ELEMENTS OF

OCEAN ENGINEERING

RoaERT E. RANDALL

PROFESSOR OF 0CEAN ENGINEERING

OCEAN ENGINEERING PROGRAM
ZACHRY DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
TEXAS A&M UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE STATION, TEXAS 77843-3136
 Copyright© 2010 by The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.

The opinions or assertions of the authors herein are not to be construed as official or reflecting the views
of SNAME or any government agency. It is understood and agreed that nothing expressed herein is
intended or shall be construed to give any person, firm, or corporation any right, remedy, or claim against
SNAME or any of its officers or member.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Randall, Robert E., 1940-
Elements of ocean engineering 1 Robert E. Randall. - 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-939773-77-0
l. Ocean engineering. I. Title.
TC1645.R36 2010
620' .4162-dc22
2010000656

Printed in the United States of America

First Printing, 201 O
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Ded ication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Preface to the First Edition .................................................. xiii
Preface to the Second Edition ................................................. xv
Acknowledgments: First Edition .............................................. xvii
Acknowledgments: Second Edition ........................................... xix
List of Figures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
List of Tables ............................................................. xxxv

CHAPTER 1 OVERVIEW OF OCEAN ENGINEERING 1

Background ................................................................. 1
Educational lnstitutions ....................................................... 1
Brief History ................................................................ 4
Coastal .................................................................. 4
Offshore .................................................................. 6
Underwater Systems ........................................................ 7
Application Areas in Ocean Engineering ......................................... 8
Employers of Ocean Engineers................................................ 1 O
Private lndustry ........................................................... 1O
Government .............................................................. 10
Professional Organizations .................................................. 1O
Journals and Magazines .................................................... 11
Conferences ............................................................... 12
Professional Registration .................................................... 12
Example Ocean Engineering Curriculum ........................................ 13
References ................................................................ 14

CHAPTER 2 THE OCEAN ENVIRONMENT 17

General ................................................................... 17
Ocean Floor................................................................ 17
Physical Properties of Seawater ............................................... 18
Ocean Currents ............................................................. 19
Geostrophic Current ....................................................... 21
Ekman Current ........................................................... 23
Tides ................................................................... 23
Ocean Waves ............................................................... 25
Linear Wave Theory ........................................................ 25
Wave Energy and Power .................................................... 32
Wave Group Velocity ....................................................... 34
Wave Breaking ............................................................ 34
Advanced Wave Theories ................................................... 35
Ice........................................................................ 38
Types of Ice .............................................................. 38
Properties ............................................................... 39
Ice Gouge and Strudel Scour ................................................ 40

¡¡¡
iv Table of Contents

Hurricanes and Gulf of Mexico Loop Current .................................... 41

Hurricanes lvan (2004), Katrina and Rita (2005), and lke (2008) ..... , ............... 41
Gulf of Mexico Loop Current ................................................. 41
Extreme Wave Statistics ..................................................... 43
Wave Data Collection and Algorithm for Plotting .................................. 45
Probability Distributions ..................................................... 45
References ................................................................ 49
Problems .................................................................. 51

CHAPTER 3 OFFSHORE STRUCTURES 53

lntroduction ................................................................ 53
Drilling and Producing Oil and Gas ............................................ 53
Types of Offshore Structures ................................................. 54
Offshore Drilling Systems ................................................... 54
Offshore Oil and Gas Platforms ............................................... 57
Subsea Tieback Facilities ................................................... 67
Wave Forces on Offshore Structures ........................................... 67
Background .............................................................. 67.
Design Wave Concept ...................................................... 68
Morison Equation .......................................................... 68
Vertical Cylinder ........................................................... 69
Horizontal Cylinders· ....................................................... 71
Wind and Current Forces ..................................................... 74
Wind, Wave, and Current Forces on Floating Offshore Structures ................... 76
lntroduction .............................................................. 76
Wind Loads .............................................................. 76
Wind Load Calculations ..................................................... 79
Current Load Calculations ................................................... 80
Wave Load Calculations .................................................... 81
Wind and Current Forces on Tanker-Shaped Vessels .............................. 84
Offshore Pipelines .......................................................... 90
Background .............................................................. 90
Forces on Pipelines as a Result of Waves and Currents ............................ 91
Diffraction Theory ........................................................... 95
Marine Foundations ......................................................... 95
Pile Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
References ................................................................ 97
Problems .................................................................. 98

CHAPTER 4 COASTAL PROCESSES ANO STRUCTURES 101

lntroduction ............................................................... 101
Coastal Structures ......................................................... 104
Breakwaters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................. 104
Jetties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................... 107
Groins ................................................................. 107
Seawalls, Bulkheads, and Revetments ........................................ 108
 Table of Contents V

Beach Nourishment and Restoration .......................................... 109

Sand Bypassing .......................................................... 11 O
Ports, Harbors, and Marinas ................................................ 113
Wave Refraction, Diffraction, and Reflection .................................... 113
Refraction .............................................................. 113
General Refraction Analysis ................................................ 115
Diffraction .............................................................. 118
Reflection ............................................................... 118
Wave Run-Up ............................................................. 120
Wave Forecasting and Hindcasting ........................................... 121
Ocean Wave Characteristics ................................................ 121
Simplified Method for Wave Prediction ........................................ 122
Sediment Transport and Scour ............................................... 124
Sediment Characteristics ................................................... 124
Littoral Transport ......................................................... 126
Design of Rubble Mound Structures .......................................... 128
Dredging ................................................................. 129
Definitions and History ..................................................... 129
Dredges ................................................................ 131
Dredge Pumps ........................................................... 139
Cutters, Dragheads, and Buckets ............................................ 139
Dragheads .............................................................. 141
Buckets ................................................................ 142
Pipeline Transport of Dredged Material ........................................ 142
Slurry Transport in Pipes ................................................... 142
Determination of Critica! Velocity ............................................. 144
Estimating Production ..................................................... 145
Dredged Material Placement ................................................. 145
Open Water Placement Area ................................................ 145
Confined Placement Facilities ............................................... 145
Beneficia! Uses .......................................................... 146
References ............................................................... 147
Problems ................................................................. 149

CHAPTER 5 MATERIALS ANO CORROSION 153

lntroduction . .............................................................. 153
Materials for Ocean Applications ............................................. 153
Properties .............................................................. 153
Metals ................................................................. 154
Nonmetallic Materials ..................................................... 157
Buoyancy Materials ....................................................... 160
Marine Corrosion .......................................................... 161
Electrochemical Reactions ................................................. 161
Galvanic Series of Metals .................................................. 161
Typical Types of Corrosion Occurring in the Ocean Environment .................... 161
Preventing Corros ion ...................................................... 165
References ............................................................... 170
Problems ................................................................. 170
 vi Table of Contents

CHAPTER 6 FLOATING ANO SUBMERGED BODV HVDRODVNAMICS 173

Terminology .............................................................. 173
Ship Geometry........................................................... 173
Hydrostatics and Stability ................................................... 174
Displacement ............................................................ 174
Coefficients of Form ...................................................... 177
Curves of Form .......................................................... 178
Hydrostatic Calculations ................................................... 179
Static Stability ........................................................... 180
Metacentric Height. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Cross Curves of Stability ................................................... 186
Curves of Static Stability ................................................... 187
Resistance and Propulsion .................................................. 188
Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 188
Propulsion .............................................................. 190
Buoy Systems . ............................................................ 195
Buoy Types and Uses ..................................................... 195
Static Analysis of Buoy Systems ............................................. 198
Moored Subsurface Buoy .................................................. 200
Static Cable Analysis ...................................................... 200
Neutrally Buoyant Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Static Mooring Une Analysis, lncluding Stretching ............................... 205
Offshore Mooring Systems .................................................. 208
lntroduction ............................................................. 208
Analysis of a Spread Mooring System ......................................... 211
Response Amplitude Operator .............................................. 214
Mooring System Design Process ............................................ 217
Example Results of a Truss Spar Mooring Analysis .............................. 219
Mooring Une Components ................................................. 221
Anchors ................................................................ 222
Natural Periods for Offshore Floating Bodies ................................... 225
Example Problem 6-6 ..................................................... 226
Offshore Production Risers . ................................................. 227
References ............................................................... 230
Problems ................................................................. 231

CHAPTER 7 UNDERWATER SYSTEMS 235

lntroduction . .............................................................. 235
Diving and Life Support . .................................................... 235
Physiology .............................................................. 235
Pressure ............................................................... 239
Temperature ............................................................. 240
Equation of State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 240
Air Supply Calculations .................................................... 241
Ventilation of Large Chambers .............................................. 242
Diver Breathing Equipment ................................................. 242
Controlling the Underwater Chamber Environment ............................... 243
Pressure Vessels .......................................................... 244
Thin-Walled Cylinders and Spheres .......................................... 244
 Table of Contents vii

Submarines ............................................................... 246

Military Submarines ....................................................... 246
Research and Work Submersibles ........................................... 247
Recreational and Tourist Submarines ......................................... 249
Human-Powered Submarines ............................................... 250
Remotely Operated Vehicles ................................................. 252
Brief History ............................................................. 252
Classification and Applications .............................................. 254
Weight Distribution, Vehicle Velocity, and Thrust Calculations ....................... 257
Autonomous Underwater Vehicles ............................................ 261
One-Atmosphere Diving Systems............................................. 264
Underwater Habitats and Hyperbaric Chambers ................................. 266
Energy Systems for Underwater Applications .................................. 274
Subsea Systems ........................................................... 275
References ............................................................... 278
Problems ................................................................. 279

CHAPTER 8 UNDERWATER ACOUSTICS 281

lntroduction ............................................................... 281
Underwater Sound Fundamentals ............................................ 283
Example Problem 8-1 ..................................................... 285
Sonar Equations ........................................................... 285
Transd ucers and Beam Patterns .............................................. 288
Underwater Acoustic Transducers ............................................ 288
Receiving Directivity lndex .................................................. 289
Be am Pattern ............................................................ 289
Underwater Sound Generation ............................................... 292
Propagation of Underwater Sound ............................................ 293
Spreading Laws .......................................................... 293
Absorption .............................................................. 293
Spreading and Absorption Loss ............................................. 294
Sound Velocity Variation with Depth .......................................... 296
Snell's Law .............................................................. 297
Method of Rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Multiple Constant-Gradient Layers ........................................... 302
Ambient Noise Level in the Ocean ............................................ 307
Reverberation Level and Scattering ........................................... 309
Target Strength ............................................................ 31 O
Radiated Noise ............................................................ 314
Self-Noise ................................................................ 315
Detection Threshold ........................................................ 315
Applications Using Underwater Acoustic Principies ............................. 319
References ............................................................... 322
Problems ................................................................. 323

CHAPTER 9 INSTRUMENTATION FOR OCEAN APPLICATIONS 327

lntroduction ............................................................... 327
Temperature .............................................................. 327
viii Table of Contents

Depth .................................................................... 328

Salinity ................................................................... 330
Multiparameter lnstruments ................................................. 332
Water Current Meters ....................................................... 333
Meteorological Data ........................................................ 337
Wave and Tide Gauges ...................................................... 339
Water Samplers............................................................ 341
Sediment Samplers ........................................................ 342
Oceanographic Winches .................................................... 344
Underwater Release Devices................................................. 346
Manufacturer's Web Sites ................................................... 346
References ............................................................... 347

CHAPTER 1O PHYSICAL MOOELING 349

lntroduction ............................................................... 349
Dimensions and Units ...................................................... 349
Dimensional Analysis ...................................................... 350
Buckingham Pi Theorem .................................................... 350
Dimensionless Parameters ................................................. 353
Modeling ................................................................. 353
Geometric Similarity ...................................................... 354
Kinematic Similarity ....................................................... 355
Dynamic Similarity ........................................................ 355
Fixed-Bed Modeling ....................................................... 358
Movable-Bed Modeling .................................................... 358
Distorted Modeling ....................................................... 358
Physical Modeling Facilities ................................................. 358
References ............................................................... 364
Problems ................................................................. 364

CHAPTER 11 SAFETY ANO ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS, ANO ETHICS 367

lntroduction ............................................................... 367
Regulatory and Professional Society Rules and Guidelines ....................... 367
Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Certification ............................................................. 368
Verification .............................................................. 368
Regulatory Bodies ......................................................... 368
Rules and Regulations ...................................................... 370
Types of Offshore Regulations .............................................. 370
Prescriptive and Performance Based-Regulations ............................... 371
Regulatory "Enforcers" ..................................................... 371
lndustry Standards ....................................................... 371
Differences Among Classification, Certification, and Verification .................... 372
Historical Development of lndustry Standards .................................. 373
Role of Accidents in the Development of Regulations ............................. 373
lndustry Associations ...................................................... 373
Working with Regulators and Classification Societies ............................. 374
Additional Sources for Regulatory lnformation .................................. 374
 Table of Contents ix

Safety ...................................................................• 374

Offshore Accidents ....................................................... 376
Environmental Laws ........................................................ 378
Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act; Ocean Dumping Act;
London Dumping Convention .............................................. 378
Clean Water Act [33 USC ff 1251-1387] ....................................... 379
National Environmental Policy Act ............................................ 379
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976) [42 USC ff 6901-6992k] ............ 379
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation,
and Liability Act (Superfund) (1980); Superfund Amendments
and Reauthorization Act (1986) [42 USC ff 9601-9675] ......................... 379
Safe Drinking Water Act (1974) [42 USC ff 300f-300h-26] ......................... 380
Oil Pollution Control Act (1990) [33 USC ff 2701-2761] ........................... 380
Toxic Substances Control Act (1976) [15 USC ff 2601-2671; 40 CFR Part 761] ........ 380
Occupational Safety and Health Act [29 USC FF 651 et seq.] ...................... 380
London Dumping Convention (1972) [26 UST 2403:TIAS 8165] ..................... 380
CoastaiZoneManagementAct .............................................. 380
River and Harbors Act of 1899 [33 USC f 407] .................................. 381
Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1958 ..................................... 381
Endangered Species Act of 1988 [16 USC ff 1531-1544] ......................... 381
Water Resources Development Act of 1986 .................................... 381
National Historie Preservation Act of 1966 [16 USC ff 470-470w-6] .................. 381
Migratory Bird Treaty Act [16 USC ff 703-711] .................................. 381
Environmental lmpact Statement ............................................. 382
Ethics and Professionalism .................................................. 383
References ............................................................... 384

CHAPTER 12 OCEAN ENGINEERING DESIGN 385

lntroduction ............................................................... 385
Design Process ............................................................ 385
Ocean Engineering Design Problems and Solutions ............................. 388
Simple Offshore Platform .................................................. 388
Remotely Operated Vehicle ................................................. 393
Breakwater ............................................................. 398
Optimization of Chain Mooring for a Meteorological Buoy .......................... 402
Observational ROV ....................................................... 404
References ............................................................... 41 O
Problems ................................................................. 411

Appendix A Properties and Conversions ...................................... 413

Appendix B Nomenclature .................................................. 423
Appendix C Answers to Even-Numbered Problems .............................. 431
lndex .................................................................... 433
 DEDICATION

Barbara, my wife

Neil, my son

Brian and Holly, my son and daughter-in-law

Hope, Christian, and Samuel, my grandchildren

xi
 PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION

This text is intended for use in a first course for ocean engineering students and to serve
as an overview of the ocean engineering field and its applications. Students are expected to have
completed one to two years of engineering college studies including at least two semesters of
engineering calculus, a semester of engineering physics (mechanics) and a semester of engi-
neering statics.
Although engineers have been working in the oceans ever since man first ventured into the
sea, it wasn't until there was a need to recover resources beneath the sea floor, protect coastlines,
maintain and create waterways, and better understand the ocean environment, did the discipline
of ocean engineering develop in the late 1960s. At the same time, curricula in ocean engineering
began to appear in U.S. universities located in states with shorelines, and in sorne cases, long-
standing marine programs changed their name to Ocean Engineering and similar name changes
were also observed in other countries. Prívate industry experienced the expansion of the offshore
industry, dredging industry, and consulting firms specializing in coastal and offshore applications;
and the defense industry further developed a focus on undersea defenses and related ocean
engineering applications.
The author defines Ocean Engineering as the application of e9gineering principies to the
ocean environment. This discipline is nearly thirty years young, and it~s still establishing its iden-
tity. Although many of the first generation of ocean engineers are completing their careers, the
question "What is an ocean engineer?" is still commonly encountered and it is hoped that this text
will help clarify this question.
Ocean engineering is a very exciting and challenging field addressing man's use of the
ocean frontier that covers approximately 79 percent of the earth's surface, and ocean engineers
are involved in developing this vast and harsh frontier while at the same time striving to protect
the same ocean environment. This field is especially challenging because it requires innovation
and solutions to problems that have never been attempted before. The resources of the ocean are
vast and ocean engineers must lead the way in its resource development in an environmentally
acceptable way.

xiii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

FIRST EDITION

Since 1975, 1 have had the pleasure of teaching undergraduate and graduate students at
Texas A&M University in the discipline of Ocean Engineering. lt is the interest of these students
and those who will follow that have made it possible for this textbook to be published.
Many people at Texas A&M University, in the marine industry, and at the Society of Naval
Architects and Marine Engineers (SNAME) contributed to the content and appearance of this
book. These acknowledgments provide the opportunity to thank sorne of those people individually
The assistance of Aubrey L. Anderson, Daniel T. Cox, William P. Fife, Richard B. Griffin,
John B. Herbich, Jack Y. K. Lou, and Jun Zhang in reviewing and providing comments on various
chapters of the text is greatly appreciated. Bruce L. Crager of Oceaneering Production Systems
also provided comments. Several ocean engineering students Billy D. Ambrose, Allan M. Breed,
Ryan B. Cantor, David E. Cobb, Michael S. Ellis, and Christopher L. Ross have also contributed
by making drawings and developing the problem solutions. Appearing on the front cover is the
photograph of the Auger tension leg platform furnished by Jenifer Tule, and appearing on the
back cover is the photograph of the South Lake Worth, Florida inlet provided by Billy L. Edge.
Joan Pope and Yen-hsi Chu of the Coastal Engineering Research Center in Vicksburg, MS pro-
vided a number of the photographs used to depict coastal structures and processes. The ocean
engineering students enrolled in the course "lntroduction to Ocean Engineering" at Texas A&M
University provided comments and feedback to the class notes that were used to develop this
text. The Ocean Engineering Program and Civil Engineering Department at Texas A& M University
are also acknowledged for their financia!· ~sistance and encouragement. Melanie Estes and
Celeste Phillips with the Texas A&M Printing Center were extremely helpful in arranging for the
final graphic arts used in the manuscript. 1 am grateful to Jose Femenia, chair of the SNAME
control committee established for overseeing the writing of this book, for his encouragement and
review of the text.
Many thanks go to Jaime Horowitz, Associate Director for Publications and Technical
Activities for SNAME for her guidance, her assistance in obtaining the necessary copyright per-
missions for the many figures and tables, and her contributions to both the overall appearance of
the text and the book's cover.
1 appreciate the assistance provided by the late Joyce Hyden, Secretary for the Ocean
Engineering Program at Texas A&M University, in the preparation of the final manuscript. Last, 1
want to express gratitude to my wife, Barbara, for her dedication in editing and contributing to the
text's readability and for her encouragement, understanding, and patience during the preparation
of this book.

xvii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

SECOND EDITION

1 have had the pleasure of teaching undergraduate and graduate students at Texas A&M
University in the discipline of Ocean Engineering. lt is the interest of these students and those who
will follow that make it possible to write and publish this textbook. Colleagues at Texas A& M University
and other academic institutions, Ocean Engineering students, engineers in the marine and offshore
industry, engineers in the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the staff at the Society of Naval Architects
and Marine Engineers (SNAME) have contributed to the content and appearance of this book. These
acknowledgments provide the opportunity to thank some of those people individually. 1 am also grateful
to those schools that have used the textbook for their ocean engineering courses that include Florida
lnstitute of Technology, Texas A&M University, U.S. Naval Academy, University of Massachusetts at
Lowell, Pusan National University (Korea), and lnha University (Korea). 1 am also honored that the
Shanghai Jiao Tong University of the Peoples Republic of China translated the first edition into Chinese.
The assistance of Jun Zhang, Head of Ocean Engineering Program at Texas A&M University
and instructor for lntroduction to Ocean Engineering course, in reviewing and providing comments on
various chapters of the text is greatly appreciated. Han Choi, Professor at Pusan National University in
Korea provided many comments and corrections that are incorporated in this second edition. Bonjun
Koo worked with me during his PhD studies at Texas A&M University and he assisted me in many of the
additions to Chapter 3 and Chapter 6. Rod King and Peter Noble with ConocoPhillips worked with me in
teaching the Ocean Engineering senior design course for many years and some of the information from
those years has been included in this second edition. Malcolm Sharples provided significant input to the
material in Chapter 11 related to Qffshore accidents and regulatory subject matter. Evan Zimmerman of
Delmar provided input, photographs, and comments related to mooring in Chapter 6. Eugene Niemi,
who teaches an ocean engineering course at the University of Massachusetts at Lowell, provided ad-
ditional problems and solutions that are included in several chapters and especially Chapter 6.
Brian Bogle, Karl Brown, S han non Chader, Jimmy Fowler, Stephanie Groleau, Alan Jeffries,
Thomas Kendall, Stan Michalowski, Michael Mohr, Dwight Pakan, Mike Palermo, Joan Pope,
Edmund Russo, Matthew Schrader, Sharon Tirpak, and Tim Welp of the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers provided photographs used to depict coastal structures, coastal processes, and
dredging. Jenifer Tu le provided pictures of spar platforms from Anadarko.
Ocean Engineering students Lauren Augustin, Aaron Drake, Vanna Keller, Autumn Kidwell,
Robert Pelley, and Sarah Schlosser contributed drawings and checked problem solutions, and their
assistance is greatly appreciated. The ocean engineering students enrolled in the course "lntroduction
to Ocean Engineering" provided comments and feedback to the first edition that were used to develop
this second edition. The Ocean Engineering Program and Zachry Department of Civil Engineering at
Texas A& M University are also acknowledged for their assistance and encouragement.
Many thanks go to Susan Evans Grove, Publications Director for the Society of Naval
Architects and Marine Engineers (SNAME) for her guidance, her assistance in obtaining the
necessary copyright permissions for the many figures and tables, and her contributions to both
the overall appearance of the text and the book's cover. The encouragement of Phillip Kimball,
Executive Director of SNAME, and Barbara Trentham, Executive Administrative Assistant of
SNAME Headquarters, is also gratefully acknowledged.
1 appreciate the assistance provided by Pam Fambro, Administrative Assistant, and
Stephanie Halliwell, Secretary for the Ocean Engineering Program at Texas A&M University, in
the preparation of the final manuscript. Last, 1want to express gratitude to my wife, Barbara, for
her patience, sacrifice, and understanding during the extra time required to write and prepare the
second edition of Elements of Ocean Engineering.

xix
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure1-1. Before (/eft) and after (righ~ beach restoration in Corpus Christi, Texas ....... 5
Figure 1-2. Historical development of fixed jacketed production platforms and
their installed water depth ......................................... 6
Figure 1-3. Production riser system for Argyll field in the North Sea. (Reprinted with
permission from Goodfellow Associates. (1990). Applications ot
subsea systems. Tulsa: PennWell Publishing Co.) ....................... 9
Figure 2-1. Distribution of depths in the ocean and elevations on land ................. 17
Figure 2-2. Principal features of the ocean floor .................................. 18
Figure 2-3. lllustration of geostrophic current (V9 ) in the northern hemisphere ........... 22
Figure 2-4. Examples of semidiurnal, diurnal, and mixed tides ....................... 24
Figure 2-5. Equilibrium tide theory. Solar tides are gravitational (a) and centrifuga! {b)
Lunar tides are also gravitational (e) and centrifuga! (d) ................. 25
Figure 2-6. Approximate distribution of ocean surface wave energy. (Reprinted with
permission from Kinsman, B. (1965), Wind Waves: Their generation and
propagation on the ocean surface. New York: Dover Publications, lnc.) ...... 26
Figure 2-7. Typical sinusoidal progressive waveform .............................. 27
Figure 2-8. Water particle orbits in deep and shallow water ......................... 30
Figure 2-9. Schematic for evaluation of wave potential energy ....................... 33
Figure 2-1 O. lllustration of breaking wave classifications. (Reprinted with permission
from Sarpkaya, T., & lsaapson, M. (1981). Mechanics ot wave torces
on offshore structures. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.) .............. 35
Figure 2-11. Breaking wave as viewed through ship portal window
(http://www.noaa.gov, 2009) ....................................... 35
Figure 2-12. Suggested range of applicability of various wave theories. (Reprinted
with permission from Le Mehaute, B. (1969). An introduction to
hydrodynamics and water waves. Water wave theories, Vol. 11,
TR ERL 118-POL-3-2. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Commerce, ESSSA.) ............................................ 36
Figure 2-13. Comparison of linear and Stokes second order wave elevation profiles. . ..... 37
Figure 2-14. Example wave elevation profile for a Cnoidal wave and its limiting
cases of solitary and linear waves. (Reprinted with permission from
Sarpkaya, T., & lsaacson, M. (1981 ). Mechanics ot wave torces on
offshore structures. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.) ................. 37
Figure 2-15. Autonomous underwater vehicle in the Antartic Ocean. (Courtesy of
Teledyne Webb Research.) ........................................ 38
Figure 2-16. Schematic of an iceberg and ice island ................................ 39
Figure 2-17. Schematic of Strudel scour......................................... 40
Figure 2-18. Hurricane Katrina aerial view before entering the Gulf of Mexico
(www.nasa.gov) ................................................ 42
Figure 2-19. Track of hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005; diamond shapes
indicate location of offshore platforms (www.mms.org, 2005) ............. 42
Figure 2-20. Before and after picture of Galveston lsland, Texas, location
showing damage from Hurricane lke in September 2008
(http://www.noaa.org, 2008) ....................................... 43
Figure 2-21. Hurricane regions in the Gulf of Mexico................................ 44
Figure 2-22. General map of loop current in the Gulf of Mexico
{http:// www.csc.noaa.gov, 2009) ................................... 45

xxi
xxii List of Figures

Figure 2-23. Gumbel distribution and estimated significant wave height. ................ 48
Figure 2-24. Weibull distribution and estimate of significant wave height.. ............... 49
Figure 3-1. Schematic of offshore drilling equipment. (Reprinted with permission
from Mather, A. (1995). Offshore engineering: An introduction.
London: Witherby & Co. Ud.) ...................................... 54
Figure 3-2. (Left) Example jack-up drill rig. (Reprinted with permission from
Patel, M. H. (1989). Dynamics of offshore structures. London:
Butterworths & Co.). (Right) Jack-up drilling rig Ocean Tower
built in 1972 has maximum water depth capability of 300 ft.
(Courtesy of Diamond Offshore.) ................................... 55
Figure 3-3. (Left) Sketch of a semisubmersible drilling rig. (Reprinted with permission
from Patel, M. H. (1989). Dynamics of offshore structures. London:
Butterworths & Co.) (Right) Semisubmersible drilling rig (Nautilus)
is designed for maximum water depth of 2438 m (8,000 ft), has
operating draft of 23 m (76ft), and uses a preset eight-point mooring
system for stationkeeping. (Courtesy of Transocean.) ................... 56
Figure 3-4. (Left) Example of dynamically positioned offshore drillship. (Reprinted with
permission from Patel, M. H. (1989). Dynamics of offshore structures.
London: Butterworths & Co.) (Right) Drillship Discover Enterprise is
capable of drilling in a maximum water depth of 3048 m (1 0,000 ft)
and uses a dynamic positioning system for stationkeeping.
(Courtesy of Transocean.) ........................................ 56
Figure 3-5. Offshore platforms used for th,e production of oil and gas. /
(Courtesy of Offshore Magazine.) . ................................. 57
Figure 3-6. Location of selected deep water offshore oil and gas platforms in
Gulf of Mexico.................................................. 57
Figure 3-7. (Left) Steel jacketed platform. (Reprinted with permission McCielland, B., &
Reifel, M. D. (Eds.) (1986). Planning and design of fixed offshore
platforms. NewYork: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.) (Right)
The Bullwinkle platform in the Gulf of Mexico has a height of 529 m
(1736 ft) above sea floor and is the world's tallest fixed jacket
steel platform. (Courtesy of Shell.) .................................. 58
Figure 3-8. (Left) Example Condeep concrete gravity structure. (Reprinted with
permission from Furnes, 0., & Loset, O. (1980). Shell structures in
offshore platforms: design and application. Engineering Structures, 3,
14Q-152.) (Right) TrollA platform in the North Sea is 472 m (1548 ft)
tall and weighs 656,000 tons. (Courtesy of Wikipedia.) .................. 59
Figure 3-9. Comparison of cost for offshore structures. (Reprinted with permission
Gunther, C., Eike, L., & Gasten, O. (1988). Offshore structures
(Vol.l, pp. 132-135). NewYork: Spinger-Verlag.) ....................... 60
Figure 3-10. Schematic of tension leg platform (left) and Auger TLP in Gulf of Mexico
(right). (Reprinted with permission from Patel, M. H. (1989).
Dynamics of offshore structures. London: Butterworths & Co.
Courtesy of Jennifer Tule.) ........................................ 60
Figure 3-11. (Left) Example guyed-tower compliant offshore platform. (Reprinted
with permission from Patel, M. H. (1989). Dynamics of offshore structures.
London: Butterworths & Co.) (Right) Baldpate compliant offshore
platform located in the Gulf of Mexico. (Courtesy of McDermott.) .......... 61
Figure 3-12. Example articulated tower. (Reprinted with permission from Patel, M. H.
(1989). Dynamics of offshore structures. London: Butterworths & Co.) ...... 61
 List of Figures xxiii

Figure 3-13. (Lett) Single anchor leg mooring system. (Reprinted with permission
from Patel, M. H. (1989). Dynamics ot offshore structures.
London: Butterworths & Co.) (Right) Tower yoke system.
(Courtesy of SBM-Atlantia.) ....................................... 62
Figure 3-14. Example of the NaKika semisubmersible floating production system.
(Courtesy of Shell lnternational Exploration & Production, lnc.) ........... 62
Figure 3-15. Schematic of a Spar platform (left, Koo, 2003) and photograph of
the Constitution Truss Spar platform (right, courtesy of Anadarko) ......... 63
Figure 3-16. Spar platforms installed from 1996 to 2005 primarily in the Gulf of Mexico.
(Courtesy of Offshore Magazine) .. ................................. 63
Figure 3-17. Externa! turret moored FPSOs offloading to shuttle tankers.
(Courtesy of MODEC, lnc. and SOFEC, lnc.) .......................... 64
Figure 3-18. (Lett) Interna! turret mooring system, FPSO Petrobas 31, Campos Basin,
Brazil, with SOFEC interna! turret. (Courtesy of MODEC, lnc. and
SOFEC, lnc.). (Right) FPSO Glas Dowr during offloading.
(Courtesy of Bluewater.) ......................................... 64
Figure 3-19. Schematic of spread, externa!, interna!, and disconnectable
mooring concepts ............................................... 65
Figure 3-20. LNG tanker showing four spherical LNG tanks.
(Courtesy of Wikipedia.) ......................................... 65
Figure 3-21. LNG marine terminal. (Courtesy of Canaport LNG.) ...................... 66
Figure 3-22. Schematic of general arrangement of a FLNG facility (From Miller, R.,
Wattinger, R., Van Valkenburg, A., et al. (2004). Design of a floating
storage and regasification unit (FSRU) for offshore West Africa.
Final Report, Ocean Engineering Program, Texas A&M University,
College Station, Texas, May 28.) ................................... 66
Figure 3-23. (Left) Dalia subsea tieback production facility located offshore Angola.
(From Lafitte, J. L., Perrot, M., Lesgent, J., et al. (2007). Dalia subsea
production system: presentation and challenges. Proceedings of the
Offshore Technology Conference, OTC 18541, Houston, Texas, May.)
(Right) Example of horizontal subsea tree. (Courtesy of FMC.) ............ 67
Figure 3-24. Schematic for wave force on vertical circular cylinder..................... 69
Figure 3-25. Typical time history over a single wave period of wave force on
vertical circular cylinder.......................................... 71
Figure 3-26. Variation of drag coefficient (Cd) with Reynolds number and
roughness height. (Reprinted with permission from Patel, M. H. (1989).
Dynamics ot offshore structures. London: Butterworths & Co.) ............ 71
Figure 3-27. lnertia coefficient for cylinder as a function of Reynolds and
Keulegan-Carpenter numbers. (Reprinted with permission from
Sarpkaya, T., & lsaacson, M. (1981). Mechanics otwave torces on
offshore structures. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. )............... 72
Figure 3-28. Drag coefficient for cylinder as a function of Reynolds and
Keulegan-Carpenter numbers. (Reprinted with permission from
Sarpkaya, T., & lsaacson, M. (1981 ). Mechanics ot wave torces on
offshore structures. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.) .............. 72
Figure 3-29. lnertia, drag, and total force for vertical circular cylinder in example problem ... 74
Figure 3-30. Schematic for wave torces on horizontal circular cylinder.................. 74
Figure 3-31. Drag coefficient as a function of Reynolds number. (Reprinted with
permission from Vennard, J. K., & Street, R. L. (1982). Elementary
fluid mechanics (6th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.) ................ 75
xxiv List of Figures

Figure 3-32. Delineation of bow and beam surface areas for a semisubmersible
drilling rig ..................................................... 78
Figure 3-33. Plot of wind force height coefficient. .................................. 79
Figure 3-34. Schematic to illustrate oblique force ................................... 80
Figure 3-35. Semisubmersible current drag coefficient. ............................. 81
Figure 3-36. Effect of significant wave height on the mean drift force for a
semisubmersible drilling rig (after API, 2005) .......................... 82
Figure 3-37. The coordinate system and sign convention for very large crude carriers.
The coefficients for wind and current in this chapter are from O to
180 degrees and the coefficients for 181 to 360 degrees are valid
with a sign change (after OCIMF, 1994) .............................. 85
Figure 3-38. Two different bow configurations used for calculating wind and current
torces and moments for very large crude carriers (after OCIMF, 1994) ...... 86
Figure 3-39. Longitudinal wind force coefficient (Cxw) (after OCIMF, 1994) ............... 86
Figure 3-40. Lateral wind force coefficient (Cvw) (after OCIMF, 1994) ................... 86
Figure 3-41. Wind yaw moment coefficient (Cxvw) (after OCIMF, 1994) .................. 87
Figure 3-42. Longitudinal current force coefficient (Cxc) for fully loaded tanker with water
depth/draft ratio ? 4.4 (after OCIMF, 1994) ........................... 87
Figure 3-43. Lateral current force coefficient (Cvc) for fully loaded tanker with water
depth/draft ratio ? 6.0 (after OCIMF, 1994) ........................... 88
Figure 3-44. Current yaw moment coefficient (Cxvc) for fully loaded tanker with water
depth/draft ratio ? 6.0 (after OCIMF, 1994) ........................... 88
Figure 3-45. Two different bow configurations used for calculating wind and
current torces and moments for very large crude carriers ................ 89
Figure 3-46. Example of an S-lay and J-lay pipeline vessel (left) and deepwater
construction vessel (DVC) balder (right). (Courtesy of Heerema
Marine Contractors.) ............................................. 91
Figure 3-47. Schematic of torces acting on an offshore pipeline resting on the seabed ..... 92
Figure 3-48. Lift coefficient for a circular cylinder as a function of Reynolds number.
(Reprinted with permission from Mousselli, A. H. (1981 ). Offshore
pipeline design, analysis, and methods. Tulsa: PennWell Publishing Co.) .... 93
Figure 4-1. Schematic of typical beach profile and coastal zone ..................... 102
Figure 4-2. Effect of storm waves on beach and dune. (Reprinted with permission
from U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). (1984). Shore protection
manual. Washington, DC: USACE.) ................................ 103
Figure 4-3. Combined cellular-steel sheet-pile and sheet-pile breakwater at
Port Sanilac, MI. (Reprinted with permission from U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers (USACE). (1984). Shore protection manual.
Washington, DC: USACE.) ....................................... 105
Figure 4-4. Rubble-mound breakwater in Lake Michigan showing overtopping (top)
anda ship entering (bottom). (Reprinted with permission from
Neil Harri, USACE.) ............................................ 105
Figure 4-5. Rubble-mound segmented breakwaters at Presque lsle near Erie, PA,
on Lake Erie. (Courtesy of Shannon Chader and Michael Mohr,
USACE, Buffalo District.) ........................................ 106
Figure 4-6. The Jones lnlet in New York befo re and after rehabilitation.
(Courtesy of Stan Michalowski, USACE, New York District.) ............. 107
Figure 4-7. Crescent City, CA, rubble-mound jetties using dolos armor units (top)
and the New York Mattituck lnlet jetties (bottom). (Courtesy of
Thomas Kendall, USACE, SanFranciso District, and Stan Michalowski,
USACE, New York District, respectively.) ............................ 108
 List of Figures XXV

Figure 4-8. Nome, AK, jetties during winter (left) and summer (right). (Reprinted with
permission from Alan Jeffries, USACE, Alaska District.) ................ 108
Figure 4-9. Port Clinton, OH, jetty. (Courtesy of Shannon Chader and Michael Mohr,
USACE, Buffalo District.) ..............................•......... 109
Figure 4-1 O. Rubble-mound groin field at Cape May Point, NJ. (Reprinted with
permission from Dwight Pakan, USACE, Philadelphia District.) .......... 109
Figure 4-11. Concrete curved face seawall at Galveston, TX (top), and at Chicago, IL,
on Lake Michigan (bottom). (Courtesy of USACE, Galveston District and
Michael Mohr and Shannon Chader, Buffalo District.) ................. 11 O
Figure 4-12. One hundred-year-old seawall at Blackpool, England (top), and
new precast steps and curved seawall under construction (bottom).
(Reprinted with permission from Joan Pope, USACE.) ................. 111
Figure 4-13. Steel sheet-pile bulkhead at North Wildwood, NJ. (Courtesy of
Brian Bogle, USACE, Philadelphia District.) ......................... 111
Figure 4-14. An interlocking concrete-block revetment at Jupiter lnlet, FL (/eft), and stone
revetment at Plum lsland, NY (right). (Leftcourtesy of U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers (USACE). (1984). Shore protection manual. Washington, DC:
USACE; rightcourtesy of Stan Michalowski, NewYork District.) ............. 112
Figure 4-15. Restoration of beach in Ocean City, NJ. (Reprinted with permission
from Dwight Pakan, USACE.) ..................................... 112
Figure 4-16. Restoration of beach in Cape May Point, NJ. (Reprinted with permission
from Dwight Pakan, USACE.) ..................................... 112
Figure 4-17. Dredge excavating sand for restoration of Breton lsland in Southeast Louisiana
in 2001. (Reprinted with permission from Edmond Russo, USACE.) .......... 113
Figure 4-18. Examples of coastal barriers for which sand bypassing schemes have been
used. (Reprinted with permission from U. S. Army Corps of Engineers
(USACE). (1984). Shore protection manual. Washington, DC: USACE.) ...... 114
Figure 4-19. Rubble-mound breakwater protecting Waianae Marina in Oahu, Hl.
(Reprinted with permission from Jimmy Fowler, USACE.) .............. 115
Figure 4-20. New York port and harbor facilities. (Reprinted with permission from
Edmond Russo, USACE.) ....................................... 116
Figure 4-21. Examples of wave refraction. (Reprinted with permission from U. S. Army
Corps of Engineers (USACE). (1984). Shore protection manual.
Washington, DC: USACE.) ...................................... 117
Figure 4-22. Aerial photograph of wave diffraction at Channel lslands Harbor breakwater in
California. (Reprinted with permission from U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
(USACE). (1984). Shore protection manual. Washington, DC: USACE.) ........ 119
Figure 4-23. Coefficient of wave reflection as a function of the surf similarity parameter
for plane slopes, beaches, and rubble-mound breakwaters .............. 120
Figure 4-24. Schematic of run-up and overtopping ................................ 120
Figure 4-25. Nomograph for deep water wave prediction curves for constant water
depth in SI units. (Reprinted with permission from U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers (USACE). (1984). Shore protection manual.
Washington, DC: USACE.) ...................................... 123
Figure 4-26. Nomograph for deep water wave prediction curves for constant water
depth in English units. (Reprinted with permission from U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers (USACE). (1984). Shore protection manual.
Washington, DC: USACE.) ....................................... 123
Figure 4-27. Fall velocity of spheres. (Reprinted with permission from U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers (USACE). (1984). Shore protection manual.
Washington, DC: USACE.) ...................................... 125
xxvi List of Figures

Figure 4-28. Terminal velocity experimental data and empirical equations. (Reprinted
with permission from Herbich, J. B. (1992). Handbook of dredging
engineering (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Co.) .................... 126
Figure 4-29. Nearshore circulation showing longshore and rip currents ................ 128
Figure 4-30. Sketch of common breakwater rubble mound structure where W is
weight of armor unit. ........................................... 129
Figure 4-31. Scraper dredge Krabbelaar. (Reprinted with permission from
Herbich, J. B. (1992). Handbook of dredging engineering (2nd ed.).
NewYork: McGraw-Hill Co.) ...................................... 131
Figure 4-32. Classification of dredges.......................................... 132
Figure 4-33. Clamshell and environment bucket dredges. (Reprinted with permission
from Great Lakes Dredge and Dock and Cable Arm lnc.) ............... 132
Figure 4-34. Bucket-ladder dredge. (Reprinted with permission from
Herbich, J. B. (1992). Handbook of dredging engineering (2nd ed.).
NewYork: McGraw-Hill Co.) ...................................... 133
Figure 4-35. Typical hopper dredge components. (Reprinted with permission from
Bray, R. N., Bates, A. D., & Land, J. M. (1997). Dredging: A handbook
for engineers (2nd ed.). London: Arnold.) ............................ 134
Figure 4-36. Photograph of the hopper dredges Bayport (left) and Liberty lsland (right).
(Reprinted with permission from Manson Construction and
Great Lakes Dredge and Dock.) ................................... 134
Figure 4-37. Sidecasting dredge Schweitzer. (Reprinted with permission from USACE.) ..... 135
Figure 4-38. Cutterhead dredge components. (Reprinted with permission from
Houston, J. (1970). Hydraulic dredging. Cambridge:
Cornell Maritime Press.) ......................................... 135
Figure 4-39. Photograph of cutterhead dredges 11/inois (Jeft) and Carolina (right).
(Reprinted with permission from Great Lakes Dredge and Dock.) ......... 136
Figure 4-40. Preliminary selection guide for dredges. (Reprinted with permission from
Herbich, J. B. (1992). Handbook of dredging engineering (2nd ed.).
NewYork: McGraw-Hill Co.) ...................................... 137
Figure 4-41. Photograph of bucket wheel dredge. (Reprinted with permission from
Herbich, J. B. (1992). Handbook of dredging engineering (2nd ed.).
New York: McGraw-Hill Co.) ...................................... 137
Figure 4-42. Schematic of dustpan dredge. (Reprinted with permission from
Herbich, J. B. (1992). Handbook of dredging engineering (2nd ed.).
New York: McGraw-Hill Co.) ...................................... 138
Figure 4-43. Small hydraulic auger dredge (top left, courtesy of Liquid Waste
Technology LLC), pipeline cutter suction dredge (top right, courtesy of
Ellicott Dredges LLC), cutter suction dredge (lower leff), and swinging ladder
cutter suction dredge (/ower right, courtesy of Dredging Supply lnc.) ......... 138
Figure 4-44. Large centrifuga! dredge pumps and booster pump.
(Courtesy of SPI/Mobile Pulley Works.) ............................. 139
Figure 4-45. Example pump characteristics curves for 508 mm (20 inch) suction and
discharge dredge pump; NPSH is the net positive suction head and
NPSHR is the net positive suction head required to avoid cavitation.
(Courtesy of GIW Industries.) ..................................... 140
Figure 4-46. Selected examples of cutters for loose sand (upper left); rock (upper right);
replaceable edge cutter for cement sands, clays, and limestone
(Jower /eft); and the different replaceable edges (lower right).
(Courtesy of SPI/Mobile Pulley Works.) ............................ 140
 List of Figures xxvii

Figure 4-47. Schematic of bucket wheel cutter dredge (Albar, 2001 )................... 141
Figure 4-48. Auger cutter showing flighting with cover. (Courtesy of Liquid Waste
Technology LCC.) .............................................. 141
Figure 4-49. California draghead .............................................. 142
Figure 4-50. Examples of clamshell, dipper, and backhoe buckets. (Courtesy of
Great Lakes Dredge and Dock.) .................................. 142
Figure 4-51. Sediment distribution in different slurry flow regimes ..................... 143
Figure 4-52. Nomograph for estimating the critica! velocity in slurry pipelines. (From
Wilson, K. C., Addie, G. R., Sellgren, A., & Clift, R. (1997). Slurry transport
using centrifuga/ pumps (2nd ed.). New York: Chapman and Hall.) .......... 144
Figure 4-53. Schematic of a confined placement facility. (Courtesy of USACE.) .......... 146
Figure 4-54. Confined placement facility during filling at inlet pipe (Jeft), after
filling (middle), and after dewatering using trenches (right).
(Courtesy of Mike Palermo and USACE.) ............................ 146
Figure 4-55. Examples of beneficia! uses of dredged material. (Courtesy of USACE.) ..... 147
Figure 5-1. Typical stress-strain curve for steel and aluminum alloys .................. 153
Figure 6-1. Example of ship lines drawing. (Reprinted with permission from
Lewis, E. V. (1988). Principies of naval architecture (2nd ed.).
Jersey City: Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineeers.) ......... 176
Figure 6-2. Buoyant torces acting on a floating body.............................. 177
Figure 6-3. Example curves of form. (Reprinted with permission from Lewis, E. V. (1988).
Principies of naval architecture (2nd ed.). Jersey City: Society of
Naval Architects and Marine Engineeers.) ........................... 180
Figure 6-4. Location of center of gravity effects on stability, where MWL is the
mean water line. . ............................................. 184
Figure 6-5. Schematic of transverse metacenter (M) and righting arm (GZ) ............ 185
Figure 6-6. lllustration of transverse righting arms ................................ 186
Figure 6-7. Example of cross curves of stability. (Reprinted with permission from
Lewis, E. V. (1988). Principies of naval architecture (2nd ed.).
Jersey City: Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineeers.) ........ 187
Figure 6-8. Typical static stability curve with center of gravity on and off the centerline .... 187
Figure 6-9. Example of USN criteria for stability in wind and waves. (Reprinted with
permission from Lewis, E. V. (1988). Principies of naval architecture (2nd ed.).
Jersey City: Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineeers.) ........... 188
Figure 6-1 O. Flow relative to an actuator disk in open water. . ....................... 191
Figure 6-11 . Relationship between ideal efficiency (1"J¡) and thrust coefficient (CT)·
(Reprinted with permission from Clayton, B. R., & Bishop, R. E. D. (1991 ).
Mechanics of marine vehicles. Houston: Gulf Publishing Co.) ............ 192
Figure 6-12. Propeller power relationships ....................................... 193
Figure 6-13. Typical wake fraction and thrust deduction for the range of the propeller
diameter/hull diameter ratio. (Reprinted with permission from
Allmendinger, E. E. (Ed.). (1990). Submersible vehicle systems design.
Jersey City: Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineeers.) ......... 194
Figure 6-14. Resistance coefficients for streamlined hull shapes. (Reprinted with
permission from Allmendinger, E. E. (Ed.). (1990). Submersible
vehicle systems design. Jersey City: Society of Naval Architects and
Marine Engineeers.) ............................................ 194
Figure 6-15. Representative propeller performance curves. (Reprinted with permission
from Clayton, B. R., & Bishop, R. E. D. (1991 ). Mechanics of marine
vehicles. Houston: Gulf Publishing Co.) ............................. 195
xxviii List of Figures

Figure 6-16. Examples of buoy systems. (a) USCG navigation buoy (reprinted with
permission from U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (1990). Aids to navigation
manua/-technical. Department of Transportation. COMDINST MI 65003).
(b) Small watch circle marker buoy. (e) Offshore semisubmersible
mooring with anchor marker buoy. (d) USN free swinging buoy. (Reprinted
with permission from Navy Facilities Engineering Command (NAVFAC)
(1968). Design manual, harbor and coastal facilities, DM26.) ............ 196
Figure 6-17. Examples of buoy hull forms ....................................... 197
Figure 6-18. Example shallow water and deep water mooring techniques.
(Reprinted with permission from Berteaux, H. O. (1991 ). Coastal and
oceanic buoy engineering. Woods Hole: Berteaux.) .................... 197
Figure 6-19. Typical subsurface mooring configuration an acoustic Doppler
velocimeter (ADV) as the current speed sensor. ...................... 198
Figure 6-20. Free-body diagram of a moored subsurface buoy in a current.. ............ 200
Figure 6-21. Schematic of torces on a cable element. ............................. 201
Figure 6-22. Heavy-chain mooring of buoy....................................... 202
Figure 6-23. Normal and tangential drag coefficients for different sized cables.
(Reprinted with permission from Berteaux, H. O. (1991 ). Coastal and
oceanic buoy engineering. Woods Hole: Berteaux.) ................... 203
Figure 6-24. Schematic of neutrally buoyant towing cable ........................... 204
Figure 6-25. Single catenary mooring line divided into nodal sections .................. 205
Figure 6-26. Shape of example polyester mooring line shape ........................ 207
Figure 6-27. Catenary mooring of an offshore drill ship showing collinear
environmental torces (wind, wave, and current) acting on drill ship
and offsetting the drill ship a distance (x) ............................ 208
Figure 6-28. Schematic of semisubmersible drilling vessel offset (excursion) ............ 209
Figure 6-29. Schematic of catenary and taut-leg single mooring line using drag
embedment or suction pile anchors ................................ 209
Figure 6-30. Catenary anchor leg mooring (CALM) (left) and single anchor leg
mooring (SALM) (right) . ........................................ 21 O
Figure 6-31. Example turret configurations used for floating production, storage, and
offloading vessels (Courtesy of ConocoPhillips) ....................... 21 O
Figure 6-32. FPSO with an externa! turret mooring offloading to shuttle tanker
(courtesy of SOFEC) ........................................... 211
Figure 6-33. Example of spread mooring system for a semisubmersible ................ 211
Figure 6-34. Platform moored with two mooring lines.............................. 213
Figure 6-35. Spar platform .................................................. 215
Figure 6-36. Example problem 6-5 spar heave RAO for 2% damping (z = 2%) .......... 217
Figure 6-37. Mooring system design process flowchart. ............................ 218
Figure 6-38. Truss spar model and plan view of mooring lines. (From Cotton, J.,
Dubar, C., Garcia, D., Hartsfield, R., & Vallejo, R. (2009). Sirena Dotada
truss spar design for Eastern Gulf of Mexico, final report.
Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas.) ....................... 219
Figure 6-39. Studless chain (/eft), mooring components (center), and
studlink chain (right) .. .......................................... 221
Figure 6-40. Example of polyester mooring rope used in offshore deepwater mooring
(courtesy of lntermoor) and schematic of jacketed spiral strand and
multistrand wire rope cross-sections (right) .. ........................ 221
Figure 6-41. Rotary mooring winch (left) and bending shoe and rotary
sheave fairleads (right) .. ........................................ 222
 List of Figures xxix

Figure 6-42. Definition of anchor terms. . ....................................... 222

Figure 6-43. Sketches of the Stevpris Mark 5 (/eft) and the Bruce (right) anchors that
are commonly used as drag embedment anchors for offshore moorings ..... 223
Figure 6-44. Suction piJe anchor (/eh), verticaJJy Joaded embedment anchors
( center and right) used for taut and semitaut mooring systems
(courtesy of lnterMoor) .......................................... 223
Figure 6-45. OMNI-Max™ (U.S. Patent #7,059,263) vertically loaded anchor (/eft) and
on anchor-handling vessel (courtesy of Delmar) ...................... 223
Figure 6-46. Anchor-holding capacity in sand .................................... 224
Figure 6-47. Anchor-holding capacity in soft clay.................................. 225
Figure 6-48. Schematic of an offshore top tension riser (TTR) ....................... 227
Figure 6-49. Schematic of spar platform and TTR supported by buoyancy cans
(Koo, 2003) ................................................... 228
Figure 6-50. Conceptual view of floating production storage and offloading (FPSO)
vessel using flexible risers connecting to manifold with shuttle tanker
offloading. (Courtesy of Oceaneering lnternational, lnc.) ............... 228
Figure 6-51. A spread moored Zafiro Producer (left) and Ocean Producer (right)
FPSOs with flexible risers connecting to riser porches. (Courtesy of
Oceaneering lnternational, lnc.) .................................. 229
Figure 6-52. Sketches of common flexible riser configurations ....................... 229
Figure 6-53. Helical strakes attached to risers to reduce vortex induced vibration.
(Courtesy of Trelleborg CRP.) ..................................... 230
Figure 7-1. Schematic of human circulatory system. (Reprinted with permission
from Shilling, C. W. (1965). The human machine. Annapolis:
U.S. Naval lnstitute.) ............................................ 236
Figure 7-2. Schematic of human respiratory system. (Reprinted with permission from
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). (2001 ).
NOAA diving manual. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.) ...... 237
Figure 7-3. Volume relationship for a normal breath ............................... 237
Figure 7-4. Physiological effects of carbon dioxide concentration and exposure period ... 238
Figure 7-5. Percentage of oxygen in breathing mixture as a function of depth a?d
oxygen partial pressure ......................................... 238
Figure 7-6. Relation of respiratory minute volume in liters per minute (1/min) or
cubic feet per minute (CFM) and oxygen consumption in SLM to
type and level of exertion ........................................ 239
Figure 7-7. Measured pressure relationships .................................... 239
Figure 7-8. Schematic of torces acting on a thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel. ..... 244
Figure 7-9. Schematic illustrating bursting force on cylinder transverse section ......... 245
Figure 7-1 O. Photograph of the USS Grenadier (SS-525) entering the port of
Malta in 1965 ................................................. 246
Figure 7-11. Photograph of the modern nuclear submarine USS Texas (SSN-775)
(http://www.submarinegallery.com) ................................. 24 7
Figure 7-12. lllustration of the modern ballistic missile nuclear submarine
USS Pennsy/vania (SSBN-735) (http://www.submarinegallery.com) ....... 247
Figure 7-13. Photograph of the manned deep submergence submersible
Alvin in 1964 (/eft) and being lowered into water (right). (Courtesy of
USN, http://www.navsource.org) ................................... 248
Figure 7-14. Johnson-Sea-Link submersible being lowered into the water
from support ship. (Photo courtesy of Art Howard,
http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov) .................................... 249
 XXX List of Figures

Figure 7-15. The 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea submarine Nautilus at the Disney
World theme park in Orlando, Florida; viewing windows shown at right.
(Courtesy of http://www.20kride.com) ............................... 249
Figure 7-16. The V48 tourist submarine (http://www.sub-find.com) .................... 250
Figure 7-17. Two and three person recreational submarines Super Falcon (/eft) and
the deep flight Merlin (right), (Courtesy of Hawkes Ocean technology,
www.deepflight.com.) ........................................... 250
Figure 7-18. Human-powered submarines Aggie Ray (1991 ), Submaroon /1 (1998),
HydroAg (2001 ), 0/'Sarge 11 (2002), and Maroon Harpoon (2009) ........ 252
Figure 7-19. lllustration of the ROV CURV. (Reprinted with permission from Shatto, H. L.
(1991 ). Remotely operated vehicles. In J. B. Herbich (Ed.), Handbook of
coastal and ocean engineering, Volll. Houston: Gulf Publishing Co.) ......... 253
Figure 7-20. Photograph of RCV 150 system giving wrench to diver while an
RCV 225 observes in 1976. (Courtesy of Drew Michel.) ................ 253
Figure 7-21. Photograph of Scorpio built by Ametek Straza (left) and the Triton built by
Perry (right). (Reprinted with permission from Shatto, H. L. (1991 ).
Remotely operated vehicles. In J. B. Herbich (Ed.), Handbook of
coastal and ocean engineering, Volll. Houston: Gulf Publishing Co.) ....... 253
Figure 7-22. Vehicle classification by percentage based on 2000 survey (Wagner, 2001 ). . .. 255
Figure 7-23. Work-class ROV capabilities for the offshore industry in the year 2000
(Wagner et al., 2000) ........................................... 256
Figure 7-24. Work class ROV Magnum (/eft) and Millennium (right) with cage or
garage tether management system. (Courtesy of Oceaneering
lnternational, lnc. Magnum and Millennium are registered trademarks
of Oceaneering lnternational, lnc.) ................................. 256
Figure 7-25. Oceaneering e-Magnum ROV (courtesy of Oceaneering lnternational, lnc.)
and the Canyon all electric ROV (courtesy of Canyon Offshore) ............ 256
Figure 7-26. Work-class ROV and TMS befare launching. (Courtesy of Sam Ryu.) ........ 257
Figure 7-27. Example of ROV tether and umbilical specifications (Wernli, 1998) ......... 259
Figure 7-28. Propeller thrust as a function of speed. (Courtesy of lnnerspace.) .......... 261
Figure 7-29. Photograph of the Perry Aloupis (top; courtesy of Perry Technologies)
and ABE (bottom; courtesy of Woods Hole Oceanographic lnstitute) ....... 262
Figure 7-30. Remus 6000 AUV.
(Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime.) ................................ 263
Figure 7-31. Schematic and photographs of the AUV Hugin.
(Courtesy of Konsberg Maritime.) .................................. 263
Figure 7-32. Photograph of AUV glider.
(Courtesy of Teledyne Webb Research.) ............................ 263
Figure 7-33. Solar powered AUV.
(Courtesy of Autonomous Undersea Systems lnstitute.) ................ 263
Figure 7-34. Atmospheric diving suits SPIDER (courtesy of Silvercrest Submarines)
and JIM and WASP (courtesy of Oceaneering lnternational, lnc.) ......... 264
Figure 7-35. Distribution of ADSs (Thornton, 2000) ................................ 265
Figure 7-36. The Newtsuit (left, courtesy of Newtsuit lnc.) and Hardsuit
(right, courtesy of OceanWorks lnternational) ........................ 265
Figure 7-37. Photograph of Hydrolab underwater habitat located near
St Croix, Virgin lslands, in 1978 ................................... 269
Figure 7-38. Conceptual view of the Tektite habitat. (Reprinted with permission from
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). (2001 ).
NOAA diving manual. Washington, OC: Government Printing Office.) ...... 270
 List of Figures xxxi

