCHES FOR DETERMINING ERECTION CLEARANCES

DIMENSIONS OF IMPACT WRENCHES

ISO 2725-2 (Ref. 22)

CLEARANCES—8.8/TF AND 8.8/TB CATEGORIES

Impact wrench B A Sockets

Clearance
type (mm) (mm) 20 mm drive

Normal Nom. C D E
to 370 55
wrenches some bolt dia. (mm) (mm) (mm)
to 600
Heavy wrenches 65 16 54 48 30
20 57 58 35
24 58 61.1 35

Sockets
Clearance
25 mm drive

Nom. C D E
bolt dia. (mm) (mm) (mm)
16 60 58 35
20 63 58 35
24 70 68 40

Please Note: Australian rigging crews can interchange between metric, UNC and imperial sockets for
erection of steelwork. This factor combined with the numerous global manufacturers of erection
equipment of both high and low quality makes the task of locking in exact equipment dimensions from
suppliers virtually impossible. Dimensions for open ended wrench clearances and all sockets have been
tabulated from the nominated International Standards (ISO). All other equipment dimensions are supplied
as a guide only from supplier specifications. Sockets meeting M20 AS/NZS 1252:1996 (Ref. 5) may be in
limited supply in Australia and not available across all ranges for reasons noted in Table 3, Handbook 1.

design guide 1: 43
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 7 INSTALLATION OF BOLTS 7.8 Inspection of bolted
connections
Page 1 of 2

4.6/S and 8.8/S bolting categories

In structural joints using 4.6/S or 8.8/S category, the site inspector need only be concerned that
the correct bolt type, diameter and number of bolts have been installed in the joint. Since the
level of tightening required is snug and this would have been achieved in the normal course of
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erection, no further checking is required. A visual check of joints to ensure that the correct
numbers of bolts have been installed would reveal any obvious irregularities in the connection
assembly. No inspection to determine the level of tension in the bolt is required by AS 4100, for
these bolting categories.
8.8/TF and 8.8/TB bolting categories
In joints using 8.8/T category (i.e. 8.8/TF or 8.8/TB) which have to be fully tensioned to
AS 4100, inspection must be undertaken in accordance with that Code’s requirements. The
inspection procedure should be considered in two parts:
(1) Visual inspection:
This should ensure that the correct bolt, nut and washer type have been installed in the joint
and snug tightened satisfactorily. Bolts and nuts which show evidence of physical damage
should be removed and replaced. This is extremely important when the bolt head shows signs
of the bolt having been driven into the holes by force. The resulting damage to the bolt thread
can render the tensioning procedure difficult, and make it practically impossible to guarantee
the level of bolt tension obtained. The use of drift pins to align holes in members is
recommended (Figure 20).
(2) Bolt tension check:
(a) Part turn method: The inspector should ensure that the correct degree of turn from the
snug tight position has been achieved by checking the match marks on the bolt shank and
nut face (see Figure 13).
Where an impact wrench has been used, either the bolt head or nut will have the
appearance of being slightly peened.
(b) Direct tension indication method: The inspector should be satisfied that the
manufacturer’s specified procedure has been followed and that the development of the
specified minimum bolt tension is correctly indicated by the load indicator device.
The great advantage in using load indicator washers in tensioning bolts lies in the
simplicity of their use and in the easy means of inspection. The washer having been
closed to the correct gap provides a permanent witness that tensioning has been
completed, and requires no additional work by the bolting crew to create an inspection
facility by match marking.
The feature of the system as far as the inspector is concerned is that he need only check
the actual gap on a few bolts by the use of a feeler gauge. After this, a visual comparison
will satisfy him that all the bolts are correctly tensioned.
Inspection of swage lock bolt installation is also by routine inspection that the tip has
sheared off. It is important to observe that the tip is not sheared off during the snug tight
stage.
(c) Use of torque wrench: When required by the supervising engineer, inspection for gross
undertensioning can be carried out by the use of an inspection wrench of either the hand
or power operated type. The inspection procedure is outlined in AS 4100, Appendix K. It
is important to note that the use of a torque wrench as an inspection device is difficult,
tedious and not particularly accurate, and should be used only where there is no
alternative—for example where the designer has specified the part turn of nut method but
has not required match marking, or where there is some dispute as to whether the bolts
have been correctly tensioned.