Figure 7-39. Aquarius underwater off Key Largo, Florida (top), the surface
support buoy (bottom left), and the habitat structure on the
surface before installation (bottom right). (Courtesy of NOAA,
http://www.noaa.gov.) ........................................... 271
Figure 7-40. NOAA underwater habitat Aquarius plan (top), starboard (middle), and
port views (bottom). (Courtesy of NOAA, http://www.noaa.gov.) .......... 272
Figure 7-41. Jules Undersea Lodge located in Key Largo, Florida. (Courtesy of Jules'
Undersea Lodge, http://www.jul.com) ............................... 273
Figure 7-42. Floating production storage and offloading system connected to flowlines
from subsea wells. (Courtesy of Oceaneering lnternational, lnc.) ......... 275
Figure 7-43. Conventional (/eft) and horizontal (right) "wet" tree for subsea fields.
(Courtesy of FMC.) ............................................. 276
Figure 7-44. Subsea layout showing manifold, umbilical, PLET, jumper, and UTA.
(Courtesy of J. Lee.) ............................................ 276
Figure 7-45. Canyon Station subsea tieback from Camden Hills, Aconcagua, and
Kings Peak fields. (Courtesy of Canyon Express.) ..................... 277
Figure 8-1. SC binaural air tube listening equipment used during WWI. ............... 281
Figure 8-2. Schematic of active sonar system ................................... 286
Figure 8-3. Example underwater acoustic transducers (hydrophones and projectors).
(ITC, A Division of Channel Technologies Group [CTG].) ................ 288
Figure 8-4. Examples of a beam pattern for line array and circular plane array.
(Reprinted with permission from Urick, R. J. (1983). Principies of
underwater sound (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.) .................. 290
Figure 8-5. Definition of the negative 3 dB beam width ............................ 290
Figure 8-6. Beam pattern for example problem 8-3 (circle increments are -3 dB) ....... 291
Figure 8-7. lllustration of spherical and cylindrical spreading ........................ 293
Figure 8-8. Absorption coefficient and correction for depth over useful sonar frequency
range for salinity of 35 o/oo and pH of 8 (Francois and Garrison, 1982) ....... 295
Figure 8-9. Typical deep-water sound velocity profile .............................. 297
Figure 8-1 O. Schematic of plane sound wave propagation ........................... 298
Figure 8-11. Definition of critica! angle .......................................... 298
Figure 8-12. Schematic for ray angle measured positively upward .................... 299
Figure 8-13. Examples of positive and negative gradients........................... 300
Figure 8-14. Coordinate transformation ......................................... 301
Figure 8-15. lllustration of the ambiguity in algebraic sign for ray...................... 302
Figure 8-16. Schematic for two-layer ocean ...................................... 303
Figure 8-17. lllustration of shadow zone for two-layer ocean ......................... 303
Figure 8-18. Example of rays in a multiple gradient layer ocean. Note that Bis sound
speed minimum, A and D are sound speed maximums, and all rays
leaving S curve downward ....................................... 303
Figure 8-19. Example subscripting for multiple layers. . ............................ 304
Figure 8-20. Example ray tracing results from computer program for rays between +20
and -20 degrees at 0.5 degree increments. (Courtesy of Billy Ballard.) ...... 305
Figure 8-21. Ambient noise spectrum level as a function of frequency for the
deep ocean (after Urick, 1983) .................................... 307
Figure 8-22. The average deep water ambient noise spectra in the ocean
(after Urick, 1983) .............................................. 308
Figure 8-23. Ambient sea noise including shipping, rain, and design sea state (DSS)
(after Waite, 2002) ............................................. 308
Figure 8-24. Schematic of volume and bottom reverberation ......................... 309
xxxii List of Figures

Figure 8-25. Variation of sea-surface scattering strength at 60kHz with angle at

different wind speeds off Key West, Florida (Urick, 1983), and for
various sea states and grazing angles. The dashed line indicates
values recommended for sonar design (after Waite, 2002) .............. 311
Figure 8-26. Measured backscattering strength of the seabed for various coastal
locations (after Urick, 1983) ...................................... 312
Figure 8-27. lncident wave approaching a sphere, where the reference range is 1 yd ..... 313
Figure 8-28. Theoretical submarine TS variation with aspect angle (after Urick, 1983) ..... 313
Figure 8-29. Average radiated noise levels (standard deviation of O') for surface ships
(Dow et al., 1945) and submarines (Knudsen et al., 1943) .............. 316
Figure 8-30. Variation of self-noise with speed, where SS4 and SS2 are
sea state 4 and 2 (Waite, 2002) ................................... 317
Figure 8-31. Self-noise level for a destroyer (a) and submarine (b) (Urick, 1983) ......... 317
Figure 8-32. Receiver operating curves (ROCs) on probability coordinates (Urick, 1983).... 318
Figure 8-33. Schematic of seismic reflection system ............................... 319
Figure 8-34. Schematic of dynamic positioning system ............................. 320
Figure 8-35. Schematic of basic acoustic position reference system ................... 320
Figure 8-36. Side sean sonar tow fish (/eft) and output showing downed aircraft,
anchor, and debris on the seafloor (right). (Courtesy of
L-3 Klein Associates lnc.) ........................................ 321
Figure 8-37. Subbottom profiler output showing brine jets emanating from
buried diffuser at end of buried brine pipeline in 70 ft of water
offshore of Freeport, Texas ....................................... 321
Figure 8-38. Schematic of acoustic Doppler velocimeter probe and photograph of the
system for measuring velocities in the laboratory. (Courtesy of SonTek) .... 322
Figure 9-1. Sketch of a mechanical bathythermograph. (Reprinted with permission
from Williams, J. (1973). Oceanographic instrumentation.
Annapolis: Navallnstitute Press.) .................................. 328
Figure 9-2. Schematic of expendable bathythermograph. (Reprinted with permission
from Williams, J. (1973). Oceanographic instrumentation.
Annapolis: Naval lnstitute Press.) .................................. 328
Figure 9-3. Single beam (left) and multibeam (right) echo sounder. (Courtesy of
Teledyne Odom.) .............................................. 329
Figure 9-4. Cable length and angle used to measure the depth of a sensor............ 329
Figure 9-5. Example of bellows and Bourdon tube pressure sensors. . ............... 330
Figure 9-6. Autosal laboratory salinometer. (Reprinted with permission from
Guildline lnstruments lnc.) ....................................... 331
Figure 9-7. Examples of conductivity, depth, temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH,
turbidity, and grouped multiple sensors used in the field and
laboratory. (Courtesy of Hach Co.) ................................. 332
Figure 9-8. Field multiparameter probe by YSI and the S4CTD by lnterOcean.
(Courtesy ofYSIIncorporated and lnterOcean Systems lnc.) ............ 333
Figure 9-9. Electromagnetic current meter (a) and the same meter shown in a
moored configuration (b,c) and bottom mounted configuration (d).
(Courtesy of lnterOcean Systems, lnc.) ............................. 334
Figure 9-1 O. Drifter current measuring devices................................... 335
Figure 9-11. Open propeller small-current meter. (Reprinted with permission
from Ott Co.) .................................................. 335
Figure 9-12. Savonius rotor (reprinted with permission from lnterOcean Systems, lnc.)
and ducted propeller current meters (http://www.ysi.com) ............... 336
 List of Figures xxxiii

Figure 9-13. Example acoustic Doppler current meters. (Courtesy of

Teledyne RO lnstruments.) ....................................... 336
Figure 9-14. Hot wire anemometer probes. (Reprinted with permission from Dantec.) ..... 337
Figure 9-15. Particle image velocimety (PIV) system (left; courtesy of Dantec
Dynamics) and beams from three beam laser Doppler anemometer
used in measuring orbital velocities under breaking wave (right) .. ........ 337
Figure 9-16. Laboratory ADV (left, courtesy of NortekUSA), side-looking ADV, and
down-looking ADV. ............................................. 338
Figure 9-17. Meteorological systems for coastal, offshore, and port applications
(Courtesy of lnterOcean Systems, lnc.) ............................. 338
Figure 9-18. Examples of wave and tide gauge installations......................... 339
Figure 9-19. Wave and tide gauge showing inner electronic circuitry. (Reprinted
with permission from lnterOcean Systems lnc.) ....................... 340
Figure 9-20. Wave track buoy (left; reprinted with permission from ENDECONSI lnc.)
and acoustic wave array system (right; courtesy of Teledyne
RO lnstruments) ............................................... 340
Figure 9-21. Capacitance, wireless capacitance, and resistance wave
gauges for laboratory........................................... 341
Figure 9-22. Example of CTD rosette (left) and individual water sampler used in ocean
engineering and oceanography. (Courtesy of General Oceanics.) ......... 342
Figure 9-23. Example of pisten corer being lowered from the research vessel Knorr
(http://www.whoi.edu) ........................................... 344
Figure 9-24. Typical winches used in ocean research and operations. (Reprinted
with permission from lnterOcean Systems lnc.) ....................... 345
Figure 9-25. Acoustic release systems for shallow water (/eft), deep water (centet),
and anchor rig release (right). (Courtesy of lnterOcean Systems lnc.) ..... 346
Figure 10-1. Photographs of the Offshore Technology Research Center wave basin,
showing model floating production systems, tension leg platform (TLP),
spar platform, remotely operated vehicle (ROV), and floating
production storage and offloading (FPSO) system. (Reprinted
with permission from Offshore Technology Research Center.) ............ 361
Figure 10-2. Glass-walled wave tan k (36.6 x 0.9 x 1.2 m) at Texas A& M University...... 362
Figure 10-3. Photograph of the towing tan k at the David Taylor Research Center......... 362
Figure 10-4. Photograph of the shallow-water modeling facility for the Los Angeles
harbor at the Coastal Engineering Research Center, U.S. Army Engineers
Engineering Research and Development Center (formerly the
Waterways Experiment Station), in Vicksburg, Mississippi ............... 362
Figure 10-5. Photographs of the shallow-water wave flume in Haynes Coastal
Engineering Laboratory at Texas A&M University, College Station,
Texas. Model rubble mound breakwater (right) and concrete
model floodwall and levee structure (/eft) are shown ................... 363
Figure 10-6. The dredge/towing flume in the Haynes Coastal Engineering Laboratory
at Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas ...................... 363
Figure 11-1. Semisubmersible drilling rig listing and subsequently sinking as a
result of uncontrollable flooding. (Source: http://members.tele2.nl/
the_sims/rig/p36.htm.) .......................................... 376
Figure 11-2. Semisubmersible production platform listing dangerously because of a
malfunction in the ballast control equipment. The equipment was
repaired and the vessel was righted. (Courtesy of U.S. Coast Guard,
photograph by Petty Officer 3rd Class Robert M. Reed.) ................ 377
xxxiv List of Figures

Figure 11-3. A mini tension leg platform (TLP; top left), mini TLP capsized (top right), and
spar production platform (bottom) shown with toppled work over rig
after the passage of a hurricane (http://www.mms.gov) ................. 377
Figure 11-4. Jurisdiction boundaries for M PASA and CWA. (Reprinted with permission
from EPA/USACE. (2004). Evaluating environmental effects of dredged
material management alternatives-a technical framework.
Washington, DC: U.S Government Printing Office.) .................... 378
Figure 11-5. Flowchart for the Corps of Engineers permit review process ............... 382
Figure 12-1. A descriptive model for the design process. (Reprinted with permission
from French, M. J. (1985). Conceptual design for engineers. London:
Design Council.) ............................................... 386
Figure 12-2. The design spiral for the design of a submersible. (Reprinted with
permission from Allmendinger, E. E. (Ed.). (1990). Submersible
vehicle systems design. Jersey City: Society of Naval Architects
and Marine Engineers.) ......................................... 387
Figure 12-3. Schematic of single pi le platform .................................... 388
Figure 12-4. Comparison of bending moment for wind, wave, and current forces with
the allowable bending moment for a selected steel pipe with
248 MPa (36 ksi) yield strength and wall thickness (t) .................. 392
Figure 12-5. Comparison of bending moment for wind, wave and current forces with
the allowable bending moment for a selected steel pipe with
290 MPa (42 ksi) yield strength and wall thickness (t) .................. 392
Figure 12-6. Schematic of wave basin in which ROV is to operate. . .................. 393
Figure 12-7. Effects of ROV velocity and cross-sectional area on drag force ............. 397
Figure 12-8. ROV drawing. . ................................................. 397
Figure 12-9. Schematic for hypothetical port requiring breakwater design ............... 398
Figure 12-10. Cross-section of final breakwater design with dimensions................. 399
Figure 12-11. Schematic of cross-section of final breakwater design using dolos,
with dimensions in feet. ......................................... 401
Figure 12-12. Example meteorological buoy and schematic of typical catenary mooring .... 402
Figure 12-13. Results of tension at the buoy as a function of the chain characteristics ...... 403
Figure 12-14. General layout of ROV components .................................. 405
Figure 12-15. Dimensional location of ROV components ............................. 406
Figure 12-16. Dimensional drawing of buoyancy blocks (all dimensions in inches;
multiply by 252 to get millimeters) .................................. 408
Figure 12-17. Sol id graphics drawing of an ROV design ............................. 41 O
 CHAPTER 1 OVERVIEW OF OCEAN ENGINEERING

1.1 BACKGROUND

Ocean engineering is a relatively new engineering discipline whose future is linked to mankind's
need to use natural ocean energy such as wind, waves, temperature, and currents, and mineral resources
beneath the sea surface, provide a food source, accommodate recreational activities, transport goods and
people, provide alternative space for living quarters and facilities, further understand oceanic processes,
and develop engineering concepts for protecting the land from various ocean meteorological processes.
Ocean engineering may be defined as the application of engineering principies to the analysis, design,
development, and management of systems that must function in water environments such as oceans, lakes,
estuaries, and rivers. This definition is similar to that for aerospace engineering which applies engineering
principies to systems operating in space and the upper atmosphere.
There are other related disciplines that are applied to the ocean environment such as coastal en-
gineering, marine engineering, naval architecture, naval engineering, and offshore engineering. Coastal
engineering typically applies engineering principies to systems operating in the coastal zone. Marine
engineering applies to energy and mechanical systems used on marine vehicles, and naval architecture
refers to the design of the hull structure, stability, and propulsion systems for marine vehicles. Offshore
engineering is the application of engineering principies to systems in the offshore zone that implies
deeper water outside the coastal zone. The application of engineering principies to naval systems or ships
is often termed as naval engineering. In the author's view, ocean engineering encompasses both coastal
and offshore engineering and overlaps with the areas of naval architecture, marine engineering, and naval
engineering.
Since ocean engineering is a relatively new engineering field that began in the late 1960s and
early 1970s, it is only now that authoritative books and references are available for use by practitioners
in industry and for academic instruction. Many texts are now published addressing the area of off-
shore structures, such as Graff (1981), Dawson (1983), Gerwick (1986), McClelland and Reifel (1986),
Patel (1989), Barltrop and Adams (1991), and Mather (1995), and evaluation of wave forces, including
Sarpkaya and Isaacson (1981), Chakrabarti (1994), and Kim (2008). Water wave theories are described
in texts by Dean and Dalrymple (1984), Kinsman (1984), Goda (2000), and Mei (1992). The area of
coastal processes and protection is addressed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' Shore Protection
Manual (U.S. Army Corp ofEngineers, 1984) and the Coastal Engineering Manual (U.S. Army Corp of
Engineers, 2002). Other references related to coastal processes include Horikawa (1988), Ippen (1966),
Fischer et al. (1979), Nielsen (1992), Fredsoe and Deigaard (1992), and Wiegel (1965). Ocean engineer-
ing handbooks have been written by Herbich (1990, 1992) and Meyers (1969). Underwater systems refer-
ences include the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Diving Manual (NOAA,
2001), Allmendinger (1990), and the U.S. Navy Diving Manual (U.S. Navy, 2005). Lewis (1988) and
Berteaux (1991) have written texts for the related areas of naval architecture and buoy engineering,
respective!y.

1.2 EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

Educational curricula at the graduate and undergraduate level have been developed at many U.S.
academic institutions located in states with coastlines. Table 1-1 illustrates the institutional names, loca-
tions, and degree programs in the United States, and Table 1-2 lists sorne institutions located abroad.
Although these tables are believed to be fairly complete, sorne institutions may have inadvertently been
excluded.
2 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 1-1. List of Selected Academic Institutions in the United States Offering Ocean Engineering,
Naval Architecture, Marine Engineering, and Other Related Degree Programs
Name of Institution Location Degree Program Degree Types
California Maritime Academy Vallejo, California Marine Engineering Undergraduate
California State Polytechnic University Pomona, California Ocean Engineering minor Undergraduate
Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton, Florida Ocean Engineering Undergraduate
Graduate
Florida Institute of Technology Melbourne, Florida Ocean Engineering Undergraduate
Graduate
Great Lakes Maritime Marine Engineering Undergraduate
Maine Maritime Castine, Maine Marine Engineering Undergraduate
Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, Massachusetts Ocean Engineering Undergraduate
Graduate
Massachusetts Maritime Cape Cod, Massachusetts Marine Engineering Undergraduate
Oregon State University Corvallis, Oregon Ocean Engineering Graduate
State University of New York Maritime Fort Schuyler, New York Naval Architecture and Undergraduate
College Marine Engineering
Stevens lnstitute of Technology Hoboken, New Jersey Coastal and Ocean Graduate
Engineering
Texas A&M University College Station, Texas Ocean Engineering Undergraduate
Graduate
Galveston, Texas Maritime Systems Undergraduate
Engineering
University of California at Berkeley Berkeley, California Naval Architecture and Graduate
Offshore Engineering
University of Delaware Newark, Delaware Coastal Engineering Graduate
University of Florida Gainesville, Florida Coastal and Oceanographic Graduate
Engineering
University of Hawaii Honolulu, Hawaii Ocean Engineering Graduate
University of Michigan Ann Arbor, Michigan Naval Architecture and Undergraduate
Marine Engineering Graduate
University of New Hampshire Durham, New Hampshire Ocean Engineering Graduate
University of New Orleans New Orleans, Louisiana Naval Architecture and Undergraduate
Marine Engineering Graduate
University of Rhode Island Kingston, Rhode Island Ocean Engineering Undergraduate
Graduate
University of Washington Seattle, Washington Ocean Engineering Graduate
University of Massachusetts Lowell Lowell, Massachusetts Ocean Engineering Graduate
U.S. Coast Guard Academy New London, Connecticut Naval Architecture and Undergraduate
Marine Engineering
U. S. Merchant Marine Academy Kings Point, New York Marine Engineering Undergraduate
U. S. Naval Academy Annapolis, Maryland Ocean Engineering Undergraduate
Virginia Polytechnic Institute Blacksburg, Virginia Aerospace and Ocean Undergraduate
Engineering Graduate
Webb lnstitute of Naval Architecture Glen Cove, New York Naval Architecture and Undergraduate
Marine Engineering
Chapter 1 Overview of Ocean Engineering 3

Table 1-2. List of Selected Universities Outside the United States Offering Education
in Ocean Engineering or Related Fields of Study
N ame of Institution Location Degree Program Degree Types
Chosun University Korea Naval Architecture Undergraduate
Graduate
Chungnam National University Korea Naval Architecture and Undergraduate
Ocean Engineering Graduate
Cranfield Institute of Technology United Kingdom Ocean Engineering Undergraduate
Graduate
Dalian University People's Republic of China Ocean Engineering Undergraduate
Graduate
Delft University of Technology The Netherlands Coastal Engineering Undergraduate
Graduate
Ecole Nationale Super. de Tech. France Offshore Engineering and Graduate
Avancees Naval Architecture
Hong Ik University Korea Naval Architecture and Undergraduate
Ocean Engineering Graduate
India Institute of Technology India Naval Architecture Undergraduate
Graduate
Inha University Korea Naval Architecture Graduate
Kagoshima University Japan Ocean Engineering Graduate
Korea Maritime University Korea Naval Architecture and Undergraduate
Ocean Engineering Graduate
Memorial University of Newfoundland Newfoundland Naval Architecture and Undergraduate
Ocean Engineering Graduate
Nihon University Japan Naval Architecture Graduate
Pukyong University Korea Naval Architecture and Undergraduate
Marine Systems Engineering Graduate
Pusan National University Korea Naval Architecture and Undergraduate
Ocean Engineering Graduate
Royal Institute of Technology Sweden Naval Architecture Graduate
Seoul National University Korea Naval Architecture Undergraduate
Graduate
Shanghai Jiao Tong University People's Republic of China Ocean Engineering Undergraduate
Graduate
Technical University of Berlin Germany Ocean Engineering Graduate
Technical University of Denmark Denmark Ocean Engineering Undergraduate
Graduate
Tianjin University People's Republic of China Offshore Engineering and Graduate
Coastal Engineering
University College Cork Ireland Coastal Engineering and Graduate
Offshore Engineering
University College London United Kingdom Ocean Engineering Graduate
University of Auckland New Zealand Coastal Engineering and Graduate
Offshore Engineering
University of Buenos Aires Argentina Naval Architecture Graduate
University of Glasgow United Kingdom Ocean Engineering and Graduate
Naval Architecture
University of Hamburg Germany Naval Architecture Graduate
University of New South Wales Australia Naval Architecture and Graduate
Coastal Engineering
continues
 4 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 1-2. Continued.

Name of Institution Location Degree Program Degree Types
University of Strathclyde United Kingdom Coastal Engineering and Graduate
Marine Technology
University of Tokyo Japan Naval Architecture Graduate
University of Trondheim Norway Ocean Engineering Undergraduate
Graduate
University of Ulsan Korea Naval Architecture and Undergraduate
Ocean Engineering Graduate
Yokohama National University Japan Ocean Engineering and Graduate
Naval Architecture

1.3 BRIEF HISTORY

Although engineers have been engaged with engineering applications in the ocean since before
the beginning of this century, the academic discipline of ocean engineering only surfaced at sorne uni-
versities in the late 1960s and early 1970s. As a consequence, engineers educated in ocean engineering
are relatively new. The development of ocean engineering was fueled by exploration of the underwater
environment, development of offshore gas and oil, and the continued need for coastal protection and port
expansion. The U.S. Navy, Cousteau, and Link pioneered the development of underwater habitats (e.g.,
Sea Lab I-III, Conshelf, and Hydrolab) and manned submersibles (e.g., Aluminaut, Ben Franklin, Deep
Diver, Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle, Deepstar, Johnson-Sea-Link I and II, Star I-III, and Trieste)
that have provided platforms to explore and develop ocean resources. The development of offshore oil and
gas fields by the various oil and gas companies (e.g., Amoco, Arco, British Petroleum, Chevron, Conoco,
Esso, Exxon, Mobil, Shell, Statoil, and Texaco) in the Gulf of Mexico, North Sea, and Persian Gulf has
been tremendous, and opportunities for ocean engineering applications have prospered at the same time.
Other offshore development has occurred offshore Alaska, Canada, Brazil, Mexico, China, Africa, India,
Australia, and Indonesia. Several major U. S. ports are undergoing deepening, widening, and modernization
of cargo handling facilities. Examples are the Los Angeles 2020 project in Los Angeles, California, projects
in New York/New Jersey and Boston, Massachusetts, and the Houston ship channel deepening and widen-
ing project in Houston, Texas. Contaminated sediments in ports have created new engineering problems
related to maintenance dredging in ports and the related placement of dredged materials that is necessary
to allow ships to continue accessing the facilities. The development of the nation's coastlines and ports as
centers of trade and recreation continues to expand.

1.3.1 Coastal

Protection of coastlines and beaches from erosion and ftooding has always been a concern of
engineers. In 1950, the beach erosion board was first established in the United States to protect the na-
tion's coastlines. A major activity that occurs worldwide is beach nourishment, which is placing beach
material back on beaches after severe erosion over many years or because of severe storms such as hur-
ricanes. These beach nourishment projects, such as what occurred at Corpus Christi, Texas, in the United
States (Fig. 1-1), are necessary to protect the land from ftooding and wave action, provide beaches for
recreation, and protect wetlands where a diverse marine habitat exists. Coastlines are protected by many
different manmade coastal protection structures that include seawalls, breakwaters, revetments, groins,
and submerged berms.
In the 1960s, port, harbor, and marina development rose sharply. Large ports contribute to a strong
economy and increased commerce and trade vital to all nations. Safe and navigable entrance channels are
critica! to ports and harbors, and the construction and maintenance of channel jetties and breakwaters have
Chapter 1 Overview of Ocean Engineering 5

Figure 1-1. Before (left) and after (right) beach restoration in Corpus Christi, Texas.

provided safe passage to these important trading ports. Recreational boating and fishing that occurs along
coastlines and in coastal bays and estuaries, inland lakes, and rivers also requires the development of small
boat marinas for support. Commercial fishing and the seafood industry require a port and harbor infrastruc-
ture to support these very important activities.
Development of ports and harbors requires dredging of the bottom sediments; this requirement led
to the initiation of the Dredging and Dredge Material Disposal research program spearheaded by the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers in the 1970s. This program was followed by the Dredging Research Program in
the 1980s and the current Dredging Operations and Environmental Research Program. .The need for dredg-
ing is worldwide so that ports and harbors can remain open for commercial and military ships, submarines,
and other water-borne craft. New ships have greater drafts, and consequently, it is necessary to further
deepen the entrance channels to the ports (e.g., 17m or 55ft). Large dredges, such as hydraulic cutterhead
and sea-going hopper dredges, and mechanical clamshell, dippers and backhoe dredges, are used to deepen
the channels and subsequently maintain the channel depths. The placement of the dredged material is also
an important engineering activity. In sorne cases, the dredged material can be beneficially used (e.g., beach
nourishment, land and wetland development, and providing wildlife habitats) or placed in an environmen-
tally safe manner in specific placement areas upland or offshore.
The federal agency in the United States that is most responsible for the maintenance of all navi-
gable waterways and coastal protection is the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. In the late 1970s, the Coastal
Engineering Research Center moved to the U. S.· Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station (now called
the U. S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center) to consolidate the U. S. Army Corps ofEngineers
laboratories and researchers in a centrallocation and establish itself as the nation's leading coastal research
and physical modeling facility in the United States and one of the leaders in the international community.
In 1987, the Dredging Research Program was initiated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to improve
efficiency of dredging operations; in 1993, the Coastal Inlets Program was begun to study the nation's inlets,
which are dynamic and provide the access to the nation's ports and inland waterways.
6 Elements of Ocean Engineering

1.3.2 Offshore

Trends in the ocean engineering field have paralleled the Offshore lndustry, whose center in the
United States is in Houston, Texas. However, the first offshore exploration for oil was in 1887 off the coast
of California in a few feet of water. In 1910, an oil well was drilled in Ferry Lake, Louisiana. Internationally,
the first wells were drilled in Lake Maricaibo, Venezuela, in 1929, and the Gulf of Mexico followed with
the development of the Creole field in 4.3 m (14ft) of water off the coast of Louisiana. Shallow water wells
continued the slow development, and in 1959, Shell installed a platform in 30.5 m (100 ft) of water off
Grand Isle, Louisiana. The Persian Gulf and the North Sea experienced oil finds and subsequent offshore
platform development starting in 1960. Development in the 1970s was explosive, and offshore platforms and
drilling advanced into deeper water at a rapid rate. In 1973, the North Sea was the site of the first concrete
gravity platform, which is a concrete structure that is built on land, floated to the site, and sunk to the bot-
tom. The Hondo platform was installed by Exxon in 259.1 m (850 ft) of water off the California coast near
Santa Barbara, and in 1978, Shell placed their Cognac platform in 312.5 m (1025 ft) of water in the Gulf of
Mexico. Exxon installed the first guyed tower, Lena, in the Gulf of Mexico during 1983. A guyed tower is
a slender, bottom supported tower that is laterally braced by cables (guy wires). The following year, 1984,
Conoco placed the first tension leg platform in the North Sea in 147.9 m (485 ft) of water. In 1988, Shell in-
stalled the Bullwinkle fixed platform in 412 m (1350 ft), and 5 years later (in 1993), Shell installed the Auger
tension leg platform in a water depth of 852 m (2795 ft) in the Gulf of Mexico. A brief history of offshore
platform installations is illustrated in Fig. 1-2. As of 1984, there were 16 gravity structures in the North Sea
in depths ranging from 70 to 152 m (230 to 500 ft) water depth, and other gravity platforms were installed
offshore Brazil and the Baltic Sea. McClelland and Reifel (1986) report that over 3500 offshore structures
have been placed in offshore waters of over 35 nations and nearly 98% of them are steel structures supported
by piles driven into the sea floor. The 1990s experienced the push to deeper waters (>2000 ft or 610 m) with
the installation of tension leg platforms, and floating production systems were being used to produce oil in
marginal fields (2-6 year production life). New platform concepts continue to be proposed with the goal
to reduce the cost of production and to be able to work in greater and greater water depths since large oil
reserves have been found in very deep water depths (>6000 ft or 1829 m).

1988
Bullwlnkle

145m
(474ft)

259m
(850ft)
311m
(1020 ft)
412m
(1350 ft)
Figure 1-2. Historical development of fixed jacketed production platforms and their installed water depth.
 Chapter 1 Overview of Ocean Engineering 7

1.3.3 Underwater Systems

Underwater habitats, diving equipment, submarines, and subsea completion equipment are examples
of underwater systems that ocean engineers are researching, developing, designing, and operating to advance
man's use of the ocean environment. The first manned underwater habitat for saturation diving, Man-in-the-
Sea I, was developed and tested in 1962 by E. A. Link. Since then, over 65 underwater habitats have been built
worldwide (NOAA, 1991); sorne of the more well known habitats are Conshelfl, II, and III developed by J. Y.
Cousteau ofFrance, Helgoland I and II built in Germany in 1969 and 1971, and Chernomor I and II operated by
Russia in the Black Sea. SeaLab I, II, and III, Tektite, LaChalupa, and Aegir are habitats built and operated in
U. S. waters and in the Caribbean. A more complete description of underwater habitats may be found in NOAA
(2001) and Miller and Koblick (1995). The most used underwater habitat was Hydrolab, which hosted over
700 scientist/aquanauts. It was decommissioned in 1985 and is now displayed at the Smithsonian Institute in
Washington, DC. NOAA constructed a new habitat, named Aquarius, for scientific missions and it is located
in approximately 18m (60ft) water depth offthe Florida Keys.
Divers use many different types of breathing equipment to assist in their exploration and work in
the underwater environment, and a history of the development of this equipment is described by Bachrach
et al. (1988). Prior to the use of compressed air, breath-hold divers developed goggles, snorkels, and fins to
improve their diving efficiency. Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA) has been around
since the 1500s, but the double hose Cousteau-Caglan aqualung that was developed in 1943 and sold world-
wide over the subsequent 10 years started the common use of SCUBA for research and recreational diving.
The SCUBA breathing apparatus consists of a compressed air cylinder and demand regulator. The cylinder
is normally carried on the diver's back, and the demand regulator is inserted into the diver's mouth and
supplies air when the diver inhales. The need to conserve the breathing gas used for mixed gas breathing
(e.g., helium/oxygen mixtures) resulted in the development of the semiclosed breathing apparatus which
recirculates the exhaled breathing gas through a carbon dioxide absorber. This system was followed by the
development of the closed circuit breathing apparatus (NOAA, 2001) that totally contains the breathing gas
(i.e., no breathing gas leaves the system).
Surface supplied diving equipment supplies the breathing gas to the diver through a flexible hose
(umbilical) to the diver's helmet. The location of the gas supply can be from the surface, habitat, personnel
transfer capsule (diving bell), or lock-out submersible. The helmets can be free flow or can have a demand
regulator, and in sorne cases the helmet is equipped to remove carbon dioxide. Atmosphere diving suits
(ADSs) date back to the 1700s, but the most widely used and successful system was developed in 1935
and called the JIM system. The JIM systems have been rated as deep as 610 m (2000 ft) and have actu-
ally worked in depths as deep as 543 m (1780 ft). A similar one atmosphere system (WASP) was used by
Oceaneering International for midwater work on offshore structures, and it used small thrusters and a crane
to position the diver at the work location. In 1987, the Newt suit was introduced, allowing a diver to work at
depths exceeding 300m (1000 ft), and was made of cast aluminum with fully articulating joints that allowed
more freedom of movement. The atmospheric diving suits (ADS 2000) were introduced to the U. S. Navy in
1997 and included advanced articulating joints and supported a mission of up to 6 hours. A thruster system
allows the diver to navigate relatively easily underwater.
Submarines are important military undersea vehicles, and they were first used in World Wars I and
II. The U-boats of Germany were formidable weapons in the sea that patrolled the shipping lanes and dis-
rupted shipping and supply routes. The German and Allied submarines were typically 91.5 m (300 ft) long
and could work to depths of near 122m (400ft), and they were powered by diesel engines on the surface
and electrical batteries underwater. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, larger and faster submarines were con-
structed that used nuclear power, inertial navigation systems, and oxygen generating equipment so that the
submarines could stay beneath the water for nearly unlimited time and could travel under ice caps without
having to surface. The USS Nautilus was the world's first nuclear powered submarine (Allmendinger, 1990).
Submersibles are usually small submarines that are manned with only a few people, and their pur-
pose is to allow exploration of the ocean depths in a one atmosphere environment while observers view the
 8 Elements of Ocean Engineering

undersea environment through windows and video cameras. Mechanical or electro-hydraulic manipulators
are used to assist in observations and collection of samples. Sorne submersibles have a lock-out chamber
that allows divers to exit and return to the submersible. The first submersible, "bathysphere," was built in
1930, and in 1934, it was used to reach a depth of 934 m (3028 ft). Since then, submersibles and the lock-out
submersibles have developed rapidly, and sorne of the well known submersibles include Alvin, Deepstar,
Johnson-Sea-Link, Pisces series, and the Perry built PC series.
A remotely operated vehicle (ROV) is an unmanned underwater system consisting typically of a
propulsion device, closed circuit television, and mechanical or electro-hydraulic manipulator. The vehicle is
controlled from a surface vessel through an umbilical; video pictures and data are also transmitted through
the umbilical and viewed on the surface vessel. The first ROV to gain fame was CURV that was developed
by the U.S. Navy and used to recover a hydrogen bomb resting on the sea fioor ata depth of 869 m (2851
ft) off the coast of Spain in 1966. As the offshore industry moved into deeper and more hostile waters such
as the North Sea, the development and use of ROVs grew tremendously. More than a thousand ROVs are
available, ranging in size from that of a basketball to a large truck, and a few are capable of working in the
deepest depths ofthe ocean. These vehicles are generally classified as tethered (free swimming), towed, bot-
tom reliant, structure reliant, untethered (autonomous), or hybrid (Marine Technology Society, 1984). ROVs
are being used in the offshore industry, military applications, and scientific investigations. In September
1985, a Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute team of scientists used a towed ROV, Argo and Jason, to locate
and videotape the Titanic which sank in the Atlantic Ocean in 1912. Autonomous ROVs are the newest
development and can be preprogrammed for a specific task without using an umbilical. The future of ROVs
is very bright, and these vehicles are a valuable tool for the ocean engineer in a wide variety of underwater
applications.
Generally, the equipment associated with subsea systems is necessary for the production of oil and
gas from subsea wells. When the oil and gas fields are marginal, subsea production technology is more eco-
nomical than conventional platform production techniques (Goodfellow Associates, 1990). Marginal fields
apply to oil reserves of 30-50 million barreis and are typically in shallow water depths of less than 160m
(525ft). As subsea equipment and technology advance, use in deeper waters is anticipated. Subsea equip-
ment includes subsea wells, blowout preventers, templates, fiow lines, well testing equipment, production
risers, subsea trees, manifolds, controls, and chokes (Fig. 1-3).

* 1.4 APPLICATION AREAS IN OCEAN ENGINEERING

-··r~~r·+ ·-~

Ocean engineering is an interdisciplinary field, and consequently there are a large number of ap-
plication areas. A list of sorne of these application areas are listed below.
o:-da ce v, roló"'
• Coastal protection and erosion control (breakwaters, groins, seawalls, jetties, offshore berms,
beach nourishment)
• Dredging and dredged material disposal (navigation channel maintenance, port and harbar de-
velopment and maintenance, mechanical and hydraulic dredges)
• Drilling rigs (jack-up, sernisubmersible, ship-shaped)
• Marine hydrodynamics (fioating and moored body motions)
• Marine foundations (seafioor support for ocean structures)
• Monitoring ocean environment (environmental and metocean monitoring)
• Mooring systems (taut, catenary, multi-leg, single leg)
• Naval architecture (vessel stability, hull structure, resistance and propulsion)
• Numerical modeling (structures, fiuids, fiuid/structure interactions)
• Ocean renewable energy (thermal, currents, waves, tides)
• Ocean instrumentation (wave gauges, current meters, conductivity-temperature-depth-dissolved
oxygen (CTD/DO), water samplers, tide gauges, transmissometers, pressure sensors)
Chapter 1 Overview of Ocean Engineering 9

export riser

-----·---- -

water injection
riser
Figure 1-3. Production riser system for Argyll field in the North Sea. (Reprinted with permission from
Goodfellow Associates. (1990).Applications ofsubsea systems. Thlsa: PennWell Publishing Co.)

• Ocean mining (manganese nodules, placers)

• Ocean waves (wave theories, wave kinematics, wave forces, wave forecasting and hindcasting,
wave refraction, reflection and diffraction, wave spectral distribution)
• Offshore disposal (clean dredged material, contaminated dredged material, hazardous waste)
• Offshore pipelines (oil and gas)
• Offshore structures (fixed-jacketed platform, gravity-based platform, compliant tower, semisub-
mersible floating platform, spar platforms, floating production, storage and offloading system,
tension leg platform)
• Physical modeling (wave tank, wave basin, circulating water tunnel, towing tank, open channel
recirculating flumes)
• Ports, harbors, and marinas (commercial and recreational, construction, maintenance and opera-
tion)
• Search and salvage (locating and recovering sunken objects and treasure)
• Submarines and floating structures (military submarines, semisubmersible drilling rigs, floating
production systems)
• Submersible vehicles (small manned submersibles, ROVs, autonomous underwater vehicles)
• Underwater acoustics (SONAR, side sean sonar, subbottom profiler, depth sounder, seismic
exploration, acoustic Doppler current meters)
• Underwater systems (habitats, diving bells, ROV s, subsea production systems, subsea flow-
lines)
 10 Elements of Ocean Engineering

-l\f 1.5 EMPLOVERS OF OCEAN ENGINEERS

Ocean engineers are employed by private industry, offshore industry, defense industry, federal agen-
cies and laboratories, dredging industry, and other organizations involved in developing engineering systems
that operate in the oceans, estuaries, lakes, and rivers of the world. With offshore exploration and development
expanding off coastlines of other nations, there are opportunities for ocean engineers in industries abroad.
Typical 2010 starting salaries for entry level ocean engineers range from $45,000 to $70,000. Although orga-
nizations employing ocean engineers are very dynamic, a summary of employers known to the author follows.

1.5.1 Private lndustry

• Offshore oil (Anadarko, British Petroleum, Chevron, ConocoPhillips, ESSO, ExxonMobil,

Shell, Statoil, Texaco, independents, etc.)
• Offshore construction (Bechtel, McDermott, FMC Technologies, Kiewit, LeTourneau, Fluor, etc.)
• Shipyards (Aker Yards Marine, Northrup Grumman, Kiewit, Norfolk Naval Shipyard, Keppel
Fels, General Dynamics, etc.)
• Offshore consulting firms (MPC Inc., INTEC, Noble Denton & Associates, Oceaneering
International, Mustang Engineering, McClure and Associates, InterMoor, Delmar, Subsea7,
Pegasus, Acergy, J. P. Kenney, etc.)
• Coastal and dredging engineering consulting firms (Moffat and Nichols, Black and Veatch,
Rosenblatt, Greenhorne and O'Mara, Gahagan and Bryant, Coastal and Harbor Engineering,
Anchor QEA, ARCADIS, HDR, Halcrow, Parsons, etc.)
• Dredging contractors (Ellicott, Great Lakes Dredge and Dock, Manson Construction, Weeks
Marine, Dredging Supply Company, Jay Cashman, J. F. Brennan, Jan Den Nul, etc.)
• Defense contractors (Boeing, General Dynamics, Lockheed, Northrup Grumman, etc.)
• Instrument and data analysis (RD Instruments, General Oceanics, Sea Bird, Hydrolab, EG&G,
Benthos, Interücean, SonTek, YSI, etc.)
• Diving, submersibles, and ROVs (Oceaneering Technologies, SONSUB, Subsea, Perry Slingsby
Systems, Cal Dive, Canyon Offshore, etc.)
• Drilling companies (Rowan, Transocean, Global Santa Fe, Diamond Offshore, etc.)
• Seismic and hydrographic surveying companies (John Chance and Associates, Chris Ransome
and Associates, etc.)
• Offshore service (Schlumberger, Diamond Offshore, Lowe Offshore, Horizon Offshore, etc.)

1.5.2 Government

• U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard

• Navy civilian laboratories (Coastal Systems Station; Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory; Naval
Command, Control and Surveillance Center; Naval Research Laboratory; Naval Surface Warfare
Center; Naval Undersea Warfare Center)
• National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
• U .S. Army Corps of Engineers (Districts, Divisions, and Engineering Research and Development
Center, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory)
• Regulatory agencies (Environmental Protection Agency, American Bureau of Ships, Det Norske
Veritas, Lloyds Register, Bureau ofVeritas)

1.5.3 Professional Organizations

The professional organizations to which ocean engineers generally belong are normally related to
professional societies associated with the major science and engineering areas. There are also several divi-
Chapter 1 Overview of Ocean Engineering 11

sions within these major societies that are devoted to ocean engineering. These professional societies or
organizations are:

• American Geophysical Union

• American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Hydronautics Division
• American Society for Engineering Education, Ocean and Marine Engineering Division
• American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), Coasts, Oceans, Ports, and Rivers Institute
• American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Ocean, Offshore, and Arctic Engineering Division
• Association of Coastal Engineers
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), Ocean Instrumentation Division
• Marine Technology Society (MTS)
• Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering (OMAE)
• Permanent International Association of Navigation Congresses (PIANC)
• Shore and Beach Association
• Society of N aval Architects and Marine Engineers (SNAME)
• Western Dredging Association (WEDA)
• The Coastal Society
• International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineering (ISO PE)

1.5.4 Journals and Magazines

A source of information for ocean engineers is located in technical journals and trade magazines,
and a short list of titles for the current publications follows.

1.5.4. 1 Journals
• Coastal Engineering
• Journal of Applied Ocean Research
• Journal of Engineering Education
• Journal of Coastal Engineering Research
• Journal of Dredging Engineering
• Journal of Fluid Mechanics
• Journal of Geophysical Research
• Journal of the International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineering (ISO PE)
• Journal of Physical Oceanography (JPO)
• Journal ofWaterways, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering (ASCE)
• Marine Technology Journal (SNAME)
• Marine Technology Society Journal (MTS)
• Ocean Engineering, An International Journal
• Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering Journal (OMAE)
• Terra et Aqua

1.5.4.2 Magazines
• Dredging and Port Construction
• International Dredging Review
• International Ocean Systems
• Offshore Engineer
• Offshore Magazine
• Oil & Gas Journal
• Sea Technology
12 Elements of Ocean Engineering

• Shore and Beach

• Underwater Systems Design
• World Dredging, Mining and Construction

1.6 CONFERENCES

The exchange of basic and applied research results is accomplished through annual, biannual, and
specialty conferences in the broad areas of ocean engineering, coastal engineering, offshore technology,
dredging, naval architecture, underwater intervention, subsea systems, and marine engineering. There is
also an annual educational conference that includes education and teaching of ocean and marine engineer-
ing that is sponsored by the American Society for Engineering Education. Sorne of the more well estab-
lished conferences for ocean engineers are as follows.

• Oceans Conference (MTS, annual)

• International Conference on Coastal Engineering (every 2 years)
• OMAE Conference (annual)
• SNAME Conference (annual)
• Specialty conferences (ROV, marine instrumentation, civil engineering in the oceans, coastal
sediments, coastal practices, dredging, ports, etc.)
• World Dredging Congress (every 3 years)
• American Society for Engineering Education Conference (annual)
• Offshore Technology Conference (annual)
• Western Dredging Association Technical Conference and Texas A&M Dredging Seminar
(WEDA, annual)
• ISOPE Conference (annual)
• Underwater Intervention (MTS, annual)

1.7 PROFESSIONAL REGISTRATION

Each state in the United States has a Board of Registration for Professional Engineers that re-
views and approves applications for practicing engineers to become registered Professional Engineers. In
most states, engineering students take the Engineering in Training (EIT) or Fundamentals in Engineering
(FE) examinations during their senior year or after graduating from an engineering currículum accred-
ited by the Accreditation Bureau for Engineering and Technology (ABET). The engineer is then nor-
mally required to obtain 4 years of experience working for a professional engineer before sitting for the
Professional Engineer Exam (PE). On satisfactory completion of the PE exam, the engineer is given a
professionallicense. Details and timing of exams vary slightly depending on the state in which the engi-
neer is practicing. Engineers are also commonly registered in more than one state and reciprocity agree-
ments exist between states.
The EIT or FE exams are common to all engineering disciplines and generally cover the subjects
of mathematics, physical and chemical sciences, basic engineering sciences, and engineering economy.
Examination review material is available in university bookstores, and review sessions are generally
administered through the various engineering colleges. The professional engineering exam is discipline-
related such as civil, mechanical, electrical, or other engineering disciplines. Ocean engineers usually
must prepare for exams in naval architecture and marine engineering, civil engineering, or mechani-
cal engineering. Similar to the EIT, review material is available through university bookstores and the
State Board of Registration. Most states use examinations that are prepared by the National Council of
Engineering Examiners. There have been discussions concerning the development of an examination
Chapter 1 Overview of Ocean Engineering 13

for ocean engineering, but currently there is no exam. All ocean engineering students are encouraged to
become professional engineers.

1.8 EXAMPLE OCEAN ENGINEERING CURRICULUM

As an example, the ocean engineering degree program leading to a Bachelor of Science degree
at Texas A&M University at College Station, Texas, is illustrated in Table 1-3. Curricula and credit hours
at other universities will differ to sorne degree. In the illustrated 131-credit hour curriculum, the first 2
years are typical of a basic engineering program. The third year begins with basic fluid dynamics and
structural theory, and these are followed by ocean-related courses of ocean wave mecll.anics, physical
oceanography, and advanced hydromechanics. The fourth year further emphasizes ocean engineering
tapies with courses related to the dynamics of offshore structures, coastal engineering, and underwater
acoustics. The final semester includes a project (capstone) design course intended to provide the oppor-

Table 1-3. Ocean Engineering Curriculum at Texas A&M University from the 2008-2009 Undergraduate Catalog
Course Title Semester Course Title Semester
Credit Credit
Hours Hours
FIRSTYEAR
Composition and Rhetoric 3 Chemistry for Engineers 4
Foundations in Engineering 1 2 Foundations in Engineering 11 2
Engineering Physics (Mechanics) 4 Engineering Mathematics 11 4
Engineering Mathematics 1 4 Engineering Physics (Electricity and Optics) 4
U. S. History elective 3 U.S. History elective 3
Physical Education 1 Physical Education 1
SECONDYEAR
Engineering Mathematics III 3 Engineering Mechanics of Materials 3
Engineering Mechanics 1 (statics) 3 Materials for Civil Engineers 3
Principies of Statistics 1 3 Differential Equations 3
Political Science (Texas) 3 lntroduction to Ocean Engineering 2
Political Science (U.S.) 3 Thermodynamics or Electrical Engineering 3
Social Science elective 3
THIRDYEAR
Computer Applications in Engineering 3 Engineering Mechanics (Dynamics) 3
Fluid Dynamics 3 lntroduction to Geotechnical Engineering 3
Fluid Dynamics Laboratory 1 Ocean Engineering Wave Mechanics 3
Theory of Structures 3 Hydromechanics 3
lntroduction to Oceanography 3 lntroduction to Physical Oceanography 3
Technical Writing 3
FOURTHYEAR
Dynamics of Offshore Structures 3 Design of Ocean Engineering Facilities 4
Underwater Acoustics 3 Ocean Engineering Laboratory 1
Basic Coastal Engineering 3 Ethics and Engineering 3
Naval Architecture 3 Visual and Performing Arts Elective 3
Seminar 1 Technical Electives 3
Technical Elective* 3 Technical Electives 3
*Selected from approved list of technical electives.
Total Semester Credit Hours = 131
 14 Elements of Ocean Engineering

tunity for the students to apply what they have learned to a real world ocean engineering design project
with input from industry representatives. The final project results are orally presented, and a final design
project report is submitted.

1.9 REFERENCES

Allmendinger, E. E. (Ed.). (1990). Submersible vehicle systems design. Jersey City: The Society of Naval
Architects and Marine Engineers.
Bachrach, A. J., Desiderati, B. M., & Matzen, M. M. (1988). A pictorial history of diving. San Pedro: Best
Publishing Co.
Barltrop, N. D. P., &Adams,A.J. (199l).Dynamicsofjixedmarine structures(3rded.). Oxford: Butterworth-
Heinemann.
Berteaux, H. O. (1991). Coastal and oceanic buoy engineering. Woods Hole: H. O. Berteaux.
Chakrabarti, S. K. (1994) Hydrodynamics of offshore structures. Boston: Computational Mechanics
Publications.
Dawson, T. H. (1983). Offshore structural engineering. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Dean, R. G., & Dalrymple, R. A. (1991). Water wave mechanicsfor engineers and scientists. New Jersey:
World Scientific.
Fischer, H. B., List, E. J., Koh, R. C. Y., lmberger, J., & Brooks, N. H. (1979). Mixing in inland and coastal
waters. New York: Academic Press.
Fredsoe, J., & Deigaard, R. (1992). Mechanics of coastal sediment transport. New Jersey: World Scientific
Publishing Co.
Gerwick, B. C. (1986). Construction of offshore structures. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Goda, Y. (2000). Random seas and design ofmaritime structures (2nd ed.). New Jersey: World Scientific
Publishing Co.
Goodfellow Associates. (1990). Applications of subsea systems. Tulsa: PennWell Publishing Co.
Graff, W. J. (1981). Introduction to offshore structures: design, fabrication, installation. Houston: Gulf
Publishing Co.
Herbich, J. B. (1990). Handbook of coastal and ocean engineering (Vol. 1 and 11). Houston: GulfPublishing
Co.
Herbich, J. B. (1992). Handbook ofCoastal and Ocean Engineering (Vol. ID). Houston: GulfPublishing Co.
Horikawa, K. (1988). Nearshore dynamics and coastal processes. Tokyo: University ofTokyo Press.
Ippen, A. T. (1966). Estuary and coastline hydrodynamics. Iowa City: Iowa Institute ofHydraulic Research.
Kim, C. H. (2008). Nonlinear waves and offshore structures. New Jersey: World Scientific Publishing Co.
Kinsman, B. (1984). Wind waves: their generation and propagation on the ocean suiface. New York: Dover
Publications Inc.
Lewis, E. V. (1988). Principies ofnaval architecture (2nd rev., Vol. 1, 11, and ID). Jersey City: The Society
of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.
Marine Technology Society (MTS). (1984). Operational guidelines for remotely operated vehicles.
Washington: Marine Technology Society.
Mather, A. (1995). Offshore engineering: an introduction. London: Witherby & Company Limited.
McClelland, B., & Reifel, M. D. (1986). Planning and design ofjixed offshore platforms. New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold Company.
Mei, C. C. (1992). The applied dynamics of ocean suiface waves. New Jersey: World Scientific.
Meyers, J. (1969). Handbook ofocean and underwater engineering. NewYork: McGraw-Hill.
Miller, J. W., & Koblick, l. G. (1984). Living and working in the sea. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.
Miller, J. W., & Koblick, l. G. (1995). Living and working in the sea (2nd ed.). Flagstaff: Best Publishing Co.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). (1991). NOAA Diving Manual (3rd ed.).
Washington, DC: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

"'
Chapter 1 Overview of Ocean Engineering 15

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). (2001). NOAA Diving Manual (4th ed.).
Washington, DC: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Nielsen, P. (1992). Coastal bottom boundary layers and sediment transport. New Jersey: World Scientific
Publishing Co.
Patel, M. H. (1989). Dynamics of offshore structures. London: Butterworths.
Sarpkaya, T., & Isaacson, M. (1981). Mechanics of wave forces on offshore structures. New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold.
U.S.ArmyCorps ofEngineers. (1984). Shore protectionmanual (Vol. I andll). Washington: U.S. Government
Printing Office.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. (2002). Coastal engineering manual. Engineer Manual 1110-2-1100 (in six
volumes). Washington, DC: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
U.S. Navy. (2005). US Navy Diving Manual (Revision 5). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing
Office.
Wiegel, R. L. (1965). Oceanographical engineering. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
1
~

CHAPTER2 THE OCEAN ENVIRONMENT

2.1 GENERAL

Almost three-fourths, 71%, of the Earth's surface is covered by oceans; the remainder, 29% is 1and.
The major ocean areas are the 1) Southern Ocean, 2) Atlantic Ocean, 3) Pacific Ocean, 4) Indian Ocean,
and 5) Arctic Ocean. If the Southern Ocean is considered part of the Pacific Ocean, then the world ocean
area is subdivided into the Pacific Ocean (46%), Atlantic Ocean (23%), Indian Ocean (20%), and the Arctic
Ocean (11% ). Sorne examples of smaller bodies of water are the 1) Mediterranean Sea, 2) Caribbean Sea,
3) Sea of Japan, 4) Bering Sea, 5) North Sea, 6) Gulf of Mexico, and 7) Baltic Sea.
The average ocean depth is 3800 m (12,500 ft), and the maximum depth of 11,524 m (37,800 ft)
occurs in the Mindanao Trench in the Pacific Ocean. In comparison, the average land elevation is 840 m
(2760 ft) and the highest elevation is 8840 m (29,000 ft) at the top of Mount Everest. The distributions of
depths in the oceans and elevations on land are illustrated in Fig. 2-1 (Pickard & Emery, 1990). Depths shal-
lower than 1000 m (3280 ft) make up 8.4% of the oceans. Offshore oil and gas platforms are found in water
depths shallower than 3000 m (9840 ft), which is about 10% of the world's oceans. Approximately 52% of
the ocean depths are between 2000 and 6000 m (6560 and 19,680 ft).

Ocean
-
:::R
_. 20
22
Land

-
Q

..= 18
:S. 16
~
= 14
12

--=
:S.
eS lO8
6
~
l:j 4
:S. 2
~
~
o
3.0-4.0 1.0-2.0 0.0-1.0 2.0-3.0 4.0-5.0 6.0-7.0 8.0-12.0

Land Elevations and Ocean Depths (km)

Figure 2-1. Distribution of depths in the ocean and elevations on land.

* 2.2 OC EAN FLOOR

There are mountains, valleys, and plains on the ocean bottom much like those found on land. The
horizontal dimensions of the ocean are much larger than the vertical (depth). As a consequence, cross-
sectional views of the ocean usually use a distorted scale. For example, the horizontal dimension is often
scaled as 1 cm equals 100 km, and the vertical dimension is scaled as 1 cm equals 100m. Using this proce-
dure, the slopes are greatly exaggerated. Figure 2-2 is an illustrative cross-section of the ocean fioor whose
main divisions are the shore, continental shelf, continental slope and rise, and the deep-sea fioor. Definitions
of these divisions or principie features follow.

• Shore is the land mass close to the sea that is modified by sea action.
• Beach is the seaward limit of shore and extends from the highest to lowest tide levels.
• Continental shelf extends seaward from shore with an average slope of 1:500. The o uter limit
occurs where slope is 1:20.

17
 18 Elements of Ocean Engineering

·~~~-.--~~~~H~~~Tir~----~SM==~~I----------------~<<\--

-~••=:/~.':¿0.
.........,..., t,

Figure 2-2. Principal features of the ocean floor.