design guide 1: 44
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 Since it is obviously not practicable to check every bolt in a job, a suitable sample would
consist of 10% of the bolts in a connection, but not less than two bolts selected at random
in any one connection. However, the method is really only suitable for the detection of
gross undertensioning, as noted in Appendix K of AS 4100.
Extensive site calibration of the inspection wrench to a procedure specified in Appendix K
of AS 4100 is required in order to use the wrench.
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Checklist of inspection for any bolted connection

• Bolts, nuts, washers meet Australian Standard requirements. (Also refer to Section 9.)
• Condition of interfaces meet specification requirements and are free of loose mill scale,
dirt, foreign material.
• Hole types meet specification requirements.
• No burrs to holes.
• All material in the grip is steel.
• No gaps between parts when bolts installed.
• Plate washers over slotted or oversize holes.

design guide 1: 45
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 7 INSTALLATION OF BOLTS 7.9 Blind bolts

Blind bolts are utilised in making connections to steel hollow sections or where site access is
limited to one side only during erection. Substantial cost and time savings can be made by
eliminating tedious fabrication operations such as tapping holes, welding retained nuts or
fixtures by the use of blind bolts.
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Very few blind bolts offer a full high strength bolt assembly performing both in shear and tension
and are generally a proprietary product. The few high strength blind bolts that are available
typically use an oversized hole to install a split stepped washer using a special tool. Sleeves are
installed to achieve full shear strength by filling the enlarged hole and a stepped shoulder
washer to the nut side to centre the bolt.
The minimum bearing area under the bolt head is often the controlling factor to achieve the full
structural strength of the connection. The oversized clearance hole diameter must therefore
comply with the proprietary blind bolt specifications to deliver the required under head/nut
bearing area thus not becoming a controlling factor.

design guide 1: 46
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 8 CORROSION PROTECTION 8.1 Corrosion protection of bolts

A variety of coatings can be applied to bolts, including:

• none (black);
• zinc plated;
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• hot dip galvanized;

• cadmium plated;
• chromium plated;
• painted.
It is usual to only use either black bolts or galvanized bolts in structural steel connections.
In considering the choice of bolt finish, it is essential to look at the total final protective
treatment of the structure. Obviously if a high degree of protection is employed for the steel
members because of a severe corrosion environment, the bolts used in connections will have to
be equally protected, and the choice of a plain finish will require that the bolts be painted after
erection of the structure. This may often be a difficult and costly exercise and the selection of
galvanized bolts in such an application would be more economic. However, in mild corrosion
environments, where minimum protection is applied to the structure, and where some staining
from rusting of plain bolts can be tolerated, these bolts will afford the best economic solution. In
general, therefore, it is wise to match levels of bolt protection to the applied protection of the
whole structure.
It will be seen from Table 24 that if conditions require that bolts in a joint be painted after
erection, the alternative use of a galvanized finish is more economic.

TABLE 24
INDICATIVE COST-IN-PLACE RATIOS FOR
AN M20 BOLT IN A GROUP

Bolting Plain Galvanized

category Unpainted Painted after unpainted

4.6/S 1.0 2.0 1.4

8.8/S 1.4 2.8 1.7
8.8/T 2.3 4.6 3.4

Hot dip galvanizing results in thicker coatings being deposited at interior corners and in the
thread roots. Because clogging of thread roots is difficult to control, it is usually impractical to
galvanize bolts smaller than M10 (Ref. 15). Galvanizing of bolts should comply with AS 1214
(Ref. 16), which limits its scope to bolt sizes M8 to M36 only.
Bolts are required to conform to the dimensions specified in Australian Standards before the
application of the corrosion protection (see Tables 2 and 6).
Galvanized coatings on bolts are required to comply with AS 1214 (Ref. 16). This standard
deals with the process, fastener dimensions, coating mass, adherence, appearance and
defects. The coating mass is specified to be:
Minimum coverage 375 grams per sq metre average
300 grams per sq metre individual
Minimum thickness 52.5 microns average
42 microns individual

design guide 1: 47
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 In practice, it is normal for bolts to be galvanized after manufacture but galvanized nuts are
usually galvanized as blanks and then tapped up to 0.4 mm oversize and oiled threads only
(ungalvanized threads). When assembled, the nut thread is protected by contact with the zinc
coating on the bolt thread.
Consequently only these ‘oversize’ nuts should be used with a galvanized bolt. This is
particularly important when high strength structural bolts are required to be fully tensioned,
since the use of a nut which has not been tapped oversize will, almost certainly, produce a
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situation where the bolt and nut threads seize before bolt tension is attained. Also important for
galvanized high strength structural bolts is the provision of a proper lubricant—approved by the
manufacturer—on the threaded parts to prevent seizure of the nut on the bolt during tensioning.
Bolts exposed to the weather may lose this lubricant and suitable replacement dry lubricants
that can be used in the field are various proprietary compounds incorporating molybdenum
disulphide.
Assembly tests such as one detailed in Appendix C of AS/NZS 1252 (Ref. 5) are available for
testing the anti-seizing properties of an assembly of bolts and nuts which are provided with
corrosion-preventative coatings.
A potential problem with galvanized bolts is that of embrittlement. This issue is discussed in
Appendix C of AS 1214 (Ref. 16). For steel bolts to be embrittled after hot-dip galvanizing is
rare, especially for the grades of bolt in use in steel structures in Australia, even though
fastener manufacture involves cold-working.
Appendix C of AS 1214 discusses both strain-age embrittlement and hydrogen embrittlement.
Strain-age embrittlement is avoided by using steel which is not susceptible to strain-age
embrittlement (such as steels made by the now largely superseded Bessemer process).
Galvanizing can accelerate the process since it occurs at a temperature of about 450 degrees
centigrade.
Hydrogen embrittlement can occur in steels with a tensile strength above 1000 MPa, so grade
4.6 or grade 8.8 bolts are generally not susceptible. In any case, the galvanizing process should
cause any residual hydrogen in the steel to be expelled.
Research has shown that galvanizing has no effect on the strength of a Property Class 8.8 bolt
(Ref. 9).

design guide 1: 48
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 8 CORROSION PROTECTION 8.2 Corrosion protection of
interfaces

Generally for bolting categories 4.6/S, 8.8/S and 8.8/TB, the presence of any corrosion
protection on the interface between two elements has no impact on the behaviour or design
capacity of the connection when the connection is subject to shear.
The presence of any corrosion protection is however, important for connections using bolting
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category 8.8/TF. The nominal shear capacity for a bolt in 8.8/TF category is dependant on the
slip factor at the interface, which is taken as 0.35 for as-rolled surfaces (plain steel to steel at
the interface).
The value of the friction coefficient is highly dependant on the condition of an the type of
corrosion protection on the interface. Painting or galvanizing affect the average slip factor in the
manner shown in Table 25. The value of the slip factor is determined using the test procedure
set out in Appendix J of AS 4100 (Ref. 1).

TABLE 25
SUMMARY OF SLIP FACTORS (after Ref. 8)

Surface treatment Average slip factor

Uncoated
Clean as-rolled 0.35
Flame cleaned 0.48
Abrasive blasted 0.53
Painted
Red oxide zinc chromate 0.11
Inorganic zinc silicate 0.50
Hot-dip galvanized
Clean as-galvanized 0.18
Lightly abrasive blasted after 0.30–0.40
galvanizing

The values of slip coefficient given in Table 25 should be considered as indicative only and
actual values will vary with each generic type of surface treatment according to each
manufacturer’s formulation for the corrosion protection system. Major reliance has to be placed
on the testing of each formulation using the method specified in Appendix J of AS 4100.
When a slip factor of 0.35 has been assumed in design, painted members normally need to be
masked at the joints (Figure 21), unless there is test evidence that the paint system to be used
achieves at least this slip factor. Masking adds to the fabrication cost and is to be avoided if
possible. One of the attractions of inorganic zinc silicate paint is its high slip factor, which
means that no masking of faying surfacing is required.