• Continental slope extends seaward from the shelf edge to the deep sea basin. The average slope
is 1:20, and the average vertical dimension is 4000 m.
• Continental rise is the lower portion of slope where it grades into the deep-sea bottom.
• Deep-sea bottom depths are 3000 to 6000 mandare in 74% of ocean basins; only 1% is deeper.
• Midocean ridge runs near center of oceans.
• Seamounts are mountains in the oceans.
• Sills are ridges separating different water basins (e.g., fjord).
• Trenches are the deepest features ofthe ocean floor that are very deep and narrow (e.g., Mariana
Trench in the Pacific Ocean, Puerto Rico Trench in the Atlantic Ocean, and Sunda Trench in the
Indian Ocean).

Ocean bottom material on the continental shelf and slope generally comes from land via rivers or
blown by wind. It generally consists of sands and gravel on the shelf and mud on the slope. Inorganic red
clay <:tnd organic oozes are the two primary deep ocean sediments. The inorganic clays originate from land
' consisting of fine and volcanic material. Oozes come from the remains of living organisms, namely plank-
ton. Calcareous oozes contain a large percentage of calcium carbonate originating from shells of animal
plankton (zooplankton); siliceous oozes have a large percentage of silica. Sediment deposition in the deep
ocean is very slow with an average rate of 0.1 to 10 mm over 1000 years. Samples of deep ocean sediments
are obtained using corers which are long steel pipes (measuring 2-30 m) that are dropped from the surface
and penetrate the sea bottom. The core barrel is retrieved and the sediments are analyzed to determine en-
gineering properties and reveal history of the deep ocean .

.. 2.3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SEAWATER

Seawater contains a majority of the known elements, but the primary seawater elements are chlo-
rine (55%), sulfate (7.7%), sodium (30.6%), magnesium (3.7%), and potassium (1.1%). The total amount of
dissolved material in seawater is called the salinity, and it is defined as the total amount of solid materials in
grams contained in a kilogram of seawater. The average salinity of ocean water is 35 g of salts per kilogram
of seawater. It is usually written as 35 o/oo or 35 ppt (35 parts per thousand). Salinity is usually determined
by measuring the conductivity of seawater, which is related to salinity.
Temperature is the primary parameter in determining the density of seawater, and it is normally
expressed in degrees Celsius (C). Density (Ps,t,p) is the mass per volume of seawater and is a function of
temperature, salinity, and pressure (depth). Open ocean values range from 1021 to 1070 kg/m 3 . The density
of seawater with a salinity of 35 o/oo and temperature of 10° C at atmospheric pressure is 1026.95 kg/m 3
(p 35 ,10 ,0 = 1026.95 kg/m 3). In oceanography, it is common practice to use the last four digits of the density
and name it the quantity O"s,t,p that is defined as
 Chapter 2 The Ocean Environment 19

O"s,t,p =Ps,t,p- 1000 (2-1)

In most cases, the effect of pressure on density can be ignored and the quantity (u1) is used as defined by

sigma- t = O"t = O"s,t,O (2-2)

For example, the sigma-t value for the seawater density of 1026.95 is 26.95 (u1 = 26.95). Values of u 1 are
determined by knowing values of the seawater salinity and temperature and finding the associated sigma-
t value in nomographs and tables published by the U.S. Navy Oceanographic Office (1952). Empirical
polynornial equations that are a function of salinity and temperature are also used to determine sigma-t.
Millero and Poisson (1981) presented an equation for the density of seawater as a function of salinity and
temperature at standard atmospheric pressure, and this expression (equation 2-3) for density is also given
in Pond and Pickard (1983) as

Ps,t,O =999.842594 + 6.793952 X 10-2 T- 9.095290 X 10-3 T2 + 1.001685 X 10-4 T 3

- 1.120083 x 10-6 TI+ 6.536322 x 10-9 T 5 + 8.24493 x 10-1 s- 4.0899 x 10-3 TS
+ 7.6438 x 10-s T 2 s- 8.2467 x 10-7 T 3 s + 5.3875 x 10-9 TI s- 5.72466 x 10-3 S 312
+ 1.0211 x 10-4 TS 312 -1.6546 x 10-6 T 2 S3' 2 + 4.8314 x 10-4 S2 (2-3)

In oceanography and ocean engineering, lines of constant properties are called isopleths. The com-
mon isopleths are isotherms (constant temperature), isohalines (constant salinity), isopycnals (constant den-
sity), and isobaths (constant depth). Hydrographic measurenients and surveys consist of measuring tem-
perature, salinity, and depth, and these data are used to compute density. Results of these surveys are often
illustrated as cross-sections of isotherms, isohalines, and isopycnals to show the physical characteristics of
the water column.
Dissolved oxygen and nutrients (phosphate, nitrate, silicate, ions, etc.) are also important seawa-
ter characteristics. However, these properties are nonconservative, which means biological processes may
change their concentrations as the water masses move from one location to another. In contrast, the prop-
erties of salinity, temperature, and density are considered to be conservative below the sea surface, which
means that these quantities do not change; as a consequence, water masses can be traced using these prop-
erties.
Sound velocity, a function of salinity, temperature, and depth, is another important property of sea-
water. Since visibility in the ocean is very restricted and electromagnetic waves are absorbed very quickly,
sound waves are used extensively to "see" below the ocean surface and detect the sea bottom and other
ocean features. Depth sounders, side sean sonars, search sonars, and seismic surveys are based on the trans-
mission of sound waves through the ocean. The speed of sound in seawater with a salinity of 34.85 o/oo
and 0° C is 1445 m/s (4740 ft/s). A more detailed discussion ofunderwater sound is contained in Chapter 8.
Visible light is also absorbed quickly by ocean waters, and it is the major source of heat energy that
raises the water temperature. In the clearest ocean waters, only 22% of the light is visible at 10m (33 ft)
depth and a mere 0.5% is visible at 100 m (330 ft). In the case of turbid coastal waters, only 8% is visible at
2m (6.6 ft) depth, and no light is visible at 10m (33ft). Blue and green light penetrates the deepest in clear
ocean water, and red and yellow light are absorbed quickest. In turbid coastal waters, the green and yellow
light penetrate deepest.

... 2.4 OCEAN CURRENTS

Currents in the ocean are an important contributor to many physical, chemical, and biological
processes that occur in the ocean environment. In ocean engineering, currents create forces on structures,
 20 Elements of Ocean Engineering

vehicles, shorelines, and other systems which must be designed to withstand these forces. Newton's second
law and the conservation of mass are important physical laws used to describe the movement of ocean
waters. A first step in discussing the ocean currents is to describe the forces and accelerations included in
Newton's second law, also known as the equations of motion. In vector form, Newton's second law is

IF=ma (2-4)

On the left side of equation 2-4, the principal forces acting on ocean waters are pressure gradient (Fpg),
Coriolis (Fcr), gravity (Fg), friction (Fr), and centrifuga! CFc). The equation may be expressed in terms of
force per unit mass and the rate of change of velocity as

(2-5)

In component form, the x-direction is positive to the East, y-direction is positive to the North, and z-
direction is positive downward. The component velocities are u, v, and w, respectively. The acceleration
term is the sum of the local (a/at) and convective (ua/ax + va/ay + wa/az) accelerations that is written in
componentform as

du au au au au
x-component:-=-+u-+v-+w-
dt at ax ay az
dv av av av av
y-component:-=-+u-+v-+w-
dt at ax ay az

dw aw aw aw aw
z-component:-=-+u-+v-+w- (2-6)
dt at ax ay az

The pressure gradient term is the result of horizontal changes in pressure related to the high and low
pressure areas in the ocean. The flow of ocean water related to these pressure differences is generally from
a region of high pressure to low pressure, and the magnitude of the current is related to the magnitude ofthe
pressure gradient. The three components of the pressure gradient force per unit mass are

( Fmpg )x =--¡;1 ax;

ap
( Fmpg )Y =-¡;ay;
1 ap ( Fmpg )z --¡;1 azap (2-7)

where the negative sign shows the flow is toward the low pressure area and p is the fluid density.
The Coriolis force is caused by the Earth's rotation, and it causes ocean waters to deflect to the right in
the northem hemisphere and to the left in the southem hemisphere. The amount of deflection is a function of the
flow speed and latitude location. The Coriolis force diminishes to zero when the fluid is at rest or at the equator,
and the maximum deflection occurs at the North and South poles. This force is important in describing the large
scale circulation in the oceans and atmosphere. The component form of the Coriolis force is given as

Fcf )
( ~ x =fv; (2-8)

where f = 2Q sin c/J, Q is the Earth's angular velocity (7.29 X 10-5 rad/s), and c/J is the latitude location in
degrees. Ocean waters are also affected by gravitational attraction, and this gravitational force per unit mass
acts in the z direction only and is expressed as
Chapter 2 The Ocean Environment 21

( ~ )x =g=9.81 m/s 2 (2-9)

The Earth's rotation also results in a centrifuga! force that acts outward from the axis of rotation of the
earth. The vertical component is included in the gravity (z-component) term, and the horizontal component
is neglected.
Friction tends to retard the movement of ocean waters and is shown as a stress term in the equations of
motion. Turbulent eddies in the ocean are superposed on the mean flow and are the mechanism for spreading
frictional effects through the fluid. The instantaneous velocities are a combination of the time averaged compo-
nent and a turbulent component. Incorporating these velocities in the equations of motion results are additional
terms known as Reynolds' stresses. The details of the development of Reynolds' stresses are discussed in
many fluids and oceanographic references (e.g., Bishop, 1984). These Reynolds' stresses are related toan eddy
viscosity coefficient (K) by Prandtl (1952), and the component frictional force per unit mass is expressed as

(2-10)

The entire three components of the equations of motion are written as

av _ av _ av _ av 1 ap _ Kx a 2v Ky a 2v Kz a 2v
- + u - + v - + w - = - - - + f u + - - - + - - - + - - - (2-11)
at ax ay az p ay p ax 2 p ay 2 p az 2

The continuity equation is used in combination with the previous equations of motion to describe
fluid motion of the oceans. The continuity equation written in three dimensions is

ldp au av aw
---=-+-+- (2-12)
p dt ax ay az

and for an incompressible fluid such as ocean water, the continuity equation reduces to

au av aw
-+-+-=0 (2-13)
ax ay az

2.4.1 Geostrophic Current

Simplified forms of the equations of motion and continuity are commonly used to obtain sorne
practical and useful results where the simplifying assumptions are valid. An example is to assume that the
22 Elements of Ocean Engineering

ocean waters are not accelerated and are frictionless. These assumptions result in a geostrophic current, and
for this case the component equations of motion are

fv=_!_ élp · 1 élp 1 élp

fu=--· g=-- (2-14)
p dX' p ély' p élz

The horizontal components are a balance between the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force. These equa-
tions are commonly used to estímate ocean currents based on horizontal pressure distributions. As an il-
lustration, considera small volume of ocean water that is at rest in the northern hemisphere (Fig. 2-3). The
water volume accelerates as it moves from a high pressure region to a low pressure region, and it deflects to
right. Finally, it is parallel to the lines of constant pressure (isobars) that define the horizontal pressure field.
The vertical component is a balance between gravity and the vertical pressure gradient and is called hydro-
static equilibrium. When fluid acceleration and friction are relatively small, the geostrophic and hydrostatic
equations are valuable tools for determining large scale ocean currents.
Large scale ocean currents such as the Gulf Stream current can be evaluated when the horizontal
pressure field is known. The pressure field may be determined from shipboard temperature and salinity
measurements or by remote sensing techniques. For example, if the pressure change (~p) across the Gulf
Stream is the result of an increase in sea level (~z) of 1m over a distance across the Gulf Stream of 100 km
(~x), then the geostrophic current can be estimated as follows. The hydrostatic equation is

~p=pg~z (2-15)

and the geostrophic current (V g) is determined from the geostrophic equation

V - _1_ ~p (2-16)
g - pf ~X

Substitution of equation 2-15 into equation 2-16 and using appropriate values for ~x, ~z, g, and f yields

V = g ~z = (980 crnls)(10 2 cm) = 100 cm/s (2-17)

g f ~x (10=4 rad/s)(107 cm)-

Thus, the Gulf Stream current in this example is approximately 100 cm/s and is in the positive y-direction
(north) parallel to the lines of constant pressure.

Northern Hemisphere

Figure 2-3. Illustration of geostrophic current (V g) in the northern hemisphere.

 Chapter 2 The Ocean Environment 23

2.4.2 Ekman Current

The Ekman current is based on the studies of upwelling by Ekman (1905), and it is the current
resulting from a balance between Coriolis and surface wind frictional drag forces. Ekman current decays
exponentially with depth and turns to the right with increasing depth in the northern hemisphere. Assuming
infinitely deep and homogeneous water, the component form of the equations of motion developed by
Ekman (1905) is

(2-18)

Two boundary conditions are used to solve this system of second order differential equations. First, the
surface wind stress components ('tx and 'ty) at the surface (z =O) are assumed as

du dv
Tx=-Kz-; T =-K- (2-19)
dz Y z dz

and the current is assumed to vanish (u= v =O) at the bottom (z = oo). The solution for these equations is
named the Ekman spiral because the currents forma decaying spiral with increasing depth. Bishop (1984)
shows the solution as

u= u ) ; ) cos( 45° - -;; )

(2-20)
v =u); ) sin( 45o - -;;)

Therefore, the Ekman current decays exponentially from its surface value (U0 ) and rotates to the right as
the depth increases in the northern hemisphere. In the southern hemisphere, the current rotates to the left.
The surface current is 45 degrees to the right of the surface wind direction in the northern hemisphere. The
surface current magnitude is computed by

(2-21)

where the coordinate axis is oriented such that the wind is in the y-direction. The depth of frictional inftu-
ence is computed from

(2-22)

* 2.4.3 Tides l~uVeC\~)

The periodic rise and fall of the water level that results from the gravitational attraction of the moon
and sun and other astronomical bodies acting upon the rotating Earth is known as the tide. An ebb tide is
the period of tide between high water and succeeding low water (falling tide), and it has an associated ebb
current that is a tidal current away from the shore. A rising tide is a ftood tide that is the period between low
24 Elements of Ocean Engineering

water and succeeding high water, and the associated fl.ood current is a tidal current toward the shore. The
depths on most navigational charts usually show the values for mean low water, but other reference datums
may be used, so it is wise to check navigational charts to determine their reference datum. The difference
in height between consecutive high and low waters is the tidal range. The tidal period is the interval of time
between two consecutive like phases of the tide.
The Earth has unequal diameters measured between the poles and at the equator, with the equato-
rial diameter being the larger. It completes one elliptical orbit around the sun in 1 year (365 days). The moon
has an elliptical orbit about the Earth with the closest point of approach being the perigee and the farthest
point being the apogee. Additionally, the plane of the moon's orbit is inclined to that of the Earth; the axis
of rotation for the Earth is also inclined to the plane of the Earth's solar orbit. These factors are part of over
150 complicated interacting factors that are needed to predict the tides precisely. However, many of these
factors are small and can be neglected for many common purposes.
Tides are classified as semidiurnal, diurnal, and mixed, as shown in Fig. 2-4. A semidiurnal tide has
two high and two low waters in a tidal day, and a diurnal tide has one high and one low water in a tidal day.
The mixed tide is a combination of diurnal and semidiurnal tides and is characterized by a large inequality
in either the high or low water heights, with two high and two low waters usually occurring each tidal day.
A tidal day is the time ofthe rotation ofthe Earth with respect to the moon (approximately 24.84 hours) and
is also called the lunar day.
In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton proposed the theory of universal gravitation that indicated the tides are
bulges of land and water resulting from the gravitational pull of the moon and sun on the Earth. In Newton's
equilibrium tide theory, water is assumed to cover the earth entirely at a uniform depth. The gravitational
attraction of the moon and sun vary directly with their mass and inversely with the square of the distance
from earth. Water bulges on the side of the sun as a result of gravity, and a similar bulge occurs on the op-
posite side of the Earth as a result of the balancing force that keeps the Earth in orbit around the sun. This
balancing force is called the centrifuga! force, and it is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the
force of gravity. This equilibrium tide concept is illustrated in Fig. 2-5, which shows the effect of the position
of the Earth, sun, and moon on ocean tides.
When tides occur in rivers, bays, and coastal inlets, the tidal fl.ow is restricted by natural or man-
made boundaries. In these locations, the tidal currents are reversing, which means that the tidal currents are
in one direction, come to slack, and then reverse their direction in one tidal period. The speed of the fl.ow
varies between zero (slack) to a maximum speed ata time approximately half way between slack condi-
tions. Tidal currents can be very strong, and examples are currents near 3.1 m/s (6 knots) found near San
Francisco, CA, andas high as 5.2 m/s (10 knots) in other places. Ships entering these areas must be able to
adjust their course in order to counteract the effects of these currents. Tidal currents are found to be rotary in
nature in wide coastal or bay areas where the water movement is not restricted by barriers. In a tidal period,
these rotary tidal currents move through all compass directions and vary in magnitude with two maximum
speeds in nearly opposite directions.

Semidiurnal Tide (e.g. Cape Diurna! Tide (e.g. New Mixed T ide (e.g. Los Angeles,
Cod, MA) Orleans, LA) CA)
3.--,-.-----~,.---,---, 3.---,...,.....-~~-.........,.,-----,---,
_....._ 2 h"\'--'~tr--~n:c---7'>-l 2 +-~e---~~--~.,---~......,-;
§, 1 . 1 +-A-'-'~.-'-'...,__.---.~·"x:"·~~
j¡l
o~.~~~-~?-~~~~
.!!!1
<1>
o ·~·"--\---4----!f--4~---\-"'~-4-!
~-1 +-~~~~~~~~
-1 +-~~---~~~---~~~
·2 +-+-+-4--+-'+-+++-+-1-'-1-+++-f~
-2 ++++-+-t-'+-1'--t-'H-t-++++-1 o o
o
~ ~ ~
Time (hr) Time (hr) Time (hr)

Figure 2-4. Examples of semidiurnal, diurnal, and mixed tides.

 Chapter 2 The Ocean Environment 25

/'
•
NeapTHie
~-,

' \

:: ........
''\ .... , .
d ~
b
,1
,
~ ' "' Sprin¡Tide

Figure 2-5.
•
N""pTHie

Equilibrium tide theory. Solar tides are gravitational (a) and centrifugal (b).
Lunar tides are also gravitational (e) and centrifugal (d).

The equilibrium theory of tides gives a simplified explanation of tides, but the actual tides are much
more complicated. In addition to the sun and moon, the tides are affected by other planets. Tidal predictions
are based upon tidal measurements around the world and the National Ocean Survey (NOS) publishes the
tide tables (NOS, 1996) from which predictions of tides at various U.S. locations can be determined. These
tables are published each year.

fe 2.5 OCEAN WAVES

Engineering systems that are designed to operate in the ocean must withstand the forces exerted by
ocean waves. Consequently, ocean engineers must understand the physical processes and theories describ-
ing wave motion. The forces related to wind, currents, storm surges, and ice are often less important than
those related to waves. As waves propagate over the ocean surface, they eventually impact offshore plat-
forms, subsea systems, coastal protection structures, and the shoreline that must absorb, reftect, or dissipate
the wave energy. Ocean engineers must design systems such that the wave forces do not cause it to fail.
The distribution of ocean surface wave energy, or wave energy spectrum, is illustrated in Fig. 2-6 for
the range of wave periods and frequencies found in the ocean. The primary wave-generating forces (wind,
storms, seismic, moon, and sun) and restoring forces (gravity, Coriolis, and surface tension) for the different
ranges (period, frequency) of the spectrum are also indicated. The wind generated waves for periods spanning
1 to 30 seconds are the most important for ocean engineering design. These wind-generated waves are classi-
fied as sea when they are under the inftuence of wind and as swell when the wind effect is very small.
Ocean waves are very complex, and many wave periods may be present at a given location and time.
Shorter waves are commonly found superimposed on longer waves. In addition, the waves from different direc-
tions interact and cause wave conditions that are very difficult to describe mathematically. An important tool
for the ocean engineer is a simple wave theory that describes a wave propagating at a uniform period and height
over a constant depth bottom. Such a theory is called the small amplitude (linear, Airy) wave theory, and it was
first presented by Airy (1845). A brief derivation, useful equations, and important properties of linear waves are
described in this chapter. More complete treatrnents of linear wave theory and more advanced wave theories, such
as Stokes, stream function, and Cnoidal, are found in the texts ofWiegel (1964), Kinsman (1965), Ippen (1966),
Le Mehaute (1969), McCormick (1973), Sorenson (1997), Sarpkaya and Isaacson (1981), Dean and Dalrymple
(1991), U.S. Army Corps ofEngineers (USACE) (1984, 2002), Horikawa (1988), and Chakrabarti (1990).

~2.5.1 Linear Wave Theory

The simplest ocean waves are two-dimensional, and linear wave theory has been developed using
a linearized free-surface boundary condition, bottom boundary condition, potential flow theory, and
26 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Perlad 2412 !i 30 1 0.1

hr ~~ mm sec sec sec
l1 1
1
1
1
1
1
:
1 1
1
1 1 1 1
Wove bond -'\1\rT~.?:!i<lsol
-··
• 11 • rl Long period woves---+1-lnlrogrovity _l - Copillary woves--'\1\r>'-
1 IJlfrogrovity
woves -¡---Grovity woves----¡--' woves --.---
1 1
1 1
Primory --""'> 1 : Sform systems, eorthquokes--!;-.-¡ l 1
disturbing 1 1 1 l 1
force ~Sun, MoonH1 ~
Wind 1 1
1
Primory --v\>~---':-+: Coriolis force 1• : Surfoce tensíon~
resforing
force :
1
11 1
1 - + - - - l - - - - t - - G r o v i t y - - + - - - - - r ---o..¡ 1
r
1
1
1
•
1 1
1 1
1 1
1
1
11
1 1

10-6 10-5
Frequency ( cycles per secondl

Figure 2-6. Approximate distribution of ocean surface wave energy. (Reprinted with permission from Kinsman, B. (1965).
Wind waves: Their generation and propagation on the ocean surface. New York: Dover Publications, Inc.)

irrotational flow. Subsequently, wave characteristics such as celerity, particle displacement, velocity, accel-
eration, and pressure are determined from the velocity potential and used to evaluate the effects of waves on
structures that are fixed and floating in the ocean. The major assumptions made in the derivation of linear
wave theory are as follows.

• Fluid is homogeneous and incompressible.

• Coriolis effect is neglected.
• Fluid is inviscid (no viscosity).
• Surface tension forces are negligible.
• Flow is irrotational.
• Bottom is horizontal, stationary, and impermeable.
• Waves are two-dimensional (long crested).
• Waves do not interact with other water motions.
• Surface pressure is constant.
• Wave amplitude is small compared to the wavelength and water depth.

Figure 2-7 illustrates the characteristics of a typical sinusoidal progressive waveform. A rectangular
coordinate system (x, z) is used with the origin at the still water level (SWL). The wave moves to the right with
a celerity (C), period (T), and length (L) in a water depth (d). The wave height (H) is defined as the vertical
distance between the wave crest and trough and is twice the amplitude of the wave. The water particles move
in a clockwise orbit as the wave progresses from left to right, and their position at any instant is given by the
horizontal and vertical coordinates (g, e) referenced to the center ofthe orbit. Similarly, the horizontal and ver-
tical components of water particle velocity (u, w) are defined, and the water surface elevation above the SWL
at any point is defined as r¡. The water surface elevation profile is a function of space (x) and time (t).
Por an ideal irrotational fluid, the velocity potential (<P) must satisfy the Laplace equation

(2-23)
Chapter 2 The Ocean Environment 27

1- Wavelength, L -¡
m-/
Wave Celerity, e

~~
-LQ:y
Depth,d

77777777/
Figure 2-7. Typical sinusoidal progressive waveform.

and the water surface elevation (r¡) is assumed to be a function ofposition (x) and time (t)

H
r¡ = - cos(kx- wt) (2-24)
2

where k is the wave number (k= 27TIL) and w is the wave angular frequency (w = 27Tff).
The bottom boundary condition requires no flow normal to the bottom and is written as

w=-=0
ae~> (2-25)
az
at z = O. The Bernoulli equation for irrotational flow may be expressed as

1 2 2 P ac~>
-(u +w )+gz+-+-=0 (2-26)
2 P at
where gis gravitational acceleration (32.2 ft/s 2 or 9.81 m/s 2), pis fluid density, and pis pressure. Equation
2-26 is then applied at the free surface where the gauge pressure is zero and then linearized by neglecting
the nonlinear velocity squared. The result is

1 ac~>
z=r¡=--- (2-27)
g at
which is the water surface boundary condition. If the wave amplitude is small, which is assumed for linear
wave theory, and then equation 2-27 is approximately the same at the SWL and is expressed as

(2-28)

The velocity potential is assumed to be a sinusoidal function of position and time in the form

4> =A sin(kx- wt) (2-29)

where A is a function of z only. Substituting equation 2-29 into the Laplace equation (equation 2-23) and
solving the resulting partial differential equation yields
 28 Elements of Ocean Engineering

H gcoshk(z+d)
4> =- sin(kx- wt) (2-30)
2 w cosh kd

Considering the water particle at the water surface, the vertical component of velocity (w) on the
surface is expressed as w = 07]/ot and 7J is given by equation 2-28. Therefore,

1 o24>
w=---- (2-31)
g oe
and from the definition of velocity potential, the vertical velocity is

(2-32)

Combining equations 2-31 and 2-32 yields

(2-33)

Using the derived expression for velocity potential (equation 2-30) and solving equation 2-33 yield the
linear dispersion relationship

w 2 = g k tanh(kd) (2-34)

Recalling the definitions of w and k yields

w L
-=-=C (2-35)
k T

and substituting into equation 2-12 gives

gL 27Td
-tanh-- (2-36)
C=
271" L

This equation is the fundamental relationship between celerity, wave length, and water depth, and it should
be observed that the celerity is not a function of wave height according to linear wave theory. In terms of
the wave period, equation 2-36 is written as

gT
C=-tanh (27Td)
-- (2-37)
271" L

and the wave length can be expressed as

gT 2 ( 27Td)
L=-tanh -- (2-38)
271" L

The above equation presents sorne difficulty in its solution because the wave length (L) appears on both
sides ofthe equation. An iterative solution is one way to solve the equation. However, Eckart (1952) devel-
oped an approximate relationship
Chapter 2 The Ocean Environment 29

(2-39)

that is within 5% and considered sufficient for many engineering applications. The maximum error of 5%
occurs when 2'7Td/L "" l.
Water waves are classified as deep, intermediate, or shallow water depending on the relative depth
(d/L) and other dimensionless ratios that are tabulated in Table 2-1, such as 2'7Td/L, d/gT 2 , and tanh (2'7Td/L).
=
For deep water waves, tanh (2'7Td/L) 1, and therefore, the deep water wave length (L 0 ) and wave celerity
(C 0 ) from equations 2-14 and 2-15 are written as

gT
Ca=-= 1.56 T (m/s) or 5.12 T (ft/s) (2-40)
2'7T

gT2 2
Lo=-= 1.56 T (m) or 5.12 T 2 (ft) (2-41)
2'7T

In the case of shallow water waves, tanh (2'7Td/L) =2'7Td/L, and the wave celerity and wave length are
C=Vgd (2-42)

L=TVgd=CT (2-43)

The difficulty in determining wave length for intermediate class waves led to the development of
tables of values of d/L as a function of d/L 0 Dividing equation 2-37 by 2-41 or equation 2-38 by 2-41 yields

~ = ~ = tanh( 2 '7Td) (2-44)

Ca Lo L

Using the expression relating wave length to deep water wave length and multiplying by the water depth
gives a useful relationship

~
Lo
= ~ = tanh( 2 '7Td)
L L
(2-45)

that facilitates calculation of the wave length in any water depth when the deep water wave length is known.
Tabulated values of d/L as a function of diLo are contained in Appendix A (Table A-5), Wiegel (1964), the
Shore Protection Manual (USACE 1984), and the Coastal Engineering Manual (USACE 2002).
Water particles under waves travel in orbits that are circular in deepwater and elliptical in interme-
diate and shallow water (Fig. 2-8). Near the bottom in shallow and intermediate water, the elliptical orbits
become very fiat and the velocity is mostly horizontal.
Wave kinematics refers to the velocity and acceleration of the water particles under waves. The hori-
zontal and vertical components (u, w) of water particle velocity are determined from the velocity potential,
which gives u= dcPfdx and w = dcf>!dz. Taking the partial derivative of equation 2-30 with respect to x and z
and using the dispersion relationship (equation 2-34) yields the linear wave theory expressions for horizontal
and vertical velocity components as

'7TH cosh k(d + z)

u=- cos (kx- wt) (2-46)
T sinh kd
30 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 2-1. Classification of Water Waves

Class Dimensionless Ratio
27Td d
i_ (relative depth) -- -- ( 27Td)
tanhL
L L gTz
Deep >112 (0.5) >7T >0.08 :=1

tanhe~d)
Intermediate 1125(0.04) to 1/2(0.5) 1/4(0.25) to 7T(3.14) 0.0025 to 0.08
or
1120(0.05) to 1/2(0.5)
Shallow <1125(0.04) <114(0.25) <0.0025 27Td
-
or L
<1/20(0.05)

and

7TH sinh k(d + z)

w =- sin (kx - wt) (2-47)
T sinh kd

These equations show the particle velocities consist of a particle speed (7TH!f) term, hyperbolic decay term
depending on depth, and a phase term that is a function of position and time.
The acceleration of a particle consists of local and convective acceleration terms, and for the hori-
zontal component the equation is given as

au au au
ax =u ax + w az + at (2-48)

where the first two terms are the convective acceleration and the last term is the local acceleration. In keep-
ing with the small amplitude assumption, the convective terms are considered negligible, and the linear
wave theory acceleration is determined by partial differentiation of the horizontal and vertical velocity
components (equations 2-46 and 2-47) with respect to time. The result is

au 27T 2H cosh k(d + z)

ax =-at =- T 2 sin(kx- wt) (2-49)
sinh kd

S h a l - - - Elliptical Orbits

Oeep Water- CircularOrbits

Figure 2-8. Water particle orbits in deep and shallow water.

Chapter 2 The Ocean Environment 31

and

ow27T2H sinh k(d + z)

a = - = - -2 - cos(kx-wt) (2-50)
z- ot T sinh kd

Notice that the particle acceleration has a 90 degree phase difference from the respective velocity compo-
nents.
The size of the particle orbits depends on the particle displacements. Since the horizontal and verti-
cal particle displacements (~,e) are related to the respective velocity components (u= o~lot and w = oelot),
the displacements are

~= f udt=--H2 coshk(d+z)
sinh kd
.
sm(kx-wt) (2-51)

and

e= f wdt=-H2 sinh k(d + z)

sinh kd
cos(kx-wt) (2-52)

The pressure variation under waves is another important consideration. A linear wave theory ex-
pression for pressure is obtained by substituting the velocity potential (equation 2-30) into the linearized
Bemoulli equation (equation 2-26) that yields

pgH cosh k(d + z)

p = -pgz + - - cos (kx- wt) (2-53)
2 cosh kd

This shows that the pressure is a combination of the normal hydrostatic pressure and a dynamic pressure re-
sulting from the motion of the water particles. Under the crest, the water particles are accelerating downward
and the hydrostatic pressure is increased by the dynamic pressure; the reverse is true under the trough. Wave
height instruments are frequently placed on the sea ftoor to measure the pressure variation in order to evaluate
the wave height and period conditions on the surface. However, the instrument must be at a depth of less than
half the wave length in order to measure the dynamic pressure ftuctuations resulting from the surface waves.
In the case of shallow water, the hyperbolic expressions in linear wave theory can be simplified as

______
cosh k(d + z) , _
1 sinh k(d + z) z
and - - - - - - z l + - (2-54)
sinhkd kd sinh kd d

and for deep water the simplifications are

cosh k(d + z) sinh k(d + z)

" " - - - - - - " " ekz (2-55)
sinh kd sinh kd

A summary of linear wave theory expressions are tabulated in Table 2-2 for the relative water depths of
shallow, intermediate, and deep water.
Additional water wave types include the rogue, internal, tsunami, storm surge, and ship waves.
The rogue wave is a freak wave or unusually high wave caused by many waves traveling at different phase
velocities and superimposing ata particular location. Waves traveling at the interface of water layers of
slightly different density within the ocean are called internal waves. A tsunami is a large wave caused by
ocean bottom seismic activity. The rise in water level because of tropical storms or hurricanes is known as
the storm surge. The motion of a ship through the water causes ship waves. The most common wave height
32 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 2-2. Summary of Linear Wave Theory Relationships Using (J as the Phase Angle (kx - (l)t)
RELATIVE SHALLOW INTERMEDIATE DEEP
DEPTH d/L <1/25 or 1120 1/20 or 1/25 <d/L <1/2 1 d/L >1/2
Elevation H H
'Y/ = 2 cos (kx- wt) = 2 cosO
Profile

~ 1
1
~
/ 3TI/2
) TI/2 1í L1í
phase angle ( ~)
L gT
e=~=Vgd
eelerity gT
e=-tanhkd e=e0 = - = -
T 27T T 27T
WaveLength gTz gTz
L=TVgd=eT L=--tanhkd L =Lo= ---;y-= eoT
27T
Group
eg =e= \Ígd 1[ 47Td/L ]
eg = ne = 2 l + sinh(47Td/L) e
_ e _gT 2
eg----
Velocity 2 47T
Horizontal
_7TH cosh k(d + z) 0 7TH
Particle u=H jfcos(J u- T sinh kd cos u=-ekzcosO
2 d T
Velocity
Vertical
Particle w = ;H (1 + ~ ) sin O _7TH sinh k(d + z) . 0
w-T sinhkd sm
7TH kz sm
w=-e
T
. O
Velocity
Horizontal
Particle
Acceleration
ax = 7T: (Jt) sin O 2~H cosh k(d + z)
ax=p- sinh kd
sin O ax = 2H ( ; rekz sin O

Vertical
Particle
Acceleration
az =- 2H~
- r (1+ dz) cos (J 2~H
a.=---;¡;z-
sinh k(d + z)
sinhkd
cos (J az = -2H (; rekz cos O

Horizontal
H coshk(d + z) g=--e
Hkz·o
Particle g=- HT JtsinO g=-- sin O sm
47T d 2 sinh kd 2
Displacement
Vertical
~ (1 + ~)cosO
H sinhk(d + z) g=--e
Hkz·o
Particle e= e=-
2 sinh kd
cos (J sm
2
Displacement
Pressure pgH cosh k(d + z)
p=pg(h-z) p=-pgz+-2- cos (J p = pg'Y/ ekz - pgz
cosh kd

used in ocean engineering is called the significant wave height which is the average of the highest one-third
of the waves and is designated Hs or H113 •

~.5.2 Wave Energy and Power

The total energy in a wave is the sum of the kinetic and potential energy. Potential energy is the
result of displacing the free surface, and kinetic energy is a consequence of the water particle movement
throughout the fluid. Knowledge of the wave energy is needed to evaluate wave propagation, power neces-
sary to produce waves, and the energy available for water wave energy extraction systems.
Chapter 2 The Ocean Environment 33

Potential energy (Ep) is determined by evaluating a small column of fluid of mass (dm) relative to
the bottom, as illustrated in Fig. 2-9. The potential energy per unit width of wave crest over one wave length
is expressed as

(2-56)

where Zc is the vertical distance to the centroid of the mass and g is the gravitational acceleration.
Then, for a progressive wave of wave height H, the average potential energy is evaluated by integrat-
ing over one wave length

Ep=-
1JLpg (d+r¡)2 dx (2-57)
L 0 2

and, after incorporating equation 2-24, the result is

pgd2 pgH2
EPtotai = - (2-58)
2 - +16
--

By subtracting the potential energy without waves, the potential energy due to waves, EPwaves' is obtained,

pgH2
EPwaves = 16
-- (2-59)

The movement of the water particles results in the kinetic energy of the waves. The average kinetic
energy (Ek) is determined by integrating over the depth and averaging over a wave length,

Ek=-
1 fLir¡ p u2 + w2 dzdx (2-60)
L 0 -<~ 2

Incorporation of the expressions for the horizontal and vertical orbital velocity from linear wave theory
(equations 2-46 and 2-47) gives

(2-61)

-SWL

dz

dx

Figure 2-9. Schematic for evaluation of wave potential energy.

 34 Elements of Ocean Engineering

The total average energy per unit width of wave crest over the length of the wave is the sum of the kinetic
and potential energy and is expressed as

(2-62)

and the total energy (EL) in one wave length (L) per unit width of wave crest is

(2-63)

The energy per unit time or power (P) of the wave is expressed as

(2-64)

where

n= 1 (1+ 2kd ) (2-65)

2 sinh 2kd

~2.5.3 Wave Group Velocity

Waves are commonly formed as a small group of waves, and the group of waves travel at a group
velocity that is normally less than the celerity of any of the individual waves. An example is waves gener-
ated by a storm. Prediction of the arrival time of the waves should be based on the group celerity, or group
velocity, and not the celerity of any of the individual waves. The group celerity (Cg) is

Cg=nC (2-66)

The expression for n is shown in equation 2-65 and varies from 0.5 for deep water to 1.0 for shallow water.

2.5.4 Wave Breaking

When the wave orbital velocity at the wave crest is equal to the wave celerity, the wave becomes
unstable and begins to break. Additionally, when a wave moves up a slope (shoals), the increasing crest
velocity approaches the decreasing phase velocity, which also results in breaking. The limiting condition for
wave breaking in any water depth was developed by Miche (1944) and is

(-H) 1 1 21rd
=-tanhkd =-tanh--
Lmax 7 7 L
(2-67)

For deep water waves, the wave breaks when the height is one-seventh of the wave length, and for the shal-
low water case, breaking occurs when

( -H)
Lmax
1 21Td
---
7 L
or (H)
d max
=0.9 (2-68)

Breaking waves are generally classified as spilling, plunging, collapsing, and surging, as illustrated in Fig.
2-1 O. A plunging breaking wave at sea is shown in Fig. 2-11.
Chapter 2 The Ocean Environment 35

SPILLING

PLUNGING
-------e_

COLLAPSING

SURGING

Figure 2-1 O. Illustration of breaking wave classifications. (Reprinted with permission from Sarpkaya, T., &
lsaacson, M. (1981). Mechanics ofwaveforces on offshore structures. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.)

Figure 2-11. Breaking wave as viewed through ship portal window (http://www.noaa.gov, 2009).

lo. 2.5.5 Advanced Wave Theories

Linear (Airy, small amplitude) wave theory has been described, but in sorne cases, the assumptions
for linear wave theory are not satisfied and nonlinearities are important. Por these cases, advanced wave
theories have been developed. More advanced texts on water wave theory, such as Wiegel (1964), Kinsman
(1965), Ippen (1966), Sarpkaya and Isaacson (1981), Dean and Dalrymple (1991), USACE (1984, 2002),
Horikawa (1988), and Chakrabarti (1990, 1994), should be consulted. The most common advanced wave
theories used in ocean engineering are Stokes second to fifth order, Cnoidal, and Stream Function. The
range of validity for the various periodic wave theories is illustrated in Fig. 2-12. Linear random wave
theory is commonly used for irregular waves, and a hybrid wave theory has been developed (Zhang et al.,
1993), which considers effects of the interactions of different wave components.
 36 Elements of Ocean Engineering

r_:_ ·.::
~ gT~
~ ~ : 1n
gT~
SHALLOW WATER -•-t¡. . •....---TRANSITIONAL WATER---•--+l-·- DEEP WATER
0.04 .-------;.-------------+. -------.
STOKE$' 4c"'l'H ORDER
CI.02
1

CI.Ot BREAK IN~

1
0.008
J
0.006 1
1
1

0.002

H
g-rt (1.001
1
0.0008 1
1
0.0008 1
1
6.00004 1
1
1
1
OJloo¡.- 1
1
liNEAR {AIRY) "'l'HEORV

0.11(11 1/.002 0.004 O.CIÓ6 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.0& 0.1

d
9~

Figure 2-12. Suggested range of applicability of various wave theories. (Reprinted with pennission from
Le Mehaute, B. (1969). An introduction to hydrodynamics and water waves. Water wave theories,
Vol. 11, TR ERL 118-POL-3-2. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, ESSSA.)

For higher order wave theories such as Stokes second to fifth order, the expression for the wave
elevation profile is

(2-69)

where A = H/2 for first order but is less than H/2 for higher orders, and Bn are special functions of the
wave length and depth. Linear theory uses the first term only and the higher order Stokes theories use the
respective higher order terms. For example, Stokes second order theory uses the first two terms and Stokes
fifth order uses the first five terms. When use of these higher order theories is necessary, tables prepared
by Skjelbreia (1959) and Skjelbreia and Hendrickson (1962) are useful in reducing error in the use of the
higher order equations. Computer software programs are also available for linear wave theory, such as the
ACES program distributed by the USACE (1992), and Stokes third and fifth order theories.
A comparison of linear and Stokes second order theory is illustrated in Fig. 2-13, which shows el-
evation profile as a function of O. The Stokes profile shows the crests are more peaked and higher, and the
troughs are shallower and flatter than those in linear wave theory. Linear waves are symmetric about the
still water level (SWL) and Stokes waves are not. Water particles follow closed orbits under linear waves,
and the orbits are open under Stokes waves, indicating a mass transport in the direction of wave propagation.
Chapter 2 The Ocean Environment 37

:·:,~2---:0:----.-'::12:----'----:3.~17
2 ----.,2-:-.---:5-'.12
e (radians)
Figure 2-13. Comparison of linear and Stokes second order wave elevation profiles.

Water waves propagating in shallow water are often best described using Cnoidal wave theory
originally developed by Korteweg and DeVries (1895). The theory is quite complicated; references
such as Wiegel (1960, 1964) and Masch (1964) summarize the theory and present graphical results.
The approximate valid range for Cnoidal wave theory is d/L < 118. Figure 2-14 shows the elevation
profile for a Cnoidal wave that shows the crests are very peaked and the troughs are long and flat just
below the SWL. It approaches a solitary wave when the wave period becomes very long; as H/d be-
comes very small, it approaches linear wave theory. A solitary wave is a wave of translation that is
above the SWL and therefore has a crest but no trough. The Automated Coastal Engineering System
(ACES) computer program (USACE, 1992) computes characteristics of Cnoidal waves that have ap-
plications in the coastal zone.
Stream function theory, developed by Dean (1965, 1967) and Monkmeyer (1970), is a nonlinear
wave theory that uses sums of sine or cosine functions. The stream function results tend to more accurately
predict wave phenomena observed in the laboratory than other theories. Dean (1974) presents tables and
graphical representations for using stream function theory; a computer program is also available to evaluate
wave characteristics from stream function theory.
Ocean waves consist of many waves with different wave heights and periods that interact with
one another. These component waves may also be traveling in different directions. Linear random wave

/\noidal Wave Profi/\

=..;; <::::: ? ;;;::::::

Solitary Wave Profillee /"\....

~ ~SWL
'll

Linear Wave Profde

Figure 2-14. Example wave elevation profile for a Cnoidal wave and its limiting cases of solitary and linear waves.
(Reprinted with permission from Sarpkaya, T., & Isaacson, M. (1981). Mechanics ofwaveforces
on offshore structures. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.)
 38 Elements of Ocean Engineering

theory has been developed to evaluate the wave characteristics in irregular sea conditions. Spectral
analysis of the irregular wave elevation pro file is used to decompose the wave profile into its wave com-
ponents. Subsequently, linear wave theory is used to evaluate the wave characteristics (i.e., velocity,
acceleration, pressure) for each component wave, and then each component wave is superposed linearly
to determine the characteristics for the irregular wave. The interaction of the component waves is more
complicated, and in sorne cases the nonlinear interactions are important. A hybrid wave model has
been developed (Zhang et al., 1993) that incorporates the important nonlinear interactions of irregular
seas in determining the wave characteristics that must be used in the design process.

2.6 ICE

The consideration of the effects of ice on coastal and offshore facilities is important in temperate and
arctic regions. Important ice parameters are thickness, concentration, persistence, and the variable mechani-
cal properties. Forces resulting from ice interaction with structures include horizontal thrust, horizontal im-
pact, vertical uplift, abrasion, and freeze-thaw damage. lnformation on ice and ice forces on structures can
be found in various publications of the USACE Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory and the
Intemational Association of Hydraulic Research. The proceedings of the Intemational Conferences on Port
and Ocean Engineering under Arctic Conditions are another source of current research related to ice effects
and loads. Additional sources of information on ice and ice forces include the American Petroleum Institute
(API) (1982), Caldwell and Crissman (1983), Cammaert and Muggeridge (1988), Carstens (1980), Chen and
Leidersdorf (1988), Eranti and Lee (1986), Gaythwaite (2004), Ingmanson and Wallace (1989), McClelland
and Reifel (1986), Pickard and Emery (1990), Tsinker (1995), USACE (1982), and Wortley (1984). Drilling and
production of oil and gas is an ongoing effort in Arctic Ocean near Alaska in the Beaufort Sea, Chukchi Sea, and
Cook inlet. Figure 2-15 shows an autonomous underwater vehicle in the icy waters of the Antarctic.

Figure 2-15. Autonomous underwater vehicle in the Antarctic Ocean. (Courtesy ofTeledyne Webb Research.)

2.6.1 Types of Ice

There are different types of ice such as fast ice, pack ice, smooth ice, ice islands, and icebergs that
occur in the oceans. Ice in the sea is formed differently than in freshwater lakes and rivers. Sea ice starts
Chapter2 The Ocean Environment 39

when crystals form a hard ice rind that is typically 5 cm (2 in) thick. Agitation of the sea surface results in
disc shape cakes of ice ca\\ed pancake ice that are approximate\)1 \'lAto\ m \_\6 to 39 1n) 1n ó.iameter. !\.~
freezing continues, the cakes form a continuous ice sheet that is also called an ice fioe. These ice sheets may
range in length from 10m (32.8 ft) to 10 km (6 mi).
In the Arctic, the ice sheets in the nearshore area are called fast ice; it forms quickly in the fall and
winter and may possibly reach a thickness of 2m (7 ft). Usually, the fast ice melts in the summer leaving the
nearshore free of ice cover. Fast ice is attached to the shore and is stationary. Pack ice is seaward of the fast
ice, and it is not attached to the shore. Pack ice is continually moving and consists of varied ice coverage of
large masses that interact with each other. Typically, pack ice is located in water depths of 15m (50ft) or
greater. The thicker portion of pack ice often touches the bottom and prevents it from getting closer to shore.
Pack ice includes ice that has been in existence for more than 2 years (multiyear ice), and this allows brine
drainage that results in stronger ice than the fast ice. Pack ice may often move at the same speed as the local
ocean current; consequently, it is a significant threat to ships and structures in its path.
Fast ice may also be referred to as smooth ice because of its smooth appearance. Adjacent smooth
ice sheets may interact along their boundaries and create a pressure ridge. The ridge can extend a consider-
able amount above and below the water surface, with the lower portian being the keel and the upper portian
being the sail. The ridge consists of broken pieces of ice that are not too strongly bonded for a first year
ridge. However, multiyear ridges can be strongly bonded and their movement toward and subsequent contact
with offshore structures can create a large force on the structure. Evaluation of these ice forces is important,
and the references previously mentioned should be consulted.
Ice islands and icebergs are fresh water ice features that are glacial in origin and have calved, or
broken off, from the ice shelves or glaciers. They subsequently drift into the ocean and may be incorporated
into the moving pack ice. Ice islands usually draw more that 12m (40ft) of water so they cannot drift into
very shallow waters. The diameter of these ice islands can be as large as 100 m or several hundred feet.
Further offshore and in deeper water, these ice islands can reach depths of near 45 m (150 ft) and breadths
of 5 km or several miles. These ice islands or icebergs are a significant concern for ships and offshore struc-
tures that happen to be in their path. In the northern hemisphere, icebergs are very irregular in shape (Fig.
2-16), and tabular icebergs are more regular in shape being long, flat, and table-like. The similar ice features
in the southern hemisphere are called ice islands.

Iceberg (Nortbern Hemispbere) Ice Island (Southern Hemisphere)

Tabular Hemisphere)

lee

Figure 2-16. Schematic of an iceberg and ice island.

2.6.2 Properties

Fresh water freezes at a temperature of 0° C (32° F), but its maximum density occurs at 4°C. For
sea water, the temperature at which it freezes depends on the salinity, and the temperature at which the
40 Elements of Ocean Engineering

maximum density occurs is a function of the salinity, as illustrated in Table 2-3. Selected physical properties
for different values of salini(y are tabulated in Table 2-4.

Table 2-3. Temperatures of the Freezing Point and Maximum Density for Fresh and Sea Water
Salinity, o/oo o 10 20 24.7 30 35
Temperature of freezing, oc (°F) o -0.5 -1.08 -1.33 -1.63 -1.91
(32) (31.1) 30.1 (29.6) (29.1) (28.6)
Temperature of maximum density, oc (°F) 3.98 1.83 -0.32 -1.33 -1.63 -1.91
(39.2) (35.3) (31.4) (29.6) (29.1) (28.6)
Source: Pickard, G. L., & Emery, W. J. (1990). Descriptive physical oceanography: An introduction (5th enlarged ed.). NewYork:
Pergamon Press.

Table 2-4. Properties of -20°C Fresh Water Ice and Sea Ice as a Function of Temperature
Property Salinity (o/oo)
o 4 8 15
Density (kg/m3) 918 921 924 929
(s1ug/ft3) 1.78 1.79 1.79 1.80
Tensile Strength MN/m 2 (psi) 0.1-0.3 (14.5-43.5)
Compressive Strength (MN/m2) (psi) 12 (1741)
Young's modulus (GN/m 2) 9.75 8.78 7.33 6.12
(psi) 1.41 X 106 1.27 X 106 1.06 X 106 0.88 X 106
Poisson's ratio 0.33
Source: Patel, M. H. (1989). Dynamics of offshore structures. Boston: Butterworth Publishers.

2.6.3 Ice Gouge and Strudel Scour

Subsea pipelines in the Arctic and Antarctic regions are commonly buried to a depth such that ice
gouging does not impact the pipelines. Rearic et al. (1981, 1982) described the size, density, orientation,
and location of ice gouges in the Beaufort Sea. Most reported gouge depths are less than 1 m (3.3 ft) deep;
however, a few have been reported as deep as 3.5 m (11.5 ft). Weeks et al. (1983) also reported on ice gouge
variables and focused on creating a frequency graph of ice gouge occurrence based on depth. Lanan et al.
(1986) developed an equation for determining how deep a pipeline should be buried in order for it to be
protected from ice gouging.
Strudel scour occurs when ice begins to melt in the summer season and freshwater runs over the ice.
At a break in the ice, water forms a vortex in the break as illustrated in Fig. 2-17. The vortex motion of the
water reaches to the bottom of the sea floor and scours a hole. Leidersdorf et al. (2006) shows a maximum
scour depth of 4.3 m (14.1 ft) andan average maximum diameter is 9.8 m (32.1 ft). Frozen water in the voids

Strudel Drainage

~:_ _________________\ __________ _

Figure 2-17. Schematic of Strudel scour.

Chapter 2 The Ocean Environment 41

of subsea sediments is called permafrost. Permafrost is often found at the sea fioor surface in the vicinity
of the barrier islands.

2.7 HURRICANES ANO GULF OF MEXICO LOOP CURRENT

In ocean engineering, hurricanes and typhoons are extreme weather events that control the design
of many ocean systems such as offshore oil and gas platforms, mobile offshore drilling rigs, coastallevees,
breakwater structures for ports and harbors, subsea pipelines, military and commercial ships and tankers,
and coastal bridges. Tropical cyclones are the result of winds rotating at a rate of 74 mph (119.1 kph, 64.3
knots) or greater. These tropical cyclones are called hurricanes in the western Atlantic Ocean and typhoons
in the western Pacific Ocean. Hurricanes and typhoons require continuous addition of warm moist air that
is abundant over the ocean. A hurricane weakens as it passes over land as a result of the lack of the warm
moist air and the additional friction over land. The winds spin counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere
and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. The center of a hurricane, where the winds are light and the pres-
sure is the lowest, is called the eye. Typically, the diameter of a hurricane is less than 560 km (300 nautical
miles).

2.7.1 Hurricanes lvan (2004), Katrina and Rita (2005), and lke (2008)

Figure 2-18 shows Hurricane Ivan just before it entered the Gulf of Mexico in September 2004,
with the eye clearly visible. The hurricane track showed that the offshore platforms NaKika (semisubmers-
ible fioating production system), Horn Mountain (Spar), Ram Powell (tension leg platform), and others
were in the track of the hurricane. The track of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005 are shown in Fig. 2-19
as the two hurricanes approached Louisiana (New Orleans) and Texas (Port Arthur). In September 2008,
Hurricane Ike was a category 4 hurricane, hitting its peak of 145 mph (230 km/h) winds anda pressure of
935 mbar (27.61 in Hg); it was a category 2 hurricane when it went ashore at Galveston, Texas. Figure 2-20
shows a before and after picture of a location on Galveston Island.
Hurricanes are placed into five categories based on the wind speed; this is known as the Saffir-
Simpson Hurricane Scale, which was first available in 1969. Herbert Saffir and Robert Simpson are the
authors of this scale. Table 2-5 shows the categories based on wind speed range.
Following the hurricane seasons in 2004 and 2005, the offshore industry organized efforts to evalu-
ate the metocean conditions used in the design of offshore oil and gas facilities. The Gulf of Mexico is
now divided into four regions: West (97 degrees W to 95 degrees W), West Central (94 degrees W to 90.5
degrees W), Central (89.5 degrees W to 86.5 degrees W), and East (85.5 degrees to 82.5 degrees W), as
shown in Fig. 2-21 (API, 2007). Metocean conditions for 10, 25, 50, 100, 200, 1000, 2000, and 10,000 return
periods are tabulated in API (2007), and the 100-year return period is summarized in Table 2-6.
It is common practice to use the 100-year return period and the design condition. In sorne cases, the
1000-year return period is used to check survivability of the offshore facility. For other locations around the
world where offshore oil and gas production are ongoing, the indicative metocean conditions for a 100-year
return period are tabulated in Table 2-7.

2.7.2 Gulf of Mexico Loop Current

The loop current is part of the Gulf Stream that fiows northward as the Yucatan current between
Cuba and the Yucatan península, as shown in Fig. 2-22. The loop current loops to the West and South and
then exits through the Florida Straits. Eddy or loop current rings separate from the loop current and drift to
the west across the Gulf of Mexico. The eddy or loop current rings have strong currents that exist deep into
the water column. Currents on the order of 4 knots (8 m/s) have been observed. Currents of this magnitude
 42 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 2-18. Hurricane Katrina aerial view before entering the Gulf of Mexico (www.nasa.gov).

Figure 2-19. Track ofHurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005; diamond shapes indicate
location of offshore platforms (www.mms.gov, 2005).

cause problems for drilling risers and production risers because of vortex induced vibrations. Strakes or
fairings are commonly attached to the risers to prevent the vortex induced vibrations. In sorne cases, drill-
ing operations have been stopped until the eddy passes. The location and forecasting of the eddy currents
is available to offshore operators.
 Chapter 2 The Ocean Environment 43

Figure 2-20. Before and after picture of Galveston Island, Texas, location showing damage from
Hurricane Ike in September 2008 (http://www.noaa.gov, 2008).

Table 2-5. Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Categories

Category Sustained Wind Speed, mph (kph) Named Hurricane Example
1 74-95 (119-153) F1orence (1988)
2 96-110 (154-177) Kate (1985)
3 111-130 (178-209) Alicia (1983)
4 131-155 (210-249) Andrew (1992), Ike (2008)
5 >155 (>249) Camille (1969), Katrina (2005)

2.8 EXTREME WAVE STATISTICS

The design of fixed and floating offshore structures for the ocean environment commonly requires
the knowledge of the probability of a given environmental force (e.g., wind, wave, current) occurring in a
given period of time. Ocean waves are frequently the important force acting on the fixed offshore structure.
Therefore, it is necessary to determine the probability that a given wave height will occur during a specified
time period such as 50 or 100 years. This area of discussion is frequently called extreme wave statistics and
is also called extreme value statistics for values such as currents, winds, floods, etc. Additional references
on extreme statistics include Sarpkaya and Isaacson (1981), Isaacson and MacKenzie (1981), Chakrabarti
(1994), Sorenson (1997), and Gumbel (1958).
 44 Elements of Ocean Engineering

32 ,..... ........ , ................ , .................,.................. , .................. ,................ -------,----··················· ---T··············T·-------------,

1

31 ·-···-···-···-···· ..

30 ····-···
lX

•........... ···-·· .. ·····+ + +·· . . . . . . .

lA
··-··········¡~S

¡1
---- ;

'/\
Fl
--·-··-···············

................

i
¡
1- - -t/·-+,-_~_ ~- +- - - - - - -t"-~ ~+-~ - -.~- "1'-f J_. -
~ 1
29 ¡r¡-----
__ -+!--'_ 11:-ce-
···-···-·········· -····-···· r··i···-·······i·

"f - - 0
-,- •- N
27 t ! J ··1 +· +-+ .¡ \

26 !f ··············+ +···-··········+· -+·····-···· ...... )1 ···t .......... ··-·· ~--············ ....... .. ...... \ ...............

~H.FofM+
f
2s- ·····- ----~----·-·-·--··-··-·--t---+-······-···-i·····-····-·-·- ·······-~---····---L....... .................................. ~i
~ w • % ~ ~ • n • ~- ~ • ~ ~ M ~ ~ ~ ~
~Laa¡ltudeWest

Figure 2-21. Hurricane regions in the GuH of Mexico.