design guide 1: 49
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
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FIGURE 21 AREA REQUIRING MASKING

Reference 8 reports on available test data related to the slip factor associated with faying
surface finishes. Among the conclusions reported are:
(a) Hot-dip galvanizing generally results in a low slip factor (typically 0.09–0.36, average
0.18) due to the soft zinc layer that acts as a lubricant. The slip factor is influenced by the
method of pre-treatment prior to galvanizing, with abrasive blasting giving the highest slip
factors and pickling the lowest.
(b) A significant improvement in the slip resistance of galvanized surfaces can be achieved
by pre-assembly treatment of the faying surfaces (e.g. wire brushing, light abrasive
blasting, chemical treatment). Proper post-galvanizing treatment of hot-dip galvanized
surfaces can also achieve a slip factor comparable to that for clean bare steel surfaces.
Further testing is required to provide a better estimate of the slip coefficient achievable.
However, it is important to note that any post-galvanizing treatment is labour intensive
and therefore costly. A more recent development is the introduction of galvanizing
techniques, which produce harder final layers of zinc. Extensive testing is now being
undertaken to establish higher slip factors for steel processed in modern galvanizing
facilities. Designers should check with the galvanizer before assuming a slip factor.
(c) The slip factors achievable with zinc-rich paints with organic vehicles would appear to
vary markedly from one commercial mix to another, with some values comparable only to
hot-dip galvanized surfaces.
(d) Inorganic zinc rich paints provide a better slip resistance than zinc paints with organic
vehicles. In particular, zinc silicate coatings on blast cleaned surfaces are likely to yield a
slip coefficient which is about the same as that provided by blast cleaned base metal
(approx. 0.50). Generally, an increase in coating thickness increases the slip resistance.
All the above comments relate to the short-term loading case of the type tested in Appendix J of
AS 4100. Under sustained loading, galvanized members have a tendency to continue to slip (or
creep) and this is not significantly improved by pre-assembly treatment. Joints treated with
organic zinc-rich paint show essentially the same behaviour, while inorganic zinc-rich paints
perform better, generally exhibiting similar slip factors for sustained as for short-term loading.
Also of interest is the fact that the fatigue strength of coated joints is equal to or greater than
the fatigue resistance of uncoated joints of similar dimensions (Ref. 8).

design guide 1: 50
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 9 Certification to AS/NZS 1252:1996

Duty of care
Australian standards provide the necessary guidelines to identify the quality of fasteners in
AS/NZS 1252:1996 (Ref. 5). The quality assurance of high strength bolt assemblies and
associated risk is distributed amongst the whole supply chain. Engineers must provide a tight
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specification and purchasers and inspectors alike must be proactive in checking and demanding
quality documentation from the suppliers to maintain traceability and transparency in
accordance with Australian Trade Practices. The ultimate responsibility and risk should be
passed to the supplier/manufacturer where applicable and it is only a culture of vertical
integration with respect to quality assurance checking that will shift this risk back to the source.
Penalties are high for failure to provide an adequate duty of care.
What suppliers must provide with bolt supply
The majority of AS/NZS 1252:1996 bolt assemblies are now imported. The quality systems of
the manufacturer and supplier have to be relied upon to supply high strength bolt assemblies to
Australian Standards and detection of any potential mechanical or manufacturing defects.
Supplier’s must verify and provide documentary evidence of conformance to the relevant
Australian Standard and purchasers/installers and certifiers must demand this documentation.
What should purchaser/specifier ask for?—A Test Report or Compliance/Test Certificate?
Compliance/Test Certificate (Mandatory for QA and legal duty of care):
A compliance/test certificate not only tests the sample bolts to the relevant Australian Standard
but also investigates the process by which the bolts were manufactured. This ensures that it is
quality-traceable and the sample results can be applied to the whole batch of the bolts. Sample
testing by a local National Association of Testing Authorities (NATA)-accredited laboratory may
be used to check a compliance/test certificate issued by an internationally accredited
laboratory. Ideally a local NATA laboratory may issue a NATA accredited compliance certificate
and take responsibility for following the necessary evaluation processes prescribed by the
accreditation organisation. If this can be achieved the supplier could delegate the responsibility
to the said NATA laboratory. The NATA signatory then accepts full liability and responsibility for
the quality assured bolts.
In the current market with the majority of AS/NZS 1252:1996 bolt assemblies imported there are
two essential pieces of information to confirm product compliance. They are:
A. Manufacturers test certificate
An accredited testing organisation in the country of manufacture must prepare a
manufacturers compliance/test certificate and issue this document to the supplier with the
finished product. The supplier accepts responsibility that the production process is quality
traceable and the batch shares the same statistical characteristics of the samples tested.
This manufacturer compliance/test certificate is normally supplied at no additional charge
and must be issued with each batch of product. The following information contains a
GUIDE to the key Australian Standard specification requirements contained in this
certificate.
B. Compliance certificate—Independent testing and verification in Australia
A local NATA-accredited laboratory then obtains, with this traceability assurance, all
details for the batch of bolts from the supplier and/or the internationally accredited
laboratory and independently tests and verifies the samples to the relevant Australian
Standard. A statement of compliance issued either by the local NATA-accredited
laboratory or by the local supplier assures that the product is verified and in full
compliance with the relevant Australian Standard. This testing must be completed before
the product is released for sale. The NATA signatory or the supplier, respectively, accepts
full liability for any loss or damage caused by issuing a false compliance certificate
therefore a lack of certain test results on the certificate should not cause a major concern.
The supply of the complete local NATA (independent verification) test certificate may
incur a cost which should be negotiated with the supplier at time of order if a copy is
required.

design guide 1: 51
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 RECOMMENDATION: If the purchaser/specifier demands that the product supplied is
supported by this information (covered in A & B above) the supplier takes the ultimate
responsibility in terms of the compliance of the product to the prescribed industry
standard and the purchaser/specifier has taken the required duty of care in the event of
failure.
Please be aware: A test report cannot replace a compliance/test certificate as it will only
provide specifications and test results pertaining to tested samples.
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Integrity of batch recording: It is important for fabricators and riggers to ensure traceability of
the product used in large steel projects. For best QA practice the order number and batch (or
heat) number on the label of the carton should be recorded linking the product certification to a
specified area on the job. Once the bolts are removed from the carton they are no longer
traceable unless the information is recorded from the label and related to the project usage.
WARNING: Market issues with AS/NZS 1252:1996 (Ref. 5)
M20 bolts: Are not readily available to AS/NZS 1252:1996 (Ref. 5) dimensions due to the ISO
standards from which this code was modelled not being adopted internationally. M20 bolts are
currently being supplied to the superseded version of AS 1252—1983 (Ref. 19) for dimensions
and current AS/NZS 1252:1996 for mechanical specifications.
The hardness requirement for hot-dip galvanized washers was lowered in AS/NZS 1252:1996
(Ref. 5) to 26 Rockwell hardness (HRC). The specified hardness range for Property Class 8.8
(PC8.8) bolts to AS 4291.1 is 23–34 HRC. It is therefore recommended that washers are made
to 35–45 HRC range (as required in AS/NZS 1252:1996 for other than hot-dip galvanized) to
avoid scouring of the washers.

TABLE 26
CHECKLIST for compliance/test certificate documentation

This technical note details what you must look for when accepting or rejecting the
documentation and bolt assemblies provided by the supplier.
• The correct test certificate should contain all the information listed below.
• The correct compliance certificate must contain at least the information in bold.