Table 2-6. Indicative Values for Metocean Data for 100-year Return Period for Gulf of Mexico Regions
Metocean Data (100-year return period) West West Central Central East
One minute wind speed (m/s) (10m elevation) 39.9 38.1 48.0 38.4
Significant wave height (m) for water depth >1000 m 13.1 12.3 15.8 12.2
Maximum wave height (m) for water depth >1000 m 23.1 21.7 27.9 21.6
Peak wave spectral period (s) for water depth >1000 m 15.1 14.4 15.4 13.7
Period of maximum wave (s) for water depth > 1000 m 13.6 13.0 13.9 12.3
Surface current speed (m/s) for water depth >150m 2.0 1.91 2.40 1.92
Mid depth current speed (m/s) for water depth >150m 1.5 1.43 1.80 1.44
Zero (O) current speed (m/s) depth for water depth 83.8 80.0 100.8 80.6
>150m
Storm surge (m) for water depth >500 m 0.60 0.66 0.80 0.53
Tidal amplitude (m) 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42
Source: American Petroleum Institute (API). (2007). Interim guidance on hurricane conditions in the Gulf of Mexico (1st ed.). API
Bulletin 2INT-MET. Washington: American Petroleum lnstitute.

Table 2-7. Indicative Wind, Wave, and Current Values at Various Locations Around the World
Location One-hour wind Significant Peak Surface current
speed at 10-m wave height (m) period (s) (m/s)
elevation (m/s)
Norwegian Sea 37 16.5 17.0-19.0 0.9
North Sea 40.5 14.0 15.0-17.0 1.5
West Africa-Nigeria (combined with swell) 16.0 3.6 15.9 1.1
West Africa-Gabon (combined with swell) 16.6 3.7 15.5 0.91
West Africa-Ivory Coast (Combined with swell) 16.0 6.0 13.0 0.9
West Africa-lvory Coast (squall) 29.5 NA NA 0.9
West Africa-Angola (squall) 21.8 4.1 16.0 1.85
South America-Brazil (Campos Basin) 35.0 8.0 13.0 1.6
Timor Sea (nontyphoon) 16.6 4.8 11.5 1.1
Timor Sea (typhoon) 23.2 5.5 10.1 1.9
South China Sea (nontyphoon) 28.6 7.3 11.1 0.85
South China Sea (typhoon) 56.3 13.6 15.1 2.05
Source: Det Norske Veritas (DNV). (2008). Offshore standard. DNV-OS-E301, Position Mooring. Norway: Det Norske Veritas.
 Chapter 2 The Ocean Environment 45

Gulf of Mexico

...

Figure 2-22. General map of loop current in the Gulf of Mexico (http://www.csc.noaa.gov, 2009).

Extreme wave evaluations usually involve the selection and fitting of a suitable probability distribu-
tion to the wave height data and extrapolating the result to determine the 100-year wave (the wave height
that would be expected to occur once in 100 years). A procedure for determining the design wave from a
wave record is:

l. Wave height and period data are collected over a long time (e.g., 1 to 3 years) at the specified
location. It is al so possible to hindcast the wave data from meteorological information, and these
data cover a much longer period of time.
2. An algorithm is used to reduce the data, and the results are described by a probability distribution
of wave heights.
3. These data are plotted, anda linear equation is fitted to the data that best represents the plotted
results.
4. The best-fit line is then extrapolated to determine the design wave value that corresponds to the
desired return period or encounter probability.

2.8.1 Wave Data Collection and Algorithm for Plotting

One method of wave data collection is to measure the free-surface elevation intermit-
tently and evaluate the significant wave height or maximum wave height during the record-
ing interval. The wave data are arranged in order according to the wave height, and a coun-
ter "m" is used to define its rank. Thus, m = 1 is for the largest wave, and m = N is the smallest
wave in the data set of N wave heights. The probability of occurrence, P(H), and the estímate of
exceedance, Q(H), are determined from the data as a function of m and N. The simple algorithm is

m
Q(Hs) =1 - P(Hs) =- - (2-70)
N+1

2.8.2 Probability Distributions

Five probability distribution functions (Table 2-8) have been used to analyze extreme wave statistics.
These include log normal and extremal types I (Gumbel), II, IIIL (Weibull), and III 0 . These distributions
 46 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 2-8. Common Probability Distributions Used in Extreme Wave Statistics

Distribution Range Cumulative Probability P(H)
Lognormal O<H<oo
-00 < (} < 00

O<a<oo
_I_f!t__exp~ [ ( ln(h)-0
y/2:; o ah 2 a
n
dh

Type 1 (Gumbel) -oo < H < oo

-oo <e< 00 exp{-exp[-(ll;e)]}
O<O<oo
Type 11 O<H<oo
0<0<oo
O<a<oo
exp[-( :rJ
Type IIIL (Weibull) e<H<oo
0<0<oo 1-exp[-( 11 ;erJ
O<a<oo
Type Illu -oo< H <e
O<O<oo
O<a<oo
exp[-( e~ ln
are empirically fit to the data using the shape factor (0), scale parameter (a), and the location parameter (e)
shown in Table 2-9. The shape factor determines the basic shape of the distribution. The scale parameter
represents the degree of spread, and the location parameter locates the probability density function.

Table 2-9. Relationships for Use as the Scale for Extreme Wave Graphical Plot
Distribution Abscissa (x) Ordinate (y) Slope Intercept
Lognormal ln(H)
P(ll) = vb J: exp( ~ r)dt
11a -Ola

Type 1 (Gumbel) H -In {-ln[P(ll)]} 110 -e/0

Type 11 ln(H) -In {-In[P(ll)]} a -aln(}
Type IIIL (Weibull) lower ln(H- e) In {-ln[Q(ll)]} a -alnO
bound H {-ln[Q(ll)]} 1/a l/0 -e/0
Type Illu -ln(e-H) -In {-In[P(ll)]} a alnO
UpperBound H -{ -ln[P(ll)]} lla 110 -e/0

2.8.2. 1 Example Problem 2-1

One year of wave data was measured at a prospective project site. The wave gauge instrument re-
cords data for 30 minutes each day, and the highest significant wave heights measured each week are tabu-
lated in Table 2-10. Determine the Gumbel and Weibull distribution for the wave height data and estímate
the 1-, 10-, 50-, and 100-year significant wave height. Use Rayleigh procedures to estímate the maximum
wave height. If an offshore structure is to be constructed at this location and its design life is 20 years, what
is the probability the 100-year Hs will occur during the design life? The significant wave height (Hs) in me-
ters for each week is 1.05, 1.92, 3.72, 2.04, 2.54, 1.47, 3.5, 0.96, 2.54, 1.36, 1.15, 3.05, 1.80, 1.70, 2.05, 2.07,
2.27, 1.39, 2.39, 2.51, 0.82, 1.86, 2.07, 3.07, 1.66, 3.10, 2.94, 3.00, 1.39, 3.11, 1.39, 1.53, 2.37, 1.16, 2.56, 2.84,
4.53, 3.31, 1.58, 1.46, 2.37, 2.26, 4.48, 1.33, 2.53, 1.37, and 3.35 (Sorenson, 1997).
Tabular results from a spreadsheet are shown in Table 2-10 for a Gumbel distribution. The signifi-
cant wave height for the 1-, 10-, 50-, and 100-year periods are 4.8, 6.6, 7.9, and 8.4 m, respectively. Figure
2-23 shows the curve fit to the data and the significant wave height as a function ofthe return period in years.
The results for a Weibull distribution are tabulated in Table 2-11, which shows the significant wave height
for return periods of 1, 10, 50, and 100 years are 4.5, 5.6, 6.3, and 6.6 m, respectively. These results show
that the Gumbel distribution results in higher predicted significant wave heights than the Weibull distribu-
Chapter 2 The Ocean Environment 47

Table 2-10. Abbreviated Example ofExtreme Wave Analysis Using Gumbel Distribution
P(H) = 1 - (m/(N + 1)) Tr= r ((N+ 1)/m)
P(H) = exp(-exp(-((H- epsilon)/theta)))
Tr = return period (yr)
TL = lower limit of wave period for a given significant wave height (s)
E= 1- exp(-(L!Tr)), where Lis design life of structure
E = encounter probability (probability that a wave height is equaled or exceeded during a given period)
H.= significant wave height (m)
N, numberof 47 theta (9) 0.769231 slope 1.3
weeks per year
r, r=1/52 0.019231 epsilon (e) 1.815385 intercept -2.36
M H. P(H) Tr G-ord P(H) dist fit H. Est (m)
1 4.53 0.979167 0.923077 3.860693 0.971092 4.785148
2 4.48 0.958333 0.461538 3.156849 0.969181 4.24373
3 3.72 0.9375 0.307692 2.740493 0.919359 3.923456
4 3.5 0.916667 0.230769 2.441716 0.894119 3.693628
5 3.35 0.895833 0.184615 2.207267 0.872831 3.513282
6 3.31 0.875 0.153846 2.013419 0.866517 3.364168
7 3.11 0.854167 0.131868 1.847511 0.830427 3.236547
8 3.1 0.833333 0.115385 1.701983 0.82841 3.124603
9 3.07 0.8125 0.102564 1.571953 0.822231 3.024579
10 3.05 0.791667 0.092308 1.454081 0.818003 2.933909
11 3 0.770833 0.083916 1.345985 0.807041 2.850758
12 2.94 0.75 0.076923 1.245899 0.793127 2.773769

45 1.05 0.0625 0.020513 -1.01978 0.066889 1.030937

46 0.96 0.041667 0.020067 -1.15627 0.047814 0.925947
47 0.82 0.020833 0.01964 -1.35356 0.02606 0.774181
Estimate Tr and E for a given H. Estimate H. & TL for return period
H. P(H) Tr(yr) L(yr) E Tr(yr) H. Est(m) TL(s)
6 0.99567 4.441203 20 0.988927 1 4.847346 7.048022
7 0.998818 16.2704 20 0.707481 10 6.625282 8.239814
8 0.999678 59.67525 20 0.284767 20 7.158842 8.565183
50 7.863903 8.977064
100 8.397167 9.276447
150 8.709088 9.447167
48 Elements of Ocean Engineering

10
Gum bel Distributlon 9
8
5 ! 7
4 l: 6
= 3
t
:¡;
5
;;. 2 4
~
e:.
.!¡i 1 ~ 3
2
~ o 1
-1
o
-2 o 50 100 150
Return Perlad (yr)

Figure 2-23. Gumbel distribution and estimated significant wave height.

Table 2-11. Abbreviated Example ofExtreme Wave Analysis Using Weibull Distribution
P(H) = 1 - (m/(N + 1)) Tr = r((N + 1)/m)
P(H) dist = 1- exp(-((H-epsilon)/theta)Aalpha)
H. = significant wave height (m)
T, = return period (years)
TL = lower limit of wave period for a given significant wave height(s)
E= 1- exp(-(L!T,)), where Lis design life of structure
E = encounter probability (probability that a wave height is equaled or exceeded during a given period)
epsilon (e) 0.6
N, numberof 47 theta (9) 1.85455 slope 1.8399
weeks per year
r, r = 1152 0.019231 alpha (a) 1.8399 intercept -1.1364

M Hs P(H) ln(H-epsilon), T, W-ordinate P(H)dist fit Hs Estimate

abscissa
1 4.53 0.979167 1.368639 0.923077 1.353565 0.98135 3.519366
2 4.48 0.958333 1.355835 0.461538 1.156269 0.979538 3.222517
3 3.72 0.9375 1.137833 0.307692 1.019781 0.926033 3.035014
4 3.5 0.916667 1.064711 0.230769 0.910235 0.897339 2.894267
5 3.35 0.895833 1.011601 0.184615 0.816145 0.873107 2.77989
6 3.31 0.875 0.996949 0.153846 0.732099 0.865944 2.682554
7 3.11 0.854167 0.920283 0.131868 0.655077 0.825377 2.597173
8 3.1 0.833333 0.916291 0.115385 0.583198 0.823133 2.520655
9 3.07 0.8125 0.904218 0.102564 0.515202 0.816273 2.45097
10 3.05 0.791667 0.896088 0.092308 0.450194 0.811592 2.386712
11 3 0.770833 0._875469 0.083916 0.387509 0.799514 2.326865
12 2.94 0.75 0.850151 0.076923 0.326634 0.7843 2.270665

45 1.05 0.0625 -0.79851 0.020513 -2.74049 0.071199 0.91544

46 0.96 0.041667 -1.02165 0.020067 -3.15685 0.047809 0.851559
47 0.82 0.020833 -1.51413 0.01964 -3.86069 0.019602 0.771594
continues
Chapter2 The Ocean Environment 49

Table 2-11. Continued.

Estimate Tr and E for a given H, Estímate Hs & TL for given return period
H,(m) p (H) Tr (yr) L(yr) E Tr(yr) H, Est(m) TL(s)
6.3 0.999626 51.47136 20 0.321971 1 4.513525 6.801006
2.94 0.7843 0.089155 20 1 10 5.62285 7.590904
20 5.918158 7.787687
50 6.288606 8.027724
100 6.555887 8.196548

Weibull Distribution 7
6
§:s
i4
~ 3
111
j 2
1
o
o 50 100
In (H-epsilon) Retum Period (yr)

Figure 2-24. Weibull distribution and estimate of significant wave height.

tion. Figure 2-24 shows the curve fit to the data and the significant wave height as a function of the return
period in years.

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Wortley, C. A. (1984). Ice engineering manualfor design of small craft harbors and structures. Madison:
University ofWisconsin Sea Grant Inst., SG-84-417.
Zhang, J., Randall, R. E., Chen, L., Spell, Z. E., Longridge, J. K., & Ye, M. (1993). Nonlinear decomposition
of a 2-D wave field. Proceedings ofWaves'93, ASCE, New Orleans, July.

2.1 O PROBLEMS

2-1. Compute the wave length and classify the following waves.

Period (s) Water Depth (m) Wave Length (m) Classification

8 25
8 lOO
8 1000
12 1500
12 2000
12 3000

2-2. Compute the deepwater wavelength and wave celerity for waves with periods of 4, 6, 8, 12, and 16
s in the SI system of units.
2-3. A wave tank is 120ft long, 3 ft wide, and 4ft deep and is filled with fresh water toa depth of 3 ft.
The wave maker generates a wave which has a wave height of0.75 ft and wave period of 1.1 s. The
52 Elements of Ocean Engineering

density of water is 1.94 slugs/ft3• Evaluate the wave celerity, length, group celerity, energy in one
wavelength (EL), and power.
2-4. A 0.5-ft wave is generated with a wave period of 1 sin the wave tank described in problem 2-3
above. Determine the water particle velocity and acceleration at a depth of 2 ft below the still water
level directly under the wave crest.
2-5. A 10-inch wave is generated with a wave period of 1 sin the wave tank described in problem 2-3
above. Determine the water particle velocity and acceleration at a depth of 2.5 ft below the still
water level directly under the wave crest.
2-6. Determine the maximum wave height (before breaking) for a 1 s wave in the wave tank in prob-
lem 2-3.
2-7. Determine the maximum wave height (before breaking) for a 0.9 s wave in the wave tank in prob-
lem 2-3.
2-8. Compute the density and sigma-t for seawater at standard atmospheric pressure when the salinity
and temperature are 30 o/oo and 28°C, respectively.
2-9. A wave tank is 150m long, 3m wide, and 4 m deep. The water depth in the tank is 3m anda wave
0.4 m wave height and period 1.2 s is generated. Determine the wave celerity, length, group celerity,
energy in one wave length (EL), and power. Calculate the water particle velocity and pressure at a
depth of 1 m below the SWL and 0.2 m ahead of the wave crest.
2-10. An 8 s wave propagates normal to shore. Consider shoaling only and evaluate the wave length in
water depths of 300, 150, 60, and 15 ft.
2-11. A 12 s wave propagates normal to shore. Consider shoaling only and evaluate the wave length in
water depths of 400, 350, 120, and 50ft.
2-12. A pressure gauge measures an average maximum pressure of 9 N/cm2 having an average period of
10 s. The gauge is mounted 1m above the bottom where the water depth is 9 m. Evaluate the wave
height and length.
2-13. Deep water waves have wavelengths of 50, 100, and 150 11).. Determine the respective wavelengths
in 20m of water using Appendix Table A-5.
 CHAPTER3 OFFSHORESTRUCTURES
3.1 INTROOUCTION

The use of offshore structures for the exploration and production of offshore petroleum reserves is
being conducted in most continental shelf areas of the world and its beginnings date back to the 1950s. The
Gulf of Mexico led the way and was followed by the coastal waters off Mexico and Brazil. Installation of these
structures in the extremely harsh environment of the North Sea began in the 1960s. Offshore structures for the
purpose of producing petroleum reserves are now found worldwide in waters ranging from shallow water to
nearly 3048 m (10,000 ft). Subsea production facilities are being considered such that no surface structure is
necessary, but current subsea wells are connected to surface producing offshore structure using fiowlines, um-
bilicals, and manifolds. Undersea pipelines transport oil and gas to the shore and are another type of offshore
structure that are designed and installed to provide a means of transporting energy resources to land.
Man's utilization of the oceans as a resource stimulates the need for other structures that must oper-
ate in the ocean. Wave and tidal energy systems and the ocean thermal energy conversion systems have been
and continue to be pursued for extracting energy from waves, tides, and ocean water temperature differ-
ences. Wind energy is the newest form of a renewable energy resource, and offshore structures for wind en-
ergy harvesting are constructed in shallow waters with blades similar to airplane propellers. The extracted
electrical energy is delivered to shore vía underwater electrical cables buried in the ocean bottom sediments.
Ocean mining systems have been developed and may be used in the future to recover ocean minerals such
as manganese nodules from the sea fioor. The oceans may also be used in the future to support offshore fish
processing plants, floating airports, and floating communities where land is scarce.

3.2 ORILLING ANO PROOUCING OIL ANO GAS

Currently, the major use of offshore structures is for the exploration and production of oil and gas.
Therefore, a brief explanation of sorne terminology and procedures for drilling and producing oil and gas
is given. The construction of offshore structures is very expensive, and mobile exploratory drilling rigs are
used to drill wells to determine the presence or absence (dry hole) of petroleum at the offshore site. If oil
is present in sufficient quantity, then the well is plugged until a permanent production platform is installed.
Offshore wells are drilled by lowering a drill string through a conduit (riser) which extends from the
drill rig to the sea fioor. The drill string (Fig. 3-1) consists of a drill bit, drill collar, and drill pipe. The drill
pipe sections are typically 9.1 m (30ft) long and made of steel weighing about 2669 N (600 lb). Additional
drill pipe sections are connected at the surface as the well deepens. The drill string is lowered through the
riser to the sea fioor, where it passes through a system of safety valves called the blowout preventer (BOP)
stack. The BOP is there to contain pressures in the well and to prevent a blowout.
A rotary table at the surface turns the drill string; the drill bit teeth grind away at the sea floor sedi-
ment and rock formations. Drilling fluid (mud) is pumped into the drill pipe from a mud tank on the surface,
and the mud fiows through small boles in the drill bit. The drilling mud collects the cuttings of rock cut by
the drill bit and brings them to the surface. The drill mud flows to the surface through the annulus between
the well casing and the drill string below the sea bottom (mud line) and the riser and the drill string above the
mud line. A strainer at the surface removes the cuttings from the drilling mud, and the mud is then recirculated
through the mud tank and pumped to the drill string. Discharge of these fiuids and cuttings into U.S. ocean
waters are governed by environmental regulations administered by the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency.
The weight of the mud exerts a pressure greater than that in the rock formations, and therefore it
keeps the well under control. As the bit penetrates further into the rock formations, strings of steel pipe
casing are run into the well and cemented into place in order to seal off the walls of the well and keep the

53
 54 Elements of Ocean Engineering

BLOCK
- DERRICK
COOSENECK
STANDPIPE
ROTARY HOSE

BLOW OUT PREVENTER

(BOPSTACK)

DRILLPIPE

DRILLBIT

Figure 3-1. Schematic of offshore drilling equipment. (Reprinted with permission from Mather, A. (1995).
Offshore engineering: an introduction. London: Witherby & Co. Ltd.)

hole from collapsing. It is possible to send instruments down a wireline and inta the well ta determine the
existence of oil or gas. If ail and gas are found, steel production casing is set in place. This praduction casing
is used as the canduit for bringing oil and gas safely to the surface.
Sorne platforms are capable of drilling and producing. The fluids from the well contain a mixture
of oil, gas, sand, and brine water. This mixture is pracessed by special equipment befare being sent ashore
through a pipeline or transported to shore by a tanker. The processing of the well fluid mixture is known as
producing, and the equipment used is called the production equipment. Production platforms are designed
ta support the praduction equipment.

3.3 TYPES OF OFFSHORE STRUCTURES

3.3.1 Offshore Drilling Systems

3.3.1.1 Jack-up Drilling Rig

In arder to drill in shallow offshore water, special drilling equipment has been developed. One
of the most common shallaw water explaratory drilling rigs is called the jack-up drilling rig. It can drill
 Chapter 3 Offshore Structures 55

in water depths of approximately 122m (400ft). The jack-up rig (Fig. 3-2) is designed like a barge with
movable elevator legs that can be extended to the sea floor. These rigs are typically towed like a barge to
the drilling site with the legs (usually three legs) extended vertically above the barge deck. At the site, the
legs are jacked down through the water column and into the sea fioor. As the legs engage the sea fioor, the
drilling deck is raised out of the water and into the air. Deck space provides room for drilling equipment,
supplies, and quarters for a crew. Helicopters and ocean supply vessels ferry workers and equipment to the
rig. The drilling deck is well above the height of the highest expected waves. After the drilling is complete,
the procedure is reversed and the drilling deck is lowered to the water and the legs are jacked up above the
drill deck. A tow boat is then used to move the rig to another location.

Figure 3-2. (Left) Example jack-up drill rig. (Reprinted with permission from Patel, M. H. (1989).
Dynamics of offshore structures. London: Butterworths & Co.) (Right) Jack-up drilling rig Ocean Tower
built in 1972 has maximum water depth capability of 300ft. (Courtesy of Diamond Offshore.)

3.3. 1.2 Semisubmersible Drilling Rig

The semisubmersible (Fig. 3-3) is another type of offshore drilling rig. It is constructed of large
vertical columns connected to very large pontoons at the bottom. This structure supports the drilling deck
that accommodates the drilling derrick, equipment, supplies, and crew accommodations. Similar to the
jack-up rig, supply vessels and helicopters ferry equipment and personnel between the drill site and shore.
The semisubmersible drilling rig is used in water depths ranging from 91.5 to 3048.8 m (300 to 10,000 ft),
and it is typically towed to the site and moored to the bottom for water depths less than 915 m (3000 ft).
The semisubmersible drilling vessel can also be dynamically positioned for working in deeper depths of
915 to 3048.8 m (3000 to 10,000 ft). lt fioats high in the water when it is being moved toa site, and then
the pontoons are fiooded to partially submerge the rig so that a majority of its structure is below the water,
but the deck is well above the water surface. With only the columns exposed to the wave environment, the
semisubmersible is a very stable platform for drilling operations.

3.3. 1.3 Drillship

A drillship is used to drill wells in water depths to 2439 m (8000 ft) or more. A ship-shaped hull
is adapted to accommodate the drilling equipment, as illustrated in Fig. 3-4. The drilling derrick is usu-
ally positioned amidships, and a moon pool opening is located below the derrick for the drilling opera-
tion. Drillships have their own propu1sion. A dynamic positioning system is used to keep the drillship
over the drilling location. Thrusters are added in the bow of the ship to assist in the positioning of the
 56 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 3-3. (Left) Sketch of a semisubmersible drilling rig. (Reprinted with permission from Patel, M. H. (1989).
Dynamics of offshore structures. London: Butterworths & Co.) (Right) Semisubmersible drilling rig (Nautilus)
is designed for maximum water depth of 2438 m (8000 ft), has operating draft of 23m (76ft),
and uses a preset eight-point mooring system for stationkeeping. (Courtesy ofTransocean.)

~COUSTIC POSITIONJNG BEACONS

Figure 3-4. (Left) Example of dynamically positioned offshore drillship. (Reprinted with permission from
Patel, M. H. (1989). Dynamics of offshore structures. London: Butterworths & Co.) (Right) Drillship
Discover Enterprise is capable of drilling in a maximum water depth of 3048 m (10,000 ft)
and uses a dynamic positioning system for stationkeeping. (Courtesy ofTransocean.)

ship. A local acoustic positioning system or differential global positioning system is used to determine
the position of the drillship relative to the well head on the sea fioor. Environmental sensors measuring
wind, wave, and current and acoustic sensors are used to automatically send signals to the ship's thrusters
and propulsion system to keep it directly over the well. The conductor pipes, or drilling risers, are flexible
to accommodate small inclination angles, and the conductor pipes can be disconnected should extreme
weather approach.
Chapter 3 Offshore Structures 57

3.3.2 Offshore Oil and Gas Platforms

Fixed and fioating offshore platforms are used to recover and process oil and gas that is trans-
ported to shore through subsea pipelines and ships such as crude oil tankers and liquefied natural gas
(LNG) vessels. The progression of offshore platforms into deepwater, as illustrated in Fig. 3-5, begins
with fixed platforms in up to 460 m (1500 ft) water depth. Beyond the 460 m (1500 ft) water depth, fioat-
ing offshore platforms are used. The location of many of these platforms is shown in Fig. 3-6. In the 460
to 915 m (1500 to 3000 ft) water depth, compliant towers have been installed, and mini-tension leg plat-
forms (TLPs) have been u sed in water depths between 500 and 3500 ft. Semisubmersible platforms are
considered for depths of 610 to 3048 m (2000 to 10,000 ft). Conventional TLPs are considered for water
depths from 460 to 1524 m (1500 ft to 5000 ft). Spar platforms such as the classical and truss spars are
considered for the deep waters ranging from 610 to 3048 m (2000 to 10,000 ft), similar to the semisub-
mersible platforms. The use of subsea tiebacks that connect distant wells to fixed or fioating production
facilities are also in use and expanding in the deeper waters. The fioating production storage and offioad-
ing (FPSO) is another production platform used all around the world, especially in offshore locations
where there is no pipeline infrastructure. The FPSO transfers the oil to shuttle tankers that bring the oil
to shore for offioading at marine terminals.

Figure 3-5. Offshore platforms used for the production of oil and gas. (Courtesy of Offshore Magazine.)

Figure 3-6. Location of selected deep water offshore oil and gas platforms in Golf of Mexico.
 58 Elements of Ocean Engineering

3.3.2.1 Fixed Jacketed Structure

A fixed jacketed structure (Fig. 3-7) consists of a steel framed tubular structure that is attached to
the sea bottom by piles. These piles are driven into the sea floor through pile guides (sleeves) on the outer
members of the jacket. The topside structure consists of drilling equipment, production equipment, crew
quarters and eating facilities, gas fiare stacks, revolving cranes, survival craft, and a helicopter landing pad.
Drilling and production pipes are brought up to topside through conductor guides within the jacket framing,
and the crude oil and gas travel from the reservoir through the production riser to topside for processing. The
produced fluid is then pumped to shore through the export pipeline. The detailed design of the frame varíes
widely and depends on the requirements of strength, fatigue, and launch procedure. Structural members
consist of X and K joints and X and K braced members. The platform phases include design, construction,
load-out, launch, installation, piling, and hook-up before production begins. The design life of the structure
is typi~ally 10 to 25 years. This is followed by the requirement to remove and dispose of the platform once
the reservoir is depleted.

t>ECK

t . - - - 8ARG€ SUMPER
fl---··-- BOAT LAHOIN$

Figure 3-7. (Left) Steel jacketed platform. (Reprinted with permission McClelland, B., & Reifel, M. D. (Eds.) (1986).
Planning and design offixed offshore platforms. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.)
(Right) The Bullwinkle platform in the Gulf of Mexico has a height of 529 m (1736 ft)
a hove the sea ftoor and is the world's tallest fixed jacket steel platform. (Courtesy of Shell.)

Launching of these structures is usually accomplished with barges. Sorne structures are floated off
the barge and righted using barge cranes, and others are designed with flotation to be self-righting. Since
these structures are made of steel, the effects of corrosion must be considered because of the exposure to
the ocean environment. Anodic and cathodic protection systems are employed and maintained to protect
against corrosion of the structure.
Chapter 3 Offshore Structures 59

3.3.2.2 Gravity-Based Structure

The concrete gravity-based structures were pioneered in the North Sea. The first structure was in-
stalled in the Ekofisk field in 1973, and over 17 platforms were installed by 1982. Advantages ofthese struc-
tures are that they have the ability to store oil, and construction and testing can be completed befare floating
the structure and towing it to an offshore location. This type of structure is more tolerant to overloading
and degradation resulting from exposure to sea water than steel platforms. Disadvantages include greater
costs compared to a similar steel structure. More steel is sometimes required for the reinforcing members
than required for an equivalent steel jacketed structure. Foundation settlement is expected over the life of
the structure, which reduces the clearance between the mean water level and the underside of the structure.
Figure 3-8 illustrates the Condeep design for the Beryl A concrete gravity structure that was in-
stalled in 1975. The concrete caisson at the base is used for oil storage and is 100m (328 ft) wide with
circular cellular oil storage tanks of 20m (65.6 ft) diameter. Three water piercing support towers are 94.5
m (310ft) high and are also used for drilling and oil production conductors. These structures use a con-
struction technique known as slip-forming in which steel reinforcing members are set into the concrete
and prestressed to obtain the required overall structural properties. Although concrete platforms are more
expensive, they do offer advantages of lower maintenance and higher deck payload. However, construction
of concrete platforms has slowed since the early 1980s compared to steel structures.

3.3.2.3 Compliant Structures

As offshore drilling and production continues to proceed into deeper waters, the weight and
cost of fixed structures is increasing exponentially, as illustrated by cost comparison shown in Fig.
3-9. Compliant structures and floating production systems move with the applied environmental forces
resulting from wind, current, and waves. These structures are much lighter and cost considerably less.
The more common compliant structures are the TLP, articulated tower, compliant tower, single anchor
leg mooring system (SALM), catenary anchor leg mooring system, and floating production systems
(FPS).

3.3.2.4 Tension Leg Platform

A popular compliant structure is the TLP, as illustrated in Fig. 3-10. The semisubmersible floating
structure is tethered to the sea floor with verticallegs that are kept in tension by the excess buoyancy of the
platform (approximately 15% to 25% of the platform displacement). The tension legs are in sufficient tension
such that heave, roll, and pitch motions due to waves are essentially eliminated. Sway, surge, and yaw motions

NRIUCK

Figure 3-8. (Left) Example Condeep concrete gravity structure. (Reprinted with permission from Fumes, O., & Loset,
O. (1980). Shell structures in offshore platforms: design and application. Engineering Structures, 3, 140-152.)
(Right) TrollA platform in the North Sea is 472 m (1548 ft) tall and weighs 656,000 tons. (Courtesy ofWikipedia.)
 60 Elements of Ocean Engineering

GuyedTower

Píle Supported
Struttare """-:t.

1110 300 410 780 900

Water Dept&(m)

Figure 3-9. Comparison of cost for offshore structnres. (Reprinted with permission Gunther, C., Eike, L., &
Casten, O. (1988). Offshore structures (Vol. 1, pp. 132-135). New York: Springer-Verlag.)

Figure 3-10. Schematic of tension leg platform (left) and Auger TLP in Golf of Mexico (right).
(Reprinted with permission from Patel, M. H. (1989). Dynamics of o.ffshore structures.
London: Butterworths & Co. Courtesy of Jennifer Thle.)

are experienced, but the tether-induced restoring forces are capable of keeping the vessel on station above the
well heads. Marine risers carry the petroleum products from the wells to the processing equipment on the deck
of the platform, and the processed oil and gas is pumped to shore through an export pipeline. The first TLP
was installed in 148m (485.4 ft) of water by Conoco in the North Sea Hutton field in 1984. The second TLP,
named the Auger, was installed by Shell in the Gulf of Mexico in 1993. This type of compliant structure is a
likely candidate for future deep water platforms for depths ranging from 120 to 1500 m (394 to 4920 ft).

3.3.2.5 Guyed Tower

Another compliant structure is the guyed tower, as shown in Fig. 3-11, which is a slender truss-steel
structure supported on the sea fioor by a spud-can foundation and held upright by multiple wire or chain
Chapter 3 Offshore Structures 61

MOORING LINES
TOWER.

CLUMP WEIGBTS SPuDCAN

Figure 3-11. (Left) Example guyed-tower compliant offshore platform. (Reprinted with permission from Patel, M. H.
(1989). Dynamics of offshore structures. London: Butterworths & Co.) (Right) Baldpate compliant offshore platform
located in the Golf of Mexico. (Courtesy of McDermott.)

guy lines. These guy lines connect to anchor piles and are equipped with heavy clump weights between the
anchor and tower. The same guy wires also restrain the platform motion during typical operating weather
conditions without lifting the clump weights off the bottom. During more extreme weather conditions, the
guy wires are designed to lift the clump weights off the bottom, and the clump weights create a larger restor-
ing force to resist the larger wave forces. The cost of this type of structure is considerably less than a fixed
steel jacketed structure. The Lena guyed tower was installed in 1983 in the Gulf of Mexico. It had a steel
weight of 24,000 tons and deck weight of 19,640 tons. The tower was placed in 305 m (1000 ft) water depth
and utilized 20 galvanized spiral wound steel wire ropes as guy lines with 179-ton clump weights placed in
a symmetrical pattern around the platform.

3. 3.2. 6 Articulated Tower and Single Anchor Leg Mooring

For the development of small reservoirs in water depths up to about 200m (656ft), an articulated
column (Fig. 3-12), ora single anchor leg storage and tanker system (Fig. 3-13), can be used in relatively
calm weather areas. Crude oil is moved up the articulated tower and transferred to the tethered tanker for
processing and storage. A shuttle tanker is brought alongside to receive the processed oil and transport it
to shore. The SALM system uses a yoke structure, buoyancy tank, and tensioned riser to moor a tanker.
Processing and storage facilities are housed in the tapker, and oil export is accomplished with a shuttle
tanker or an export oil pipeline.

f~~~1f~~=~ri-~-··.
TANKERWITH
OILSTORAGE &
PRODUC110N EQUWMENT
""''""""'uuovANc:·v 'fAI''ii<.S

GRAVffY OR PfU:O FOUNDATION ·--

Figure 3-12. Example articulated tower. (Reprinted with permission from Patel, M. H. (1989).
Dynamics of offshore structures. London: Butterworths & Co.)
 62 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 3-13. (Left) Single anchor leg mooring system. (Reprinted with permission from Patel, M. H. (1989). Dynamics of
offshore structures. London: Butterworths & Co.) (Right) Tower yoke system. (Courtesy of SBM-Atlantia.)

3.3.2.7 Floating Production System

An economical production system for small reservoirs is the FPS, which consists of a converted or
newly built semisubmersible that is moored to the sea ftoor using a catenary mooring system (Fig. 3-14).
Connection to the oil reservoir is typically through flexible risers. Semisubmersible platforms are consid-
ered for depths of 610 to 3048 m (2000 to 10,000 ft). The compliance of the system and the catenary moor-
ing system create sorne risks such as damaged risers and moving too far off station in severe environmental
conditions. Sorne new deep draft semisubmersible platforms are using steel catenary risers in water depths
greater than 1524 m (5000 ft). The platform has no oil storage capabilities, and vessel motions in severe
weather conditions can limit or degrade the processing operations.

Figure 3-14. Example of the NaKika semisubmersible ftoating production system.

(Courtesy of Shell International Exploration & Production, Inc.)

3.3.2.8 Spar Platform

The newest deep water offshore structure is called aspar platform (Fig. 3-15). Its response charac-
teristics in deep water make it a viable possibility for deep water (>915 m or 3000 ft) petroleum production.
The heave response of the spar is small enough to accommodate dry trees and that allows well control and
work over from the surface. The spar is a hollow cylinder that supports the production and processing equip-
ment. The buoyancy-can supported risers come through the inside of the cylinder. The hollow cylinder has
hard and soft ballast tanks for buoyancy control. Currently, the spar does not have the capacity to store the
produced oil and must offtoad the produced oil through an export pipeline. However, spars can have skirt
tanks that are used to store sorne oil, but the storage capacity is much smaller than the capacity of an FPSO.
A multileg (8 to 16legs) mooring system holds the platform in place. The Constitution platform is shown in
Fig. 3-15 and was installed in 1524 m (5000 ft) of water in 2005 in the Gulf of Mexico.
Chapter 3 Offshore Structures 63

Figure 3-15. Schematic of a Spar platform (left; Koo, 2003) and photograph of the
Constitution Truss Spar platform (right; courtesy of Anadarko ).

Spar platforms have evolved from the conventional "classic" spar that consisted of a full length
cylinder with a diameter of 22 to 37m (72 to 122ft) and length of 183 to 213m (600 to 700ft), as shown
in Fig. 3-16. The truss spar followed the conventional spar and that shortened the length of the cylinder and
reduced the cost. The plates of the truss provided the necessary damping and maintained the necessary
heave characteristics. A cell spar replaces the large diameter cylinder with a bundle of smaller diameter
cylinders that makes for easier construction and lower costs. The cell spar uses the truss concept below the
bundled cylinders.

Figure 3-16. Spar platforms installed from 1996 to 2005 primarily in the Golf of Mexico.
(Courtesy of Offshore Magazine.)
64 Elements of Ocean Engineering

3.3.2.9 Floating Production Storage and Offloading System

The FPSO oil and gas facility is typically a ship-shaped vessel similar to a very large crude oil
tanker. The production equipment is placed about 3m (10ft) above the main deck and the produced oil is
stored in crude oil tanks located in the center of the vessel. The oil is transferred to a shuttle tanker through
a special floating oil transport hose. Side by side or tandem offloading is used, but the tandem offloading
procedure is more common (Fig. 3-17). Shuttle tankers offload the oil typically on a 10-day interval. The gas
is commonly reinjected back into the reservoir using gas injection wells. Flaring of gas (burning off gas) is
normally only allowed for emergencies.

Side by Side Offtake Simultaneous Side by Side Tandem Offtake

& Tandem Oftloading
Figure 3-17. Extemal turret moored FPSOs omoading to shuttle tankers.
(Courtesy ofMODEC, Inc. and SOFEC, Inc.)

In the 1980s and 1990s, the FPSO was commonly a converted crude oil tanker with a single hull.
Since the late 1990s, the FPSO is more typically a new build with double hull construction. In the begin-
ning, FPSOs were equipped with less than five risers for small production fields. The spread mooring (non-
weathervaning) vessels commonly used offshore of West Africa and Brazil have used over 50 risers. The
diameters of the risers are typically 25 cm (10 in) or less. FPSOs with interna! and external turrets (Fig.
3-18) were initially restricted to less than 10 risers, but in 2008, the number of risers increased to over 50.
Flexible risers are used to transport the oil and gas through the turret and swivels to the production equip-
ment. Average production rates for the FPSO are typically between 120,000 and 200,000 barreis of oil per
day. The FPSO storage capacity ranges between 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 barreis of oil.
FPSOs are spread moored or moored using interna! Qr external turrets, as illustrated in Fig. 3-19.
These mooring systems typically are composed of 8 to 12 mooring lines that are composed of chain-wire-
chain or chain-polyester rope-chain. The spread moored system is commonly used in benign environments

Figure 3-18. (Left) Intemal turret mooring system, FPSO Petrobras 31, Campos Basin, Brazil,
with SOFEC intemal turret. (Courtesy ofMODEC, Inc. and SOFEC, lnc.)
(Right) FPSO Glas Dowr during omoading. (Courtesy ofBiuewater.)
Chapter 3 Offshore Structures 65

Interna! Ttmll:
spread mooring

~--
' '
' '
' ' ' ' ~:. ~ # ~ ~.

~r=:D- H ~.. ,,~ ,~ ~

mooring lines
o~W7f
.: ',

.··::·,:- moori~line -.. · .. ' .

,' ' groups , 1 mooring'lines

Figure 3-19. Schematic of spread, external, internal, and disconnectable mooring concepts.

with wind, wave, and current in a predominant direction. The externa! and interna! turret mooring systems
allow the FPSO to weather vane 360 degrees around the turret that is moored with multiple mooring lines.
A disconnectable turret is used when the environmental conditions require the FPSO to disconnect from
the turret to evade severe environmental conditions. In this case, the mooring lines and risers are connected
and supported by a buoy. The FPSO returns when the environmental conditions are acceptable, retrieves the
buoy, and reconnects to resume production.

3.3.2.10 Floating Liquefied Natural Gas Facilities and Floating Storage and
Regasification Units
Gas fields produce natural gas, propane, butane, and condensate. In order to transport
these gases to markets around the world, the gases are liquefied so that they can be transported by
ship. These tankers are called LNG tankers and are used to deliver the liquefied gas to onshore
marine terminals where the liquefied gas is regasified and delivered though pipelines. LNG is a
colorless and odorless liquid with a specific gravity of 0.45 and is commonly stored at 106.2 kPa
(15.4 psia) and -160° C (-260° F). LNG is primarily methane and occupies 11600th of the volume
of gas when liquefied. Once LNG is vaporized and mixed with air at concentrations of 5%-15%, it
can burn. LNG or its vapor does not explode in an unconfined area. Liquefied propane gas (LPG) is
stored at 104.8 kPa (15.2 psia) and -36°C (-44°F). The common storage tanks are insulated spheri-
cal tanks (Fig. 3-20) or membrane tanks. The LNG is ?ffloaded at marine terminals such as the one
shown in Fig. 3-21 where the LNG is stored in the insulated tanks and subsequently regasified for
transport through pipelines to the energy user.
Another alternative for offloading LNG is to use a floating facility that is moored or a bottom
founded structure that the LNG tankers can moor alongside. A regasification facility is installed on the ves-
se! to vaporize the LNG and deliver the gasto a subsea pipeline for transport to shore. Figure 3-22 shows
a preliminary design of a floating storage and regasification unit (FSRU) completed by a six-member team
of ocean engineering students at Texas A&M University (Dupalo et al., 2004) for a location off the coast of

Figure 3-20. LNG tanker showing four spherical LNG tanks. (Courtesy ofWikipedia.)
66 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 3-21. LNG marine terminal. (Courtesy of Canaport LNG.)

Gu'tlartrilutl'awer
G-.wl--
l>lueJ1ütpe&Dlual
Taak

Figure 3-22. Schematic of general arrangement of a FLNG facility. (From Miller, R., Wattinger, R.,
Van Valkenburg, A., et al. (2004). Design of a ftoating storage and regasification unit (FSRU)
for offshore West Africa. Final Report, Ocean Engineering Program, Texas A&M University,
College Station, Texas, May 28.)

West Africa. The industry sponsor for the project was ConocoPhillips. The FSRU was permanently moored
with a spread mooring system (12 mooring lines) in 40 m (131 ft) of water. The FRSU had a storage capacity
of 330,000 m 3 of LNG and was to produce 283,000 cubic meters (1 billion cubic feet) of gas per day. The
vessel must survive a 100-year storm event, maintain offloading operations in a 1-year storm, and sustain
shoreline delivery of natural gas in a 10-year storm.
The FSRU is a double-hull ship-shaped barge with LNG storage tanks contained within
the hull. The final dimensions of the FSRU are a length of 340 m (1115 ft) between perpendicu-
lars, breadth of 65 m (213 ft), and molded depth of 33 m (108 ft). The LNG is stored in five semi-
prismatic type B (SPB) tanks. The 10 ballast tanks were designed as 5 adjacent J-tanks on each
side of the FSRU. The floating FLNG and FSRU facilities are preliminary concepts and most LNG is
shipped in LNG tankers to ports and offloaded marine terminals for storage, regasification, and
distribution.
Chapter 3 Offshore Structures 67

3.3.3 Subsea Tieback Facilities

The use of subsea production equipment to produce oil and gas is expanding and is often used
in conjunction with existing or new tloating or fixed offshore platforms. The subsea wells can be spread
over large areas of the sea tloor and tied back to the fixed or tloating facilities with subsea tlowlines,
umbilicals, and manifolds. The deep water (> 1000 m or 3000 ft) requires intervention with remotely
operated vehicles that can operate the subsea trees on the sea tloor. The subsea tieback distances can
be tens of miles.
An example of subsea tieback facility is the Dalia subsea production facility located 200 km
(124 mi) offshore of West Africa near Angola (Fig. 3-23). Lafitte et al. (2007) describes the facility
that has 71 wells with horizontal trees tied back to a two million barrel FPSO vessel that is spread
moored in 1500 m (4920 ft) water depth. The wells are expected to produce 240,000 barreis of oil
per day. There are four 30.5-cm (12-inch) pipe-in-pipe loops transporting the oil to the FPSO. There are 30
water injection wells and 3 gas injection wells for reinjecting gas and produced water from the pro-
duction processing. The tlowlines, risers, and control umbilical are distributed over a sea tloor area
of approximately 100 km 2 (39 mi 2). A loading buoy is used by shuttle tankers to oftload the oil from
the FPSO.

Horizontal tree

Figure 3-23. (Left) Dalia subsea tieback production facility locQ_ted offsbore Angola. (From Lafitte, J. L., Perrot, M.,
Lesgent, J., et al. (2007). Dalia subsea production system: presentation and challenges.
Proceedings ofthe Offshore Technology Conference, OTC 18541, Houston, Texas, May.)
(Right) Example of horizontal subsea tree. (Courtesy of FMC.)

3.4 WAVE FORCES ON OFFSHORE STRUCTURES

3.4.1 Background

A critica! task for ocean engineers is the analysis and computation of forces on ocean structures
caused by water waves. There are severa! good references, such as Barltrop and Adams (1991), Chakrabarti
(1987), Faltinsen (1990), Hsu (1984), Patel (1989), and Sarpkaya and Isaacson (1981), describing the complex
analytical techniques. The American Petroleum lnstitute (API) publishes guidelines for evaluating wave
forces as well as the complete design of fixed (API, 1993) and TLPs (API, 1987), and Det Norske Veritas
(DNV) also publishes rules for design, construction, and inspection of offshore structures (DNV, 1977).
The major conferences addressing offshore structures are the Offshore Technology Conference, Offshore
Mechanics and Arctic Engineering Conference, Intemational Society of Offshore and Polar Engineering
 68 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Conference, and the American Society of Civil Engineers Specialty Conferences (Civil Engineering in the
Oceans, I-V). A brief introduction to the fundamental concepts of analyzing wave and current forces on
offshore structures is briefty described here.
The methods for calculating wave forces can be divided into different approaches which are deter-
mined by the size of the structural member and the height and wavelength of the incident waves. Ratios of
these parameters are often used to classify which force calculation procedure is to be used. The ratios used
are diameter divided by wavelength (D/L) and wave height divided by diameter (H/D). The second ratio is
better represented by the Keulegan-Carpenter number (K= UmT/D) in which Um is the peak water particle
velocity and T is the wave period. When D/L is less than 0.2 the Morison equation is used and when it is
greater than 0.2, diffraction theory is used to calculate the wave forces. Table 3-1 describes the different
wave load regimes.

Table 3-1. Guide for Evaluating Wave Load Calculation Procedures

K D/L<0.2 D/L>0.2
K>25 Drag dominated Morison equation should not be
Morison equation with Cm and Cct. used for computing wave forces.
Re > 1.5 x 10 6 ; Cm = 1.8, Cct = 0.62 Diffraction theory used.
105 <Re <1.5 X 106 ; Cm= 1.8, cd varíes from 1.0 to 0.6
5 <K<25 Drag and inertia dominated range
Morison equation applicable, but Cm and Cct values show large scatter.
Flow behavior and load are complex and uncertain.
Re > 1.5 X 106 ; Cm = 1.8, cd = 0.62
K<5 Inertia dominated range
Morison equation or Diffraction theory is used.
Cm= 2.0
Effect of drag is negligible
..
Defimtwns: Cm, mertJa coeffictent; Cct, drag coeffictent; D, dtameter; K, UmT/D, Keulegan-Carpenter Number; Re, UmD/v, Reynolds
Number; T, wave period; U m, peak velocity; v, kinematic viscosity.

3.4.2 Design Wave Concept

The design wave concept is a well known and fairly simple concept for the design of offshore struc-
tures and is also used in the API guidelines for design. It uses a wave of large height (H) and a correspond-
ing wave period with a probability of occurrence such that it represents the largest wave that the structure
is expected to encounter in a finite time interval called the return period. This is usually accomplished by
defining the maximum height wave that is likely to occur over a large number of years (50 to 100 years).
In this way, the structure is designed to resist the worst case wave that has a very rare occurrence. This ap-
proach is realistic for designing against structural failure due to large waves, but it does not permit fatigue
failure to be considered. Examples of design wave and wind parameters for 100-year return periods in sev-
eral offshore areas are tabulated in Table 3-2.

3.4.3 Morison Equation

Tubular members of offshore platforms and subsea pipelines are frequently exposed to ocean
waves. In the design of these structures, ocean engineers must determine the forces acting on the mem-
bers. If the diameter to wavelength ratio (D/L) is less than 0.2, then the Morison Equation (Morison
et al., 1950) can be used to evaluate these forces. This equation assumes that the wave properties are
unaffected by the presence of the structure. Therefore, the total wave load can be expressed as the sum
Chapter 3 Offshore Structures 69

Table 3-2. One Hundred-Year Return Period Design Wave and Wind Parameters for
Selected United States Offshore Waters
Parameter Offshore Area
Gulfof Gulf of Mexico Southern Central Washington/ Gulf of Alaska
Mexico (MS/AL/FL) California California Oregon (Kodiak)
(TX/LA)
Maximum Wave
Height m (ft) 22 (72) 21.3 (70) 13.7 (45) 18.3 (60) 25.9 (85) 27.4 (90)
Maximum Wave
Period s 14.5 14.3 16.2 17.1 17.8 17.3
Maximum average
1-hour wind at 10m 157.7 (98) 157.7 (98) 93.3 (58) 111 (69) 111 (69) 111 (69)
(33 ft) kph (mph)
Amencan Petroleum lnstltute (API). (1987). Recommended practzce for plannzng, des1gnzng and constructzng tenswn leg plat-
forms. API RP 2T. Washington: American Petroleum Institute.

of the inertia forces due to wave fluid acceleration and of the drag forces resulting from the wave fluid
velocity.
The differential form of the Morison equation is written as

(3-1)

where dF is the total wave force on the member element ofvolume (dV) and the projected area (dA), Ün and
Un are instantaneous wave fluid acceleration and velocities normal to the member axis, p is the fluid density,
and Cd and Cm are the drag and inertia coefficients. The modulus or absolute value sign in the drag force
term is used to ensure the drag force is in the direction of the wave velocity. The Morison equation was
initially developed for vertical cylinders, or piles, but it can also be used for pipes of arbitrary orientation,
provided Cm and Cd coefficients are chosen for the applicable orientation.

3.4.4 Vertical Cylinder

As an example application, consider an element dz of a vertical pile that is a circular cylinder of

radius "r," as shown in Fig. 3-24. The incremental force (dF) acting on the element in the direction of wave
propagation is the sum of the drag and inertia force components. Integration of the incremental wave force
(dF) from the sea bottom to the mean water level yields the total force (F) and the moment about the sea
bed (M).

Vertical Cylinder

Figure 3-24. Schematic for wave force on vertical circular cylinder.

70 Elements of Ocean Engineering

(3-2)

and

M= Cct p r f~ (d + z)juju dz +Cm p~ f~ (d + z)ú dz (3-3)

where u and ún are the horizontal components of the wave orbital velocity and acceleration, respectively.
The above equations can be integrated after substituting linear wave theory expressions for u and ú and
setting x = O and f) = wt. The result is

(3-4)

and

(3-5)

where

1Tr
A¡=-
2H

T2
A2 = g [2kd + sinh(2kd)]
161TL sinh(2kd)

gT2
A4 = [2k2d2 + 2kd sinh(2kd) + 1- cosh(2kd)]
32kL2 sinh(2kd)

Figure 3-25 shows a typical time history of the inertia, drag, and wave elevation on a vertical cyl-
inder, and Fig. 3-26 shows drag coefficients for a cylinder as a function of Reynolds number and relative
roughness. Inertia and drag coefficients for a circular cylinder as a function of Reynolds and Keulegan-
Carpenter number are shown in Figs. 3-27 and 3-28, respectively.

3.4.4. 1 Example Problem 3-1

A fixed jacketed structure is located in 30 m (98.4 ft) water depth and is subjected to a 4 m (13.2
ft) high and 11 s period wave. The main legs of the structure are 1 m (3.3 ft) diameter vertical circular steel
pipes. Calculate and plot the drag, inertia, and total force variation for one leg over one wave period. Assume
linear wave theory is valid. The solution to this example problem is tabulated in Table 3-3, and the plot of
the forces is shown in Fig. 3-29.
 Chapter 3 Offshore Structures 71

L ----mFinertia ------- Fdrag - - Wave Elevation

0.25 0.5 0.75

WavePeriod
Figure 3-25. Typical time history over a single wave period of wave force on vertical circular cylinder.

1.4

5x 1o3

----····· ..... - - - - - - - - - - - 6 0 . 0
----------------20.0
1.0

_s_ -----------1.0
0.8
1 + 2 _~!__ ---..,.-------0.4
D
--------0.1
0.6
----- ·---<0.002

0.4

0.2

Re
Figure 3-26. Variation of drag coefficient (Cd) with Reynolds number and roughness height. (Reprinted with
permission from Patel, M. H. (1989). Dynamics of offshore structures. London: Butterworths & Co.)

3.4.5 Horizontal Cylinders

In the case of wave forces on horizontal submerged cylinders of length L with its longitudinal axis
normal to the direction of wave propagation as shown in Fig. 3-30, the wave forces are expressed as

(3-6)

and

(3-7)
72 Elements of Ocean Engineering

1.8

1.7

1.6

1.5

1.•
1.]

1.2 ~/ _-,•..;•., / ••·•· •..•·•

1.1 ~---~ ~~t{:~-;::.::: . ··
1.0 .m:;;::-=="".,..::~-~:.-ti ...· ·
lO ••/_.~.....-~~/·~:.::~/
0.9 :zg,.""...... _......... ..? l
.....::-··-<to ..··· f
0.8 __;;--...... ··>··'.
0.1··-·- /.~
._...........- ,, t

Re I 10-5
Figure 3-27. Inertia coefficient for cylinder as a function of Reynolds and Keulegan-Carpenter numbers.
(Reprinted with permission from Sarpkaya, T., & Isaacson, M. (1981). Mechanics of wave forces on
offshore structures. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.)

Re x to-s
Figure 3-28. Drag coefficient for cylinder as a function of Reynolds and Keulegan-Carpenter numbers.
(Reprinted with permission from Sarpkaya, T., & Isaacson, M. (1981). Mechanics of wave forces on
offshore structures. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.)
Chapter 3 Offshore Structures 73

Table 3-3. Tabulated Results for Example Problem 3-1

Given: Wave Period (T) s 11
Gravity (g) m/s 2 9.81
Depth (d) m 30
Pi 3.142
Wave Height (H) m 4
Diameter (D) m 1
Density (p) kg/m3 1030
Kinematic viscosity m 2/s 0.00000117
Find: Fi, Fd, Ft, Mi, Md, Mt on one 1eg over one wave period and p1ot
Solution: Deep water wave 1ength (Lo) m Lo= 1.56*T2 188.76
Re1ative water depth d/Lo. This is an intermediate water depth. 0.1589
Wave 1ength for intermediate water depth L using equation 2-39 164.77
Wave Number (k) k=2*7T/L 0.03813
Maximum Horizontal Velocity (umax) m/s using equation 2-46 1.4004
Kuelegan-Carpenter Number (K= umax*T/D) 15.404
Reyno1ds Number (R=umax*D/kinematic viscosity) 1,1962~5
Drag coefficient Cd Table 3-1 0.62
Inertia coefficient Cm Table 3-1 1.8
Evaluate forces using Morison Equation (equation 3-4)
A1=7T(r/2H) 0.1963
A2={g*T 2/(16*7T*L*sinh(2kd)) }*{2kd+sinh(2kd)} 0.2106
C1=(2*7T*p*r*H *L)/T2 2 70,500
Results from Morison Equation for theta varying between O and 2Pi (one wave period)
Theta (rad) F¡.~;(N) Fdra• (N) \..,\j F,ota! (N) Theta (rad) Finertia (N) Fdra• (N) Ftotai (N)
o 0.00 9203.69 9203.69 3.2 -1454.50 -9172.33 -10626.83
0.2 4950.20 8840A3 13790.63 3.4 -6367.26 -8602.68 -14969.94
0.4 9703.05 7807.98 17511.03 3.6 -11026.18 -7401.39 -18427.57
0.6 14069.07 6269.36 20338.43 3.8 -15245.53 -5758.11 -21003.63
0.8 17874.20 4467.47 22341.68 4 -18857.08 -3932.28 -22789.36
1 20966.75 2686.80 23653.55 4.2 -21716.86 -2212.16 -23929.02
1.2 23223.41 1208.47 24431.88 •. 4.4 -23710.86 -869.32 -24580.18
1.4 24554.23 265.88 24820.12 4.6 -24759.58 -115.77 -24875.34
1.57 24916.78 0.00 24916.78 4.8 -24821.21 70.46 -24750.75
1.8 24265.14 -475.10 23790.04 5 -23893.30 740.57 -23152.73
2 22656.76 -1593.88 21062.88 5.2 -22012.84 2020.28 -19992.56
2.2 20145.13 -3187.55 16957.58 5.4 -19254.80 3707.57 -15547.23
2.4 16830.37 -5004.50 11825.86 5.6 -15729.13 5536.04 -10193.09
2.6 12844.63 -6757.89 6086.74 5.8 -11576.39 7217.03 -4359.36
2.8 8346.83 -8170.88 175.94 6 -6962.13 8485.13 1523.00
3 3516.26 -9020.40 -5504.15 6.2 -2070.32 9140.15 7069.83
3.14 -0.01 -9203.69 -9203.70 6.28 0.00 9203.69 9203.69

For the case of the horizontal submerged cylinder with its longitudinal axis inline with the direction of wave
propagation, the expression for the horizontal force is no longer applicable, and the expression for the verti-
cal force must be integrated over the length of the cylinder.
The Morison equation can also be applied to inclined circular cylinders. One approach is to resolve
the wave velocity components into the total normal velocity component befare computing the forces. The
equation is written in vector form using the normal component approach with the wave force component
normal to the cylinder axis on an element of length ds as
 74 Elements of Ocean Engineering

~.-----~---.
__--1
FI_~_·a~(N~)__
-_._-_F_~~~~-+-
____ F~~(N~)-L--------,

10000

g
~
o
o
u.

-10000

-20000

-30000 +---------- -·-----+----------+-----------/

o 1.57 3.14 4.71 6.28

Theta (radlans), One Wave Perlad

Figure 3-29. Inertia, drag, and total force for vertical circular cylinder in example problem.

d F" TY Horizontal Cylinder

l
- ~
S
_
Fv .-
-L--7-:;r---L-.....,.--7---::;o--7--'-7--
Sea Bottom

Figure 3-30. Schematic for wave forces on horizontal circular cylinder.

(3-8)

where <in is a wave velocity vector normal to the cylinder axis at the length element. Questions to be an-
swered still remain conceming wave forces on inclined cylinders, and research continues on this subject.

3.5 WIND ANO CURRENT FORCES

Winds and currents cause forces on submerged and exposed members of offshore and coastal struc-
tures (i.e., offshore platforms, semisubmersibles, fishing piers, marina docks and piers, etc.). The procedure
for evaluating forces resulting from winds or currents is similar, with the major difference being the physical
properties (i.e., density, viscosity) of the fluid medium. The general equation for evaluating the wind and
current forces on slender structures is
Chapter 3 Offshore Structures 75

(3-9)

where U is the fluid velocity, pis the fluid density, A is the frontal area facing the flow (i.e., length of cylin-
der times the diameter), and Cct is the drag coefficient that is determined from experience and experiment.
The value of Cct is sometimes controversia!, but in general it is known for typical shapes, Reynolds
numbers, and relative roughness. Relative roughness (e/D) is the ratio of the roughness distance (e) to
the diameter (D) or other characteristic length dimension. Figure 3-31 shows the relationship of the drag
coefficient (Cct) for various body shapes as a function of Reyno1ds number (Re) for steady flow.
There are two types of wind speeds that are considered in the design of offshore and coastal struc-
tures: sustained and gust. The sustained wind speed is defined as the average wind speed over a time of 1
minute atan elevation of 10m above the still water level (SWL). Similar to the evaluation of wave forces,
it is common practice to define a sustained wind speed that occurs for a 50- to 100-year return period. The
wind velocity above the SWL varíes with height because of the boundary layer effect. The speed at a height
(z) above SWL is related to the speed at the 10m height by

z )0.113
(
uz =u lO 10 (3-10)

100
6
4
2
10
Stokes·law
' Co- :u.~ ~
4
2
R
.& Sphere
"_t.,..
-1 d Disk

CD 1.0
6
4
2
0.1

4 ' .;--. Alnlllp llvll

2 1 il 1 1

.01 1 1 1
0.1 2 4 6 t.o 2 4 ' to 2 4 ' to• 2 4 ' to' 2 4 6 so• 2 4 6 to• 2 4 6 to•
Reynolds Number, Vd./v

4
r- 1.!1 1 .1 1 V. ¡..I:
2
~ ..!.¡.... .dCylinder ~.4 Flat plate
-
,......_J 1
r-
0.6
Co
0.4

0.2
~¡-.... Strut -
0.10
~ -
0.06 "'"N-
10 2 4 6 102 2 4 6 10 3 2 4 6 10 • 2• 4 6 tos 2 4 6 106

Reynolds Number, Vd./v

Figure 3-31. Drag coefficient as a function of Reynolds number. (Reprinted with permission from Vennard, J. K.,
& Street, R. L. (1982). Elementary fluid mechanics (6th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.)
 76 Elements of Ocean Engineering

where U 10 is the 1-minute mean sustained wind speed 10m (32.8 ft) above the SWL. The average wind
speed measured over a time of 3 s at an elevation of 1O m above SWL is the gust wind speed. The use of the
50- and 100-year retum period are again used for design purposes.
Adjustments for elevation are determined by
0.1
( )
(UJgust = (UJO)gust IZO (3-11)

Values of Cct are typically around 1.1 to 1.3, but higher values can be used in design to incorporate a safety
factor. For long slender members with length to diameter ratios greater than 5, Cct for sharp edged sections
is generally between 1.5 and 2.0. For cylinders with diameters less than 0.3 m, Cct = 1.2 and for diameters
greater than 0.3, Cct = 0.7. For shorter members, the expression below is often used.

O.lL)
Cds = cd ( 0.5 + D (3-12)

where Cct and Ccts are drag coefficients for long and short members, respectively, Lis the member length, and
D is diameter. Additional corrections may be made for members located behind each other in the direction
of flow which is a shielding effect. Typically, members less than seven diameters away are considered to
be shielded. Information regarding shielding is limited and most calculations assume no shielding, which
provides an additional safety factor of the design.

3.6 WIND, WAVE, ANO CURRENT FORCES ON FLOATING OFFSHORE

STRUCTURES

3.6.1 lntroduction

At sea, there are several forces acting on a vessel. All of these forces must be considered when designing
the vessel to assure safety. In this day and age, most of these for~es are predicted by defining the environmental
conditions and then conducting wave tank, wind tunnel, and computer simulations based on the environmental
conditions. The data yielded by these tests are a fairly good representation of the reallife forces. Another altema-
tive to predicting the environmental forces acting on a vessel is to use the API Recommended Practices.
API Recommended Practices used in this discussion are the Recommended Practice for Design,
Analysis, and Maintenance of Moorings for Floating Production Systems (API, 1994), Analysis of Spread
Mooring Systems for Floating Drilling Units (API, 1993), and Recommended Practice for Design and
Analysis of Stationkeeping Systems for Floating Structures (API, 2005). The equations given provide a
conservative estimate of the environmentalloads.
To calculate the environmentalloads, several items must be known beforehand. These include the
environmental conditions, the projected surface areas, and the shapes of the projected surfaces above and
below the waterline for the bow and beam directions. Shape and height coefficients must be found; these co-
efficients are explained and the tables are given for finding them. Using the API's recommended practices,
a designer can calculate the environmental loads on a ship-shaped and semisubmersible hull. A detailed
listing of API recommended practices may be found on the API web site (www.api.org).

3.6.2 Wind Loads

To calculate the wind and current loads on a vessel's hull, the average 1-minute wind speed, Vw,
and surface current, Ve, must be known for the design environment. Sometimes, the average 1-minute wind
Chapter3 Offshore Structures 77

speed is not known, but another form of measurement of wind speed such as the 1-hour average wind veloc-
ity (Vhr) is available. The conversion from 1-hour average wind velocity to another average time interval is
accomplished using

(3-13)

where V1 is wind velocity for the average time interna! (t), a is the time factor from Table 3-4, and Vhr is the
1-hour average wind velocity.
Using equation 3-1 and Table 3-4, the average 1-minute wind speed can be calculated using alge-
braic manipulation. This form of the wind speed is needed for calculating the wind loads using API equa-
tions. If a specific valu~ for the wind speed is not given, but a record of wind speeds is available, then a
probability distribution can be used. The typical probability distributions used are the Gumbel and Weibull
methods. A detailed explanation of these distributions is lengthy and beyond the scope of this chapter. For a
more detailed explanation, please refer to Chapter 2 or other references (Patel, 1989; Sarpkaya & Isaacson,
1981; Sorenson, 1997). When calculating the wind loads acting on a vessel, several steps must be taken.
These steps are as follows.

• Calculate surface areas.

• Determine height coefficients.
• Determine shape coefficients.
• Calculate wind load.

Table 3-4. Wind Velocity Time Factor

Average Time Period (t) Time Factor (a)
1 hour 1.00
10min 1.06
1 min 1.18
15 S 1.31
5s 1.40
3S 1.45

3.6.2. 1 Surface Areas

Befare calculating the surface areas, the draft of the vessel for the design conditions must be known.
This is so the exposed surface areas are known for calculation. To calculate the surface areas, it is easiest to
obtain AutoCAD or comparable computer drawings. This is because most computer aided drafting (CAD)
systems include a function that makes finding surface areas easier. The objective is to measure the projeetrd
surface areas of sections of the vessel in a bow and beam view. The areas are then grouped and arranged
according to surface shape and elevation. When calculating wind areas, the following procedures should be
followed.

• The projected area of all columns should be included.

• The blocked-in projected area of severa! deck houses may be used instead of calculating the area
of each individual unit. However, when this is done, a shape factor, C., of 1.1 O should be used.
• Isolated structures such as derricks and cranes should be calculated individually.
• Open truss work commonly used for derrick mast and booms may be approximated by taking
60% of the projected block area of one face.
• Areas should be calculated for the appropriate hull draft for the given operating condition.
78 Elements of Ocean Engineering

• Areas should be separated into smaller areas based on 50ft (15.3 m) increments above sea level.
• Sections less than 50ft (15.3 m) in height should use the height coefficient, eh, associated with
the area centroid of that section.

Figure 3-32 shows the areas of each section before height separation and the combined areas after
height separation. As can be seen, there are several sections labeled the same. This means that each indi-
vidual area is combined with the others of the same number to make a single area. This is only possible
when the sections fall within the same area centroid elevations.

MO 250'

A9 200'

A6 AB
J50'

50'

0'
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
( -
',
- - L - -'- - L ...1 __ l. _¡ __ L __ L -
______________________ .\
- - \ ,-1--.t, r-'--- ~
L - - _¡ L-- _,!

Beam Wind Areas Bow Wind Areas

Figure 3-32. Delineation of bow and beam surface areas for a semisubmersible drilling rig.

3.6.2.2 Height Coefficients

The height coefficients forO to 76.2 m (Oto 250ft) are given in Table 3-5. The centroid of each
area is used to define the elevation of each section. Sometimes, the height of the vessel exceeds the values
in Table 3-5. In this circumstance, the eh value for 76.2 m (250ft) may be used for all heights above 76.2 m
(250ft) or the coefficient may be estimated using Fig. 3-33.
Figure 3-33 was created by plotting the height versus the eh value. Since the heights are divided into
segments of 15.2 m (50ft), the mean value of segment was used in the plotting process. Therefore, the mean
value for the segment desired should be read from Fig. 3-33. For example, ifthe value for a height of 103.7 m
(340 ft) is desired, the plot should be read where it crosses the 99.1 m (325 ft) mark because 103.7 m (340 ft)
falls within the 91.5 to 106.7 m (300 to 350 ft) segment and 99.1 m (325 ft) is the mean of that segment. The
dark, solid line represents the curve created from known values. The thin line represents the curve created
by continuing the solid line with a French curve.

Table 3-5. Wind Force Height Coefficients

Over-Not Exceeding (ft) Over-Not Exceeding (m) eh
0-50 0-15.3 1.00
50-100 15.3-30.5 1.23
100-150 30.5-46.0 1.40
150-200 46.0-61.0 1.52
200-250 61.0-76.0 1.62
 Chapter 3 Offshore Structures 79

l.8
'
: 1
•
i i 1
1.6

- - ~ [:.:.- --r
.......

! : f= fE-( 18x3 .zj~~ix 2 0.1 '062·x + ¡o.~ f- ¡.-

1.4

r-- ll .--f.--
¡_...--- ~

-¡
1.2 , .. ..... ..........
'
¡....--
. ,__ ¡-- / . •····· , ...... ......... , ... ... ···········¡ ··········

u i . . . . . .•.•.••..•. .r•·······
0.8

'+· i·

i ·········· ......
.l

1
.

'rH-
0.6 ·········

0.4 .........
i i ...... T

0.2 ........ .........•. .... ........ . .........

f···¡················· ··[······
···········+ i r
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240
Height(ft)

Figure 3-33. Plot of wind force height coefficient.

3. 6.2. 3 Shape Coefficients

The shape coefficient, C., is read from Table 3-6. When deciding what shape coefficient to use, be
sure to review the procedures for calculating surface areas in the surface areas section of this chapter where
special circumstances are listed.

Table 3-6. Wind Force Shape Coefficients

Exposed Area e,
Cylindrical shapes 0.50
Hull (surface above waterline) 1.00
Deckhouse 1.00
Isolated structural shapes (cranes, channels, beams, angles) 1.50
Under deck areas (smooth surfaces) 1.00
Under deck areas (exposed beams and girders) 1.30
Rig derrick 1.25

3.6.3 Wind Load Calculations

The formula for semisubmersible and ship-shaped hulls is the same, and the equation is

(3-14)

where Fw is the wind force (lb, N), Cw is 0.0034lb/(ff • kt2) or 0.615 (N-s 2/m4 ), Csis the shape coefficient,
Ch is the height coefficient, A is the vertical projected area of each surface exposed to the wind, ft\m 2 ), and
V w is the design 1-minute average wind speed, knots (mis). This formula should be used to calculate the
wind load on the bow and profile beam view. Once these two wind loads are known, the oblique wind load
can be calculated using equation 3-5 forO to 90 orO to -90 degrees off the bow, as illustrated in Fig. 3-34.
F45 is a wind force that is approaching at the vessel at 45 degrees off the bow.
The oblique force formula (equation 3-15) is

(3-15)
 80 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 3-34. Schematic to illustrate oblique force.

where F q, is the force resulting from an oblique environment (lb, N), Fx is the force on the bow resulting
from a bow environment, lb (N), Fy is the force on the beam resulting from a beam environment (lb, N), and
cf> is the direction of the approaching environment (degree off bow).

3.6.4 Current Load Calculations

Before calculating the current loads acting on the vessel, the surface area must be calculated and the
drag coefficient determined. Before calculating the surface areas, the draft of the vessel during the design
conditions must be known so the submerged surface"areas can be calculated. To calculate the surface areas,
it is easiest to obtain AutoCAD or comparable computer drawings, because most CAD systems include a
function that makes finding surface areas easier. The objective is to measure the projected surface areas of
the submerged sections for the bow and beam views. For ship-shaped hulls, the entire submerged surface
area is calculated to create a single value, S. For semisubmersible hulls, the summation of the total projected
areas of all cylindrical members, A.,, and the summation of the projected areas of all members having flat
surfaces, Ar, is calculated. Typically, the legs of the semisubmersible are the cylindrical surfaces while the
pontoons are the flat surfaces. The steps are:

• Calculate surface areas.

• Determine drag coefficients.
• Calculate current load.

For flat surfaces on a semisubmersible, a drag coefficient is found for the current load calculations in Fig.
3-35. By measuring the overall height and comer radius, a length/radius ratio (1/r) is calculated. From this
ratio, the drag coefficient is read from the plot in Fig. 3-35. For cylindrical surfaces, a drag coefficient of
0.50 is always used.
For semisubmersible hulls, equation 3-16 is used for calculating the bow and beam forces acting on
the vessel.

(3-16)

where Fes is the current force (lb, N), c•• is the current force coefficient for semisubmersible hulls (2.85 lb/
[fe • ke] or 515.62 N-s 2/m4), C0 is the drag coefficient (dimensionless), A., is the summation of total pro-
jected areas of all cylindrical members below the waterline (fe, m2), and AF is the summation of projected
areas of all members having flat surfaces below the waterline (ft2, m 2).
As with the wind force calculations, equations 3-16 and 3-17 are used to calculate the current load
on the bow and on a beam profile. Once these two values are known, the oblique current load is calculated
Chapter3 Offshore Structures 81

2 ..,-······-·-··-··-··-·····-··-··-···-··-··-··-··-·,··-··-·········-··-·-··-··-··-······-··-··-······r···-··-·-···-··-··········-··-··-·-···-··-·····-,,·-··-·-··········-··-·-···-··-··-··········-·······-·r .................·-··-··-·····-···········-··r·-·····-···········-·····-····················-·······-··r

t8. +-··---··-··-··-·····-··-··-····- ...... ~ ---·q¡;¡;¡;~:¡-r---·-··-··-···-···-··-······-··-····-···-··-+---·-··:L- +--1~,

S..r/l
1.5 +·-··-·-··-···-··-·····--··- -!·····-··-··-··-·-···-·-·····-··-··-··-········ !-···-··-·····-··················-·····-··+--··-··-······+ -1

L4 r--.... --- ------ -- · · · · i --·····-······················· -+--·······-··-···-·········-············-· -+-························-·-··········-··-· -+···-·····-··································· - '

~ \\
¡1.2 rurrent r ,;" S=r/2L

t 1 -- - - - - --+--·-·······-----l>····-··················-··-····--+················· t

; .
1:10.8

0.6 +! ----1----~""""'~==1====*""'===~=~--i
"" ~

0.4 +----+-----t-----+-----t-----+-------!

0.2 +~----+-----t----r-----+----+-------1
j
Q 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.6
l.etlgth/Redlus Ratio (S)
Figure 3-35. Semisubmersible current drag coefficient.

using equation 3-17 forO to 90 orO to -90 degrees offthe bow. F45 is a current load that is approaching the
vessel at 45 degrees off the bow.
The oblique force formula is

(3-17)

where Fq, is the force dueto oblique environment (lb, N), Fx is the force on the bow dueto a bow environment
(lb, N), Fy is the force on the beam due to a beam environment (lb, N), and cp is the direction of approaching
environment (degree offbow). In most cases, environmental !oads can be calculated easily once the sprea~t
is set up. Example Problem 3-2 shows how to calculate wind force and current force on a semisubmersible using
a spreadsheet.

3.6.5 Wave Load Calculations

Interactions between ocean waves and a semisubmersible or ship-shaped hull result in forces acting
on the vessel which are conveniently split into three categories:

• First order forces, which oscillate at the wave frequencies, induce first order motions that are also
known as high frequency or wave frequency motions.
• Second order forces with frequencies below wave frequencies induce second arder motions that
are also known as low frequency motions.
• The steady component of the second order forces is known as the mean wave drift force.

The steady state mean drift forces are typically much smaller than the wind forces that excite surge and
sway response. However, drift forces still contribute significantly to the total mean environmental force
acting on the vessel.
The mean wave drift force for semisubmersible hulls may be evaluated using the simplified proce-
dures outline (API, 2005). The mean wave drift force represents the upper bound of the mean wave drift force
generated by an advanced motions computer program for four semisubmersible designs that include typical4,
 82 Elements of Ocean Engineering

80

70

60

'V;' 50
c.
~
'-'
~ 40
.S
=
·¡: 30

'="
0:
~ 20

10

o
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Significant Wave Height(ft)

Figure 3-36. Effect of significant wave height on the mean drift force for a semisubmersible drilling rig (after API, 2005).

6, and 8 circular column twin hull designs and a pentagon design. In order to easily determine the mean drift
force, equations were generated by cubic-spline interpolation methods. It is assumed that a set of x (significant
wave height) and y (mean wave drift force) coordinates, for which y is a function of x. In this method, f(x) is
the form of a third-degree polynomial, so this equation is used to generate a spreadsheet. In the spreadsheet,
the significant wave height is input, and then the mean drift force is obtained from the cubic polynomial equa-
tion. The cubic polynomial equations are curve fit to data for large semisubmersible drilling rig from API RP
2SK (2005). Por example, Fig. 3-36 represents the wave drift force for a semisubmersible for bow seas, and the
mean drift force is a function of significant wave height. The cubic polynomial equation is as follows,

y= 0.0007x 3 - 0.0857x 2 + 4.5184x -16.863 (3-18)

where R 2 represents co-relation between data and curve fitting.

3.6.5.1 Example Problem 3-2: Semisubmersible

A 40,000-long ton semisubmersible drilling rig shown in Fig. 3-32 is planned to be located in Gulf of
Mexico. The operating condition wind speed at the site is 70 knots (1-minute average) and projected areas above
the water lineare summarized in Table 3-7. The wind environmental force on the semisubmersible drilling rig for
the operating condition is calculated using a spreadsheet (Table 3-8) and data from API RP 2SK (2005).
The surface current speed at the location is 1.8 knots and projected areas below the waterline ofthe
semisubmersible drilling rig are summarized in Table 3-9. The current force on the platform is calculated
using spreadsheet, and the results for this example are illustrated in Table 3-10.
The significant wave height for the operating condition is 26 ft, and the mean wave drift force for
bow, beam, and quartering seas is determined using a spreadsheet. The results for Example 3-1 are tabu-
lated in Table 3-11. The total environmental force on the semisubmersible drilling rig for the operating
environmental conditions is illustrated in Table 3-12.

Table 3-7. Projected Areas for Semisubmersible Above the Waterline

Al A2 A3 A4 AS A6 A7 AS A9 A10 All
Area(Bow) (ft2) 5352.7 12175.7 625.1 461.6 326.6 560.9 1781.6 1735.6 1091.6 805.8 54.6
Area (Beam) (fe) 6319.0 10992.1 635.7 782.4 620.3 177.4 1642.7 1735.6 1090.6 805.8 54.6
Chapter 3 Offshore Structures 83

Table 3-8. Spreadsheet for Evaluating Wind Force

Operating Condition
WINDFORCE
Wind Speed Vw(knots) 70.000 a1pha 1.000
Projected Areas re (Above Waterline)
BOWSEAS BEAMSEAS
e, eh A(Bow) Aehes e, eh A(Beam) Aehes
Al 0.500 1.000 5352.7 2676.3 0.500 1.000 6319.0 3159.5
A2 1.000 1.230 12175.7 14976.1 1.000 1.230 10992.1 13520.3
A3 1.500 1.230 625.1 1153.3 1.500 1.230 635.7 1172.8
A4 1.500 1.400 461.6 969.4 1.500 1.230 782.4 1443.6
AS 1.250 1.520 326.6 620.5 1.250 1.400 620.3 1085.4
A6 1.250 1.230 560.9 862.4 1.250 1.520 177.4 337.0
A7 1.250 1.400 1781.6 3117.7 1.250 1.400 1642.7 2874.7
AS 1.250 1.520 1735.6 3297.7 1.250 1.520 1735.6 3297.7
A9 1.250 1.620 1091.6 2210.4 1.250 1.620 1090.6 2208.4
A10 1.250 1.620 805.8 1631.8 1.250 1.620 805.8 1631.8
A11 1.250 1.620 54.6 110.6 1.250 1.620 54.6 110.6

Sum(e,ehA) 31626.2 Sum(e,ehA) 30841.9

Force(Kips) Fwx 526.9 Fwy 513.8
Quartering Seas
Theta (deg) 45.0
Force(Kips) (1000 lb) Fwq 693.8

Table 3-9. Projected Area for the Semisubmersible Below the Waterline
Bow Seas Beam Seas
ac (fe) .1 af (fe) ac (fe) 1 af (fe)
5150.3 11593.4 103-37.3 17384.0
ac, proJected areas of cyhndnca1 metJ1bers; a1 , proJected area of fiat members.
'·

Table 3-10. Spreadsheet for Evaluating the Current Force

 84 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 3-11. Mean Wave Drift Force for Operating Condition (Hs =26ft)
Mean Wave Drift Force
Cubic Spline Curve Fitting Formulae [x=Hs(ft), y=Force (kips)]
Bow Seas y= 0.0007x 3-0.0857x2 +4.5184x-16.863
BeamSeas y= 0.0009x 3-0.0942x 2+4.7474x-19.283
Quartering Seas y= 0.0004x3 -0.0489x 2+3.0314x-7.8637
Significant Wave Height (ft) 26.000 1 Bow Seas 1 Beam Seas 1 Quartering Seas
Force(Kips) 1 55.0 1 56.3 1 44.9

Table 3-12. Total Environmental Forces for the Operating Conditions in Example Problem 3-2
Total Environmental Forces
Force(Kips) Bow Seas Beam Seas Quartering Seas
Wind 526.9 513.8 693.8
Current 32.6 88.6 80.8
Mean Wave Drift Force 55.0 56.3 44.9
Total Force(Kips) 614.5 658.8 819.6

3. 7 WIND ANO CURRENT FORCES ON TANKER-SHAPED VESSELS

The Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF, 1994) describes procedures for estimat-
ing the wind and current loads on ship-shaped offshore structures such as very large crude carriers and
FPSO facilities. Figure 3-37 illustrates the coordinate system and sign convention for the wind and current
forces acting on the floating structure.
The longitudinal (surge) force (Fxw), lateral (sway) force (Fyw), and yaw moment (Mxyw) resulting
from the wind are calculated using the following.

(
' (3-19)

1 2
Fyw = 2Pw CywAL V w (3-20)

(3-21)

where Cxw• Cyw• and Cxyw are the wind longitudinal, lateral, and yaw moment coefficients. The symbol Pw is
the density of air, LBP is the length between perpendiculars, AL andAr are the longitudinal and lateral areas,
and Vw is the wind velocity atan elevation of 10m (33ft) above the SWL. Ifthe wind velocity is given for
a different elevation, then the 10 m (33 ft) elevation value is determined using

10)+
Vw=Vw( h (3-22)

where V wis the wind velocity (mis) at the 10m (33 ft) elevation and Vw is the wind speed at the elevation
ofh (m).
The longitudinal (surge) force (Fxw). lateral (sway) force (Fyw). and yaw moment (Mxyw) resulting
from the current are calculated using Equations 3-23, 3-24, and 3-25.
 Chapter 3 Offshore Structures 85

j 270deg

LOA
LBP

Aft
Perpendicular
Forward
Perpendicular

~L
180 deg
Longitudinal
~

e
B '
Centerline
+F
+Mxy 1 V

BOW
STERN

7
Angleof
wind
orcurrent Transverse
attack Centerline

190deg

LBP/2
Figure 3-37. The coordinate system and sigo convention for very large crude carriers. The coefficients
for wind and current in this chapter are from Oto 180 degrees and the coefficients
for 181 to 360 degrees are valid with a slgu change (after OCIMF, 1994).

1 2
Fxe = 2Pe Cxe LBPT Ve (3-23)

(3-24)

(3-25)

where Cxe• Cye• and Cxye are the current longitudinal, lateral, and yaw moment coefficients. The symbol
Pe is the density of sea water, LBP is the length between perpendiculars, T is the draft, and Veis the aver-
age current velocity over the vessel draft. The current (Ve) is the average current acting on the vessel
over the draft. If the current velocity pro file is known over the vessel draft, then the average velocity is
found by
86 Elements of Ocean Engineering

(3-26)

where Veis the average current velocity (m/s), T is the vessel draft (m), veis the current velocity as a func-
tion of depth ofwater (m/s), and y is the water depth measured from the SWL (m). Example dimensions and
characteristics for very large crude carriers are tabulated in Table 3-13.
There are two different bow configurations for very large crude carriers or tankers, and these ships
have either a cylindrical bow or conventional bow, as shown in Fig. 3-38. The effects of these bow configu-
rations are illustrated for wind and current coefficients in Figs. 3-39 through 3-44. Third order curve fits to
the data are tabulated in Table 3-14 and are useful in spreadsheet calculations of wind and current forces and
moments acting on very large crude carriers and FPSO vessels.

Cylindrical Bow Conventional Bow

"U" Shaped Bow

"V" Shaped Bow

Figure 3-38. Two different bow configurations used for calculating wind and
current forces and moments for very large crude carriers (after OCIMF, 1994).

- Cylindrical Bow (ballasted) - - Conventional13ow (ballasted) ' % Fully Loaded

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
'1
u 0.6
...
'-' 0.5
...=
.:!!
!.:
0.4
0.3
.....
<1> 0.2
o
u 0.1
"r:::o
=
~ -0.1
-; -0.2
.5 -0.3
...= -0.5
"r:::

'6j¡
-0.4

=
o -0.6
,...;¡
-0.7
-0.8
-0.9
-1
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180

Wind Angle of Attack (deg) - ew

Figure 3-39. Longitudinal wind force coefficient (Cxw) (after OCIMF, 1994).
 - Ballasted Tanker - - Fully Loaded Tanker

Ll
l. O
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
u~ 0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 lOO 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
Wind Ang1e of Attack (deg)- ew
Figure 3-40. Lateral wind force coefficient (Cvw) (after OCIMF, 1994).

- Ballasted Tanker - Fully Loaded Tanker

0.100
0.075
0.050
0.025
0.000
-0.025
~
~ -0.050
u
-0.075
-0.100

-0.150
-0.175
-0.200
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 99 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
Wind Angle of Attack (deg)- ew
•.
Figure 3-41. Wind yaw moment coefficient (Cxvw) (after OCIMF, 1994).

- Conventional Bow - - Cylindrical Bow

0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
~ 0.01
rJ-2E-17 +---t--+--+r-
-0.01
-0.02
-0.03
•0.04 +·<-'•~h··~·h-rri-<-·TT+·c-r.-·

O lO 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 lOO 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180

Current Angle of Attack (deg)- e,
Figure 3-42. Longitudinal current force coefficient (Cx,) for fully loaded tanker with
water depth/draft ratio 2:4.4 (after OCIMF, 1994).
88 Elements of Ocean Engineering

-Water deptb/draft =/> 6.00

0.7

0.6
../V f'. ~
0.5

~0.4
V ~
u V '\
0.3
V
0.2
J
V
/
""t\.' !\
0.1

o l/"""" ~
O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 lOO 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
Current Angle of Attack (deg)- e.

Figure 3-43. Lateral current force coefficient (Cvc) for fuUy loaded tanker with
water depth/draft ratio :2::6.0 (after OCIMF, 1994).

-Water deptb/draft =/> 6.0

0.060
0.050
0.040
0.030
0.020
O.oiO
0.000
-0.010
~
;.<: -0.020
u
-0.030
-0.040
-0.050
-0.060
-0.070
-0.080
-0.090
-0.100
o 10 20 30 40. 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
Current Angle of Attack (deg)

Figure 3-44. Current yaw moment coefficient (Cxvc) for fully loaded tanker with
water depth/draft ratio :2::6.0 (after OCIMF, 1994).
Chapter3 Offshore Structures 89

Table 3-13. Characteristics and Principal Dimensions of Typical Very Large Crude Carriers Such as
a Crude Oil Tanker or FPSO System
Vessel LOA LBP Beam Molded Bilge Loading Draft Freeboard ALx ATx AuL AuT
Size (B) Depth Radios Condition (T) (FB) to-3 to-3 x to-3 x to-3
(MD) (r)
KDWT m m m m m m m mz mz mz mz
150 280 268 53.5 20.0 3.1 Full 14.7 5.3 2.5 1.2 1.9 0.6
Ballast 3.8 16.2 5.5 1.8 4.9 1.2
280 342 325 53.2 28.5 3.0 Full 22.3 6.2 3.2 1.1 2.5 0.4
Ballast 9.4 19.1 7.4 1.9 6.8 1.2
400 362 350 70.5 28.0 2.0 Full 21.8 6.2 3.2 1.3 2.6 0.5
Ballast 8.6 19.4 8.1 2.4 7.5 1.6
500 408 390 71.1 31.2 2.1 Full 23.9 7.3 4.8 2.1 4.1 1.1
Ballast 7.8 23.4 11.1 3.5 10.4 2.5
A8 , transverse (head-on, bow) wmd area; AHL, above water longitudinal hull area; Aun above water transverse hull area; AL, longi-
tudinal (broadside) wind area; KDWT, 1000 deadweight tonnes; LBP, length between perpendiculars; LOA, length overall.
(From OCIMF, 1994)

3. 7. 1. 1 Example Problem 3-2

The wind and current forces and moments are needed for a fully loaded 400,000 dead-
weight (DWT) FPSO vessel with a cylindrical bow. The fully loaded FPSO has a draft of 21.8
m and is moored in a water depth of 915 m. The wind velocity is measured at the 10 m elevation as
35 m/s, and the wind attack angle is 140 degrees. The average current direction is 160 degrees with a
speed of 1.0 m/s (2.0 kts). The FPSO is similar to a very large crude carrier and the characteris-
tics can be obtained from the previous Table 3-13 as AL= 3200 m 2 , AT = 1300 m 2 , Lsp = 350m, T =
21.8 m, AHL = 2600 m 2 , and AHT = 500 m2 •
The wind coefficients are obtained from Figs. 3-39 to 3-44 or by using curve fits in Table 3-14. The
resulting coefficients are Cxw = -0.61, CYw = 0.43, CxYw = -0.05, Cxc = -0.03, CYc = 0.16, and CxYc = 0.03.
The longitudinal and lateral forces and the yaw moment due to wind are calculated as
1 2 1 . 2
Fxw = 2 PwCxwArV w= 2 (1.2~)(-0.61)(1300)(35) = -6217 kN (3-27)

1 1
Fyw = 2 PwCywALV~ = 2 (1.28)(0.43)(3200)(35) 2 = 1078.8 kN (3-28)

1 2 1 2
Mxyw = 2 PwCxywALLspV w= 2 (1.28)(-0.05)(3200)(35) = -43,904 kN- m (3-29)

The longitudinal and lateral current forces and the yaw moment due to the current are

(3-30)

1 2 1 2
Fyc = 2 PcCycLsPTVc = 2 (1025)(0.16)(350)(21.8)(1) = 625.7 kN (3-31)

1 2 2 1 2 2
(3-32)
Mxyc =- PcCxycLspTVc =- (1025)(0.03)(350) (21.8)(1) = 41,059 kN- m
2 2
These forces and moments are then used as input to the mooring analysis of the FPSO.
90 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 3-14. Third Order Polynomial Curve Fits to Data Plotted in Figures 3-39 to 3-44
Figure Curve Label Curve Fit Equation (x =O degrees) Correlation.
Coefficient.
(Rz)
WIND
39 Conventional Bow (ballasted) Cxw = -1.735E-7x 3+2.931x 2-0.00846x+0.721 0.994
Cy1indrical Bow (ballasted) (0-80 degrees)
(ballasted) (80-105 degrees) Cxw = 1.686E-6x3-0.000277x 2 +0.00492x+0.6068 0.999
(ballasted) (105-180 degrees) Cxw = 4.451E-5x 3 +0.01206x 2-1.0659x+30.962 0.999
Cxw = 3.138E-6x 3-0.00124x 2 +0.1394x-4.043 0.999
Fully Loaded Cxw = 1.929E-7x 3-6.572e-5x 2-0.00446x+0.802 0.998
40 Ballasted Cy~ = 2.724E-7x 3 -5.340x 2 +0.018x-0.02366 0.996
Fully Loaded CYw = 1.711E-7x3-0.000142x 2 +0.02x-0.491 0.994
41 Ballasted (0-90 degrees) CxYw = -3.231E-7x 3 +0.000111lx 2- 0.997
(90-180 degrees) 0.007934x+0.00865 0.997
CxYw = 2.815E-7x 3-0.000154x 2 +0.0261x-1.344
Fully Loaded (0-60 degrees) CxYw = 1.22E-7x3 +5.92E-5x 2-0.00673x+0.00396 0.999
(60-180 degrees) CxYw = 6.915E-9x 3-2.656E-6x 2 +0.001708x-0.256 0.998
CURRENT
42 Conventional Bow with Water Depth/Draft > 4.4
(0-60 degrees) Cxc = 4.943E-7x 3-6.343E-5x 2 +0.000911x+0.033 0.997
(60-120 degrees) Cxc = -9.499E-7x 3 +0.0002506x 2-0.01997x+0.4699 0.999
(120-180 degrees) Cxc = -8.4195E-8x 3+6.873E-5x 2-0.0161x+ 1.131 0.998
Cylindrical Bow with Water Depth/Draft > 4.4
(0-60 degrees) Cxc = 5.026E-7x 3-5.545x2-0.000618x+0.0463 0.998
(60-120 degrees) Cxc =-8.701E-7x 3+0.0002345x 2-0.01952x+0.5112 0.998
(120-180 degrees) Cxc = -8.4195E-8x 3 +6.873x 2-0.0161x+ 1.131 0.998
43 Fully Loaded with Water Depth/Draft ~ 6
(0-90 degrees) Cy, = -6.279E-7x 3+4/803E-5x 2 +0.00753x-0.005493 0.999
(90-180 degrees) Cy, = 6.279E-7x 3-0.000291x 2 +0.03621x-0.7556 0.999
44 Fully Loaded with Water Depth/Draft ~ 6
(0-90 degrees) CXYc = -1.74'7E-7x 3 +6.157E-5x 2-0.00429x+0.00268 0.997
(90-180 degrees) CXYc = 1.0428E-7x3-7.19E-5x 2+0.0137x-0.7465 0.993

3.8 OFFSHORE PIPELINES

3.8.1 Background

The transport of offshore gas and oil after production at offshore platforms often requires
the transport of these fluids through horizontal pipelines that are placed on the sea floor or buried
just beneath the seabed-seawater interface. These pipelines are classified as flow lines, gather lines,
trunk lines, and loading/unloading lines according to Mousselli (1981). Flow lines are usually small
diameter and may be bundled, and they connect the well to the platform or subsea manifold. The
gather lines are small to large diameter pipelines that connect between platforms, and they may
also be bundled lines for oil, gas, condensate, or two-phase flow. The combined flow from one or
severa! platforms is accommodated through trunk lines that are large in diameter and transport
products from different platforms that are often owned by different companies. Loading/unloading
lines transport fluids between producing platforms or subsea manifolds to a loading facility through
small to large diameter pipes.
 Chapter 3 Offshore Structures 91

Offshore pipelines are placed on the sea fioor by large pipe lay vessels (Fig. 3-45) that weld
lengths of pipe and deploy them over a device called a stinger, which minimizes the bending stresses in
the pipe. The pipe is laid in an S-shaped fashion from the vessel to the sea fioor. Typical vessels used
to lay pipe are barges or semisubmersibles. Newer pipe lay vessels are using a "J" configuration that
welds the pipe in a vertical position and deploys the pipe vertically. In sorne cases, the pipes are towed
to location and deployed. These pipelines may also be placed in trenches and later covered with seabed
sediments.

8-lay stioger
/ 8-lay methocl

J-layaaedled

Figure 3-45. Example of an S-lay and J-lay pipeline vessel (left) and deepwater construction vessel (DCV) balder (right).
(Courtesy of Heerema Marine Contractors.)

The design of offshore pipelines requires the consideration of many elements such as line sizing,
hydrodynamic forces, geotechnical characteristics of the sea fioor sediments and scour, structural analysis
for buckling and internal pressure, and pipe lay analysis for effects of vessel motions. Permits are required
from regulatory bodies before pipelines can be placed .on the sea fioor. The routes of pipelines must be
predetermined to minimize effects of irregular sea bottom conditions resulting in unsupported lengths of
pipe. In general, pipelines are designed so they do not "fioat and so that they resist the corrosive effects of
the ocean environment.

3.8.2 Forces on Pipelines as a Result of Waves and Currents

Offshore pipelines must resist forces caused by currents and waves while resting on the sea fioor.
These forces (Fig. 3-46) include drag, lift, inertia, and frictional resistance between seabed and pipe.
For the pipeline to remain stable on the seabed, the forces acting on the pipeline must be in equilib-
rium. The static equilibrium equations for the pipeline horizontal and vertical forces are

(3-33)

Fn + g - Fw COS {3 = Ü (3-34)

where Fct is drag force, F¡ is inertia force, Ff is the frictional resistance, Fw is the submerged unit weight of
the pipe, Fn is the normal force, F1 is the lift force, and {3 is the slope angle of the seabed. When a pipeline
92 Elements of Ocean Engineering

c::::::::J Coatíng FN
BB11!1111 Stl'el Pipe

Figure 3-46. Schematic of forces acting on an offshore pipeline resting on the seabed.

is resting on the seabed with only a small amount of embedment, the frictional resistance force Fr is related
to the normal force Fn by

(3-35)

where JL is the coefficient of friction between the seabed and pipe. These three equations are combined to
yield an equation for the minimum submerged pipe weight to remain on the seabed as

Fct + F¡ + JLF1
Fw=------- (3-36)
JL cos {3 - sin {3

The Morison equation is used to evaluate drag and inertia forces as discussed previously, but an
effective velocity Ue is used because of the velocity profile near the seabed caused by the bottom boundary
layer. The effective velocity may be determined using the 117th power law

(3-37)

where Uo is the measured or theoretically determined horizontal particle velocity ata height Yo above the
seabed. The effective velocity is determined by integrating .over the vertical distance equal to the pipe di-
ameter.

1
u;=- ID U(y) 2 dy (3-38)
D o

As a result, the effective velocity is

(3-39)

The lift force per unit length is evaluated using the expression

(3-40)

Evaluation of the drag, inertia, and lift forces depends on the selection of the respective coefficients. The
inertia and drag coefficients have been discussed previously, and the lift coefficient is illustrated in Fig. 3-47
as a function of the Reynolds number.
 Chapter 3 Offshore Structures 93

2.0
1.5

1.0
,..;¡
u
é 0.5
~
G
0.4
e)
u 0.3
e:
....
¡.;¡
0.2

0.1 '--....1...-L....L...L....I....L.'----'-...I-.-'-..l.---1..--1.--L...t...J....J..J

3 4 5 lOS 2 3 4 5 1()6
Reynolds Number, Re

Figure 3-47. Lift coefficient for a circular cylinder as a function of Reynolds number. (Reprinted with permission
from Mousselli, A. H. (1981). Offshore pipeline design, analysis, and methods. Thlsa: PennWell Publishing Co.)

The evaluation of forces on offshore pipelines depends heavily on the choice of severa! coefficients
that have been determined by experimental measurements. The drag, lift, and inertia coefficients for a cyl-
inder in uniform (steady current) and oscillatory (under waves) flow has been discussed in this chapter, and
the data are illustrated in severa! figures. These figures show the coefficients are a function of the Reynolds
number and the Keulegan-Carpenter number. For practica! pipeline design, Mousselli (1981) suggested val-
ues of these coefficients are shown in Table 3-15.
The coefficient of friction between the exposed pipe and the seabed is also needed for calculating
the required weight of the pipe such that it remains on the bottom. The frictional resistance force resists the
lateral movement of the pipe and depends also on the type of bottom sediment and type of pipe coating.
A popular coating for offshore pipelines is concrete becau.se it protects against corrosion and adds needed
weight to keep the pipe on the sea floor. When a pipe lays on the sea floor, it tends to settle into the sediment,
and the amount of settlement is called embedment. The amount of embedment also affects the frictional
resistance. As expected, the frictional resistance increases as the depth of embedment increases. Ranges of
the coefficient of friction for concrete coated pipes with very small embedment and for different sediment
types are tabulated in Table 3-16.

Table 3-15. Suggested Hydrodynamic Coefficients for Practical Pipeline Design

Reynolds Number (Re) Drag Coefficient (Cd) Lift Coefficient (C1) Inertia Coefficient (Cm) 1
Re <5.0 x 10 4 1.3 1.5 2.0
5.0 x 104 <Re <1 x lOS 1.2 l.O 2.0
1 x 105 <Re <2.5 x lOS Re Re 2.0
1.53- 3 X 105 1. 2 - 5 X 105

2.5 X 105 <Re <5.0 X 105 0.7 0.7 Re

2.5-5 X 105

Re> 5.0 x 105 0.7 0.7 1.5

Note: Coefficients are for an exposed pipe with slight roughness.
Mousselli, A. H. (1981). Offshore pipeline design, analysis, and methods. Tulsa: PennWell Publishing Co.
94 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 3-16. Coefficients of Friction for Concrete-Coated Pipes with Only Small Embedment
Sediment Coefficient of Friction (Cr)
Clay 0.3-0.6
Sand 0.5-0.7
Gravel 0.5
Mousselll, A. H. (1981). Offshore p1pelme deszgn, analyszs, and methods. Tu1sa: PennWell Pubhshing Co.

3.8.2.1 Example Prob/em 3-3

A concrete-coated steel pipeline with a 15 in outside diameter is to be installed in 125 ft water depth
where the seabed sediment is sand. The wave conditions at the location are a significant wave height and
period of 12 ft and 10.5 s, respectively. An average current (Uo) measured at 3 ft above the bottom is 0.4 ft/s
flowing normal to the pipeline route. The wave direction is assumed normal to the pipe and the bottom slope
is 1 degree. Using linear wave theory, determine the required submerged unit weight for the pipeline. The
results ofthis problem are outlined in Table 3-17.
Offshore pipelines require consideration of the bottom bathymetry and try to avoid routes that have
ridges and valleys that may cause problems in supporting the pipeline. When a pipeline spans valleys, the
water currents tend to accelerate between the pipe and seabed causing increased scour. It can also result in
vortex shedding that can result in flow-induced vibrations of the pipeline. Pipelines that pass over ridges ex-
perience increased stresses and bending at the top of the ridge that can lead to pipe failures without special
design changes. Stability of the sea floor sediments, settlement, and liquefaction are geotechnical consider-

Table 3-17. Results of Example Problem 3-3

Given: Wave periods T (sec) 10.50
Gravity acceleration g (ft/s 2) 32.20
Depth d (ft) 125.00
Wave height H (ft) 12.00
Diameter D(ft) 1.25
Density (slug/fe) 2.00
Kinematic viscosity (ft /s)
2 1.260E-05
Bottom slope (Degree) 1.00
z to top of pipe (ft) -123.75
Distance from seabed to top of pipe Yo (ft) 1.25
Steady current (ft!s) 0.40
Distance steady current measured above bottom (ft) 3.00
Find: Submerged unit weight of offshore pipeline Fw
Solution: Deep water wave length Lo= 5.12T2 (ft) 564.48
Relative water depth (d/L0 ). This is an intermediate water depth 0.22
Wave length for intermediate water depth L equation 2-39 (ft) 530.98
Wave Number (k) k= 2p/L 1.18E-02
Amplitude of Horizontal Velocity at 1.25 (ft) (ft/s) 1.726E+00
Steady Current Yo (ft/s) 3.53E-Ol
Effective Velocity Ue (ft/s) 3.11E-Ol
Amplitude of Acceleration 0. 625ft above bottom because of wave (ft/s 2 ) 1.03E+00
Maximum drag force Fdrag (lb/ft) 4.31E+00
Maximum inertia force F;necüa (lb/ft) 4.92E+00
Maximum lift force Flift (lb/ft) 4.00E+00
Mínimum required weight Fweight (lb/ft) 1.40E+00
Chapter 3 Offshore Structures 95

ations that must be addressed in the design and installation of offshore pipelines. For further information on
these subjects, the reader is referred to more advanced texts such as Mousselli (1981), Blevins (1990), and
Herbich (1981).

3.9 DIFFRACTION THEORY

Wave loads on large bodies (D/L >0.2) are usually determined using diffraction theory. For these
large structures, the presence of the structure in flow field cannot be neglected, and additional waves are
formed called scattered or diffracted waves. The governing equation is known as the Laplace equation that
uses seabed and free-surface boundary conditions as well as no flow through the body surface. The wave
force is then because of both the incident and scattered waves. For this case, drag forces are negligible and
the potential (frictionless) flow solution of the wave diffraction problem gives realistic solutions. Further
explanations of diffraction theory are found in more advanced texts such as Chakrabarti (1987), Sarpkaya
and Isaacson (1981), and Patel (1989), to mention a few.

3.1 O MARINE FOUNDATIONS

Marine foundations support ocean structures such as the offshore platforms and moorings that
have been discussed previously. Coastal structures such as breakwaters, piers, groins, and jetties must also
be supported by foundations. Piled foundations are frequently used when sediments are relatively soft, as
found in the Gulf of Mexico and Persian Gulf. In hard bottom areas such as the North Sea, the sea floor can
support gravity foundatious. Ocean engineers sometimes receive an introduction to marine foundations in
a basic geotechnical engineering course. Without adequate attention to the foundation design, the offshore
or coastal structure may experience severe sett1ement and as a result, fail to perform its designed purpose.
More advanced geotechnical texts and literature and, more likely, geotechnical engineers must be consulted
to design these critica! marine foundations.

3.1 0.1 Pile Foundations

Pile foundations are commonly used to support offshore structures especially in the Gulf of Mexico
and other continental shelf regions where the sediments are relatively soft. Driven piles are one type of
pile that is open ended and is driven into the sea floor with large impact hammers using steam, diesel, or
hydraulic power. The walls of the piles must be thick enough to withstand the stresses resulting from the
pile driving operation. These stresses may be predicted using analytical techniques (API, 1993). Drilled and
grouted piles can be used when the sediments support an open hole. In this case, an oversized hole is drilled
and apile is lowered into the hole. Once the pile is placed in the hole, grout is placed in the annulus between
the pile and the soil. In sorne cases, two piles are placed in the holes and subsequently grouted together.
The third type of pile is the belled pile that is constructed with a flared bell at one end of the pile to provide
increased bearing and uplift capacity.
The design of pile foundations must consider pile diameter, penetration, type of tip, wall thickness,
number of piles, spacing, geometry, location, material strength, method of installation, restraining condi-
tions at the mud line, and other appropriate parameters. Design is normally based on allowable stress with
safety factors of 1.5 to 2.0. The ultimate bearing capacity for axially loaded piles can be determined from

(3-41)

where Qr is skin friction resistance (lb), QP is the total end bearing (lb), f is the unit skin friction capacity (lb/
ff), A. is the side surface area of the pile (ff), q is the unit end bearing capacity (lb/ff), and AP is the total
 96 Elements of Ocean Engineering

end area ofthe pile (fe). The unit skin friction (f) and end bearing capacity for cohesive sediments (silts and
clays) can be determined by

f=ae (3-42)

where e is the undrained shear strength of the soil and a is a dimensionless factor that is computed from

a = 0.5 ¡JJ-0.5 ¡fJ ~ 1.0

(3-43)
a =0.5 ¡JJ-0· 25 ¡fJ > 1.0

The term ¡fJ is the ratio of the undrained shear strength (C) to the effective overburden pressure (p 0 ' ) .
Determination of e and Po' are discussed in API ( 1993). The unit end bearing capacity for cohesive soils is
determined from

q=9e (3-44)

The friction acts on both the inside and outside of the pile, and the total resistance is the sum of the inside
and outside friction and the end bearing on the pipe wall annulus.
For cohesionless sediments (sands), the unit skin friction capacity is determined from

f= Kp 0 tan 8 (3-45)

where K is the coefficient of lateral earth pressure, Po is the effective overburden pressure, and 8 is the fric-
tion angle between the soil and the pile wall. The value of K is normally 0.8 for open ended piles driven
unplugged, and it is 1.0 for plugged or closed end piles. The unit end bearing capacity is found by

(3-46)

where Po is the effective overburden pressure at the pile tip and Nq is the dimensionless bearing capacity
factor. Sorne suggested design values for cohesionless soils are tabulated in Table 3-18, though they should
be interpreted as guidelines only.

Table 3-18. Suggested Design Parameters for Cohesionless Sediment

Density Sediment Sediment-pile Unit Skin Friction (f) Nq Unit End Bearing
Description Friction Angle (8) kips/ft2 Capacity (q) kips/ft2
degrees
Very loase Sand 15 1.0 8 40
Loo se Sand-silt
Medium Silt
Loo se Sand 20 1.4 12 60
Medium Sand-silt
Dense Silt
Medium Sand 25 1.7 20 100
Dense Sand-silt
Dense Sand 30 2.0 40 200
Very dense Sand-silt
Dense Gravel 35 2.4 50 250
Very dense Sand
Amencan Petro1eum Institute (API). (1993). Recommended practzce for plannmg, deszgning and constructing fixed offshore plat-
forms, working stress design (20th ed.). (API RP WSD 2A.) Washington, DC: American Petro1eum Institute.

,
 Chapter3 Offshore Structures 97

The above discussion of marine foundations is just a beginning and is discussed in other texts, con-
ference proceedings, and journal papers. The annual Offshore Technology Conference Proceedings (1968-
present) are good sources of technical and design considerations for marine foundations that support off-
shore structures. Similar foundations are used to support anchoring points for tension leg platforms. Shallow
foundations are also important for coastal applications. Geotechnical textbooks and literature should be
consulted for additional information in this technical area.