Item Yes No
Identification and address of the supplier
Identification and address of the test laboratory and accreditation
seals of the test laboratory
Date of issue, page number on each page
Test certificate number
Batch or heat identification number
Product identification
Customer purchase order number to match the batch or heat number
Any other system reference numbers. These make sure that the product
is fully traceable from the customer purchase order to the original steel
used for the production of the products.
Test, test specification, measured values in comparison to specification:

design guide 1: 52
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 Typical for the bolt: Tensile test/surface hardness test, raw material
specification, reference number and the heat number with chemical
analysis or any traceable pointer to this information.
Typical for the nut: Proof load/hardness test, reference number, any
other associated test certificate number, raw material specification,
its reference number and the heat number with chemical analysis or
any traceable pointer to this information.
Typical for the washer: Hardness test, reference number, any other
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associated test certificate number, raw material specification,

reference number and the heat number with chemical analysis or
any traceable pointer to this information.
Statement of compliance referring to a definite relevant Australian
Standard
Signature of authenticity
Any further information or tests that may be requested or as agreed with
the supplier but may incur extra cost. Such extras may include items like:
A normative or more rigorous project specific sampling and testing
regime than those in Appendix A of AS/NZS 1252:1996 which is
currently informative.

TABLE 27
GUIDE to the key Australian Standard specification requirements in checking
compliance/test certificate documentation

Chemical composition limits

Assembly item C% Mn% P% S% B%
Min Max Min Max Max Max
1
PC8.8 Bolt (C arbon 0.15 0.40 — 0.035 0.035 0.003
steel with additives
(e.g. B, Mn or Cr)
quenched and tempered)
PC8.8 Bolt1 (C arbon 0.25 0.55 — 0.035 0.035 0.003
steel quenched and
tempered)
PC8 Nut3 — 0.58 0.25 0.060 0.150 —
Washer — — — — — —

Mechanical properties of bolts for d ≥16 mm ( ≥M16)

Assembly item Min tensile Min stress at 0.2% Min percentage Min strength
strength non-proportional elongation after under wedge
elongation (Yield) fracture loading
N/mm 2 or MPa N/mm 2 or MPa % N/mm 2 or MPa
PC8.8 Bolt 2 830 660 12 830

Rockwell hardness HRC

Assembly item d ≥ 16 mm
Min Max
1
PC8.8 Bolt 23 34
4
PC8 Nut (Galv.) 24 36
5
Washer (Galv.) 26 (35 recommended) 45
5
Washer (No Galv.) 35 45

design guide 1: 53
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 GUIDE specification references to the relevant Australian Standards:
1. AS 4291.1—2000 Mechanical properties of fasteners made of carbon steel and alloy steel
Part 1: Bolts, screws and studs, Table 2—Steels
2. AS 4291.1—2000 Table 3—Mechanical and physical properties of bolts, screws and studs
3. AS/NZS 4291.2:1995 Mechanical properties of fasteners Part 2: Nuts with specified proof
load values— Coarse thread, Table 4—Limits of chemical composition
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4. AS/NZS 1252:1996 High strength steel bolts with associated nuts and washers for
structural engineering, Table 3.1—Mechanical properties of high-strength steel nuts
5. AS/NZS 1252:1996 Section 4.3 Hardness—(of flat round washers).
NOTE: Please refer to the relevant Australian Standards for all detailed provisions of Property Class
8.8 bolts and Property Class 8 Nuts and associated washers to AS/NZS 1252:1996. AS 4291.1 is
referred to by AS/NZS 1252:1996 for mechanical properties. AS 4291.1 Table 3 specifies d ≤ 16 as the
transition point of minimum tensile strength from 800 to 830 MPa for all standard fasteners
(e.g. AS 1111, AS 1110) except for ‘structural bolting’ where the limit is d ≤ M12. Although the footnote
c of Table 3 uses the wording ‘structural bolting’ it does not reference to AS/NZS 1252:1996. Going
with the intent of this Standard however structural bolting to AS/NZS 1252:1996 all sizes (includes only
d ≥ M16) will have the same minimum tensile strength requirement of 830 MPa. M12 reference is not
applicable to AS/NZS 1252:1996 as this is not a specified size within this standard.
Sample test certificate courtesy of Ajax Engineered Fasteners to AS 1252—1983 (Ref. 19)
NOTE: Some test certificates may provide the mechanical properties in kN instead of N/mm 2 . ASI has
included this sample certificate as AJAX was the manufacturer/supplier quality benchmark in Australia
for many decades pulling out in 2001. The format and information received from manufacturers and
their suppliers is often poor with varying units of measure, inconsistent layouts and code references.
The importer/supplier industry must all provide clear compliance/test certificate documentation and
values tested against AS/NZS 1252:1996 (Ref. 5) specifications. This is necessary to assure the
industry that bolt suppliers stand by their product and it is suitable for the structural application
specified.

design guide 1: 54
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
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FIGURE 22 SAMPLE HIGH STRENGTH BOLT ASSEMBLY TEST CERTIFICATE

Further information: Refer ASI Steel Construction Journal Volume 39 Number 2—December
2005 (Ref. 17).

design guide 1: 55
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition
 10 REFERENCES

1 STANDARDS AUSTRALIA, AS 4100—1998 ‘Steel structures’.

2 AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION, ‘Design of structural
connections’, 4th edition Authors Hogan, T.J. and Thomas, I.R., Editor Syam, A.A., 1994.
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3 AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION, ‘Standardized structural

connections’, 3rd edition, 1985.
4 STANDARDS AUSTRALIA, AS 1111.1—2000 ‘ISO Metric hexagon bolts and screws—
Product Grade C, Part 1: Bolts’.
5 STANDARDS AUSTRALIA/STANDARDS NEW ZEALAND, AS/NZS 1252:1996 ‘High-
strength steel bolts with associated nuts and washers for structural engineering’.
6 Firkins, A. and Hogan, T.J. ‘Bolting of steel structures’, 3 rd edition, 1990.
7 STANDARDS AUSTRALIA, AS 4100 Supplement 1—1999 ‘Steel structures—
Commentary’.
8 Kulak, G.L., Fisher, J.W. and Struik, J.H.A. ‘Guide to design criteria for bolted and riveted
joints’, 2 nd edition (Published by American Institute of Steel Construction).
9 Kulak, G. ‘High strength bolts—A Primer for structural engineers’, American Institute of
Steel Construction, Steel Design Guide 17, 2002.
10 STANDARDS AUSTRALIA, AS 1275—1985 ‘Metric screw threads for fasteners’.
11 STANDARDS AUSTRALIA, AS 1237.1—2002 ‘Plain washers for metric bolts, screws and
nuts for general purposes, Part 1: General plan’.
12 STANDARDS AUSTRALIA, AS 1112.3—2000 ‘ISO metric hexagon nuts, Part 3: Product
Grade C’.
13 STANDARDS AUSTRALIA/STANDARDS NEW ZEALAND, AS/NZS 4291.2:1995
‘Mechanical properties of fasteners, Part 2: Nuts with specified proof load values—Coarse
thread’.
14 STANDARDS AUSTRALIA, AS 4291.1—2000 ‘Mechanical properties of fasteners made of
carbon steel and alloy steel, Part 1: Bolts, screws and studs’.
15 AJAX FASTENERS, ‘Fastener Handbook’, Issue 99, 1999.
16 STANDARDS AUSTRALIA, AS 1214—1983 ‘Hot-dip galvanized coatings on threaded
fasteners (ISO metric coarse thread series)’.
17 Fernando, S. and Hitchen, S. ‘Are you getting the bolts you specified? A discussion
paper’, Australian Steel Institute, Steel Construction, Volume 39, Number 2, December
2005.
18 STANDARDS AUSTRALIA, AS 1111.2—2000 ‘ISO Metric hexagon bolts and screws—
Product Grade C, Part 2: Screws’.
19 STANDARDS AUSTRALIA, AS 1252—1983 ‘High-strength steel bolts with associated
nuts and washers for structural engineering’.
20 INTERNATIONAL STANDARD, ISO 3318—1990 ‘Assembly tools for screws and nuts—
Double-headed open-ended wrenches, double-headed ring wrenches and combination
wrenches—Maximum widths of heads’.
21 INTERNATIONAL STANDARD, ISO 2725-1—1996 ‘Assembly tools for screws and nuts—
Square drive sockets, Part 1: Hand-operated sockets—Dimensions’.
22 INTERNATIONAL STANDARD, ISO 2725-2—1996 ‘Assembly tools for screws and nuts—
Square drive sockets, Part 2: Machine-operated sockets (“impact”)—Dimensions’.

design guide 1: 56
bolting in structural steel connections, first edition