3.11 REFERENCES

American Petroleum Institute (API). ( 1987). Recommended practice for planning, designing and constructing
tension leg platforms. (API RP 2T.) Washington, DC: American Petroleum Institute.
AmericanPetroleumlnstitute (API). (1993). Recommendedpracticefor planning, designing and constructing
fixed offshore platforms, working stress design (20th ed.). (API RP WSD 2A.) Washington, DC:
American Petroleum Institute.
American Petroleum lnstitute (API). (2005). Design and analysis of stationkeeping systems for fioating
structures (3rd ed.). (API RP 2SK.) Washington, DC: American Petroleum Institute.
Barltrop, N. D. P., &Adams,A. J. (1991). Dynamics offixedmarine structures (3rded.). Oxford: Butterworth-
Heinemann Ltd. ~
Blevins, R. D. (1990). Flow-induced vibration (2nd ed.). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Chakrabarti, S. K. (1987). Hydrodynamics of offshore structures. Boston: Computational Mechanics
Publications.
Det Norske Veritas (DNV). (1977). Rulesfor the design, construction and inspection of offshore structures.
Oslo: Det Norske Veritas.
Dupalo, J., Forman, F., Miller, R., Schaefer, S., Van Valkenburg, A., & Wattinger, R. (2004). Design
of a fioating storage and regasification init (FRSU) for offshore West Africa. Senior Design
Project Final Report, Ocean Engineering Program, Texas A&M University, College Station,
Texas, April. ·
Faltinsen, O. M. (1990). Sea loads on ships and offshore structures. Cambridge: Ocean Technology S~ries.
Fumes, 0., & Loset, O. (1980). Shell structures in offshore platforms: design and application. Engineering
Structures, 3, 140-152. ·
Gunther, C., Eike, L., & Casten, O. (1988). Offshore structures (Vol. 1, pp. 132-135). NewYork: Springer-
Verlag.
Herbich, J. B. (1981). Offshore pipeline design elements. New York: Marcel Dekker lnc.
Hsu, T. H. (1984). Applied offshore structural engineering. Houston: Gulf Publishing Co.
Koo, B. (2003). Evaluation of the effect of contact between risers and guide frames on offshore spar
platform motions (Doctoral dis&ertation, Ocean Engineering Program, Zachry Department of Civil
Engineering, Texas A&M University).
Lafitte, J. L., Perrot, M., Lesgent, J., Bouville, J., & Le Pennec, S. (2007). Dalia subsea production system:
presentation and challenges. Proceedings of the Offshore Technology Conference, OTC 18541,
Houston, Texas, May.
Mather, A. (1995). Offshore engineering: an introduction. London: Witherby & Co. Ltd.
McClelland, B., & Reifel, M. D. (Eds.). (1986). Planning and design offixed offshore platforms. NewYork:
Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.
Miller, R., Wattinger, R., Van Valkenburg, A., Forman, F., Schaefer, S., & Dupalo, J. (2004). Design of a
fioating storage and regasification Unit (FSRU) for Offshore West Africa. Final Report, Ocean
Engineering Program, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, May 28.
Morison, J. R., O'Brien, M. P., Johnson, J. W., & Schaaf, S. A. (1950). The force exerted by surface waves
on piles. Petroleum Transactions, 189, 149-157.
Mousselli, A. H. (1981). Offshore pipeline design, analysis, and methods. Tulsa: PennWell Publishing Co.
98 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Oil Companies Intemational Marine Forum (OCIMF). (1994). Prediction of wind and current loads on
VLCCs (2nd ed.). London: Oil Companies Intemational Marine Forum.
Patel, M. H. (1989). Dynamics of offshore structures. London: Butterworths & Co.
Sarpkaya, T., & Isaacson, M. (1981). Mechanics of wave forces on offshore structures. New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold Co.
Sorenson, R. M. (1997). Basic coastal engineering. NewYork: Chapman & Hall.
Vennard, J. K., & Street, R. L. (1982). Elementary fluid mechanics (6th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

3.12 PROBLEMS

3-1. A smooth vertical stainless steel pipe is totally submerged in sea water where the water depth is 50
ft. The pipe is 45ft long with an outside diameter of 14 in and fixed at the sea floor. Por a uniform
current of 2.4 ft/s, evaluate the total force and moment acting at the sea floor (mud line ). The den-
sity of sea water is 1.99 slugs/fe, and kinematic viscosity is 1.26 x 10- 5 fe/s.
3-2. A 25-m cylindrical pole extends 25m vertically above the water surface and is supporting a small
anemometer that measures the wind speed. The pole has an outside diameter of 10 cm. The average
1-minute mean sustained wind speed measured by the anemometer is 130 km/hr. Evaluate the total
wind force on the pole using the 1-minute mean sustained wind speed at 10m above the water as
the uniform wind speed over the pole.
3-3. A fixed jacketed structure is located in 60 m water depth and is subject to a 4-m high wave and
12-s period wave. The main legs of the structure are 0.9-m diameter vertical circular steel pipes.
Calculate and plot the inertia force variation for one leg over one wave period. Assume linear wave
theory is valid.
3-4. A vertical cylindrical pile is located in 50ft of water and has a diameter of 12 in and length of 70
ft. A 3-ft wave with a 5-s period impacts the pile. Evaluate the maximum drag and inertia force on
the pile.
3-5. A fishing pier extends 1500 ft into the ocean and is supported by 9-in cylindrical timber piles. The
pier platform is 15ft above the mean high tide levet The depth of water at high tide is 50ft at the
end of pier. The maximum vertically averaged aloqgshore current is 3.5 ft/s and the average wind
speed is 100 mph. Evaluate the maximum force and moment at the sea floor for a single pile at the
seaward end of the pier.
3-6. A concrete-coated steel gas pipeline is to be laid between two offshore platforms in 100 m water
depth where the maximum environmental conditions include waves of 20m wave height and 14 s
period. The pipeline outside diameter is 46 cm, and the clay bottom slope is 1 on 100. Determine
the submerged unit weight of the pipe. Assume linear wave theory is valid and that the bottom cur-
rent is negligible.
3-7. A steel pipeline for a sand bypassing project is installed across the bottom of a ship channel. The
tidal current in the channel reaches a maximum of 2.5 kts. The channel depth is 45 ft with no slope.
The slurry (sand-water mixture) has an average specific gravity of 1.2 in the 9 in outside diameter
pipeline. Determine the submerged unit weight of the pipe.
3-8. A 2-ft outside diameter pipeline lying on a sand seabed moved during a hurricane event. Determine
the wave height for a 15-s period wave needed to just move the concrete-coated steel pipe located in
180 ft of water. The current normal to the pipeline is assumed to be 0.8 kts. U se linear wave theory.
Crude oil with a specific gravity of 0.86 is inside the pipeline. The thickness of the steel pipe is 0.25
in and the thickness of the concrete coating is 1 in.
Chapter 3 Offshore Structures 99

3-9. A 9-in diameter horizontal cross-member of a steel-jacketed structure is located near middepth
where the maximum uniform current is 4.5 ft/s. Determine the force on the 300-ft long cross-
member.
3-10. A vertical cylinder is located in 120m water depth. It extends from the sea floor through the water
surface and supports an instrument monitoring system. The cylinder has an outside diameter of 0.8
m and is designed for a 10m high and 15 s wave. Calculate the maximum inertia wave force on the
cylinder assuming linear theory with a coefficient of added mass of 1.8 and drag coefficient of 0.6.
3-11. A horizontal pipe cross-member of a steel-jacketed structure is located near middepth where the
maximum uniform current is 4.9 ft/s. Determine the maximum force per unit length of the pipe that
has a diameter of 2 ft.
3-12. Find the minimum submerged weight for a pipeline to remain on the sea floor. The effective velocity
is 0.2 mis and the seabed has a slope of 1 on 100 with a friction coefficient of 0.1. Assume that linear
theory is valid and that the drag force acting on the 1.5 m diameter pipe is 9005 N and the inertia force
acting on the pipeline is 14,470 N. The maximum environmental conditions include waves of 20 m
wave height and 12 s period for a water depth of 100m.
3-13. A 0.61-m outside diameter pipeline lying on a sand seabed moved during a hurricane event.
Determine the unit weight of the pipe for a 14 s period necessary to just move the concrete coated
steel pipe located in 70 m water depth. The current normal to the pipeline is 2 mis. The pipeline
contains crude oil with a specific gravity of 0.89. The thickness of the steel pipe and concrete coat-
ing is 7 mm and 3 cm, respectively.
3-14. An 8-in diameter horizontal cross-member of a steel-jacketed structure is located near middepth
where the maximum uniform current is 5.6 ft/s. Determine the force on the 300-ft long cross-
member.
3-15. Evaluate the environmentalloads for a semisubmersible platform for the metocean conditions: 1
hr wind speed = 85 knots, surface current = 1.9 knots, and significant wave height = 41 ft. Use the
areas above and below the waterline for the semisubmersible described in Example 3-1.
3-16. A 280,000 tonne (1 tonne = 1000 kg) DWT tank~r is fully loaded and has a cylindrical bow. The
tanker is going to be moored in a water depth of 300 m. The wind speed at 1O m elevation is 48
mis in a direction of 130 degrees, and the average current over the draft is 2.4 mis in the direction
of 110 degrees. Determine the wind force and wind yaw moment and the current force and current
yaw moment for the tanker.
 CHAPTER4 COASTAL PROCESSES ANO STRUCTURES

4.1 INTRODUCTION

An ocean engineer is also involved with engineering in the coastal zone where the oceans meet the
land. This coastal zone and its circulation are important for understanding coastal processes and solutions
for coastal system design. Waves approach the coast, and the changing bathymetry causes them to shoal
and refract. Coastal structures such as jetties, breakwaters, artificial islands, and port entrances cause waves
to diffract. Wave forecasting and hindcasting are important for the design of coastal structures and the
determination of the effects of extreme meteorological events such as hurricanes, storm surges, tsunamis,
cyclones, and typhoons on the coastal environment. Sediment transport occurs along the coastlines and af-
fects the erosion and accretion of the beaches, and scour is experienced in areas of high localized currents.
Dredging is important to the construction and maintenance of navigable waterways, commercial shipping
ports, and recreational marinas as well as for the maintenance and restoration of beaches.
Coastal engineering application areas include:

• Nearshore wave, current, wind, and water level design condítions

• Design of breakwaters, jetties, groins, seawalls, revetments, piers, towers, and pipelines
• Control of beach erosion
• Stabilization of tidal entrances
• Prediction of inlet and estuary currents and water levels and their effect on water quality, sedi-
ment movement, and navigation
• Wave forecasting and hindcasting
• Oil spill control and clean-up
• Protection of coastal areas from storm surges and tsunamis
• Design of harbors, marinas, ports, marine pipeline outfalls, and offshore islands
• Wave refraction, diffraction, and refiection analysis
• Dredging and the placement of dredged material
• Restoration of wetlands and land reclamation.

The major conferences and professional organizations related to coastal engineering:

• Intemational Conference of Coastal Engineering (every 2 years)

• ASCE Coastal, Oceans, Ports, and Rivers lnstitute (COPRI)
• Specialty conferences, sponsored by American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE); examples:
dredging, coastal practices, sediment transport, ports, coastal structures, and fioating breakwaters
• World Dredging Conference (WODCON), World Dredging Association (WODA)
• Permanent Intemational Association of Navigation Congresses (PIANC)
• British Hydromechanics Research Association
• Westem Dredging Association (WEDA) Technical Conference and Texas A&M Dredging Seminar.
• American Shore and Beach Preservation Association (ASBPA)

Joumals and magazines that discuss basic and applied coastal and dredging engineering research and activi-
ties include:

• Journal of Coastal Research, The Coastal Education and Research Foundation

• Journal of Hydraulic Research, Intemational Association for Hydraulic Research
• Journal ofWaterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering, ASCE
• Coastal Engineering, Elsevier

101

s. u . zs .a ;zag;: .
102 Elements of Ocean Engineering

• Shore and Beach, American Shore and Beach Preservation Association

• World Dredging, Mining and Construction
• Ocean Engineering, Elsevier
• The Dock and Harbor Authority, Foxlow Publishing Company
• Terra et Aqua, International Association of Dredging Companies
• Journal of Dredging Engineering, WEDA
• International Dredging Review

Selected U. S. government publications related to coastal engineering:

• U.S. Army Engineering Research and Development Center, Coastal Engineering Research
Center, Coastal and Hydraulics Laboratory, Environrnental Laboratory, Vicksburg, MS: Technical
Reports, Technical Notes, Miscellaneous Reports
• U.S. Army Corps ofEngineers (USACE) Districts, Chicago, IL, Galveston, TX, Jacksonville, FL,
Los Angeles, CA, Mobile, AL, New England, New Orleans, LA, Portland, OR, San Francisco,
CA, Wilmington, DE, and other coastal districts: Project Reports
• U.S. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, Port Hueneme, CA: Technical Reports, Technical
Notes, Miscellaneous Reports.

Selected internet addresses related to coastal and dredging engineering:

• http://chl.erdc.usace.army.mil
• http://el.erdc.usace.army.mil
• http://www. westerndredging.org
• http://www.usace.army.mil
• http://erdc.usace.army.mil.

In many areas of the world, the ocean impinges on land over a sandy beach; this demarcation between
the land and ocean is called the shore or shoreline. The sloping sandy beach offers protection from waves, cur-
rents, and storms. A schematic of the coastal zone is illustrated in Fig. 4-1. The beach and nearshore zone are
where ocean forces affect the land. This interaction is very complex and difficult to fully understand. These forces
are result of wind waves, tides, currents, storm surges, hurric¡mes, and tsunamis. Most beaches have sediments
ranging from fine sand to cobbles. The size and character of the sediments and the slope of the beach are related
to the forces acting on the beach and the type of material available at the coast. Much of the beach material origi-
nates from land sources and is transported to the coast by rivers and streams. This material reaches the beach as
sand and is transported by the longshore current. In sorne locations, the material may be marine shell particles,
volcanic ash, or coral reef particles. Silt and clay do not usually exist on the beach because the turbulence in the
water is sufficient to keep it in suspension until it reaches more quiescent waters of lagoons, estuaries, or deeper

Figure 4-1. Schematic of typical beach profile and coastal zone.

Chapter 4 Coastal Processes and Structures 103

offshore waters. However, a few silt and clay (consolidated) beaches exist around the world. In areas of flat sloped
beaches, barrier islands often line the coasts and help protect the land from severe waves resulting from storms
and hurricanes or cyclones. Protection of these barrier islands is important so that the mainland is not exposed
to the most severe wave climates. Lagoons are shallow bodies of water usually found between the barrier islands
and the mainland, are a rich habitat for marine life, and serve as safe harbors and navigable waterways. The nar-
row opening between the ocean and a lagoon or estuary is called an inlet. Inlets occur at fairly regular intervals
along the coast, and changing environmental conditions result in these inlets opening and closing.
Beaches dissipate wave energy and are constantly adjusting to the wave environment. In normal
conditions, the beach can easily dissipate the wave energy, but in storm conditions, the beaches and dunes
must sacrifice large amounts of sand and then redistribute the sand in time after the storm has passed.
Natural and manmade underwater bars also protect beaches during storm events. An example of the effect
of storms on a beach is illustrated in Fig. 4-2.

Prolil~ A - Normal wov~ ocl•cn

Profile O- Alltt storm •ovt,llllock,

normol wove aclion

Figure 4-2. EtTect of stonn waves on beach and dune. (Reprinted with pennission from U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
(USACE). (1984). Shore protection manual. Washington, DC: USACE.)
104 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Littoral transport is another dynamic response occurring along the beach and in the nearshore
zone. It is defined as the transport of sediment in the nearshore zone by currents and waves. There are two
types of littoral transport: longshore (parallel to the shore movement) and onshore-offshore (perpendicular
to the shore). The material that is transported in this way is called littoral drift. Onshore-offshore transport
is affected mostly by wave steepness, particle size, and beach slope. Steep waves move material offshore,
and low (long period) waves move material onshore. Longshore transport is affected by breaking waves and
their angle of approach to the beach or shoreline.
The attack of waves and currents on the beach can cause erosion. There are natural causes of beach
erosion (e.g., waves and currents) and manmade causes resulting from efforts to protect the beaches and a
lack of understanding the physical processes. The various causes of beach erosion are tabulated in Table 4-1.

Table 4-1. Common Natural and Manmade Causes ofBeach Erosion

Natural Man-made
Sea leve! rise Land subsidence
Variability of sediment supply lnterruption of sediment supply
Wave and surge overwash Concentration of wave energy
Wind removal of beach sediment Deepening and widening inlets
Longshore sediment transport Changing natural coastal protection
Sorting of beach sediment Removal of beach and dune material
Storm waves Reduce sediment supply (river dams)

4.2 COASTAL STRUCTURES

There are many types of protective measures and modifications that are commonly constructed
to attempt to counteract the erosion of beaches and coastlines. A summary of these protective methods is
shown in Table 4-2.

Table 4-2. Summary of Coastal Protection Methods

Method Br-ief Description
Beach nourishment or Sand placed on eroding beach or used to replace dune structure.
dune rebuilding
Submerged and Emergent Large barriers to protect land or water behind them from wave attack. Submerged breakwaters
Breakwaters are below water leve!.
Seawalls Large wave resistant wall along shore.
Bulkheads Smaller wave resistant wall along beach.
Revetments Slope protection along waterways.
Groins Structures perpendicular to shore to interrupt littoral or slow down sand losses.
Sand Bypassing Movement of sand from accreting up drift side to eroding down drift side of harbor or inlet.
Jetties Structures u sed at inlets to stabilize en trance location.

4.2.1 Breakwaters

These structures protect a shore area, harbor, anchorage, or basin from waves and may be connected
to the shore or placed offshore. Several types of breakwaters are in existence, such as rubble mound, cellu-
lar-steel sheet-pile, sheet-pile, stone-asphalt, and concrete caisson. An example of a cellular-steel sheet-pile
and sheet-pile breakwater at Port Sanilac, Michigan is illustrated in Fig. 4-3, and rubble mound breakwaters
in Lake Michigan are illustrated in Fig. 4-4 and rubble mound segmented breakwaters at Presque Isle in
Lake Erie are shown in Fig. 4-5.
Chapter 4 Coastal Processes and Structures 105

Figure 4-3. Combined cellular-steel sheet-pile and sheet-pile breakwater at Port Sanilac, MI. (Reprinted with
permission from U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). (1984). Shore protection manual. Washington, DC: USACE.)

Figure 4-4. Rubble-mound breakwater in Lake Michigan showing overtopping (top) anda ship entering (bottom).
(Reprinted with permission from Neil Harri, USACE.)
106 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 4-5. Rubble-mound segmented breakwaters at Presque Isle near Erie, PA, on Lake Erie.
(Courtesy of Shannon Chader and Michael Mohr, USACE, Buffalo District.)
Chapter 4 Coastal Processes and Structures 107

4.2.2 Jetties

These structures are constructed at mouths of rivers or tidal inlets to stabilize an entrance channel
and prevent shoaling by littoral material. Rubble mound jetties are constructed with graded stone and capped
with a top layer of large quarry stones or manmade armor units. Sheet-pile jetties are constructed with tim-
ber, steel, or concrete sheet piles, which form an enclosure that is filled with stone or sand. Rehabilitation
of the stone jetties at Jones Inlet in New York is shown in Fig. 4-6. The Humboldt Bay, CA, rubble mound
jetty and Mattituck Inlet, NY, are shown in Fig. 4-7; the jetties for entrance to Nome, AK, are shown in
Fig. 4-8 for winter ice and summer conditions; and Fig. 4-9 illustrates the Port Clinton, OH, jetty entrance
from Lake Erie.

4.2.3 Groins

This coastal structure is built normal to the beach, and its purpose is to trap sediment on the beach
and to retard erosion. Groin types include timber, steel, concrete, rubble mound, and asphalt. The design of
these structures is described in USACE Manuals. A rubble mound groin field is shown Fig. 4-10.

Figure 4-6. The Jones Inlet in New York before and after rehabilitation. (Courtesy of Stan Michalowski,
USACE, New York District.)
108 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 4-7. Crescent City, CA, rubble-mound jetties using dolos armor units (top) and the New York Mattituck Inlet
jetties (bottom). (Courtesy ofThomas Kendall, USACE, San Francisco District, and Stan Michalowski,
New York District, respectively.)

Figure 4-8. Nome, AK, jetties during winter (left) and summer (right). (Reprinted with permission from
Alan Jeffries, USACE, Alaska District.)

4.2.4 Seawalls, Bulkheads, and Revetments

These structures separate land and water areas to prevent erosion and other damage primarily be-
cause of wave action. Seawalls are typically much larger structures designed to withstand the full force of
storm waves. Bulkheads are much smaller in size and designed to retain shore material under less severe
Chapter 4 Coastal Processes and Structures 109

Figure 4-9. Port Clinton, OH, jetty. (Courtesy of Shannon Chader and Michael Mohr, USACE, Buffalo District.)

Figure 4-10. Rubble-mound groin field at Cape May Point, NJ. (Reprinted with permission from Dwight Pakan,
USACE, Philadelphia District.)

wave conditions. Revetments are designed to protect shor~lines and waterways against erosion by currents
and small waves. Two example seawalls are shown in Fig. 4-11 for Galveston, TX, and Chicago, IL. The
curved face seawalls face the Gulf of Mexico and Lake Michigan. They force the water waves back to the
water body and minimize overtopping of seawall.
The seawall on the Irish Sea coast in Blackpool, England (Fig. 4-12) is just being completed and is
one of the world's largest seawall construction projects. There is about 12.9 kilometers (8 miles) of new wall
that has been under construction for nearly 10 years. The pre-existing wall was built a1most 100 years ago
and is constructed of columnar basalt stone and laid up to a curved wall that is nearly a vertical wall. The
new seawall is a combination of precast steps with a recurved crest that is being built in front of the old wall.
Bulkheads are typically anchored vertical pile walls or gravity cellular steel structures. The structures
are generally built with steel, timber, or concrete, and an example timber bulkhead is illustrated in Fig. 4-13.
Revetments are either rigid, cast in place concrete, or flexible (articulated) armor units placed on a
beach slope or channel embankment. The flexible units can tolerate minor consolidation or settlement. An
interlocking concrete-block revetment is illustrated in Fig. 4-14.

4.2.5 Beach Nourishment and Restoration

The protection and restoration of beaches is usually accomplished by land hauling or by di-
rect pump-out from a dredge. There are many beaches along the U.S. coastline that have been restored
 110 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 4-11. Concrete curved face seawall at Galveston, TX (top}, and at Chicago, IL, on Lake Michigan (bottom).
(Courtesy ofUSACE, Galveston District and Michael Mohr and Shannon Chader, Buffalo District.)
..

(e.g., Corpus Christi, TX; Galveston, TX; Miami Beach, FL; Carolina Beach, NC; Rockway Beach, NY;
Newport Beach, CA; Sand Hill Cove Beach, RI; Virginia Beach, VA; Cape May and Ocean City, NJ;
Atlantic City, NJ; Galveston, TX, to name a few). A befare and after illustration of the Ocean City, NJ,
beach is illustrated in Fig. 4-15, and Cape May Point, NJ is shown in Fig. 4-16.
The restoration of Breton Island is shown in Fig. 4-17. Breton Island is one of the islands in the
Chandeleur Island chain in Southeast Louisiana. The Great Lakes Dredge and Dock dredge California
completed the restoration project in 2001. The material for the restoration was part of the Mississippi River
Gulf Outlet. A total of 3.75 million m 3 ( 4.9 million cy) was dredged and 1.76 million m 3 (2.3 million cy) was
beneficially used for the Breton Island restoration that restored 75.7 subaquatic and 15.0 emergent hectares
(187 subaquatic and 37 emergent acres) to the barrier island. The remainder of the dredged material (3.1
million m 3 or 4 million cy) was placed in an open water placement site.

4.2.6 Sand Bypassing

Construction of jetties and breakwaters to protect harbors and tidal inlets along sandy coasts usu-
ally results in the interruption of the naturallittoral transport along the coastline. As a result, the down drift
Chapter 4 Coastal Processes and Structures 111

Figure 4-12. One hundred-year-old seawall at Blackpool, England (top), and new precast steps and curved seawall under
construction (bottom). (Reprinted with permission from Joan Pope, USACE.)

Figure 4-13. Steel sheet-pile bulkhead at North Wildwood, NJ. (Courtesy of Brian Bogle, USACE, Philadelphia District.)
112 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 4-14. An interlocking concrete-block revetment at Jupiter Inlet, FL (left), and stone revetment at Plum lsland,
NY (right). (Left courtesy of U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). (1984). Shore protection manual.
Washington, DC: USACE; right courtesy of Stan Michalowski, New York District.)

Figure 4-15. Restoration of beach in Ocean City, NJ. (Reprinted·with permission from Dwight Pakan, USACE.)

Figure 4-16. Restoration of beach in Cape May Point, NJ. (Reprinted with permission from Dwight Pakan, USACE.)
 Chapter 4 Coastal Processes and Structures 113

Figure 4-17. Dredge excavating sand for restoration ofBreton lsland in Southeast Louisiana in 2001.
(Reprinted with permission from Edmond Russo, USACE.)

beach can be starved of sediment, and serious erosion takes place unless the sand is transferred or bypassed
from the up drift to the down drift side. Selected examples of barriers and sand bypassing schemes are
shown in Fig. 4-18.

4.2.7 Ports, Harbors, and Marinas

Marine facilities are typically specialized as to their operation, which focuses on the type of cargo
being handled. The majar facility types include general, container, trailer, ferry, passenger!cruise ship, barge
carrier, dry bulk, and liquid bulk. Permanent berthing facilities and shipyards are not as active, and such
facilities include military and Coast Guard bases, shipyards, fishing and commercial small craft, research
vessels and workboats, and marinas (yachts and recreational boats). Figure 4-19 illustrates the Waianae ma-
rina that is protected by a rubble mound breakwater located in Oahu, HI. Figure 4-20 shows containership
loading cranes, vessel entering New York harbor, and ship ata terminal.

4.3 WAVE REFRACTION, DIFFRACTION, ANO REFLECTION

4.3.1 Refraction

The celerity of a wave approaching from deep water to the coast depends on the water depth in
which it is propagating. As the celerity decreases with depth, the wavelength decreases proportionally. The
wave celerity varies along the crest of a wave moving at an angle to the underwater bathymetry that results
in the wave crest bending to align itself with the bathymetry. This bending of the wave crests is called re-
fraction. Similar refraction also occurs in the transmission of sound and light waves.
114 Elements of Ocean Engineering

.::·1
:·:, Updrift Beach

:;~~ _,/
...

BAY OCEAN

OCEAN
Direction of Oirection of
Net Transport Net Transport

l l
JETTIED INLET INLET SANO TRAP

Updrift Beach

Direction of
Net Transport

1
OCEAN
\ '\
\ \ lmpoundment Area
\~
Downdrift Beach \ \ Channel

Placement Area

SHORE CONNECTED WEIR BREAKWATER OR JETTY SHORE CONNECTED BREAKWATER

Figure 4-18. Examples of coastal barriers for which sand bypassing schemes have been used.
(Reprinted with permission from U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). (1984).
Shore protection manual. Washington, DC: USACE.)

Refraction coupled with shoaling determines the wave height in a particular water depth for
a wave originating in deep water. The change in wave direction causes convergence and divergence
of wave energy that affects forces applied to coastal structures and beaches. It also has an effect on
bottom topography because of the erosion and deposition of bottom sediments. Waves may also be
refracted by currents that cause one section of a wave to travel faster than that of another. This effect
has practica! importance at tidal inlets where strong tidal currents can result in refraction. Refraction
schematics for a straight beach, irregular shoreline, submarine ridge, and submarine canyon are illus-
trated in Fig. 4-21.
Chapter 4 Coastal Processes and Structures 115

Figure 4-19. Rubble-mound breakwater protecting Waianae Marina in Oahu, m.

(Reprinted with permission from Jimmy Fowler, USACE.)

4.3.2 General Refraction Analysis

Refraction analysis assumes 1) constant wave energy between wave rays or orthogonals, 2) direc-
tion of wave advance is perpendicular to wave crest, 3) speed of wave of given period ata particular loca-
tion depends only on depth at the location, 4) bathymetric changes are gradual, 5) waves are long-crested,
constant period, small amplitude, and monochromatic, and 6) effects of currents, winds, and refiections are
negligible. Recalling the expression for wave celerity

e 2 gL
=-tanh (27Td)
-- (4-1)
27T L
and that in deepwater, it reduces to

2 gL
Co=- (4-2)
27T
In this equation, the wave celerity is independent of depth, and consequently, refraction is not significant in
deep water regions. However, in transitional and shallow water (d/L less than 0.5), wave celerity is depen-
dent on the depth and refraction is significant. The total energy in a wave per unit crest width is given by

(4-3)

In deep water, only one-half of the energy is transmitted forward with the wave. The amount of
energy transmitted remains relatively constant as the wave moves toward the shore if the dissipative effects
of bottom friction, percolation, and refiection are negligible. Therefore, the average deep water wave energy
flux (Po) transmitted across a plane between two adjacent orthogonals is

(4-4)
116 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 4-20. New York port and harbor facilities. (Reprinted with permission from Edmond Russo, USACE.)
Chapter 4 Coastal Processes and Structures 117

Straight Beach with Parallel Bottom Contours Irregular Shoreline

1
/
Orthogonals Orthogonals

Submarine Ridge Submarine Canyon

Figure 4-21. Examples of wave refraction. (Reprinted with permission from U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE).
(1984). Shore protection manual. W~shington, DC: USACE.)

where bo is the distance between orthogonals in deep water and n is defined by equation 2-65. In shallower
water with the spacing (b ), the average wave energy flux (P) is

P = nbEC (4-5)

Equating the two equations 4-4 and 4-5 yields

(4-6)

Since the wave energy (E) is related to the wave height (H) as

(4-7)

then combining the two equations yields

 118 Elements of Ocean Engineering

(4-8)

that can be written as

(4-9)

where Ks is the shoaling coefficient and KR is the refraction coefficient. These coefficients are defined as

K.=[~ y (4-10)

K,= [C)C)( ~o)]+ (4-10)

The shoaling coefficient is useful in determining the wave height of a deep water wave as it propa-
gates to shore without refracting. These shoaling coefficients are tabu1ated as a function of d/L in USACE
(1984), Wiegel (1964), and in Appendix A. Bathymetric contours need to be parallel to the shore for no
refraction. Refraction of waves can be determined either graphically or numerically. A graphical proce-
dure is described in USACE (1984). A numerical technique or personal computer (PC) software program
(Leenknecht, Szuwalski, & Sherlock, 1992) is contained in the Automated Coastal Engineering System
(ACES) that is distributed by the Coastal and Hydraulic Laboratory at the USACE Engineering Research
and Development Center in Vicksburg, MS.

4.3.3 Diffraction

When wave energy is transferred laterally along a wave crest, the phenomenon is called wave dif-
fraction. lt is easily observed when a train of regular waves is interrupted by a physical barrier such as a
breakwater or small island. If the lateral transfer of energy- did not occur, then there would be perfectly
calm water behind the barrier. An aerial photograph (Fig. 4-22) shows actual diffraction of waves around a
breakwater. Wave diffraction in harbors and bays is an important consideration in the design of manmade
structures that are used to protect against incident waves. Knowledge of wave diffraction is essential in the
planning of such facilities. Proper design and location of harbor entrances to minimize silting and harbor
resonance require the knowledge of wave diffraction.
Graphical wave diffraction analysis is described in USACE (1984) and Wiegel (1964). Numerical
techniques are also available (USACE, 1992). Most diffraction analyses assume 1) the fluid is inviscid and
incompressible, 2) waves are of small amplitude (linear theory), 3) flow is irrotational and satisfies Laplace
equation, and 4) the depth shoreward of the barrier is constant. When this last assumption is not satisfied,
then refraction and diffraction occur simultaneously.

4.3.4 Reflection

Wave reflection occurs at coastal structures, sloping beaches, and walls of wave tanks. The ratio of
the reflected wave height, Hn to the incident wave height, H¡, is called the reflection coefficient, Cn and is
defined as

Hr
Cr=- (4-12)
H¡
 Chapter 4 Coastal Processes and Structures 119

Figure 4-22. Aerial photograph of wave diffraction at Channel Islands Harbor breakwater in California.
(Reprinted with permission from U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). (1984).
Shore protection manual. Washington, DC: USACE.)

Por waves approaching normal to the vertical impermeable walls, the reflection coefficient is unity. As the
wall is inclined and has sorne degree of permeability, the reflection coefficient decreases. In harbors or
ports, the waves approach obliquely to walls and very complicated wave pattems are formed.
In the case of beaches and manmade structures, the reflection of waves depends on slope, rough-
ness, and permeability. The surf similarity parameter (g) developed by Battjes (1974) is commonly used to
determine the reflection coefficient for a wave approaching normal to the coastal structure such as a plane
sloping beach, rubble mound breakwater, and natural beach. The expression for the surf similarity param-
eter is

tan 13
? =----==- (4-13)

ff:
where tan 13 is the bottom slope, H¡ is the incident wave height, and Lo is the deep water wavelength.
Experimental data for the relationship between the surf similarity parameter and the reflection coefficient
are shown in Fig. 4-23.
Additional information regarding wave reflection in enclosed basins such as harbors, lakes, and
estuaries is addressed in Wiegel (1964), Ippen (1966), USACE (1984), and Horikawa (1988). The reflection
of waves entering these enclosed bodies of water result in oscillations known as seiches. The period (T¡) of
oscillation is approximated by Meriam's equation

2Lb 1
T¡=--=- i = 1, 2, .... (4-14)
Vgd
where Lb is the length of the basin, d is the depth, and i is the mode of oscillation. The fundamental period
is obtained when i is l. Asan example, Lake Erie is assumed to have an average depth of 18.6 m (61ft) and
a length of 354 km (220 mi). Using equation 4-14, the fundamental period of oscillation is determined to
120 Elements of Ocean Engineering

- ..... Beaches

- -Rubble Mound Breakwaters

(upper limit)
Plane Slopes

o 4 6 7

Surf Similarity Parameter m

Figure 4-23. Coefficient of wave reftection as a function of the surf similarity parameter for
plane slopes, beaches, and rubble-mound breakwaters.

be 14.6 hr, which is in reasonable agreement with the observed value of 14.4 hr. This close agreement is not
always expected because of variability of lake cross sections.

4.4 WAVE RUN-UP

Wave run-up occurs on beaches and coastal protectio·n structures such as seawalls and breakwaters.
A design concern is the determination of the distance that tht: approaching water from waves advances up a
beach or structure, and possibly causes overtopping. The concept of wave run-up is illustrated in Fig. 4-24.
Miche (1951) determined that the run-up height (R) is a function of the beach slope and is expressed as

(4-15)

where Ho is the deep water wave height and ~ is the beach slope angle.

Figure 4-24. Schematic of run-up and overtopping.

Later, Hunt (1959) used empirical data to relate the wave run-up to the surf similarity parameter
(Iribarren number), and the result is
Chapter 4 Coastal Processes and Structures 121

R tan f3
= for tan f3 > 0.1 (4-16)
(H:
vr::
where H is the incident wave height and Lo is the deep water wavelength. In the case of the coastal struc-
tures as shown in Fig. 4-24, the slope angle of the beach is replaced by the slope angle of the structure (0).
The slope roughness affects the run-up, and empirical results are contained in the Shore Protection Manual
(USACE, 1984), Horikawa (1988), and the Coastal Engineering Manual (USACE, 2002). Numerical pre-
diction of wave run-up is the discussed in the ACES manual (USACE, 1992).

4.5 WAVE FORECASTING ANO HINDCASTING

The prediction of waves based upon past meteorological data is called hindcasting, and it is called
forecasting when based upon predicted data. The same procedures are used for forecasting and hindcasting;
the only difference is the source of the meteorological data. There are many advanced numerical techniques
for wave prediction that require advanced computers and access to weather data. The USACE distributes the
ACES software for PC computers (USACE, 1992) that also has the capability for wave prediction. Por the
purpose of getting a feel for the wave prediction process, a simplified method is briefty described to provide
the opportunity for students to conduct sorne wave prediction calculations.

4.5.1 Ocean Wave Characteristics

Ocean waves are extremely complex and sorne idealization is required. In ocean engineering, ocean
waves are commonly assumed to be distributed according to the Rayleigh distribution. Also, the significant
wave height (Hs or H 113 ) and period (T5, Tave• or T 113 ) are commonly used and have been defined as the average
of the highest one-third of the waves over a given period of time. Other statistical wave height parameters in-
elude maximum wave height (Hmax), root mean square wave height (Hrms), one-tenth wave height (H 10 ), and
average wave height (Have). Another wave height parameter is based on energy concepts (Hmo). Relationships
between the various parameters are:

(4-17)

where a is the standard deviation of the wave record

1 N
-LH? (4-18)
N i=l

Have = 0.886 Hrms (4-19)

Hs = 1.416 Hrms (4-20)

H 10 = 1.27 Hs (4-21)

In deep water, Hs and Hmo are approximately equal, but in shallow water, Hs can be as much as 30% greater.
lt can also be shown that the wave height (H) in a monochromatic wave train with the same energy as an
irregular wave train with significant height Hmo is equal to 0.71 Hmo for deep water.
122 Elements of Ocean Engineering

4.5.2 Simplified Method for Wave Prediction

Although numerical methods are more accurate for wave prediction, this simplified approach al-
lows the ocean engineer the opportunity to predict wave height (Hmo) and spectral peak period (Tm) for a
given wind speed and fetch or duration. Again, the Hmo is equal to the significant wave height in deep water
and becomes less than Hs in shallow water. The significant wave period (T,) and spectral peak period (Tm)
are nearly equal. In this method, the fetches are assumed to be short (80.5-120.7 km or 50-75 miles) and
wind is assumed to be constant and uniform over the fetch. These conditions are rarely met exactly, so the
determined wave heights and period should not be expected to be more accurate than the accuracy of the
input wind conditions.
Fetch is defined as the region over which the wind speed and direction are considered constant. Por
practica! situations, wind speeds varying within ±2.6 m/s (±5 knots) of the mean are considered constant,
and wind directions varying ±15 degrees from the mean wind direction are considered constant. It has been
demonstrated that the spectrum of an actively growing wind sea can be represented by a family of spectral
shapes such as the JONSWAP (Hasselmann et al., 1973) or PM (Pierson & Moskowitz, 1964). The condition
at which the wind waves are in full equilibrium with the wind is called a fully arisen sea.
A combined empirical-analytical technique was developed by Sverdrup and Munk (1947), and it
was revised by Bretschneider (1952, 1958) using empirical data that became known as the Sverdrup-Munk-
Bretschneider method. The field data from Mitsuyasu (1968) and Hasselmann and colleagues (1973) have
resulted in sorne additional revisions. This simplified wave prediction technique is convenient when limited
data and time are all that are available. The geometry of the water body must be simple, and the wave condi-
tions are considered fetch- or duration-limited. Fetch-limited means the winds have blown ata constant rate
long enough for wave heights to reach equilibrium at the end of the fetch. Duration-limited conditions mean
the wave heights are limited by the length of time the wind has been blowing. The equations developed for
this simplified technique are summarized in USACE (1984). A wave forecasting nomograph for predict-
ing deep water significant wave height as a function of wind stress factor, fetch length, and wind duration
are shown in Figs. 4-25 and 4-26. It is important to check fetch-limited wave calculations to see if they are
duration-limited and vice versa.
The wave prediction equations are expressed in terms of the wind stress factor UA or an adjusted
wind speed at 10 m elevation. The average wind speed over the duration at 10 m is found from

(4-22)

where U 10 and Uz are in m/s and z is in meters; this equation is valid for elevations less than 20m. The wind
stress factor is computed as

UA = 0.71 Ul~ 3 (m/s) or UA =0.589 Ul~ 3 (mph) (4-23)

The wind stress factor is used to account for the nonlinear relationship between wind stress and
wind speed. Other adjustments may be necessary because of the measurement of wind over water or land,
and wind values may be determined from weather maps of pressure fields. Simplified techniques for shal-
low water and hurricane wave forecasting techniques are also available in the Shore Protection Manual
(USACE, 1984) and Coastal Engineering Manual (USACE, 2002).
As an example, consider an offshore platform located in 365.9 m (1200 ft) of water where the aver-
age wind speed has been measured as 59 kph (36.7 mph) atan elevation of 10m (33ft). The wind duration
is 8 hr and the fetch length is 96.6 km (60 mi). The significant wave height and period at the platform need
to be estimated. Also, if the wind duration is 4 hr, what is the estimated wave height and period? What is the
fetch length and duration for a fully developed sea? Using equation 4-23, the wind stress factor is computed
as 79.7 kph (49.5 mph). Figure 4-26 is used to find H, and Ts equal to 3.51 m (11.5 ft) and 8.0 s, respectively,
Chapter 4 Coastal Processes and Structures 123

Fetch Length (statute miles)

Figure 4-26. Nomograph for deep water wave prediction curves for constant water depth in English units.
(Reprinted with permission from U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). (1984).
Shore protection manuaL Washington, DC: USACE.)
 124 Elements of Ocean Engineering

for the 8 hr duration and H, and T, are 8.0 ft and 6.3 s for the 4 hr duration. The intersection of the 49.5 wind
stress factor line with the fully arisen sea line yields a fetch of 1126.5 km (700 mi) and duration of 35 hr.

4.6 SEDIMENT TRANSPORT ANO SCOUR

The transport of sediment in the littoral zone is the result of the interaction of the winds, waves,
currents, tides, storms, and sediments. Beaches and shores tend to erode, accrete, or be stable. Erosion often
adversely affects coastlines and undermines foundations for coastal structures. Therefore, it is important for
the ocean engineer to understand and be able to predict erosion and accretion effects and rates.

4.6.1 Sediment Characteristics

Sediments are salid particles usually classified as clay, silt, sand, gravel, cobble, or boulder. The
characteristics of the sediment are important inputs to coastal engineering design projects, and the median
grain size (d 50) is probably the most commonly used descriptive characteristic. The grain size classification
is illustrated in Table 4-3. A well-sorted size distribution means the grain sizes are clase to one size, and
well-graded means the sizes are evenly distributed over a wide range of sizes. The median diameter is the
typical size of a sediment sample and is designated as d50 • This is the particle diameter size that divides the
sample such that half the sample, by weight, contains particles coarser than the d 50 size. The phi (<1>) size is
related to the grain diameter by

<1> =-log2 d (4-24)

where d is the diameter of the particle in millimeters.

Table 4-3. Sediment Classification

Unified Soils Classification ASTM Sieve Size (s) Grain Diameter Size (d) mm Phi (<f>) Value
Cobble d>76 cfJ <-6.25
Gravel s<4 4.76 < d< 76 -6.25 < cfJ < -2.25
Coarse Sand 4<s<10 2.0 < d < 4.76 -2.25 < cfJ < -1.0
Medium Sand 10 <S< 40 0.42 < d < 2.0 -1.0 < cfJ < 1.25
Fine Sand 40 <S< 200 0.074 < d < 0.42 -1.25 < cfJ < 3.75
Silt S> 200 0.0039 < d < 0.074 3.75 < cfJ < 8.0
Clay S> 200 d <0.0039 cfJ > 8.0

An important sediment property is its vertical terminal or fall velocity. The ratio of the sediment
fall velocity to the characteristic fluid velocity is often used as a measure of sediment mobility or transport.
Sediments are frequently characterized as spherical in shape, and consequently, the fall velocity of a sphere
is used to approximate the sediment fall velocity. The fall velocity for a sphere can be expressed as a single
curve by relating the Reynolds number (VrdJv) to the buoyancy index (B)

(4-25)

where Ys is the salid specific weight, y is the fluid specific weight, g is gravitational acceleration, ds is
sphere diameter, and v is fluid kinematic viscosity. Figure 4-27 illustrates empirical results for sphere
fall velocities.
 Chapter 4 Coastal Processes and Structures 125

Reynolds No.,

Buoyancy Index, B
Figure 4-27. Fall velocity of spheres. (Reprinted with permission from U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). (1984).
Shore protection manual. Washington, DC: USACE.)

Empirical results for the fall velocity of natural grain sediment such as sand are also illustrated in
Figure 4-27 where the sphere diameter is replaced by the median grain diameter (d50 ). Curve fit equations
for evaluating the fall velocity are

vf = ( ~, _ 1)( ~~~) for B < 39

Vr= [ ( ~ - 1 )gr7(;~~sf) for 39 < B < 104 (4-26)

Vf = [( ~s - 1)( ~;~ ) r
5
for 104 < B

These equations for fall velocity are for ideal situations. Factors such as turbulence in the fluid, sediment
concentration, and ftocculation also affect the fall velocity.
Experimental tests by Richards (1908) using quartz particles under laminar, transitional, and turbu-
lent conditions led to equation 4-27 for terminal velocity where dg is the grain diameter in millimeters and
Vf is the terminal or fall velocity in millimeters per second. The range of application is for particles with
grain diameter between 0.15 and 1.5 mm and 10 < NR < 1000. Results of many velocity measurements are
summarized in Fig. 4-28.

8.925
vf =- - rv1 + 95(2.65- I)d~- 11 (4-27)
dg

Sand is the most important littoral material, and it has a specific gravity of 2.65 that corresponds
to a specific weight ('Ys) of 165.4 lb/ft3 • However, in tropical climates, calcium carbonate is often more
dominant littoral material. In temperate climates, quartz and feldspar grains are more abundant. Gravel is
often found on rocky coasts. Cohesive material (clay, silt, and peat) is common in littoral sediments in rela-
tive calm wave environments. In the United States, the New England coast is commonly a rock headland
separated by short beaches of sand and gravel. On the Atlantic coast from New York to Florida, the beach
126 Elements of Ocean Engineering

"""'
000
'
•. Ouarl:z: Ba!l~~ .v Ll'l
Schiller und N>'~uman ~
•oo Stvkes w "' 700 ds 2
'/. 1 lll AYI"l:
Stol.;es w = 900 dk 2 t'-1: Grave! {Ourand
1 ill ~ .H11
<00
..
•00
' L.--1
Silica (Ric:hards)

zoo Sanó and

qr!~11l
Terminal <00 'iilll
1.
·~ ? 1 11 . . ! .

Velocity, 00 '.
J
Ritlinqer w"' 87 1.65 ds Qn Richards
1 '·
1
Vr(mm/s) •o /'V 1

<O
Budryck w"' 8.925' 3-j
ds
( 1 + 157 ds - 1) jds
~dx
= Sieve
.. Bafl

l•""w;u
'OGibert

-
Xl

x Govier
>O 11. Lll
111 40 110 10 lOO

Grain Diameter, dg (mm)

Figure 4-28. Terminal velocity experimental data and empirical equations. (Reprinted with permission from
Herbich, J. B. (2000). Handbook of dredging engineering (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Co.)

material is typically sand (0.2 to 0.6 mm), but below Palm Beach, FL, the beaches become mostly calcium
carbonate. Along the Gulf of Mexico coast from Florida to Mississippi, the beaches are mostly fine white
sands, and along the Louisiana-Texas coast, the beaches are mostly fine sands that are darker in color. The
Pacific Coast consists of sands (0.1-0.6 mm) off California, but more coarse material is predominant off of
Oregon and Washington. The Alaskan coast is long, and gravel is the predominant beach material. Beaches
in Hawaii are predominantly white sands from calcium carbonate. The U. S. Great Lakes have a combination
of rocky and sandy shores. The characteristics of beach sediments are determined by visual comparison
with a standard sieve analysis and settling velocity tube analysis.

4.6.2 Littoral Transport

The transport of sediment in the littoral zone is primarily the result of the waves arriving at the shore.
Larger waves break farther offshore and set more sand in motion. Changes in wave height and period affect the
movement of sand onshore and offshore. The angle between the breaking waves and shore determine the direc-
tion of the longshore current and longshore transport. Thus, knowledge of the wave climate is needed to un-
derstand the littoral processes. The mean wave conditions for the U. S. coastline are summarized in Table 4-4.
Currents or circulation in the littoral zone are mostly wind- and wave-driven motions superposed on the
oscillatory motion of water waves. The velocities are generally low but are the main cause of sediment movement.
In the case of sediment transport, the waves are usually shallow water waves. Using linear wave theory, the hori-
zontallength (2A) of the path covered by the water particles as the wave passes in shallow water is

HTvgd
2A=--- (4-28)
27Td

and the maximum horizontal water velocity is

Umax = (4-29)
 Chapter4 Coastal Processes and Structures 127

Table 4-4. Mean Significant Wave Height and Period at Coastal Localities of the United States (USACE, 1984)
AnnualMean AnnualMean
Location Height Period Location Height Period
m (ft) S m (ft) S
Atlantic Coast
CapeCod,MA 0.85 (2.8) 6.3 Seacrest, NC 0.85 (2.8) 7.5
Misquamicut, RI 0.49 (1.6) 8.3 Kili Devil Hills, NC 0.52 (1.7) 6.3
Southampton, NY 0.7 (2.3) 7.9 Nags Head, NC 0.94 (3.1) 8.6
Fire Island, NY 0.67 (2.2) 7.6 Wrightsville Beach, NC 0.79 (2.6) 7.8
Brigantine, NJ 0.73 (2.4) 6.1 Rolden Beach, NC 0.64 (2.1) 7.5
Atlantic City, NJ 0.85 (2.8) 8.3 Murrels Inlet, SC 0.91 (3.0) 7.2
Ludlam lsland, NJ 0.55 (1.8) 6.6 Daytona Beach, FL 0.67 (2.2) 8.7
Assateague, VA 0.67 (2.2) 7.8 Palm Beach, FL 0.64 (2.1) 6.4
Virginia Beach, VA 0.64 (2.1) 8.2 Boca Raton, FL 0.58 (1.9) 4.9
Gulf of Mexico Coast
Naples, FL 0.3 (1.0) 4.7 Galveston, TX 0.4 (1.3) 5.7
Destin, FL 0.49 (1.6) 5.7 Corpus Christi, TX 0.79 (2.6) 6.7
Pacific Coast
Imperial Beach, CA 0.85 (2.8) 13.6 San Simeon, CA 0.94 (3.1) 12.2
Torrey Pines, CA 0.91 (3.0) 15.7 Natural Bridges, CA 1.01 (3.3) 14.6
San Clemente, CA 0.85 (2.8) 14.5 Rogue River, OR 1.62 (5.3) 8.1
Huntington Beach, CA 0.73 (2.4) 12.9 Port Orford, OR 1.25 (4.1) 13.5
Venice, CA 0.37 (1.2) 10.5 Coquille River, OR 1.28 (4.2) 11.9
Point Mugu, CA 1.01 (3.3) 10.7 CoosBay, OR 1.28 (4.2) 10.9
Channel Is. Harb., CA 0.85 (2.8) 11.5 Yaquina Bay, OR 2.07 (6.8) 10.3

Por conditions evaluated at the bottom, the average bottom mass transport velocity (Úct) is

2
• _ ( Umax(-d) )
Uct- (4-30)
2C

The maximum particle velocity in breaking waves from soiltary wave theory is given by

(4-31)

and H + d is the distance from the crest to the sea bottom.

4.6.2.1 Onshore-Offshore Currents

The water in the nearshore zone is divided into two distinct water masses that are delineated by
the breaker line. There is only limited exchange between the two. Exchange mechanisms include shoaling
waves, wind, wave setup, topographic currents, rip currents, and density currents. Rip currents (Fig. 4-29)
are the prominent exchange mechanism, and they are jets of water carried seaward through the breaker
zone.

4.6.2.2 Longshore Currents

These currents flow parallel to the shoreline (see Fig. 4-29) and are typically confined to the area
between the shore and the zone of breaking waves. The longshore current is due to the oblique approach of
waves to the shore. The volume rate of flow depends primarily on the breaker height. The width of the surf
zone increases as the breaker height increases because waves break in water depths nearly proportional to

----------------!!!!. . '~-"'''"'""
 128 Elements of Ocean Engineering

rip head rip head

\ \

Longshore Current

Figure 4-29. Nearshore circulation showing longshore and rip currents.

the water depth. The longshore current varíes across the surf zone and in the longshore direction. To illus-
trate, the ratio of the longshore current at the breaker zone to the longshore current speed averaged across
the surf zone varied from 0.4 at the start of the flow to 0.8-1.0, where the flow is fully developed.
Longuett-Higgins (1970) used radiation stress theory to develop an expression for the longshore
current and adapted it to fit field data. The basic equation is

(4-32)

where vb is longshore current at the breaker position, m is beach slope, g is gravitational acceleration, Hb is
breaker height, ab is the angle between the breaker crest and shoreline, and

0.694r(2J3)--0.S
M¡=------ (4-33)
f.

where r is a mixing coefficient commonly used as 0.2, J3 is the depth to height ratio of breaking waves in
shallow water and usually taken as 1.2, and fis a friction coefficient assumed to be 0.01. Using these values,
M 1 is 9.0. Field data of the longshore current (Galvin & Eagleson, 1965; Putnam, Munk, & Traylor, 1949)
have been used to modify the Longuet-Higgins equation and the result is

(4-34)

Longshore currents are most sensitive to breaker angle and to a lesser amount to breaker height.
However, the volume rate of flow is most sensitive to breaker height. The above equation is recommended
for the computation of longshore current (USACE, 1984).

4.7 DESIGN OF RUBBLE MOUND STRUCTURES

Coastal protection structures such as breakwaters, jetties, revetments, and groins are constructed
with layers of different size stone and a layer or two of large armor units that are either stone or manufac-
tured concrete units. A schematic of the layering of a rubble mound breakwater is illustrated in Fig. 4-30.
Chapter 4 Coastal Processes and Structures 129

OCEAN (SEAWARD) HARBOR (LEEWARD)

Crest 1
1Width

W/200 to W/6000

Figure 4-30. Sketch of common breakwater rubble mound structure where W is weight of armor unit.

The weight of the armor units (W) must be large enough to resist the effects of waves, but the entire struc-
ture cannot be constructed with armor units because the high porosity would allow transmission of wave
energy through the structure. Also, the large quarry stone or armor units are expensive. Therefore, layers
of different size stone are used, and slight movement or partial failure can be repaired after extreme wave
conditions have abated. Jetties and groins are similarly constructed, but are not as large and complex.
The significant wave height is commonly used as the design wave for a selected wave spectrum, but
the H 10 wave height is recommended by USACE (1984) as a more conservative approach. Additional consid-
erations are to decide whether the wave breaks on the structure and if overtopping is permitted. Armor unit
stability is increased by the interlocking that is attained with the concrete manufactured armor units known
as tribar, dolos, and tetrapod. There are usually two layers of armor units, and the porosity is between 35%
and 55%, which is a function ofthe armor shape and placement method. The slope ofthe seaward breakwa-
ter typically varíes between 1 on 1.5 to 1 on 3, while revetments may be as fiat as 1 on 5. Flatter slopes give
more stability, but the cost of the structure increases greatly. It is possible to consider allowing sorne dam-
age in order to use smaller weight armor units. Thus, risk is considered and maintenance costs are delayed.
These decisions lend themselves to trade-off studies based on costs and risk analysis.
The determination of the weight of the armor units to provide the desired stability under the selected
environmental conditions is usually determined from the equation developed by Hudson (1959). This equation
was developed from numerous physical modeling studies at the USACE Engineering Research and Development
Center (formerly known as the Waterways Experiment Station) in Vicksburg, MS. The resulting equation is

(4-35)

where W is the weight of the individual armor unit, 'Ya and Sa are the armor unit specific weight and specific
gravity, respectively, a is the slope angle of the armor layer, and KD is the experimentally determined stabil-
ity coefficient for the particular armor unit. The stability coefficient is a function of armor shape, placement
technique, wave breaking conditions, damage permitted, and amount of overtopping allowed. Most labora-
tory testing uses regular waves to evaluate the KD, and it is common practice to use the significant wave
height for an irregular wave train. Conservative approaches use the one-tenth wave height (H 10) for Hin
equation 4-34. USACE (1984) suggests values for KD, as tabulated in Table 4-5.

4.8 DREDGING

4.8.1 Definitions and History

Dredging is the removal of bottom sediments from streams, rivers, lakes, coastal waters, and
oceans. The resulting dredged material is transported by ship, barge, or pipeline to a designated disposal
130 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 4-5. Suggested Annor Unit Stability Coefficients (K 0 ) for Rubble Mound Structures (USACE, 1984)
ArmorUnit Armor Placement Trunk Structure Head Structure Slope
Layers Technique
Ko Ko
Breaking Non Breaking Non Cota
Wave Breaking Wave Breaking
Wave Wave
Quarry stone 2 random 1.2 2.4 1.1 1.9 1.5 to 3.0
(smooth rounded)
Quarry stone 1 random Not 2.9 Not 2.3 1.5 to 3.0
(rough angular) recommended recommended
Quarry stone 2 random 2.0 4.0 1.9 3.2 1.5
(rough angular) 1.6 2.8 2.0
1.3 2.3 3.0
Quarry stone random 2.2 2.5
(graded angular)
Tetrapod 2 random 7.0 8.0 5.0 6.0 1.5
4.5 5.5 2.0
3.5 4.0 3.0
Tribar 2 random 9.0 10.0 8.3 9.0 1.5
7.8 8.5 2.0
6. 6.5 3.0
Tribar 1 uniform 12.0 15.0 7.5 9.5 1.5 to 3.0
Dolos 2 random 15.8 31.8 8.0 16.0 2.0
Note: K0 values are for no damage and rninor overtopping.

site on land or in the water. According to Herbich (2000), dredging is defined as raising material from the
bottom of a water-covered area to the surface and pumping it over sorne distance. Webster defines dredging
as "(1) to dig, gather, or pull out with a dredge; (2) to deepen (as a waterway) with a dredging machine" and
defines a dredge as "a machine for removing earth usually by buckets on an endless chain or suction tube."
Dredged material is sediment that has been excavated by a dredge and has been or is being transported to
a disposal site. The term maintenance dredging involves the. removal of sediments that have accumulated
since a previous dredging operation; new work dredging involves the removal of materials that have not
been previously dredged.
Canal dredging was conducted as early as 4000 BCE in the canals of Egypt using the labor of
slaves, prisoners, and soldiers and with primitive tools such as spades and baskets. In 1435 CE, a scraper
dredge Krabbelaar (Fig. 4-31) loosened the bottom sediments and the water current carried the sedi-
ment out to sea. This type of dredging is called agitation dredging and is still occasionally used. The
grab dredge or clamshell dredge was developed in Italy and Holland in the 1500s. Lebby conceived the
first hydraulic hopper dredge in 1855, and it was named the General Moultrie. The 365-ton dredge hada
wooden hull that was 46 m (150ft) long, 3.1 m (10.3 ft) deep, and 8.1 m (26.7 ft) wide. lt was equipped
with a steam engine anda centrifuga! pump with a 1.8 m (6ft) impeller and 0.5 m (19 in) diameter suc-
tion pipe. The production of this dredge was about 251 m 3 (328 cy) of dredged material per working day.
Bazin, in 1867, introduced the idea of suction dredging, using a rotating harrow under the bow of a ship
and suction pipes under the stern, and applied it to dredging in the Suez Canal. Modern dredges were
developed in the 1900s, and these modern dredges operate either mechanically or hydraulically, though
most dredges use the hydraulic principie. The modern dredge has efficient pumps, heave compensating
devices, electronic equipment for automatic controls, water jets, sophisticated navigation equipment, and
advanced instrumentation. Environmental constraints continue to force the development of new advances
in dredging and dredging equipment.
 Chapter 4 Coastal Processes and Structures 131

Figure 4-31. Scraper dredge Krabbelaar. (Reprinted with permission from Herbich, J. B. (2000).
Handbook of dredging engineering (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Co.)

Dredging involves project planning, design, operation, and maintenance. Dredging, dredged mate-
rial disposal, and other aspects of the overall navigation project should be considered as a total project. For
example, the dredging and disposal equipment and procedures must be compatible. Navigation channel
design dictates the dredging requirements, and refinement or modification to the navigation channels further
infiuences the dredging requirements. Lake and cleanup dredging requires dredging over a dispersed area
of "hot spots," precision removal of thin layers, and minimizing sediment resuspension during dredging.
Basic dredging requirements are determined by channel design and shoaling rates. The quantities
of material to be dredged are determined from past records, and planning for dredging projects should be
based on long-term requirements and hydrographic surveys. Horizontal positioning and depth measure-
ments are conducted with electronic navigation and positioning equipment, and the data are usually reduced
using computers. Accuracy and capabilities ofpositioning and surveying equipment are ±1m (3ft) or better
using global positioning systems.

4.8.2 Dredges

Excellent sources of information related to dredging and dredging equipment include the Dredging
and Dredged Material Disposal Engineering Manual, EM 1110-2-5025 (USACE, 1983). Bray, Bates,
and Land (1997), Turner (1996), Wilson et al. (1997), de Heer and Rochmanhadi (1989), Herbich (2000),
Richardson (2001), Tsinker (2004), Randall (2004), Eisma (2006), and Bray (2008) are excellent sources
of information related to dredging and dredging equipment. Dredges are classified as either mechanical or
hydraulic, as is shown in Fig. 4-32.

4.8.2. 1 Mechanical Dredges

A grapple dredge has a derrick mounted on a barge and is equipped with a clamshell bucket. It is
best for working in soft sediments and works well in areas that are difficult to access. A dragline dredge
has a steel bucket that is suspended from a movable crane as it is lowered to the bottom and then dragged
toward the crane by a cable. A dipper dredge is a fioating barge with a mechanically operated excavating
132 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 4-32. Classification of dredges.

shovel that works well in hard, compact material. Photographs of a clamshell and an environmentallevel
cut bucket are shown in Fig. 4-33.
A bucket-ladder dredge has an endless chain of buckets, and each bucket is thrust into the material to
be dredged and brings its load to the surface. When used in sand and gravel operations, the buckets discharge
their contents onto vibrating screens to separate the different sizes or material, and the separated material is
placed on a barge for transport. The work cycle is continuous and more efficient than the grapple or dipper
dredges. The buckets are attached to the chain that is guided and supported by a ladder. The lower end of the
ladder is suspended from a hoisting gantry and lowered to the bottom for dredging and mining operations.
The bottom sediment is cut by the rim of the bucket and then fills the bucket that travels up the ladder and
discharges to a barge alongside the dredge. The dredge is swung from side to side with the aid of anchors and
mooring lines. Tugs are used to push or pull the loaded barges to a disposal or offloading area. Bucket ladder
dredges (Fig. 4-34) have been used in placer mining of gold and tin. Digging depth has increased from 15.2 m
(50ft) in 1905 to 53.4 m (175ft) in 1973. Bucket sizes have increased from 0.2 to 1.5 m 3 (7 to 54 fe).
A mechanical dredge has limited ability to transport dredged material, no self-propulsion, and rela-
tively low production. The advantages of a mechanical dredge are its ability to operate in restricted locations
(e.g., docks, jetties, and piers), ability to treat and dewater dredged material in placer mining operations,
and that with special adaptations such as watertight clamshell buckets, it can be used in working with con-
taminated sediments.

Figure 4-33. Clamshell and environment bucket dredges. (Reprinted with permission from
Great Lakes Dredge and Dock and Cable Arm Inc.)
 Chapter 4 Coastal Processes and Structures 133

Figure 4-34. Bucket-ladder dredge. (Reprinted with permission from Herbich, J. B. (2000).
Handbook of dredging engineering (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Co.)

4.8.2.2 Hydraulic Dredges

Hydraulic dredges conduct both phases of the dredging operations (digging and disposing).
Placement or disposal is accomplished by pumping the dredged material through a floating pipeline to
the placement area or by storing the dredged material in hoppers that are emptied over a placement area.
Hydraulic dredges are more efficient, versatile, and economical. The dredged material is first loosened and
mixed with ambient water by cutter heads or water jets and pumped as a fluid (slurry) through a long pipe-
line or to a hopper. The basic components of a hydraulic dredge are dredge pumps, digging and agitation
machinery, and hoisting and hauling equipment. Hydraulic dredges are categorized as hopper (trailing suc-
tion), pipeline (plain suction, cutterhead, dustpan), bucket wheel, and sidecasting.

4.8.2.3 Hopper Dredge

The development of the self-propelled trailing suction hopper dredge revolutionized the dredging
industry by reducing costs. These dredges are used extensively in Europe and the United States, and they
can work in all but hard materials. Hopper capacities of severa! hundred to 10,000 m 3 have been built. The
hoppers are usually unloaded through the bottom doors and sorne have pump-out facilities. The maximum
dredging depth is 18 to 21 m (59 to 69 ft), but can be inc(eased to 40 m (131 ft) with the addition of a
submerged pump at the draghead. The typical hopper dredge components are illustrated in Fig. 4-35. The
dragarms and dragheads extend from both sides of the hull, and each is lowered to the sea bottom. The
dredge moves slowly over the area to be dredged while the dredge pumps move the sediment and water mix-
ture (slurry) through the dragarm into the hopper bins. When these hopper bins are full, the dredge moves
under its own propulsion system to a designated disposal area and empties the dredged material through the
hopper doors in the bottom of the hull, or it uses inboard pumps to transport the dredged material through
pump-out lines to shore for beneficia! uses such as beach nourishment. Sorne of the modern dredges have
a single hopper in the midsection, and the dredge is designed to split open and allow the dredged material
to exit as the hull splits open (split-hull hopper dredge). Modern U.S. hopper dredges, Bayport and Liberty
Island, are shown in Fig. 4-36.
A hopper distribution system tries to minimize turbulence and allow for quick settling of the
solid material. The slurry enters the hopper from sorne height entraining air that tends to keep material
in suspension. Sorne distribution lines have been installed below the waterline to reduce entrainment
and turbulence. Overflow weirs are located at the opposite end of the hopper from where the slurry
enters in order to allow the sediment to settle to the bottom. The water is then allowed to overflow and
return to the ambient water. Gratings are also installed in the hopper near the slurry inflow location
to reduce entrainment and turbulence. The installation of submerged pump on the draghead or in the
dragarm permits dredging at deeper depths. The addition of a submerged pump increases the dredging
134 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 4-35. Typical hopper dredge C{)mponents. (Reprinted with permission from Bray, R. N., Bates, A. D.,
& Land, J. M. (1997). Dredging: A handbookfor engineers (2nd ed.). London: Arnold.)

Figure 4-36. Photograph of the hopper dredges Bayport (left) and

Liberty Island (right). (Reprinted with permission from
Manson Constrnction and Great Lakes Dredge and Dock.)

depth by reducing the chances of cavitation, and it permits the pumping of a higher specific gravity ma-
terial. Most modern hopper dredges have dragarm-mounted pumps. The draghead is an important part
of the hopper dredge. Several types of dragheads are used such as the California, Ambrose, Venturi,
and active types. A grating is used to prevent large objects entering the suction pipe. A new type of dra-
ghead uses a rotating cylinder with knives. A Venturi draghead creates a negative pressure just above
the seabed that results in a 30% to 40 % increase in the production of fine sand. An automatic draghead
winch control system controls the movement of the suction pipe and draghead. It is coupled with a swell
compensation system to maintain the correct pressure of the draghead on the bottom and the lateral
Chapter 4 Coastal Processes and Structures 135

position of the pipe hoist. The hopper dredge has the increased ability to operate in bad weather and
minimizes risk of damage to equipment.

4.8.2.4 Sidecasting Dredge

Sidecasting dredges discharge the dredged material to the side of the channel and allow for continu-
ous dredging. Sorne hopper dredges are equipped with a sidecasting boom, as shown in Fig. 4-37. These
dredges are used to maintain navigation channels where there is an opportunity to place the dredged mate-
rial alongside the navigation channel.

4.8.2.5 Cutterhead Dredge

The pipeline cutterhead dredge is a very versatile dredge, and its primary function is to exca-
vate and move material hydraulically to a disposal location without rehandling. It is categorized by
the size (diameter) of its ftoating discharge line. Por example, a 61 cm (24 in) dredge has a ftoating
discharge line that has a diameter of 61 cm (24 in). The components of a typical cutterhead dredge
are shown in Fig. 4-38, and two operating cutterhead dredges, Illinois and Carolina, are illustrated
in Fig. 4-39. During a dredging operation, the ftoating discharge and shore pipeline are connected to
the dredge. Additional equipment to support the operation is required such as a derrick, tugs, fuel and
pipe barges, surveying boats, and other site-specific special equipment. A cutter is connected at the
forward end of the ladder and connected to the shaft of the cutter motor. There are generally two types

Figure 4-37. Sidecasting dredge Schweitzer. (Reprinted with permission from USACE.)

Pontoon

Dredged bOttom

Figure 4-38. Cutterhead dredge components. (Reprinted with permission from Huston, J. (1970).
Hydraulic dredging. Cambridge: Cornell Maritime Press.)
136 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 4-39. Photograph of cutterhead dredges Illinois (left) and Carolina (right).
(Reprinted with permission from Great Lakes Dredge and Dock.)

of cutters: straight arm or basket. Rotation of the shaft and cutter agitates soft or loose material and
cuts hard material that is then picked up by the suction.
On the cutterhead dredge, the ladder supports the cutter, suction pipe, lubricating lines, and usually
the cutter motor and reduction gear. The forward end of the ladder is supported by an A-frame with hoisting
equipment to raise and lower the ladder. The length of the ladder determines the dredging depth, and the
dredging depth is typically considered to be 0.7 times the length of the ladder. Ladder lengths may be 7.6 m
(25 ft) or less to 45.7 m (150ft) or more, and they can weigh as much as 400 tons. The suction pipe supported
beneath the ladder transports the dredged material to the dredge pump. The discharge line is connected to
the floating pipeline by a ball joint. The diameter of the discharge line depends on the pump size, and the
suction pipe diameter is usually 1.25 to 1.5 times the pump discharge diameter when a ladder pump is not
installed. In this case, the suction pipe is one size larger than the discharge pipe diameter such as a 41 cm
(16 in) pump discharge anda 46 cm (18 in) suction pipe.
The dredge pump is located forward in the hull with its center near the loaded waterline. A diesel
engine, diesel electric motor, or steam or gas turbine can be used to drive the pump. In sorne cases, shore
electric power may be used to drive the pump. The horsepower required varies from 186 to more than 11,186
kilowatts (250 to more than 15,000 horsepower). The pump rotative speed varies from about 300 to 900
revolutions per minute. The dredge is moved and held in position with spuds. These spuds (usually two) are
as large as 1.22 m (4ft) in diameter, 30.5 m (100ft) long, andweigh as muchas 30 tons. Spuds are typically
spaced not less than one-tenth the distance between the stern of the dredge and the cutter so that moving
ahead is not limited. A walking spud is a conventional spud placed in a groove such that it can move longi-
tudinally along the centerline of the dredge using a hydraulic cylinder.
The discharge line consists ofthree sections: pipe on dredge, floating line, and shore pipeline. The pipe
on dredge runs along the dredge deck from the pump discharge to the stern, and it has a flap valve near the pump
to prevent backflow. At the stern, it is connected to a swivel elbow or ball joint. The floating line extends from
the stern of the dredge to the shore. It is made of 9.1 to 15.2 m (30 to 50ft) sections, and each section is supported
by floating pontoons. Strongbacks are used to connect the pontoons, and anchors are used where necessary
to hold pontoons in place. A walkway is often constructed on top of the pipeline. Floating pipelines are used
more often when waves are expected. The shore pipeline usually consists of shorter and lighter sections with a
y-connection at the discharge end. A preliminary selection guide for cutterhead dredges based on production
and length of discharge pipeline is shown in Fig. 4-40. Portable cutterhead dredges have been developed ranging
from 20.3 cm (8 in) to a 50.8 cm (20 in). These are versatile and can undertake many small dredging projects.

4.8.2.6 Bucket Wheel Dredge

A rotating wheel equipped with bottomless buckets is used to cut or loosen soil that is then directed
into the interior of the wheel and conveyed to the suction line. The bucket wheel is attached to the ladder as
shown in Fig. 4-41, but newer designs use a dual wheel concept.
 Chapter 4 Coastal Processes and Structures 137

3000

~ 2000

<.)
z
¡:

.•~ 1000

lt:
500

300

.
!;
!;
lOO

o 70
...o
...
;:5 50

200 300 .400 600 800 1000 1500 2000 3000 5000 8000 10000

LEHGTH OF DISCHARGE PIPI:UHE IN FEET WITH 10 FT. TERMINAl

ElEVATION

Figure 4-40. Preliminary selection guide for dredges. (Reprinted with permission from Herbich, J. B. (2000).
Handbook of dredging engineering (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Co.)

Figure 4-41. Photograph ofbucket wheel dredge. (Reprinted with permission from Herbich, J. B. (2000).
Handbook of dredging engineering (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Co.)

4.8.2. 7 Dustpan Dredge

The dustpan dredge is a hydraulic, plain suction vessel. The wide (about same as hull width) vac-
uum cleaner-like head is lowered to the bottom by winches. It has a high velocity water jet to agitate and
loosen material that is subsequently pumped through a ftoating pipeline to a disposal area. The dustpan
dredge, Burgess, is shown in Fig. 4-42.
138 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 4-42. Schematic of dustpan dredge. (Reprinted with permission from Herbich, J. B. (2000).
Handbook of dredging engineering (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Co.)

4.8.2.8 Sma/1 Hydrau/ic Dredges

Cutter suction dredges that have a discharge line size of 305 mm (12 in) in diameter are com-
monly called small hydraulic dredges. These dredges use cutters or augers (Fig. 4-43) to excavate the bot-
tom sediments in water bodies such as lakes and streams and move the slurry (sediment water mixture)
with submerged or deck mounted centrifuga! pumps through a long discharge pipe to a placement area.
Depending on the length of the discharge line, these dredges typically produce up to 300 cm/hr (400
cy1hr). Small dredges advance in the waterway or water body using spuds or on cables attached to the shore.

Figure 4-43. Small hydraulic auger dredge (top left; courtesy of Liquid Waste Technology LLC), pipeline cutter
suction dredge (top right; courtesy of Ellicott Dredges LLC), cutter suction dredge (lower left), and
swinging ladder cutter suction dredge (lower right; courtesy ofDredging Supply Inc.).
 Chapter 4 Coastal Processes and Structures 139

4.8.3 Dredge Pumps

Dredge pumps (Fig. 4-44) have sufficient clearances to allow gravel, rocks, and other debris to pass
through the pump withoutjamming. These pumps must handle mud (silt-clay-water), sand-water, and slurry.
The impeller typically has 3 to 5 vanes and is rotated by a motor to produce the pressure head necessary
for the slurry to ftow through the discharge line. Wear and abrasion because of sediment particles require
special materials and provisions for easy access for maintenance and repairs. The performance of dredge
pumps operating in water is described by pump characteristics curves, shown in Fig. 4-45. However, the
performance must be corrected for the effects of the slurry on pump performance.

Figure 4-44. Large centrifugal dredge pumps and booster pump. (Courtesy of SPI/Mobile Pulley Works.)

4.8.4 Cutters, Dragheads, and Buckets

The hydraulic pipeline dredge normally uses a cutter to excavate, loosen, or pulverize the material
to be dredged and make it available to the suction inlet of the suction pipe. Basket type cutters are the most
common type of cutter, but other cutters such as the bucket wheel cutter, auger, and disk cutters are also
used. Hopper dredges lower large dragheads attached to the end of the suction tube to the channel bottom
to remove soft maintenance material. Mechanical dredges su~h as grapple, clamshell, dipper, and endless
chain buckets use different types of buckets to remove the underwater sediments.

4.8.4. 1 Basket Cutter

The most common cutter used is the basket type cutter shown in Fig. 4-46. It has multiple blades
that rotate around a longitudinally mounted shaft that is supported by the ladder. The ladder and dredge
swing through an are of a circle using swing winches and wire ropes attached to anchors. The basket cutters
come in different shapes, number of blades, attachment methods, rake angles, and cutting edges. The cutter
loosens the material in front of the suction inlet and prevents heavy stresses on the suction pipe that is sup-
ported in the lower half of the ladder. The cutter is commonly about three times the diameter of the suction
pipe. The suction opening is strategically placed near the bottom of and very close to the cutter in order to
capture as much of the loosened material under the inftuence of the high velocity water flowing into the suc-
tion inlet. Because the basket cutter is open on the backside near the suction tube, sorne of the material will
be left behind, and it is estimated that as much as half the material may be left on the channel bottom. The
cutter drive used to rotate the cutter is either hydraulically or electrically driven.

4.8.4.2 Bucket Wheel Cutter

The bucket wheel cutter shown in Fig. 4-47 rotates about an axis perpendicular to the ladder and
provides material to the suction pipe inlet. This cutter has bottomless buckets and the teeth or blades of
the bucket excavate the material. The advantages include positive cutting while swinging in either direc-
140 Elements of Ocean Engineering

t; 200
Ji!
sr
~
u
....::E i&O
~
~
...1
<
....
o 120
....

6+-------r------.------,-----~~-----r------~
o 10000 o 20000 25000 30000

GALLONS PER MINUTE (US)

Figure 4-45. Example pump characteristics curves for 508 mm (20 inch) suction and discharge dredge pump;
NPSH is the net positive suction head and NPSHR is the net positive suction head required to avoid cavitation.
(Courtesy of GIW Industries.)

~ ~

)Plain Plain Serrated

\1
Offset Serrated
)
Pk:k Poirrt
~
\
A<!apter

Figure 4-46. Selected examples of cutters for loose sand (upper left); rock (upper right); replaceable edge cutter for
cement sands, clays, and limestone (lower left); and the different replaceable edges (lower right).
(Courtesy of SPI/Mobile Pulley Works.)
 Chapter 4 Coastal Processes and Structures 141

dlscharge pipe
suctlon pipe

Figure 4-47. Schematic of bucket wheel cutter dredge (Albar, 2001).

tion, greater cutting force per length of blade, capturing the excavated material without letting the material
escape, handling heavy minerals, and better depth control. The biggest disadvantage of the bucket wheel
cutter is its cost and the need to use a spud carriage to advance the dredge. Sorne of the increased cost is
offset by the higher dredging efficiency of the spud carriage dredge.

4.8.4.3 Auger Cutter

Small hydraulic pipeline dredges have used auger cutters for dredging in small water bodies such
as lakes and quarries. The auger dredge (Fig. 4-48) is composed of a 1.2 to 2.5 m (4 to 8ft) long cylinder
(152 to 203 mm or 6 to 8 in diameter). The cylinder flighting forces the dredged material to the center of
the auger, and a submerged dredge pump picks up the sediment/water mixture and pumps it through the
discharge pipe to a placement location. The sediment enters the suction pipe and is pumped through the
discharge pipeline to the disposallocation. The auger dredge is commonly used for shallow water dredging
in lakes and ponds and can be used to clear vegetation.

Figure 4-48. Auger cutter showing flighting with cover. (Courtesy ofLiquid Waste Technology LLC.)

4.8.5 Dragheads

Trailing suction hopper dredges lower dragarms to the bottom of ship channels and remove the
channel sediments by pumping the sediments to the hopper. Once the hopper is filled, the dredge raises its
dragarms and sails to a designated placement area and places the material on the sea bottom. A draghead
drags along the channel bottom in contact with the sediments. The draghead bottom has a grating that
prevents large objects from entering the suction pipe. There are several types of dragheads that are used in
 142 Elements of Ocean Engineering

the dredging industry: the Fruhling, California, and Ambrose. A schematic of the selected dragheads and
a picture of the California type draghead (Fig. 4-49) are used on the USACE hopper dredge Wheeler. In
sorne cases, hopper dredging in ship channels encounters the presence of turtles that may be endangered.
The turtles are protected by the addition of turtle defiectors to the draghead.

Figure 4-49. California draghead.

4.8.6 Buckets

Mechanical dredges use buckets such as those illustrated in Fig. 4-50 to excavate the channel sedi- ·
ments and place the dredged material into barges that are subsequently unloaded into dredged material
placement areas. A clamshell bucket is one of the most common buckets used in dredging around docks
and piers in ports and harbors. Backhoe buckets are also frequently used. The bucket sizes vary from as
small as 0.76 m 3 (1 cy) to as large as 15.3 m3 (20 cy). The need for environmental dredges that are used to
remove contaminated sediments has required the buckets to be nearly watertight to minimize resuspension
of contaminants in the dredged areas.

clamshells dipper backhoe

Figure 4-50. Examples of clamshell, dipper, aud backhoe buckets. (Courtesy of Great Lakes Dredge aud Dock.)

4.9 PIPELINE TRANSPORT OF DREDGED MATERIAL

4.9.1 Slurry Transport in Pipes

Dredged material from cutter suction dredges is usually transported by pipeline to dredged material
placement facilities or to beaches for beach nourishment. Hopper dredges also use pipelines to pump sand
Chapter4 Coastal Processes and Structures 143

to beaches for beach nourishment. Even mechanical dredging operations may use hydraulic unloaders to
hydraulically unload barges and transport the dredged material to a placement area. An important calcula-
tion in designing a dredging project is the determination of the amount of power and energy required to
pump the slurry through the pipeline and to ensure the proper dredging equipment is available. An equally
important calculation is the estimation of production of solids that is eventually needed to estimate the time
and cost to complete the dredging project.
The transport of sediments (dredged material) in pipelines requires the water or seawater to support
the sediments as it moves through the pipeline to the placement site. Typically, dredged material consists of
sands, silts, and clays, and the sediment settling velocity (v1) is important in calculating the energy (friction)
losses in the pipeline. A simple equation (Randall, 2000) for calculating the particle settling velocity is

V1 = 134.14(d50 - 0.039)0.972 (4-36)

where V1 is the settling velocity in millimeters per second and d50 is the median grain diameter in millime-
ters. This equation is accurate for sand particle sizes, but not for grave!. Randall (2004) and Albar (2000)
compared additional settling velocity equations. Wilson et al. (1997) described a very complicated settling
velocity relationship that is recommended for use with the Wilson et al. (1997) friction loss expression.
Three general regimes of slurry flow are known as fixed bed, heterogeneous, and homogeneous
(Fig. 4-51); the best regimen for slurry transport is the heterogeneous regimen, which means the sediment
is just supported by the water or seawater. Homogeneous flow means the sediment and water are thoroughly
mixed across the pipe cross-section, and this regimen requires more energy because the losses are greater as
a result of the higher velocity. The higher velocity also greatly increases costs and the wear in the pipeline.
Fixed bed means the sediment is stationary on the bottom of the pipe and can lead to plugging the pipeline.

fixed bed heterogeneous homogeneous

Figure 4-51. Sediment distribution in «!ifferent slurry flow regimes.

Slurry transport in pipelines is also classified as se'ttling and nonsettling flows. When the slurry con-
tains sands, then the sands can settle to the bottom of the pipe and this is considered a settling flow. When
the dredged material consists of silts and clays, then it is considered nonsettling flow. Wilson et al. (1997)
addressed procedures for estimating energy losses in both settling and nonsettling flows. Most dredging
projects involve the settling flows in the heterogeneous regimen. Dredged material is classified as cohesive
or noncohesive. Dredged material that contains sand is considered noncohesive, and the viscous properties
of the carrier fluid are used in the energy loss calculations. Dredged material containing almost all silts and
clays (mud) is commonly cohesive and behaves as a non-Newtonian fluid that requires careful consideration.
The majority of dredging projects involve dredged material that is considered noncohesive.
Slurry composition is defined as the ratio of solids to the total amount of the slurry mixture by
volume or by weight. The concentration of solids by volume (Cv) is commonly used in dredging and it is
expressed as

SGm-SGr
Cv=---- (4-37)
SGs- SGr

where SG is specific gravity and the subscripts "m," "f," and "s" are for mixture, fluid, and solids, respec-
tively. The concentration of solids by weight (Cw) is the ratio of weight of solids to weight of mixture is
144 Elements of Ocean Engineering

(4-38)

The particle specific gravity for sand, silts, and clays is essentially 2.65, but the in situ specific gravity of
dredged material typically ranges between 2.1 and 1.3. The in situ specific gravity is often used as SGs in
dredging calculations for the concentration by volume. In most cases, the highest concentration by volume
that can be maintained is about 20%, which corresponds to approximately 40% by weight for typical dredg-
ing projects.

4.9.2 Determination of Critica! Velocity

The critical velocity is the velocity that the fluid around the sediment particles must maintain in
arder to prevent the particle from falling to the bottom of the pipe and becoming stationary. If this velocity
is not maintained, then the sediment settles at the bottom of the pipe and eventually can clog the pipeline.
Critica! velocity is a function of the sediment specific gravity, particle grain size, and the inside pipe diam-
eter. Wilson et al. (1997) showed a nomograph (Fig. 4-52) that provides an easy method for determining
the critical velocity (Ve). It is desirable to pump near the critica! velocity based on the fact that head losses,
power requirements, and pipeline wear are minimized at this value. The average slurry velocity is recom-
mended to be 10% to 20% above the critica! velocity.

1C>O 1-0
D-10
4 3()o()
&O 25•0
7-Q
0·11 &O 20-0~ 3-5
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0-12 tn 15-0 .ñ
04-0 ~
0·13
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J
e
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i 3-Q 10<071
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""'"i..,
7-Q $
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-
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o
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Figure 4-52. Nomograph for estimating the critica( velocity in slurry pipelines. (From Wilson, K. C., Addie, G. R.,
Sellgren, A., & Clift, R. (1997). Slurry transport using centrifuga[ pumps (2nd ed.). New York: Chapman and Hall.)
 Chapter 4 Coastal Processes and Structures 145

4.9.3 Estimating Production

Estimating production is needed to determine the amount of time and cost required to complete a
dredging project. The production is the number of cubic meters (cubic yards) of sediment per hour that are
removed from the channel bottom by the dredge. From a cost estimation standpoint, this is an important
factor simply because it determines how much time it takes to complete the project. More time on the job
means more wear on the machinery, more fuel used, and more pay for the workers. It is therefore imperative
that the estímate of the production be as accurate as possible. Turner (1996) estimates the production of a
pipeline dredge using

P = 0.297 Q Cv or P = 0.297 Q Cvmax DE (4-39)

where P is the production (cy/hr), 0.297 is a conversion factor such that the production is in cubic yards
per hour, Q is the average flow rate (GPM), Cv is the average concentration of solids by volume, Cvmax is
the maximum concentration of solids by volume, and DE is the dredging efficiency. Dredging efficiency is
selected as 50% when using two fixed spuds and 75% when using a spud carriage.

4.10 DREDGED MATERIAL PLACEMENT

Dredged material that is removed from waterways is typically placed in either an open water placement
site, a confined placement facility, or it is used beneficially (e.g., beach nourishment, habitat restoration, land
reclamation, etc.). In the United States, the USEPA/USACE (1992, 2005) discussed management of dredged
material whether it is contaminated or clean, and whether it is new work or maintenance work. Placement of
dredged material is regulated in the United States by the London Convention; Marine Protection, Research,
and Sanctuaries Act; National Environment Policy Act; Clean Water Act; and local environmentallaws.

4.1 0.1 Open Water Placement Area

Placement of dredged material in rivers, lakes, estuaries, and oceans is called open water place-
ment, and is accomplished using pipeline dredges, hopper "dredges, barges/scows loaded by mechanical
or hydraulic dredges, and mechanical dredges. The open water placement areas are commonly classified
as either dispersive or nondispersive. A nondispersive classification means the dredged material remains
within the site boundaries, and the dispersive classification means the dredged material is expected to leave
the site because of environmental forces such as ocean currents or other meteorological events (e.g., storms,
frontal passages, hurricanes, etc.). Open water dredged material placement sites are commonly marked on
navigational charts and are commonly located just outside ship channels where frequent dredging occurs to
maintain the channel depth. Rivers, bays, and estuaries also contain designated placement sites. Local and
internationallaws regulate these placement sites.

4.1 0.2 Confined Placement Facilities

Upland and near shore areas that are diked to contain dredged material and allow clear water to re-
turn to the water body (Fig. 4-53) are called confined placement facilities (CPF) and are sometimes referred
to as confined disposal facilities (CDF). Guidelines for design, operation, and management of a CPF or
CDF are contained in USACE (1987a). The objective of the CPF is to have enough storage for the dredging
operation and be capable of allowing the sediment to settle out of the water and remain within the diked
boundaries while the water is allowed to flow over a weir structure and return to the water body.
Pipeline dredges are commonly used to deliver the dredged material slurry through a long pipeline
to the confined placement site, as illustrated in Fig. 4-54. The dredged material enters the CPF atan inlet
146 Elements of Ocean Engineering

PL.AN

tNFLUENT

CROSS SECTION

Figure 4-53. Schematic of a confined placement facility. (Courtesy of USACE.)

Figure 4-54. Confined placement facility during filling at inlet pipe (left), after filting (middle), and
after dewatering using trenches (right). (Courtesy of Mike Palermo and USACE.)

structure and flows through the site and ponds. An outlet structure (e.g., weir) holds back the slurry for suf-
ficient time to allow the solids to settle. When the water clarifies as a result of the sediment settling, then the
weir boards are removed and the water overflows back to the water body (e.g., river, bay, etc.). Eventually, all
the water leaves the site through drainage and evaporation and the dredged material dries and consolidates.
Mechanical dredges sometimes load dredged material in barges/scows that are brought to the confined
placement site and the dredged material is hydraulically slurried and pumped to the placement site through
a pipeline.

4.1 0.3 Beneficia! Uses

Landin (2000) describes the many beneficia! uses of dredged material. The USACE programs
such as the Dredged Material Research Program, the Dredging Operations Technical Support Program,
the Environment Effects of Dredging Program, the Dredging Research Program, the Dredging Operations
 Chapter 4 Coastal Processes and Structures 147

and Environmental Research Program, and the Wetlands Research Program have contributed significant
research results related to the beneficia! use of dredged material. Conventional placement of dredged mate-
rial at open water and confined placement sites continues to be the most economical placement procedures.
However, there is a strong desire to find funding and ways to economically use dredged material beneficially.

4.10.3.1 Common Beneficia/ Uses of Dredged Material

Dredged material contains sands, silts, and clays, and these sediments are a resource that can be u sed
to benefit society. USACE (1987b) describes 10 broad categories of beneficia! uses of dredged materials:

• Habitat restoration (e.g., wetlands, islands for birds and waterfowl)

• Beach renourishment
• Aquaculture
• Parks and recreation
• Agriculture, forestry, and horticulture
• Land reclamation and landfill cover
• Shoreline stabilization and erosion control (e.g., fills, submerged berms, etc.)
• Industrial use (e.g., port development, airports, residential development, etc.)
• Material transfer (fill, dikes, levees, parking lots, highways, etc.)
• Multiple purposes

Using dredged material beneficially is desirable, but the cost of transporting the dredged material tu the
location where it can be used is often a costly endeavor. Examples of beach nourishment, habitat creation,
and agriculture reuse are illustrated in Fig. 4-55.

Beach Nourishment Habitat Creation Agriculture Reuse

Figure 4-55. Examples of beneficial uses of dredged material. (Courtesy of USACE.)

4.11 REFERENCES

Albar, A. (2000). Effect of various terminal velocity equations on the result of friction loss calculation,
Proc. Westem Dredging Association 20th Technical Conference and 32nd Texas A&M Dredging
Seminar, Warwick, RI, June 25-28.
Battjes, J. A. (1974). Surf similarity. Proceedings ofthe 14th Coastal Engineering Conference, Copenhagen,
Denmark.
Bray, R. N. (Ed.). (2008). Environmental aspects of dredging. London: Taylor and Francis.
Bray, R. N., Bates, A. D., & Land, J. M. (1997). Dredging: A handbookfor engineers (2nd ed.). London:
Amold.
Bretschneider, C. L. (1952). The generation and decay of wind waves in deep water. Transactions of the
American Geophysical Union, 33, 381-389.
 148 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Bretschneider, C. L. (1958). Revisions in wave forecasting: deep and shallow water. Proceedings of the
Sixth Conference on Coastal Engineering. ASCE. Council on Wave Research.
de Heer, R. J., & Rochmanhadi. (1989). Dredging and dredging equipment: Dredging equipment. Delft:
International Institute for Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering.
Eisma, D. (Ed.). (2006). Dredging in coastal waters. New York: Taylor and Francis.
Galvin, C. J., Jr., & Eagleson, P. S. (1965). Experimental study oflongshore currents on aplane beach. TM-
10. Washington, DC: USACE, Coastal Engineering Research Center.
Hasselmann, K., Barnett, T. P., Bonws, E., Carlson, H., Cartwright, D. C., Enke, K., et al. (1973). Measurements
of wind-wave growth and swell decay during the Joint North Sea Wave Project (JONSWAP).
Hamburg: Deutches Hydrographisches Institute.
Herbich, J. B. (2000). Handbook of dredging engineering (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Co.
Horikawa, K. (1988). Nearshore dynamics and coastal processes. University ofTokyo: Tokyo Press.
Hudson, R. Y. (1959). Laboratory investigations of rubble-mound breakwaters and jetties. Proceedings of
the American Society ofCivil Engineers, ASCE, Waterways and Harbors Division 1:85, No. WW3,
Paper No. 2171.
Hunt, I. A (1959). Winds, wind setup and seiches on Lake Erie. Lake Survey, US Army Corps ofEngineers, Detroit.
Huston, J. (1970). Hydraulic dredging. Cambridge: Cornell Maritime Press.
Ippen, A T. (1966). Estuary and coastline hydrodynamics. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Landin, M. C. (2000). Beneficia! uses of dredged material. In J. B. Herbich (Ed.), Handbook of dredging
engineering (2nd ed.) (16.1-16.120). NewYork: McGraw Hill Co.
Leenknecht, D. A., Szuwalski, A, & Sherlock., A R. (1992). Automated coastal engineering system:
User's guide. Vicksburg: Coastal Engineering Research Center, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station.
Longuet-Higgins, M. S. (1970). Longshore currents generated by obliquely incident sea waves, 1 and 2.
Journal ofGeophysical Research, 75, 33, 6788-6801.
Miche, R. (1951). Le pouvoir reflechissant des ouvrages maritime exposes a l'action de la houle. Annales
Ponts et Chaussees, 121, 285-319.
Mitsuyasu, H. (1968). On the growth ofthe spectrum ofwind-generated waves (I). Reports ofthe Research
1nstitute ofApplied Mechanics, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, 16, 55, 459-482.
Pierson, W. J., Jr., & Moskowitz, L. (1964). A proposed spectral form for fully developed wind seas based on
the similarity theory of S. A Kitaigorodskii. Journat ofGeophysical Research, 69, 24, 5181-5190.
Putnam, J. A, Munk, W. H., & Traylor, M. A (1949). The p.rediction oflongshore currents. Transactions of
the American Geophysical Union, 30, 337-345.
Randall, R. E. (2000). Pipeline transport of dredged material. In J. B. Herbich (Ed.), Handbook of dredging
engineering (2nd ed.) (7.49-7.77). NewYork: McGraw Hill Co.
Randall, R. E. (2004). Dredging. In G.P. Tsinker (Ed.), Port engineering (731-826). NewYork: Wiley.
Richards, R. H. (1908). Velocity of Galen and quartz falling in water. Transactions, AIME, 38, 230-234.
Richardson, M. J. (2001). The dynamics of dredging. Irvine: Placer Management Corp.
Sverdrup, H. U., & Munk, W. H. ( 1947). Wind, sea, and swell: Theory of relations for forecasting. Publication
No. 601. Washington, DC: U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office.
Tsinker, G. P. (Ed.). (2004). Port engineering. Wiley: New York.
Turner, T. M. ( 1996). Fundamentals of hydraulic dredging. N ew York: American Society of Civil Engineers
(ASCE), ASCE Press.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). (1983). Dredging and dredged material disposal. Engineering
Manual 1110-2-5025. Washington, DC: USACE.
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Chapter 4 Coastal Processes and Structures 149

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). (2002). Coastal engineering manual. Engineer Manual 1110-2-
1100 (in six volumes). Washington, DC: USACE.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). (1992,
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Wilson, K. C., Addie, G. R., Sellgren, A., & Clift, R. (1997). Slurry transport using centrifuga[ pumps (2nd
ed.). NewYork: Chapman and Hall.

4.12 PROBLEMS

4-1. A wave in deep water has a height of 30 ft and period of 13 s. What is the height of the wave in
100ft of water resulting only from shoaling?
4-2. A wave in deep water has a height of 30ft and period of 13 s. Assuming straight and parallel depth
contours, what is the height of the wave in 20 ft of water resulting only from shoaling?
4-3. A deep water wave with a height of 3 ft and wavelength of 370ft is approaching an irregular shore-
line. Calculate the new wave height at a depth of 1O ft because of shoaling and refraction. Assume
the orthogonals are 22 ft offshore and 9 ft at a depth of 1O ft.
4-4. An offshore platform is located in 1500 ft of water. An anemometer located 60ft above the still
water level measured the average wind speed as 50 mph for duration of 8 hr, and the fetch length
is estimated as 50 miles. Estímate the significant wave period and height. If the wind duration was
4 hr, what is the estimated wave height and period? What is the fetch length and duration for a fully
developed sea?
4-5. An offshore platform is located in 1500 ft of water. An anemometer located 60ft above the still wa-
ter level measured the average wind speed as 20 mph and the fetch length is estimated as 15 miles.
Estimate the significant wave period and height. If the wind duration was 2 hr, what is the estimated
wave height and period? What is the fetch length and duration for a fully developed sea?
4-6. Waves are approaching a beach with a slope of 0.02 (1 :50). For a breaker wave height (Hb) of 3 and 6ft,
plot the longshore current for 1Odegree increments af the breaker angle (ab) between 1Oand 50 degrees.
4-7. A beach has straight and parallel depth contours and the beach slope is 0.067 ( 1: 15). Evaluate the
alongshore current for breaker angle (ab) 30 degrees when the breaker wave height (Hb) is 5 ft.
4-8. Beach material has a sphere diameter and median grain size (d50) of 1.2 mm. Determine the buoy-
ancy index and fall velocity in seawater at 15.6°C. The typical specific gravity of sandy beach mate-
rial is 2.65.
4-9. Beach material has a median grain size (d50) of 1.5 mm. Determine the fall velocity in seawater at
15.6 oc. The typical specific gravity of sandy beach material is 2.65.
4-10. A deep water wave with a period of 6.0 s and a height of 2.5 ft is approaching a rubble mound
breakwater that has a slope of 1 on 3. Determine the reflection coefficient and the height of the
reflected wave.
4-11. A 100-ft long wave of height 6 ft and period 6 s moves toward a coast from deep water. Determine
the speed at which the wave approaches the coast. What is the total energy of the wave in ft-lb/ft of
wave breadth? Determine the approximate depth at which the wave will begin to change formas a
result of bottom friction. Evaluate the length, period, and height of this wave in a depth of 8 ft and
whether or not it will break.
150 Elements of Ocean Engineering

4-12. A 6.5 s wave with a height of 3.5 ft is approaching a rubble-mound breakwater that has a slope of
1 on 3. Determine the reftection coefficient and the height of the reftected wave.
4-13. A 4-s wave is approaching aplane sloping impermeable beach that has a slope of 1 on 10. lf the
wave height is 3.0 ft, determine the run-up on the beach.
4-14. A 5-s wave is approaching aplane sloping impermeable beach that has a slope of 1 on 10. Use
Hunt's formula to determine the run-up on the beach when the wave height is 3.0 ft.
4-15. The significant wave height of waves at the breaker zone approaching a 1 on 15 sloping beach
is 3.8 ft and the angle of approach is 4.5 degree. Determine the estimated alongshore current
developed.
4-16 The waves approaching the breaker zone have a significant wave height of 4.3 ft. The beach has a
slope of 1 on 50, and the angle of approach is 8 degrees. Determine the alongshore current.
4-17. A rubble-mound breakwater is planned for a depth of 35 ft. It has been determined that the signifi-
cant wave height for the design is 3 ft with minimal breaking and no damage. Dolos armor units
can be economically used at the proposed site. Assume the specific weight of a concrete Dolos is
140 lb/fe. Determine the weight of the armor unit.
4-18. A rubble-mound breakwater is planned for a depth of 35ft. It has been determined that the signifi-
cant wave height for the design is 4 ft with minimal breaking and no damage. Dolos armor units
can be economically used at the proposed site. Assume the specific weight of a concrete Dolos is
140 lb/fe. Determine the weight of the armor unit.
4-19. A hurricane wave in deep water has a wave height of 58ft and period of 12 s. Determine the height
of this wave when it reaches a depth of 50 ft. Consider shoaling effects only. What is the energy per
unit width of the wave when it reaches the 50ft water depth?
4-20. Determine the terminal velocity of sand with a d50 of 0.9 mm in seawater at a temperature of 60 o F.
Assume the specific weight of sand is 165.4lb/fe.
4-21. A lake is 12 miles long and has an average depth of 33 ft. Determine the fundamental period of
oscillation for the lake.
4-22. A lake has an average depth of 22ft and is 15 mil~s long. Determine the fundamental period of
oscillation for the lake.
4-23. A hurricane wave in deep water has a wave height of 52ft and period of 14 s. Determine the height
of this wave when it reaches a depth of 46 ft. Consider shoaling effects only. What is the energy per
unit width of the wave when it reaches the 46ft water depth?
4-24. A rubble-mound breakwater is being designed for a water depth of 35ft. The design is based on
the H 10 wave height of 5.0 ft with no breaking and no damage. Compare the weight of smooth
rounded quarrystone, tribar, dolos and tetrapod armor units for random placement on slopes of
1.5 and 3. Assume each armor unit has a specific weight of 140 lb/fe. Use a spreadsheet and plot
the results.
4-25. A rubble-mound breakwater is being designed for 40ft of water. The design is based on the H 10
wave height of 4.5 ft with no breaking and no damage. Compare the weight of smooth rounded
quarry stone, tribar, dolos and tetrapod armor units for slopes of 1 on 1.5 and 1 on 3. Use a spread-
sheet and plot the results.
4-26. An alongshore current and breaker wave height are measured as 3.4 ft/s and 6ft, respectively. For a
beach slope of 1:25 with straight and parallel depth contours, determine the angle ofwave approach
at the breaker zone.
Chapter 4 Coastal Processes and Structures 151

4-27. The breaker wave height and alongshore current are measured as 5.5 ft and 2.7 ft/s, respectively.
For a beach slope of 1:20 with straight and parallel depth contours, determine the angle of wave
approach at the breaker zone.
4-28. The average longshore current and breaker angle are measured as 2.9 ftls and 23 degrees, respectively.
For a beach slope of 1:30 with straight and parallel depth contours, determine the height of the breaker
at the breaker zone. What would the breaker height be if the breaker angle was 1O degrees?
4-29. The average longshore current and breaker angle are measured as 3.8 ft/s and 16 degrees, respec-
tively. For a beach slope of 1:30 with straight and parallel depth contours, determine the height of
the breaker at the breaker zone.
4-30. Determine the fall velocity for sand with a d50 of 0.6 mm in seawater with a specific gravity of 1.03.
The specific gravity of sand is 2.65 and the specific weight ofwater is 9.8 kN/m 3•
4-31. The specific gravity of sand is 2.65 and the specific weight ofwater is 9.8 kN/m3• Determine the fall
velocity for sand with a d50 of 0.5 mm in seawater with a specific gravity of 1.025.
4-32. Sediment is suspended at a depth of 9 ft and is transported onshore by a solitary wave with a height
of 4 ft and an oscillation period of 8 s. Determine the horizontallength of the water particle path,
the maximum horizontal water velocity, and the maximum breaking wave velocity.
4-33. Waves with a period of 11 s and a deep water wave height of 0.9 m propagate normal to the shore.
A 150-m long energy conversion device is in place parallel to the shore to convert the wave motion
into electrical power. The device is located in a water depth of 8 m. For a 50% efficient device,
evaluate the power produced in kilowatts.
 CHAPTER5 MATERIALS ANO CORROSION

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Materials used in offshore and coastal waters must be specially selected to withstand the very harsh
marine environment. Engineers are faced with the challenge of selecting materials for offshore drilling
and petroleum production platforms, coastal protection structures, subsea systems, ocean instrumentation,
marina and harbor facilities, and moored systems. These structures or systems must endure wind, waves,
currents, ice, temperature variations, biofouling, and a highly corrosive environment. Scour, hurricanes,
earthquakes, typhoons, and mudslides are extreme events that commonly occur in the ocean environment,
and ocean structures must be designed with materials that can best endure such environmental events. Since
these materials are in contact with ocean waters, they must not be toxic to the marine organisms living in the
sea. Ocean structures may also experience excessive loads as a result of accidental collisions. Special mate-
rials are sometimes required to withstand the large hydrostatic pressures present at extreme ocean depths.
Selected sources of information regarding material for ocean applications include the American Society of
Metals (ASM) (1981, 1990), Battelle (1986), Dexter (1979), Feron (2001), Meyers (1969), and Reuben (1994).

5.2 MATERIALS FOR OCEAN APPLICATIONS

5.2.1 Properties

Material strength is one of the most important mechanical properties considered in material
selection. The main mechanical properties are tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, yield strength, and
elongation. Other important properties are toughness and fatigue strength. An important graph describing
the relationship between stress (load divided by the cross-sectional area) and strain (elongation divided
by the initiallength) is often used in the selection process (typical stress-strain relationships are shown in
Fig. 5-1). Elastic deformation occurs in the linear region, and plastic deformation occurs beyond the yield
point. Deformation is not permanent in the elastic region, but sorne permanent deformation occurs in the
plastic region. The yield strength is normally the stress corresponding to the end of the linear region, or it
is determined at the 0.2% offset strain. Ata certain level of stress, the material will fail; this level is called
the "ultimate strength." The modulus of elasticity is a measure of the rigidity, or stiffness, of the material
and is the proportionality constant between stress and strain in the elastic region. The modulus of elasticity
is approximately 207 X 106 kPa (30 X 106 psi) for steel, 69 X 106 kPa (10 X 106 psi) for aluminum, and
103 X 106 (15 X 106 psi) for titanium.

Ultirnate Strel)lllh
/ 1

High Strength Sleel

Failure
~7
1

Mlldsteel 1
1
Stress

Alumlnum Alloys

Straln
Figure 5-1. Typical stress-strain curve for steel and aluminum alloys.

153
154 Elements of Ocean Engineering

The ability of a material to deform without rupturing is determined by its ductility. A material
that is not ductile is considered brittle, and such material can fail quickly with little elongation or warning.
Fatigue is the result of oscillating loads that can occur in waves, and consequently is an important factor in
ocean structures. The fatigue strength is normally determined experimentally, and it is generally defined on
an S-N diagram that shows the fatigue strength as a function of the number of cycles a specimen undergoes
befare failure. Another approach used in fracture mechanics gives the fatigue crack growth rate as a func-
tion of the change in toughness.

5.2.2 Metals

5.2.2. 1 Steel
The ability to resist large forces, fatigue, and impact, and be easily fabricated and welded at a
competitive price are desirable characteristics for materials used in the ocean. Steel has most of these
characteristics, and consequently it is one of the most frequently used materials for ocean applications.
Low-strength steels have yield strengths of <414 MPa (60 ksi), as shown in Table 5-1, and these steels
have good fatigue strength. Medium-strength steels (Table 5-2) have yield strengths between 414 and 1034
MPa (60-150 ksi). Heat treatment, quenching, and tempering of these steels increases their ductility and
toughness. High-strength steels have yield strengths of 1034-2068 MPa (150-300 ksi). Maraging steels
are a subgroup of high-strength steels that are more ductile and have improved characteristics in fatigue
and energy absorption. Table 5-3 shows sorne high-strength steels commonly used in ocean applications.
A good source for the characteristics of metals is the ASM International Handbook (ASM, 1990). The
classification and numbering of metals is accomplished by many organizations, including the American
lron and Steel Institute (AISI), American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), American Bureau
of Ships (ABS), and American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). The ASTM and the Society of

Table 5-1. Characteristics ofLow-Strength Steels

Material Yield Strength Ultimate Strength Elongation % Approx. Cost Rel. to
MPa (ksi) MPa (ksi) Low-Strength Steels*
Wrought Iron 186 (27) 331 (48) 14 1
.
ASTMA-242 317 (46) 462 (67) 19 1
ASTMA-441 317 (46) 490 (71) •. 19 1
ABS-class BH 324 (47) 490 (71) 19 1
AISI 1020 331 (48) 517 (75) 31 1
ASTMA-302 345 (50) 552 (80) 15 1
*In 2009, the approximate cost for low-strength structural steel cost was $0.3 per pound or $600/ton.

Table 5-2. Characteristics ofMedium-Strength Steels for Ocean Applications

Material Yield Strength Ultimate Strength Elongation % Approx. Cost Rel. to
MPa(ksi) MPa (ksi) Low-Strength Steels
HY-80 552 (80) 689 (100) 20 3
ASTMA-543 586 (85) 724 (105) 16 2
HY-100 689 (100) 827 (120) 18 3
ASTM A-517-67 689 (100) 827 (120) 18 2
HY-140 965 (140) 1020 (148) 16 6
AISI 410 689 (100) 965 (140) 22 2
HY-180 1241 (180) 1310 (190) 18 6
Chapter 5 Materials and Corrosion 155

Table 5-3. High-Strength Steels for Ocean Applications

Material Yield Strength Ultimate Strength Elongation % Approx. Cost Rel. to
MPa (ksi) MPa (ksi) Low-Strength Steels
AISI H-11 1655 (240) 2034 (295) 12 11
Maraging 200 1379 (200) 1448 (210) 15 13
Maraging 250 1724 (250) 1793 (260) 12 13
Maraging 300 2068 (300) 2103 (305) 12 14
HY-TEN-B Alloy 1724 (250) 1999 (290) 28 15

Automotive Engineers (SAE) publish a unified numbering system that includes a cross-reference to all of
the numbering systems (ASTM/SAE, 1989).

5.2.2.2 Stainless Steels

Materials known as stainless steel (Table 5-4) are iron-based with >12% chromium added. They
resist uniform rusting because of a thin oxide film that forms on the surface and isolates the material from
the water. However, the complete submersion of stainless steel in seawater causes the oxide film to break
down, making the steel susceptible to pitting, crevice, and intergranular corrosion. Stainless steels in the type
300 series (18% chromium) are best suited for ocean applications and provide excellent corrosion protection
for above-waterline applications. Full submersion tends to lead to pitting and crevice corrosion, and types
304 and 316 are recommended for full submergence in seawater for only 4-6 months. One characteristic
of the 300 series stainless steels is that they are nonmagnetic, whereas other series, such as the 400 series,
are magnetic. Since stainless steels are susceptible to crevice corrosion, welded joints are preferred over
mechanical fasteners. Special grades of stainless steels (e.g., types 304L and 316L) resist intergranular corro-
sion, but they are more expensive and have limited availability.

Table 5-4. Characteristics for Selected Stainless Steels Used in Ocean Applications
Material Yield Strength Ultimate Strength Elongation % Approx. Cost Rel. to
MPa (ksi) MPa (ksi) Low-Strength Steels
Type 302 276 (40) 621 (90)
- 60 6
Type 304 290 (42) 586 (85). 60 6
Type304L 241 (35) 586 (85) 60 8
Type 316 290 (42) 621 (90) 60 8
Type 316L 290 (42) 558 (81) 55 10

5.2.2.3 A/uminum
Aluminum alloys are used for ocean applications such as high-speed boats, hydrofoil craft, surface-
effect ships, merchant and navy ships, marine propellers, SCUBA tanks, and submarines (e.g., the Johnson-
Sea-Link and Aluminaut). The specific weight of aluminum is 2.9 times lighter than that of similar steel,
and the cost of an aluminum structure over its lifetime is usually lower. Steel costs less, but when the costs
of protective coatings are added, it can exceed the cost of the aluminum, which usually needs no coatings.
Aluminum is known for its ease of fabrication. Certain alloys of aluminum resist corrosion in seawater to a
great extent, and these alloys (Table 5-5) are frequently used for ocean applications. lmproved mechanical
properties can be attained through heat treatment and strain hardening processes. Aluminum structures are
generally two or three times thicker than similar steel structures. Aluminum can be welded, but it is more
difficult to weld than steel. Since aluminum is lightweight and easy to fabricate, it is being used more and
more in ocean applications.
156 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 5-5. Characteristics of Selected Aluminum Alloys for Ocean Applications

Material Yield Strength Ultimate Strength MPa Elongation % Approx. Cost Rel. to
MPa (ksi) (ksi) Low-Strength Steels
5083 228 (33) 317 (46) 16 7
5086 255 (37) 303 (44) 10 7
5454 248 (36) 303 (44) 10 8
5456 255 (37) 352 (51) 16 8
6061 276 (40) 310 (45) 12 8
7079 469 (68) 538 (78) 14 8

5.2.2.4 Titanium
Titanium is a high-strength, lightweight, and expensive material (Table 5-6). lt has been used in
small submersibles (e.g., the Alvin, Sea Cliff, and Turtle) and for the stress joint of a marine riser. lt has
excellent corrosion resistance and a moderate modulus of elasticity. Buckeridge et al. (1989) compared its
usefulness as a marine riser with that of steel and aluminum, and showed that a significant reduction in cost
was necessary to make it competitive. Titanium demonstrates excellent corrosion resistance and is nonmag-
netic. Although titanium can be welded, it is more difficult to weld than steel or weldable aluminum. Its
fatigue strength is relatively high.

Table 5-6. Characteristics of Selected Titanium Alloys for Ocean Applications

Material Yield Strength Ultimate Strength Elongation % Approx. Cost Rel. to
MPa (ksi) MPa (ksi) Low-Strength Steels
5Al-2.5Sn 807 (117) 862 (125) 18 -
8Al-1Mo-1V 1034 (150) 1103 (160) 18 -
1AL-8V-5Fe 1524 (221) 1482 (215) 10 -
3Al-13V-11Cr 1207 (175) 1276 (185) 8 -

6Al-4V 1069 (155) 1172 (170) 8 20

7Al-4Mo 1207 (175) 1276 (185) 6 -

5.2.2.5 Other Nonferrous Alloys

Copper-nickel alloys, monel, bronze, brass, and aluminum bronze are also nonferrous alloys (see
Table 5-7 for a summary oftheir properties). Ships and other ocean systems frequently use seawater as bal-
last and cooling fluid for engines and condensers, among other purposes. These seawater systems (e.g., heat
exchangers, valves, instruments, and piping) are subject to large variations in temperature, pressure, and ve-
locity, and must be resistant to corrosion from the seawater flowing through them. Copper and nickel alloys
are excellent choices to best satisfy these requirements and they have good fatigue properties; however, they
have been known to experience microbiologically influenced corrosion.

Table 5-7. Characteristics of Selected Nonferrous Metals

Material Yield Strength Ultimate Strength Elongation % Approx. Cost Rel. to
MPa (ksi) MPa (ksi) Low-Strength Steels
Cupronickel 30 152 (22) 414 (60) 40 -
Cupronickel 255 (37) 469 (68) 28 -
K-500Monel 448 (65) 724 (105) 25 -
Nickel-copper 400 310 (45) 586 (85) 35 -
Bronze (Cu90 Zn10) 69 (10) 276 (40) 45 14
Bronze (Cu85 Zn5 Sn5 Pb5) 117 (17) 255 (37) 30 -
Aluminum bronze 186 (27) 517 (75) 25 -
Chapter 5 Materials and Corrosion 157

5.2.3 Nonmetallic Materials

5.2.3.1 Thermoplastics
A thermoplastic material is a type of polymer that can be melted and molded to shape, and
can be reheated and remolded many times. The most common thermoplastics are polyethylene (PE),
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene (PS). The primary engineering ther-
moplastics include polyamides (nylons), polyethylene and polybutylene terephalates, polymethyl-
methacrylate (acrylic), and polyoxyemethylene (acetal). One of the best-known polyamides is Kevlar.
Polymethylmethacrylate is better known as acrylic, Perspex, or plexiglas, and is frequently used as
a replacement for glass because of its transparency. Table 5-8 summarizes sorne of the properties of
thermoplastics.

Table 5-8. Summary of Properties of Selected Thermoplastics

Plastic Elastic Elastic Water Specific Tensile Elongation Comments
Modulus Modulus Absorption Gravity Strength %
Tension Flexure (%in 24 hr) MPa (ksi)
MPa (ksi) MPa(ksi)
PE polyethylene 140-6900 69-970 <0.1-<0.01 0.91-0.94 6-38 80-500 Resistant
(20-1000) (10-141) (0.9-5.5) to marine
exposure
PVC polyvinyl 2.7-21 - 0.15-1 1.16-1.55 7-27 4.5-65 10% reduction
chloride (0.4-3.0) (1-3.9) in hardness
plasticized dueto water
absorption
over 5 years
PVC unplasticized 24-40 20-40 0.03-1.45 1.3-1.45 38-62 2-40 Maybe
(3.5-5.8) (2.9-5.8) (5.5-9) attacked by
marine borers
PP polypropylene 689-1520 1100-1310 <0.03 0.89-0.91 29-34 115-350 Resistant
(100-220) (160-190) (4.2-4.9) to marine
exposure,
low water
absorption
PS polystyrene 3100-3500 2750-3500 0.03-0.2 1.04-1.09 40-48 1-2.5 Slight strength
(450-508) (400-508) (5.8-7) loss dueto
sun, good
resistance
to sea water
immersion,
low water
absorption
nylons polyamides 1400-3000 - 0.25-1.9 1.02-1.14 38-80 30-300
(203-435) (5.5-11.6)
acrylic 2400-3000 2750 (400) 0.1-0.5 1.12-1.28 41-86 2-7 Sorne
polymethyl- (348-435) (5.9-12.5) reduction of
methacrylate properties
dueto water
absorption,
sun resistant
158 Elements of Ocean Engineering

5.2.3.2 Composites
A composite can be defined as a material that is constructed from two or more components,
separately manufactured, at the microscopic level. It consists of a matrix material that is polymeric,
metallic, or ceramic, and a reinforcing material that is fiber or particulate. The most commonly used
composites in the marine environment are polymeric or resin-based. Composites are often used in the
construction of ship hulls, and future offshore applications include water piping systems, housings,
buoys, and lifeboats. Table 5-9 summarizes sorne of the characteristics of composites. High-strength
boron composites have been used on America's Cup yachts. The disadvantage of these new composites
is their expense. Graphite composites are relatively new and have been considered for use on new off-
shore platforms, but the cost is high.
Fiberglass is a nonmetallic material that is frequently used in the construction of small boats,
buoys, and submarines. Fiberglass is one example of an increasingly used type of composite material
that consists of reinforcing fibers that are held together by a bonding material. The glass fibers are
bonded together with epoxies, polyesters, phenolics, or silicones. Fiberglass is a combination of glass
fiber and polyester or epoxy binders, and is very commonly used in ocean or fresh-water applications.
It has a high strength-to-weight ratio and therefore is useful for applications in which a light weight
is desirable. Fiberglass has a low fatigue strength but excellent corrosion resistance. Because of the
processes involved in manufacturing, good quality control is necessary to ensure uniform qualities.
Table 5-10 presents a summary of the properties of glass and fiberglass materials frequently used for

Table 5-9. Summary of Properties for Unidirectional Composites

Property Boron- Boron- S-glass- High- High- High- Arimid
epoxy polyamide epoxy modulus modulus strength Epoxy
Graphite- Graphite Graphite
epoxy Polyamide Epoxy
Reinforcement content 50 49 72 45 45 70 54
(% Volume)
Specific gravity 2.02 1.99 2.13 1.55 1.55 1.61 1.36
Tensile strength (MPa)
Longitudinal 1370 1040 1290 "840 807 1500 1190
Transverse 56 11 46 42 15 40 11
Tensile modulus (OPa)
Longitudinal 201 221 61 190 216 154 84
Transverse 22 14 25 7 5 10 5
Compressive strength
(MPa)
Longitudinal 1600 1090 820 883 652 1700 290
Transverse 123 63 162 197 70 246 65
Shear modulus (OPa) 5.38 7.65 12.0 6.2 4.48 6.9 2.83
Intralaminar shear 63 26 45 61 22 68 28
strength (MPa)
Poisson's ratio
Major 0.17 0.16 0.23 OJO 0.25 0.28 0.32
Minor 0.02 0.02 0.09 - 0.02 0.01 0.02
Note: Divide MPa by 6.895 to convert to ksi (1 ksi = 6.895 MPa).
American Society ofMetals (ASM) (1990). Metals handbook (10th ed.). Vol. 1 and 11. Metals Park, OH: ASM Intemational.
Chapter 5 Materials and Corrosion 159

Table 5-10. Summary of Properties of Glass and Fiberglass Materials

Material Yield Strength Compressive Strength Elastic Modulus Specific Weight
MPa (ksi) MPa(ksi) E X 106 kPa (psi) lb/ft3
Fiberglass polyester mat 117 (16.9) 186 (27) 10.0 (1.45) 93.3
Fiberglass polyester cloth 365 (53) 290 (42) 18.6 (2.7) 112.3
Fiberglass epoxy cloth 586 (85) 448 (65) 31.7 (4.6) 113
Fiberglass epoxy filament 1034 (150) 827 (120) 55.2 (8) 129.6
Glass (tempered) 310 (45) 2758 (400) 82.7 (12) 207.4
Glass fiber 3103 (450) - 86.2 (12.5) -

ocean applications. Glass has high compressive strength but very low tensile strength. lt is also difficult
to ensure the consistency of its physical characteristics, and the cost of achieving consistency through
quality control is high.

5.2.3.3 Cement and Concrete

Concrete has many marine applications, including use in foundations, dams, gravity offshore plat-
forms, offshore pipeline coating, and coastal protection structures (e.g., revetments, breakwater caps, piers,
and docks). Concrete offshore fixed platforms are operational in the North Sea, and recently concrete has
been considered for floating structures such as semisubmersibles and offshore floating production systems.
Concrete has excellent compressive strength but low tensile strength; therefore, concrete structures need to
be designed for minimum tension, bending, and shear stresses. Reinforcement with steel reinforcing mem-
bers can greatly improve resistance to bending and tensile forces. In this case, the concrete must be sealed so
that seawater does not permeate the concrete and contact the steel reinforcements, which are subject to cor-
rosion. Lightweight concrete has been developed and is finding use in floating applications; sharp corners
are subject to cracking and abrasion, however, and must be protected. The common ingredients in concrete
mix are cement powder, water, sand, stones, various additives, and reinforcing steel bars. The typical prop-
erties of concrete are tabulated in Table 5-11.

Table 5-11. Properties of Common Concrete

Material Yield Strength Compressiv~ Strength Elastic Modulus Specific Weight
MPa (ksi) MPa(ksi) E X 106 kPa (psi) lb/ft3
Concrete lightweight 2.8 (0.4) 31.0 (4.5) 13.8 (2.0) 105.4
Concrete prestressed 4.8 (0.7) 48.3 (7.0) 31.0 (4.5) 155.5

5.2.3.4 Wood
The use of wood in marine applications has declined in recent years. Wood has higher strength
along the grain than across the grain, and its strength is affected by moisture content, so it is often necessary
to treat the wood to prevent water absorption and attacks by marine borers. It is substantially influenced by
moisture content. Lamination is a common way to eliminate sorne of the anisotropy of properties. A sum-
mary of the mechanical properties of various woods is provided in Table 5-12. Marine-grade plywood is
made with weather- and boil-proof adhesives, and is often used for the skin of small vessels. Applications
for wood in the marine environment include quays, groins, small boats, and skids for launching offshore
structures. A combination of wood and resins is used to produce wood laminates for marine applications.
Ocean engineering students at Texas A&M University used a wood laminate to construct the hull, propeller,
and control surfaces of the human-powered submarine Aggie Ray (Manlove et al., 1991).
160 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 5-12. Summary of Mechanical Properties for Wood with Different Moisture Content
Type Moisture Density Static bending Compression parallel Compression Shear
content% (t/m3) to grain normal to parallel
grain to grain
Proportional Ultimate Flexura! Proportional Ultimate Proportional Ultimate
limit strength modulus limit strength limit strength
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
Ash 43 0.54 36.5 65.5 9.7 23.2 28.0 5.9 9.3
12 0.58 61.4 100.7 11.6 38.5 50.2 10.4 13.2
Beech 54 0.56 29.6 59.3 9.5 17.6 24.5 4.6 8.9
12 0.64 60.0 102.7 11.9 33.6 50.3 8.6 13.9
Douglas 36 0.45 33.1 52.4 10.7 23.5 26.8 3.5 6.4
fir 12 0.48 55.8 80.7 13.2 44.5 51.2 6.3 7.9
Oak 70 0.59 32.4 55.8 8.3 20.3 24.3 5.9 8.8
12 0.67 54.5 95.8 11.2 30.0 48.5 9.7 13.0
Pine 63 0.54 35.9 60.0 11.0 23.6 29.6 4.1 7.2
12 0.58 64.1 101.4 13.7 42.4 58.2 8.2 10.3
Note: Divide MPa by 6.895 to convert to ksi (1 ksi = 6.895 MPa).

5.2.4 Buoyancy Materials

Buoyancy materials have a specific gravity less than that of water and are used to provide buoyant
force for various ocean applications, such as submarines, pipelines, marine risers, and buoys. Gasoline,
which has a specific gravity of 0.7, was used in the submarine Trieste during its record-setting deep dive
many years ago. Wood has a specific gravity of 0.5 and has been used as buoyancy material. However, wood
absorbs water and eventually loses its buoyancy. Currently, buoyancy materials that do not absorb water and
do not compress over a range of water depths are the most desirable. A commonly used buoyancy material
called syntactic foam consists of hollow glass spheres mixed with a binding material such as a polyester or
epoxy resin (Table 5-13). This material weighs between 1885 and 6598 N/m 3 (12-42lb/ft3) and has a buoy-
ant force ranging between 98 and 231 N (22-52lb).

Table 5-13. Properties of Selected Syntactic Buoyancy Material

Property Shallow Moderate Moderate DeepDepth DeepDepth DeepDepth
Depth Depth Depth
Resin epoxy polyester or polyester or polyester polyester epoxy
Macrospheres polystyrene epoxy epoxy none none none
Microspheres none Dia = 7/16 in none Dia = 65 Dia = 80 Dia = 65
Dia = 90 microns Dia = 65 microns microns microns microns
Specific Weight 1885 3770 5027 6598 6598 5498
N/m3 (lb/ft3) (12) (24) (32) (42) (42) (35)
Buoyancy in Sea Water 8168 6283 5027 3456 3456 4555
N/m 3 (lb/ft 3) (52) (40) (32) (22) (22) (29)
Compressive Yield - 11.7 50.3 68.9 48.3 72.4
Strength MPa (ksi) (1.7) (7.3) (10) (7) (10.5)
Hydrostatic Strength 1.03 12.4 48.3 103.4 55.2 96.5
MPa (ksi) (0.15) (1.8) (7.0) (15. O) (8.0) (14.0)
Failure Depth 103 >2058 6159 10976 7561 9604
m (ft) of sea water (338) >(6750) (20,200) (36,000) (24,800) (31,500)
http://www.trelleborg.com
 Chapter 5 Materials and Corrosion 161

5.3 MARINE CORROSION

Marine corrosion is the deterioration of metals in the marine environment due to electrochemical
reaction. Ocean engineers must consider corrosion effects in the design process, and they must understand
corrosion principies and learn to minimize or account for their effect. For design purposes, the engineer
must realize that corrosion of the structure will occur, and as a consequence the structural strength will
be reduced. By understanding the principies of corrosion, engineers can avoid poor designs and eventual
failures. For more detailed information on marine corrosion, see the following references: AISI (1981),
ASM (1987), NACE (1983), Fontana and Greene (1986), LaQue (1975), Reuben (1994), Schenck (1975),
Schumacher (1979), Tuthill and Schillmoller (1971), Uhlig and Revie (1985), and Davis (2000).

5.3.1 Electrochemical Reactions

For an electrochemical reaction to occur, there must be a metal anode area that corrodes by oxida-
tion and a cathode where the reduction reaction occurs. An electrolyte must be in contact with both the an-
ode and cathode, and ions are transferred through this path. Finally, there must be an electron flow between
the anode and cathode, and the electrons flow from the anode to the cathode. The most common reactions
at the cathode are illustrated in Table 5-14 (Mis the metal, Ze is the number of electrons lost, and Z is the
metal valence). Reaction number 3 is the most common and important reaction in marine corrosion that
indicates the reaction draws the needed oxygen from the surrounding environment.

Table 5-14. Common Electrochemical Reactions in Corrosion

Cathodic Type Reaction Equation Reduction Type
Acid 2H+ + 2e ~H2 hydrogen reduction
Oxygenated acid 4H+ + 0 2 + 4e ~ 2H20 oxygen reduction
Neutral or near-neutral solution 02 + 2H 20 + 4e ~ 40H- oxygen reduction
Metal reduction MZ+ + e ~ M(Z-1)+
Metal deposition MZ+ + Ze ~M0
Anodic Type Reaction Equation - Reduction Type
+ 2e
Fe ~Fe2 +
Al~Al + + 3e
3

5.3.2 Galvanic Series of Metals

The galvanic series of metals in seawater are tabulated in Table 5-15. lf there is a large potential dif-
ference between two metals, there is a greater potential for corrosion. A small difference indicates a much
lesser tendency to corrode. These differences do not indicate how fast the corrosion will take place. By using
electrode kinetics, engineers can determine the corrosion current and thus the speed of the reaction.

5.3.3 Typical Types of Corrosion Occurring in the Ocean Environment

5.3.3. 1 Uniform
General corrosion appears as a continuous layer of corrosion over an entire surface area. It occurs
more often for objects that are exposed to air, such as piping and plates on exposed structures (e.g., offshore
platforms and ships). This type of corrosion is not commonly found when objects are totally submerged. It
is easier to design for this type of corrosion.
162 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 5-15. Galvanic Series ofMetals and Their Alloys in Seawater

Material Nobility Electric Potential Range (V)
Graphite Noble (cathode) +0.3 to +0.20
Platinum +0.35 to +0.20
Tantalum +0.20
Stainless steel type 6X (passive) +0.32 to -0.15
Hastelloy C +0.10 to -0.04
Inconel625 +0.10 to -0.04
Incoloy 825 +0.05 to -0.03
Titanium and titanium alloys +0.06 to -0.05
Stainless steel (300 series) -0.00 to -0.15
Monel400 and K-500 -0.04 to -0.14
Silver -0.09 to -0.14
Stainless steel17-4 PH (passive) -0.10 to -0.20
Copper -0.14
lnconel600 (passive) -0.13 to -0.17
Molybdenum -0.17
Copper-nickel (70/30) -0.13 to -0.22
Lead -0.19 to -0.25
Tungsten -0.24
Stainless steel430 and 431 (passive) -0.20 to -0.28
Copper-nickel (80/20) -0.21 to -0.27
Copper-nickel (90/10) -0.21 to -0.28
Nickel silver -0.23 to -0.28
Silicon bronze -0.24 to -0.27
Manganese bronze -0.25 to -0.33
Stainless steel 410 (passive) -0.24 to -0.35
Lead-tin solder 50/50 -0.26 to -0.35
Red brass, CDA 230 -0.20 to -0.40
Stainless steel17-4 PH & type 6X (active) -0.20 to -0.40
Cast brasses and bronzes
- -0.24 to -0.40
Naval brass -0.30 to -0.40
Aluminum bronze -0.30 to -0.40
Inconel600 (active) -0.30 to -0.42
Stainless steel 300 series (active) -0.35 to -0.57
Stainless steel 400 series (active) -0.45 to -0.57
Maraging steels -0.57 to -0.58
Alloy steels 4130 -0.60
High-strength steels (HY80 and above) -0.60 to -0.63
Low-strength alloy steels -0.57 to -0.63
Plain carbon steels -0.60 to -0.70
Cast irons -0.60 to -0.72
Aluminum alloys -0.70 to -0.90
Zinc -0.98 to -1.03
Aluminum -1.25 to -1.50
Magnesium Active (anode) -1.60 to -1.63
Chapter 5 Materials and Corrosion 163

Table 5-16. Corrosion Effects on Materials Submerged in Quiescent Seawater

Material Usual Average Corrosion Rates (mils/yr)
Nickel-chromium-high molybdenum alloys Non e
Titanium None
Stainless steel type 316 <0.1 except for deep pitting
Stain1ess steel type 304 <0.1 except for deep pitting
Nicke1-chromium alloys <0.1 except for deep pitting
Nickel-copper alloy <1.0 except for pitting
Nickel <1.0 except for deep pitting
Copper-nicke1 70-30 0.1-0.5
Copper-nickel 90-1 O 0.1-0.5
Copper 0.5-3.0
Aluminum brass 0.5-1.5
Nickel-aluminum bronze 1.0-2.0
Nickel-aluminum-manganese bronze 1.0-2.0
Manganese bronze 1.0-3.0 dezincifies
Cast iron 2.0-3.0
Carbon steel 4.0-7.0
Petersen, C., & Soltz, G. (1975). Ocean corrosion. In H. Schenck (Ed.), Introduction to ocean engineering. New York: McGraw.

Table 5-16 illustrates the corrosion rates for selected materials submerged in quiescent seawater. Titanium
has no corrosion rate, and type 316 stainless steel has a corrosion rate of <0.1 mil/yr, except for deep pitting.
However, carbon steel corrodes at arate of 4-7 mils/yr. Por tubes and piping with seawater ftowing inside (Table
5-17), titanium shows no corrosion rate for all ftow velocities, and carbon steel has a corrosion rate of 5-30 mils/yr
for velocities of 0-4.57 m/s (0-15 ft/ s), respectively. Type 316 stainless steel shows only deep pitting for velocities
between O and 0.91 m/s (0-3 ft/s) anda corrosion rate of <0.1 mil/yr for velocities between 0.91 and 4.57 m/s
(3-15 ft/s). The corrosion effects for seawater ftowing in pumps and over hydrofoils are tabulated in Table 5-18.
Pump parts and hydrofoils are expected to corrode ata rate of 30-300 mils/yr when velocities are between 6.1
(20) and 42.7 m/s (140 ft/s) and the material is carbon steel. Titanium again has no corrosion rate, and stainless
steel type 316 has a corrosion rate of <1 mil/yr only at the highest ftow velocity of 36.6-42.7 m/s (120-140 ft/s).

Table 5-17. Corrosion Effects in Pipes and Thbes with Seawater Flowing

ft/s o 3 6 9 12 15
m/s o 0.91 1.83 2.74 3.66 4.57
Water Velocity
Petersen, C., & Soltz, G. (1975). Ocean corrosion. In H. Schenck (Ed.), Introduction to ocean engineering. New York: McGraw.
164 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 5-18. Corrosion Effects for Seawater Flowing in Pumps and Over Hydrofoils

ft/s 20 40 60 80 lOO 120 140

mis 6.1 12.2 18.3 24.4 30.5 36.6 42.7
Typical range of velocities for equipment item
Petersen, C., & Soltz, G. (1975). Ocean corrosion. In H. Schenck (Ed.), Introduction to ocean engineering. New York: McGraw.

5.3.3.2 Ga/vanic
Galvanic corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals are connected electrically or by a metallic
path and are immersed in seawater or sorne other liquid that acts as an electrolyte. As a result, one of the
metals will corrode faster than normal, and the other, more noble metal will corrode more slowly or cease
to corrode. The galvanic series in Table 5-15 can be used to ~stimate the potential for corrosion. Engineers
use the process of galvanic corrosion to protect ship hulls by bolting zinc anodes to the steel hulls. It is best
to avoid using dissimilar materials, but if dissimilar materials must be used, the two materials should be
isolated by means of a nonmetallic material between them. Increasing the distance between two dissimilar
metals in a galvanic couple willlower the rate of corrosion. Also, making the anode larger than the cathode
will reduce galvanic corrosion. Additionally, situations in which the surface area of the more noble metal
(cathode) is larger than the less noble metal (anode) should be avoided.

5.3.3.3 lntergranular
Intergranular corrosion is a microscopic form of corrosion that is caused by the potential difference
between the grain boundaries of the metal and grain bodies. When the grain body is anodic to the grain
boundaries, corrosion will occur along the boundaries. This is frequently the case in weld zones. Dealloying
corrosion can occur in sorne metal alloys that are susceptible to corrosion when elements in the alloy are
attacked. The more active element is removed, and the more noble element remains. The result is a porous
and weakened structure. This type of corrosion is commonly observed in cast iron immersed in seawater,
and it occurs in brass containing more than 15% zinc.

5.3.3.4 Crevice and Pitting

Crevice corrosion can occur in places with a limited amount of oxygen available, such as in slightly
open joints (crevices) and under nuts, bolt heads, and washers. Crevice corrosion results from the creation
Chapter 5 Materials and Corrosion 165

of an electrochemical cell between the oxygen-deficient electrolyte inside the crevice and the electrolytic
solution outside the crevice. The crevice acts as the anode, and the large surrounding area acts as the cath-
ode. This results in an attack of the anode, which can then cause mechanical failure of the components. The
localized nature of the corrosion can cause mechanical failures.
Pitting corrosion is similar to crevice corrosion, but it does not require an existing pit or crevice to
cause the pits to occur. It produces very small pits or holes in the metal surface. These pits can penetrate a
hull and severely weaken the metal structure.

5.3.3.5 Erosion
Erosion corrosion occurs when seawater is ftowing at a relatively high velocity and impacts a metal
surface. lt is often found in the bends and elbows of pipes. Erosion corrosion can be general or localized,
and is usually characterized by grooves, waves, or rounded holes. Corrosion due to cavitation is also caused
by the velocity of seawater, but the mechanism is different. As the fluid ftows over the metal surface, vapor
bubbles form at the interface (cavitation) as a result ofthe reduced local pressure. When these vapor cavities
collapse in regions of higher pressure, the forces of the water on the metal surface can damage the metal
surface or protective coating. This type of corrosion commonly occurs on propellers, hydrofoils, and pump
impeller blades.

5.3.3.6 Stress Corrosion Cracking, Corrosion Fatigue,

and Hydrogen Embrittlement
Stress corrosion cracking is a result of the combined actions of the ocean environment and me-
chanical stress, and it can go undetected until the structure fails. Three requirements for stress corrosion
cracking are a susceptible alloy, corrodent, and tensile stress. Corrosion fatigue occurs in an environment
of corrosion and cyclical stress (fatigue). The combined effect of corrosion and fatigue can be very severe.
Another type of corrosion is hydrogen embrittlement, which is caused by atomic hydrogen penetrating the
metal and combining with the metal to form a brittle phase or by creating a large pressure. The hydrogen
can be introduced by corrosion or by a cathodic protection system.

5.3.4 Preventing Corrosion

The optimal time to consider corrosion prevention is during the design stage, and the worst time
is after the existence of corrosion has been discovered. Several methods of preventing corrosion are now
briefty described, including material selection, good design, paint or coating, cathodic protection, and in-
hibitors. By selecting the right material for a particular application, one can avoid or minimize corrosion.
However, selecting the most corrosion-resistant material doesn't always work, because there are other re-
quirements that the design must satisfy. Sorne typical requirements and a few procedures for making proper
material choices are tabulated in Table 5-19.

Table 5-19. Typical Requirements and Procedures for Material Selection for Corrosion Prevention
Requirements Procedures
Properties (corrosion, mechanical, physical) Define life of system
Fabrication (constructability, weldability, machinability) . Materiallife
Compatibility Reliability (safety, failure consequences)
Maintainability Availability/delivery time
Data availability Costs (material, maintenance, inspection)
Comparison with other corrosion protection possibilities
166 Elements of Ocean Engineering

5.3.4. 1 Design
Good design incorporates corrosion protection methods during the design stage, when the engineer
can view drawings and determine the possibility of eliminating geometric configurations that are known
to cause or accelerate the corrosion process, such as crevices, stagnant areas, and stress risers. The design
stage is a good time to consider the effects of other corrosion protection methods, but they can also be in-
corporated at a later time.

5.3.4.2 Material Selection

The purpose of material selection is to select the best material that will achieve the desired cor-
rosion resistance at the least cost. Schweitzer (2006) identified five factors that must be considered when
selecting materials to control corrosion cost, design conditions, safety, reliability, and environmental effects.
Additional considerations include material properties, maintainability, compatibility, and ease of fabrication.

5.3.4.3 Coating
Painting surfaces is a very common type of corrosion control for metallic and nonmetallic surfaces.
Four critical elements for using coatings for corrosion control are correct selection, surface preparation,
application, and routine inspection and repair. The life of corrosion protection from paint is relatively short
(several years), and the repair of worn, scratched, or chipped spots is routine maintenance. Sorne coatings
(long-life paints) have been developed that have a usefullife of over 10 years in the marine environment.
Coatings are very expensive on a per gallon basis, and they require extensive surface preparation that is
also costly. Inorganic zinc is one of the better coatings for above water applications, and its use underwater
requires a top-coating. Other types of coatings are tabulated in Table 5-20 along with a brief description of
their characteristics.

5.3.4.4 lnhibitors
The protection of closed systems such as engines, boilers, or tanks is usually accomplished with
the use of chemical inhibitors. There are five classes of inhibitors: absorption inhibitors (affect anodic and
cathodic reactions), hydrogen evolution poisons (affect hydrogen evolution), scavengers (remove oxygen
needed for the cathodic reaction), oxidizers (work with iron only), and vapor phase inhibitors. The first four
methods use a solution to protect the metal. For example, rust -inhibitors are used in automobile coolants to
protect the engine and radiator.

5.3.4.5 Cathodic Protection

Cathodic protection is the most common form of corrosion protection for submerged material. The
two types of cathodic protection are called sacrificial anode cathodic protection and impressed current ca-
thodic protection. The impressed current system is a more permanent protection system and requires the use
of external electrical power. It is much more complex than the sacrificial anode cathodic protection system
and is used for offshore structures and mooring applications.

5.3.4.6 Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection

Sacrificial anode cathodic protection (also called galvanic protection) employs aluminum, mag-
nesium, or zinc anodes that are attached to the steel material in seawater. The principie behind cathodic
protection is that when a metal receives electrons, it becomes the cathode and can no longer corrode.
Aluminum and aluminum-zinc anodes are commonly used for offshore applications such as offshore oil
and gas platforms, marine pipelines, subsea systems, and instrument mooring chains. The aluminum an-
odes have a better current-to-weight ratio than zinc and are very durable. Aluminum anodes do not cor-
rode reliably in fresh or brackish water, so zinc anodes are more commonly used as a sacrificial material
to protect steel in fresh or brackish waters. When the anodes deteriorate, they are replaced, and continued
protection of the steel is accomplished. Cathodic protection is most commonly used on ship hulls, but it is
also used on the submerged part of offshore fixed and floating structures and offshore pipelines.
 Chapter 5 Materials and Corrosion 167

Table 5-20. Characteristics of Paints and Coatings for Marine Protection

Paints and Coatings Characteristics
Water-based paints • Easy application
• Nearly odorless
• Easy clean-up
Oil-based paints • Easy application
• Relatively inexpensive
• Permeable
• Recommended for mild atmospheric conditions
Alkyd paints • Must be baked to dry
• Better corrosion resistance than oil-based paints
• Not suitable for resistance to chemicals
Urethane paints • Good resistance to abrasion
• Corrosion resistance approaches that of vinyls and epoxies
Vinyl paints • Better corrosion resistance than oils or alkyds
• Adherence and wetting often poor
• Good resistance to aqueous acids and alkalines
• Maximum temperature of 150°F
Chlorinated rubber • Poor wetting
• Quick drying
• Good resistance to water and inorganics
• Maximum temperature of 150°F
• Painting often improves protection
Epoxy paints • Coal tar-epoxy offers good resistance to water soil and inorganic acids
• Polyamide-hardened more resistant to moisture but less resistant to acids
• Amine-hardened more resistant to chemicals
• Epoxy-ester easier to apply but less corrosion-resistant
Silicone paints • Excellent water repellent
• Maximum temperature of 1200°F
• Poor chemical resistance
Zinc paints (organic and inorganic) • Used for galvanic protection
• Organic requires less surface preparation
• Inorganic easier t~ topcoat
• Used effectively in neutral and slightly alkaline solutions
• lnorganic more lu(at-resistant
Coal tars • Applied hot
• Good for underground applications

The design of a cathodic protection system depends on whether the anodes can supply the required
external current for the design life of the system. The general sequence involved in designing a cathodic
protection system is as follows:

• Select the proper maintenance current density based on geographicallocation.

• Calculate the surface areas to be protected.
• Compute the total anode material (number of anodes) required for the selected life of the structure.
• Determine the anode geometry and initial current density assuming the appropriate driving po-
tential (i.e., 0.45 V between steel and aluminum alloy anodes).
• Determine the life of the anode for polarized material (i.e., 0.25 V potential for polarized steel).
• Distribute the anodes evenly over the material to be protected.

First, the total number of anodes is determined. The amount of maintenance current density (im)
needed to protect the selected material in seawater or saline mud is known. The known surface area (A) to
be protected is u sed to determine the total current OtotaJ):
(5-1)
 168 Elements of Ocean Engineering

The total weight (W101a1) of the anode material is evaluated by

Wtatai = Itatai (Design Life)SF e (5-2)

where SF is a safety factor, ande is the anode current capacity (A-hr/lb). The total number (N) of anodes
is determined by
N= Wtotal (5-3)
w
where W is the weight of a single anode. Equal spacing of these anodes over the protected surface is re-
quired. Next, the anode resistance is found using

(5-4)

where R is the anode resistance, P is the resistivity of the electrolyte, r is the radius of a cylinder, and L is
the cylinder length. Other anode geometry uses an effective radius as defined by

r= cross-sectional area (5-5)

7T

The driving potential (E) between the anode (Eanocte) and protected material (Esteei) is determined by

E = Esteel - Eanode (5-6)

Typically, the driving potential between unpolarized steel and aluminum alloy anodes is 0.45 V (i.e.,
Esteei = -0.60 V and Eanode = -1.05 V). The average initial current at the anode (I) is found from

I =E (5-7)
R
The initial structure current density (i) is

(5-8)

This initial current fully polarizes the material to be protected (e.g., steel) and causes the driving potential
to be reduced (e.g., the driving potential is reduced to 0.25V between steel and aluminum alloy anode).
To calculate the life of the anode (T), the current output is recalculated using equation 5-7 with the re-
duced driving potential and a reduced radius or effective anode radius. The lifetime (T) of an anode is
determined by
W(C)
T = I(SF) (5-9)

where W is the weight of the anode, e is the current capacity of the anode as shown in Table 5-21 (ASM,
1987), and S is a safety factor. If the life of the anode just exceeds the desired life of the structure, then
the design is satisfactory. Otherwise, the type and size of the anode must be adjusted and the design steps
repeated until a satisfactory design is found.

5.3.4.7 Example Problem 5-1

An example of determining a cathodic protection system with a 20-year design life for an offshore
platform in the Gulf of Mexico is outlined in Table 5-22. The cylindrical anodes consist of an aluminum
alloy weighing 1050 lb (8 ft long and 0.4 ft radius). The water resistivity is 20 ohm-cm anda safety factor
of 1.25 is required. The calculated platform surface area is 35,000 and 50,000 square feet in the water zone
and mud zone, respectively. The anode capacity is 1250 A-hr/lb and the maintenance current is 6 mA/ft 2 •
The life and number of anodes are to be determined.
 Chapter 5 Materials and Corrosion 169

Table 5-21. Current Capacity of Sacrificial Anodes

Alloy Current Capacity (A-hr/lb)
Aluminum-zinc-mercury 1250-1290
Aluminum-zinc-indium 760-1090
A1uminum-zinc-tin 410-1180
Zinc 370
Magnesium 500
American Society ofMeta1s (ASM) (1987). Metals handbook (9th ed.). Vol. XIII. Metals Park, OH: ASM Intemational.

Table 5-22. Example Calculation for Cathodic Protection System

Given: Design life = 20 yr
Calculated surface area (A) = 35,000 ft 2 (water zone), 50,000 ft 2 (mud zone)
Anode capacity (C) = 1250 A-hr/lb
Safety factor (S) = 1.25
Water resistivity (P) = 20 ohm-cm
Maintenance current density (im) = 6 mA/ft2
Anode material = aluminum alloy
Assumed anode parameters = 1050 lb net weight, 8 ft long, 0.4 ft radius
Find: Number of anodes (N) and life of anodes (T)
Solution: l. Total current (I10tai)
Currentwater = (6 mA/ft 2 )(35,000 ft 2 )/1000 = 210 A
Currentmuct = (6 mAtfe)(50,000 ft 2)/1000 = 300 A
2. Total weight of required anode material
Total weightwater = (210 A)(8760 hr/yr)(20 yr)(l.25)/(1250A-hrllb) = 36,792lb
Total weightmuct = (300 A)(8760 hr/yr)(20)(1.25)/(1250 A-hr/lb) = 52,560 lb
3. The number of anodes, N, needed
Nwater = (36,792lb)/(1050 lb/anode) = 35
Nmuct = (52,560 lb)/(1050 lb/anode) = 50
Ntotal = 35 + 50 = 85
4. Resistance (R) of a single anode

R= 2: L [In ( 4;) - 1 l
where Lis anode length (in), Pis water resistivity (ohm-cm), and r is effective radius (in).

R -- 217"(96
20) . [In ( ---¿¡::g
2 54
4(96)) - 1]-
- 0.0441 ohm

5. Assuming a driving potential of 0.45 V, the initial current input is computed as

I = E/R = (0.45)/0.0441 = 10.2 A
6. The initial current density for the entire structure is
Current density = (10.2 A/anode)(85 anodes)/(85,000) = 0.001 A/ft 2
This is above the maintenance current density of 0.006 A/ft 2 .
7. Next, the anode resistance is computed for a 10% reduced radius of 4.32 in.
20) .5 [In ( 4(96))
R = 217"(96 2 4
1
4 .32 - 1 = 0.0455 ohm
8. For a potential drop of 0.25 V, the total reduced current I is
I = (0.25)/(0.0455) = 5.49 A
9. The design life (T) in years of the cathodic protection system is
T= WC
IS
Life (T) = (1050 lb/anode )(1250 A-hr/lb)/[(8760 hr/yr)(5.49 A/anode)(l.25)]
Life (T) = 21.8 yr (slightly exceeds desired 20 yr, so design is acceptable)
Note: If the life (T) doesn't exceed the design life, then increase the anode length and weight.
 170 Elements of Ocean Engineering

5.4 REFERENCES

American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). (1981). Handbook of corrosion protectionfor steel structures in
marine environments. Washington, DC: American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI).
American Society of Metals (ASM). (1981). ASM metals reference book. Metals Park, OH: American
Society of Metals.
American Society ofMetals (ASM). (1987). Metals handbook (9th ed.). Vol. XIII. Metals Park, OH: ASM
Intemational.
American Society of Metals (ASM). (1990). Metals handbook (10th ed.). Vol. 1 and 11. Metals Park, OH:
ASM Intemational.
American Standards and Testing Manual/Society of Automotive Engineers (ASTM/SAE). (1989). Metal
and alloys in the unified numbering system. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
Battelle Memorial Institute. (1986). Seawater corrosion ofmetals and alloys. Columbus, OH: Battelle.
Buckeridge, S., Campbell, S., Hagen, D., Hagen, H., Hvide, H., Kaiser, E., et al. (1989). Preliminary design
of a deepwater tension leg platform production riser. Ocean Engineering Senior Design Class,
Ocean Engineering Program, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas.
Davis, J. R. (2000). Corrosion: understanding the basics. Novelty, OH: ASM Intemational.
Dexter, S. C. (1979). Handbook of oceanographic engineering materials. New York: Wiley-Interscience.
Feron, D. (2001). Marine corrosion of stainless steels. London: lOM Communications.
Fontana, M., & Greene, N. (1986). Corrosion engineering (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
LaQue, F. L. (1975). Marine corrosion. New York: Wiley-Interscience.
Manlove, T. L., Longridge, J. K., & Randall, R. E. (1991). Performance of a human powered submarine: the
Aggie Ray. MTS '91 Conference Proceedings, New Orleans, Louisiana, November 11-13.
Meyers, J. J. (Ed.). (1969). Handbook of ocean and underwater engineering. New York: McGraw.
National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) (1983). Recommended practice: corrosion control
of steel, fixed offshore platforms associated with petroleum production. National Association of
Corrosion Engineers (NACE), NACE RP-01-76, rev. 1983.
Petersen, C., & Soltz, G. (1975). Ocean corrosion. In H. Schenck (Ed.), Introduction to ocean engineering.
New York: McGraw.
Reuben, R. L. (1994). Materials in marine technology. London: Springer-Verlag.
Schenck, H. (Ed.). (1975). Introduction to ocean engineerini New York: McGraw.
Schumacher, M. (Ed.). (1979). Seawater corrosion handbook. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Data Corp.
Schweitzer, P. A. (2006). Corrosion engineering handbook (2nd ed.). New York: Marcel Dekker.
Tuthill A. H., & Schillmoller, C. M. (1971). Guidelines for selection of marine materials (2nd ed.). New
York: Intemational Nickel Co. Inc.
Uhlig, H. H., & Revie, R. W. (1985). Corrosion and corrosion control (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley-Interscience.

5.5 PROBLEMS

5-1. A swimmer-assist vehicle requires 100 lb of buoyancy at depths of up to 300 ft. The vehicle is to
be compact and remain submerged for weeks at depth outside an underwater habitat. Discuss the
selection of buoyancy material.
5-2. A barge of 100ft length and 18ft beam is to be constructed. Discuss the use of fiberglass, steel, or
ferroconcrete as the construction material.
5-3. A designer plans to rivet two pieces of metal together. Discuss whether the rivets should be anodic
or cathodic.
5-4. If a metal structure is to be painted, discuss the need to paint the anode or cathode.
Chapter 5 Materials and Corrosion 171

5-5. Determine the number of zinc anodes required to protect the 1000-ft chain mooring line for a
taut mooring system for 5 years. The surface area of the low-strength steel chain mooring line is
1500 re. The seawater resistivity is assumed to be 30 ohm-cm and the safety factor is 1.5. The an-
ode weight and current capacity are assumed as 1135 lb and 370 A-hrllb. The anode is rectangular
in shape with a length of 0.5 ft, width of 2 in, and thickness of 0.5 in.
5-6. Determine the number of alurninum-zinc-tin anodes necessary to protect 50,000 ft 2 of carbon steel
plate (0.5 in thick) submerged in seawater for 15 years. The seawater resistivity is assumed to be
30 ohm-cm. The anode weight is 1135 lb and the current capacity is 1180 A-hr/lb. The cylindrical
anode is 8 in lo~g with a 3-in radius.
5-7. Determine the number of zinc anodes required to protect the 500ft chain mooring line for a cat-
enary mooring system for 20 years. The surface area of the low-strength steel chain mooring line is
1000 ft 2 • The seawater resistivity is assumed to be 30 ohm-cm and the safety factor is 1.5. The an-
ode weight and current capacity are assumed as 1135 lb and 370 A-hrllb. The anode is rectangular
in shape with a length 0.7 ft, width of 3 in, and thickness of 0.7 in.
5-8. Determine the number of aluminum-zinc-tin anodes necessary to protect 100,000 ft 2 of carbon
steel plate (1 in thick) submerged in seawater for 20 years. The seawater resistivity is assumed to be
30 ohm-cm. The anode weight is 1135 lb and the current capacity is 1180 A-hr!lb. The cylindrical
anode is 10 in long with a 4-in radius.
 CHAPTER 6 FLOATING ANO SUBMERGED BODY
HYDRODYNAMICS

6.1 TERMINOLOGY

The analysis and design of ocean structures includes ocean systems that are fixed, fioating, or
submerged. Ship strudure systems require a means of propelling them through the ocean waters, and for
decades naval architects have sought to incorporate better propulsion methods into the design and analysis
of ships. The terminology associated with ship design is quite different from that encountered in traditional
designs of land structures, and sorne of this terminology is also used in the field of ocean engineering. Sorne
ofthe common nautical terminology used aboard naval vessels and merchant ships is tabulated in Table 6-1,
and that related to naval architecture, and marine and ocean engineering for the design and analysis of fioat-
ing bodies is defined in Table 6-2.

6.1.1 Ship Geometry

The geometry of a ship is illustrated in what is known as lines drawings, an example of which is
shown in Fig. 6-1. A set of lines drawings includes the sheer, half-breadth, and body plans. The sheer plan
consists of vertical planes with the centerplane through the ship centerline and buttock planes at specified
distances from the centerline. The half-breadth (or waterlines) plan shows planes that are parallel to the base
plane and intersect the hull; all of these planes are called waterplanes. The body plan illustrates planes that
are perpendicular to the buttock and waterline planes, and intersect the hull.
A verticalline is drawn in the sheer plan at the intersection of the designed load waterline (DWL);
this is called the forward perpendicular (FP). A similar verticalline is drawn at the stern and is known as
the after perpendicular (AP). The distance between these two perpendiculars is the length of the ship, and
is often referred toas the length between perpendiculars (LBP). This length is used in the American Bureau
of Ships (ABS) Rules for Building and Classing Steel Vessels.
The LBP is divided into 10-40 intervals by body plan planes; these intervals are called body plan
stations, or simply stations. These stations are usually numbered from the bow, with station "O" being the
location of the FP. The molded baseline is a straight horizontal line that is used as a reference datum for
design and construction purposes. It is also the bottom of the vessel's molded surface and coincides with the
top surface of the keel.
The draft of a vessel is the vertical distance between the waterline at which the vessel is fioating
and the bottom of the vessel. The molded draft is measured vertically between the waterline and the molded
baseline, and the keel draft is measured between the waterline and the bottom of the keel. The average of
the forward and aft drafts is the mean draft. Most ships have draft marks located amidships and at both
ends as close to the forward and aft perpendiculars as possible. The difference between the forward and
aft draft readings is known as the trim. Vessel offsets are measured from the vessel centerline to the water-
line at each station, and a complete set of offsets for the various waterlines is known as a table of offsets.
Computer programs such as HULDEF, SHIPHUL, General HydroStatics (http://www.ghsport.com), and
YORAN fJJttn:JJwwW-fo.ran~stem.com) bave been develqped to generate ship lines and offsets. Por offshore
fioating oil and gas facilities, software such as Engineering Dynamics' StruCad and StabCad are used for
structural and stability analyses of semisubmersibles, spars, and fioating production storage and offioading
(FPSO) facilities. Det Norske Veritas (DNV) produces software (SESAM) for stability, hydrodynamics,
and mooring analyses. The ABS also provides software (Safehull) for the analysis and design of cargo
ships. Mooring analysis software is available from Global Maritime (GMoor), DNV (Mimosa), and Orcina
(Orcaftex), to name a few.

173
 174 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 6-1. Nautical Terminology

Term Definition
Aft Rear of vessel, toward the stern of vessel
Athwartship Across ship from side to side, right angle to the vessel centerline
Adrift Vessel is loose and not attached to mooring line or towline
Aground Vessel is touching sea bottom or fast to the bottom
Ahead Moving in forward direction
Alee Opposite the direction of wind, opposite of windward
Beam Extreme width of ship at widest point
Below deck Below the main deck
Bow Front of vessel
Bulkhead Wall
Capstan Electric device for winding mooring lines
Deck Floor
Draft Depth of water the vessel draws
Fathom Six feet of water depth
Focsle, Forecastle Forward part of ship above main deck
Forward Front
Freeboard Mínimum vertical distance from the water surface to main deck
Galley Vessel kitchen or cooking area
Hatch Opening in vessel with a watertight cover
Head Bathroom, restroom, lavatory, marine toilet
Hull Vessel main body or structure
Keel Bottom of centerline portion of vessel
Knot Nautical mile per hour
Lee Side of ship sheltered from wind
Leeward Being in or facing the direction toward which the wind is blowing
Midship Location equally distant between bow and stern
Mooring Arrangement to secure the vessel to the seafloor, pier, or buoy
Passageway Hallway
Port Left side of the vessel when facirrg the bow
Rudder Vertical structure for steering the vessel
Screw Vessel propeller
Sea cock Hull valve to isolate piping between the vessel's interior and the sea
Starboard Right side of the vessel when facing the bow
Stern Rear of the vessel
Tide Periodic rise and fall of sea level in the ocean
Topside Above the main deck
Tri m Fore and aft balance of the vessel
Windlass Electric device used to raise anchor
Windward Being in or facing the direction from which the wind is blowing

6.2 HYDROSTATICS ANO STABILITY

6.2.1 Displacement

The static behavior of floating and submerged bodies is governed by Archimedes' principie,
which states that a body immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid
it displaces, This means that the weight of the vessel is a downward force that is proportional to the
mass of the body, and the equal upward buoyant force is proportional to the mass of the displaced fluid,
 Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 175

Table 6-2. Symbols and Abbreviations Used in Naval Architecture and Marine and Ocean Engineering
Symbol/Abbreviation Definition
V Volume displacement
.ó Mass displacement
AP After perpendicular
Aw Waterplane area
B Maximum molded breadth
B,CB Center of buoyancy
BM Distance between center of buoyancy and metacenter
CG,G Center of gravity
CB Block coefficient, V/LBT
Cwp Coefficient of waterplane area, Aw/LB
DWL Designed load water line
DWT Deadweight
FP Forward perpendicular
GM Distance between CG and metacenter
GZ Righting arm
1 Moment of inertia
K Radius of gyration
K Keel
KB Distance between keel and center of buoyancy
KG Distance between keel and center of gravity
KM Distance between keel and metacenter
L Length of ship
LoA Ship length overall
LBP Length between perpendiculars
LCB,LCF Longitudinal center of buoyancy, fiotation
LCG Longitudinal center of gravity
M Transverse metacenter
SM Simpson multiplier, section modulus
T Draft .
T Period
TCG Transverse center of gravity
V Volume of displacement
VCG,VCB Vertical center of gravity, buoyancy
w Weight of ship, displacement, pgV
Waterplane Horizontal planes parallel to designed load waterplane
WL Intersection of waterplane with vessel's form
WL Waterline

Assume that a floating body is partially immersed in a fluid (e.g., water) at rest, as shown in Fig. 6-2. At
any point or depth (D), the mass of fluid above the depth is pAz, where pis the fluid density, A is the
cross-sectional area parallel to the free surface of the column of fluid, and z is the distance from the free
surface. Since a fluid does not support shear forces, static equilibrium requires that equal forces must
occur in all directions at that point. The pressure force experienced at this point (D) is pgAz, which is
the weight of the column of fluid above D. If the floating body is rigid, then the integration of the vertical
components of the pressure force over the surface of the body is the buoyant force. Thus, the buoyant
force (FB) is

FB = fspgz cosadS (6-1)

 .....
.......
Cl)

,.,.. .,Ft--
.....
g.,
,_
fl'H-OM.
~-
l<FI-

11f:1-

.
on-
•n-
m
1D
"" 3
(!)
::J
¡¡t
ll<ldr plo11
a
o
o
(!)

C-fk "'-= ·l 1BULWAAK1 1 , 1 ,-~-~ÁTSU 1 , _,, J>f!Sr~T~ lll

::J
m
::J
ce
:r
(!)
(!)
....
5"
ce

m
PROFII.E OR SHEEA PlAN

lll
"tw.F-I!READ'Oi ORWA1'EAIJNES PlAN

ÍlllGE ~ I!JIPNroeO

Figure 6-1. Example of ship lines drawing. (Reprinted with pennission from Lewis, E. V. (1988). Principies of naval architecture (2nd ed.).
Jersey City: Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.)
 Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 177

waterline waterline

'B
1
1

Figure 6-2. Buoyant forces acting on a floating body.

where ex is the angle of inclination of any portion of the body surface (S) from the horizontal. Por equi-
librium, the buoyant force must equal the weight of the body. Thus, the weight of the floating body and its
contents is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid or the displacement. Similarly, the mass of a floating
body and its contents is equal to the mass of the displaced fluid. Por a totally submerged body, such as a
submarine, the upward buoyant force must equal the weight of the fluid it displaces.
The volume of the underwater, or submerged, portion of a floating body can be calculated with the
use of numerical techniques such as Simpson's or trapezoidal rules. If the submerged portion is a simple
shape, it can be calculated directly. This underwater volume is called the volume of displacement (V).
Therefore, the weight of the displaced fluid, or the displacement weight (W) is

W= pgV = yV (6-2)

where p is the fluid density, g is the gravitational acceleration, and y is the specific weight of the fluid.
According to Archimedes' principie, this displacement weight is equal to the weight of the floating body
and its contents. In English units, W is usually expressed in long tons (2240 lb per ton), and in lnternational
System of Units (SI) terms, it is usually expressed in metric tons (1000 kg per metric ton).
The centroid of the submerged portion of a float~ng body is called the center of buoyancy (B), and
it represents the point through which the buoyant force acts. The density of the fluid medium affects the
displaced volume of fluid and hence the draft of the vessel. Since seawater is denser than freshwater, the
draft of a vessel will increase as it travels from ocean to inland waters that are less saline or to freshwater
lakes (e.g., the Great Lakes).

6.2.2 Coefficients of Form

A number of coefficients are used to express the characteristics of a vessel's shape, body plan sec-
tions, and waterlines. The block coefficient (C 8 ) is defined as the ratio of the volume of displacement (V)
of the molded form up to any waterline to the volume of a rectangular prism of length, breadth, and depth
equal to the length, breadth, and mean draft of the vessel at the waterline. In equation form, it is given as
- V (6-3)
Cs- LBT

where L is the length, B is the breadth, and T is the mean molded draft. The values used for L, B, and
T vary, so there can be slight differences. Por example, the LBP may be used for L, or the length at the
waterline may be used. Typical values of C8 vary between 0.36 for high-speed vessels to 0.92 for slow-
 178 Elements of Ocean Engineering

speed cargo vessels (Lewis, 1988). The midship coefficient (CM) is the ratio of the immersed area of the
midship station to that of a rectangle of equal area to the product of the molded breadth and molded draft
at the midship section. The common range of CM values is between 0.75 and 0.995 (Lewis, 1988). It is
expressed as
CM = Immersed area at midship section
BT
(6-4)
The prismatic coefficient (Cp) is the ratio ofthe volume of displacement (V) toa prism with a length
equal to the length of the ship and a cross-section equal to the midship section area. The usual range of
values is 0.5-0.9 (Lewis, 1988). It is expressed in equation form as

Cp = L X Immersed area
V at rm.d ship sect10n
. (6-5)

or

(6-6)
The waterplane coefficient (Cwp) is the ratio of the waterplane area (Awp) to the area of a circum-
scribing rectangle, and is expressed as
A
C = WP (6-7)
WP LB
This coefficient may be calculated at any draft, and typical values at the DWL range between 0.65
and 0.95 (Lewis, 1988). The vertical prismatic coefficient (Cvp) is the ratio of the displacement volume (V)
to the volume of a cylindrical solid with a depth equal to the molded mean draft and with a uniform hori-
zontal cross-section equal to the waterplane area at that draft. lt is defined as

e _ v = Ca (6-8)
VP - CWP LBT CWP
Finally, there is the volumetric coefficient (Cv ), which is defined as the displacement volume di-
vided by the cube of one-tenth of the length of the vessel, and is expressed as

(6-9)

Common values of Cv range from 1.0 for long, light ships (e.g., a destroyer) to 15 for short,
heavy vessels (e.g., a trawler). Certain ratios of the principal vessel dimensions are also frequently used
in ratio form, such as the length-to-breadth ratio (LIB, 3.5-10), length-to-draft ratio (LIT, 10-30), and
breadth-to-draft ratio (B/T, 1.8-5). Since different definitions of length can be used in these ratios and
coefficients, it is important to define which definition is being employed.
It is necessary to calculate areas, centroids, volumes, and other geometrical characteristics for a
vessel floating at a prescribed waterline (draft). Because the waterplane areas are not simple shapes, it is
usually necessary to use numerical techniques to calculate these characteristics. In most cases, Simpson's
rules for integration are used. These rules are defined in Table 6-3 and further explained by Lewis (1988).
Many years ago, mechanical integrators were used to evaluate plane areas, and the planimeter is an example
of such an instrument. Numerical integration techniques are currently used.

6.2.3 Curves of Form

In the design of vessels, the curves of form are normally produced for the vessel at a series of drafts.
The curves of form consist of a number of hydrostatic properties of the vessel as a function of the different
 Chapter6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 179

Table 6-3. Integration Rules Using Simpson's First and Second Rules Combined
Station Ordinate Simpson Multiplier Product
SIMPSON'S FIRST RULE PRIMARY
o Yo 1 Yo
1 y¡ 4 4y¡
2 Y2 2 2 Y2
3 Y3 4 4y3
4 Y4 17/8 17 y4/8
5 Ys 27/8 27 Ys/8
6 Y6 27/8 27 y6/8
7 Y? 9/8 9 y?/8
~ product

Area = ~ (~ product), where !l.y is station spacing

SIMPSON'S SECOND RULE PRIMARY
o Yo 1 Yo
1 y¡ 3 3y¡
2 Y2 3 3 Y2
3 Y3 17/9 17 y3/9
4 Y4 32/9 32 y4/9
5 Ys 16/9 16 ys/9
6 Y6 32/9 32 y6/9
7 Y? 8/9 8 y7/9

Area = 3~Y (~ product), where !l.y is station spacing

drafts. These curves are used by the vessel operation personnel and are also known as the curves of form, or
hydrostatic curves (Fig. 6-3). The range of drafts should extend from below the lightest possible operational
draft to the deepest possible draft.

6.2.4 Hydrostatic Calculations

Hydrostatic calculations include computations of the waterplane area (Awp), tons per unit immersion
(TPI or TP cm), longitudinal center of fiotation (LCF), transverse metacentric radius (BM), height of the
transverse metacenter (KM), longitudinal metacentric radius (BML), height of the longitudinal metacenter
(KML), molded displacement, total displacement (V), displacement (D), longitudinal center of buoyancy
(LCB), and vertical center ofbuoyancy (KB). Table 6-4 shows example calculations for waterplane charac-
teristics. Simpson's first rule with half multipliers was used for these computations. Similar computations
for displacement, longitudinal center of buoyancy, volume of displacement, and height of center of buoyancy
are illustrated in Table 6-5 and Table 6-6.
Two approximate expressions for determining the height of the center of buoyancy for conventional
ship forms were given by Morrish (1892) (equation 6-10) and Posdunine (1925) (equation 6-11):

KB = 1[5T _
3 2
_y_]
AWP
(6-10)

KB=T
1 i' J
A
AwP+
WP (6-11)
 180 Elements of Ocean Engineering

SCALE FOR INCREASE IN OlsPlACEMENf

IN TONNES PER 1 CM TRIM BY STERN
SCALE OF OISPI.ACEMENT IN TONNES • t.O - 0.5 O • O.S • \0 • 1.5
o 2000 •ooo 5000 eooo •o.ooo 1 2,000 u,ooo •r..ooo >eooo 20000 u.ooo 24;000 26.000 zsooo 30,ooo

SCAlt FOA LCB ANO LCF IN METERS

4 3 2 \ 1 2 3
- - AFi 0F AMIOS STA. S--~ FOR'c.OF AMIDS. -

Figure 6-3. Example curves of form. (Reprinted with permission froni Lewis, E. V. (1988). Principies of naval architecture
(2nd ed.). Jersey City: Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.)

The hydrostatic calculations for the curves of form are repetitious, and consequently computers
(mainframe and personal computers) are now used extensively to perform them. The U.S. Navy (USN)'s
Ship Hull Characteristics Program (SHCP) is used widely in shipyards and design offices throughout the
United States (NAVSEA, 1976), but other types of commercial software are also available.

6.2.5 Static Stability

The stability of submerged or floating vessels is usually classified as being either static or dynamic.
The concept of static stability is discussed in this section; for further discussion about dynamic stability,
see Lewis (1988), Tupper (1996), and Zubaly (1996). Sorne dynamic effects, such as forces dueto wind,
can be considered as static when steady conditions occur. Anotherstability problem occurs when vessels go
aground or when they are damaged and flooding occurs.
Floating and submerged vessels are usually rigid bodies, and for a state of equilibrium to exist, the
resultant forces and moments acting on the vessel must equal zero. $tatic equilibrium of a floating vessel
is concerned with the vessel in an upright position in still water. Thii means that the resultant gravitational

/
/
 Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 181

Table 6-4. Waterplane Characteristics for a Particular Waterline

Station Half- 1/2SM Product Moment Product Moment Product (Half- Product
breadth Arm Arm breadth)
(m) Squared cubed
o o 0.25 o 5.0 o 25.0 o o o
0.5 1.245 1.0 1.245 4.5 5.603 20.25 25.211 1.93 1.93
1 3.140 0.5 1.570 4.0 60280 16.0 25.120 30.96 15.48
1.5 5.359 1.0 5.359 3.5 18.757 12.25 65.648 153.90 153.90
2 7.597 0.75 5.698 3.0 17.094 9.0 51.282 438.46 328.84
3 10.956 2.0 21.912 2.0 43.824 4.0 87.648 1315.09 2630.18
4 12.007 1.0 12.007 1.0 12.007 1.0 12.007 1731.03 1731.03
5 12.039 2.0 24.078 o o o o 1744.90 3489.8
6 12.039 1.0 12.039 -1.0 -12.039 1.0 12.039 1744.90 1744.90
7 11.899 2.0 23.798 -2.0 -47.596 4.0 95.192 1684.73 3369.46
8 10.271 0.75 7.703 -3.0 -23.109 9.0 69.327 1083.52 812.64
8.5 8.417 1.0 8.417 -3.5 -29.460 12.25 103.108 596.31 596.31
9 5.962 0.5 2.981 -4.0 -11.924 16.0 47.696 211.92 105.96
9.5 3.057 1.0 3.057 -4.5 -13.756 20.25 61.904 28.57 28.57
10 o 0.25 o -5.0 o o o o o
S1 = 129.8 Sz = -34.3 s3 = 656.2 s4 = 15009
Station spacing (s) , s = .1.. 154 99
10 = 10· = 15 .499 m

Waterplane area, AwP = S 1 1s = [(129.9)(20.67)] = 2,683.8 m 2

- AWP-
Waterplane coefficient, CwP - -- 2683.8 - o719
LB [(154.99)(24.078)] - .
'D . . . (2683.8)(1.025) 27 Sl
onnes per centlmeter 1mmers10n = 100 = .

Longitudinal center offiotation, LCF = (-~ 2+ = ( ~iii)15.499 = 4.10 m abaft Station 5

Transverse moment of inertia, IT = S4 ( ~ )s = (15,009)(6.8884) = 103:390 m4

Volume of displacement, V = 17,845, from displacement curve in Fig. 6-3

Transverse metacentric radius, BM = ~ = 11~~S~O 5.79 m

Lewis, E. V. (Ed.) (1988). Principies of naval architecture (2nd rev.). Jersey City: Society ofNaval Architects and Marine Engineers.

forces (weight) acting downward and buoyant forces acting upward on the vessel are of equal magnitude and
act through the same verticalline.
There are three conditions of stability for floating or submerged vessels: stable, neutral, and
unstable. In a stable condition, the vessel returns to its original equilibrium state after an external force
or moment has been applied and removed. The external moment or force causes the vessel to change its
angular attitude, and when the force or moment is removed, the vessel returns to its original equilibrium
position. When a force or moment applied to a vessel causes it to change its angular orientation, and this
new orientation is maintained after the force or moment is removed, the vessel is considered to have neu-
tral stability. An unstable condition exists when a force or moment is applied to a vessel and the change
in orientation continues even after the force or moment is remoV~d (i.e., the vessel goes from upright to
upside-down). ·.
Floating and submerged vessels may be inclined either athwartship (heel or list) or longitudi-
nally (trim). Athwartship or transverse stability and longitudinal stability are usually discussed separately.
 182 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 6-5. Example Calculation of Displacement and LCB for a Particular Waterline
Station Area (m 2 ) 1/2 Simpson Product Nondimensional Product
Multiplier (SM) MomentArm
0.07 o 0.0175 o 5.07 o
-0.035 3.0 0.07 0.21 5.035 1.1
o 4.2 0.2675 1.12 5.0 5.6
0.5 12.7 1.00 12.70 4.5 57.2
1 22.6 0.50 11.30 4.0 45.2
1.5 35.1 1.00 35.10 3.5 122.9
2 50.6 0.75 37.95 3.0 113.9
3 83.3 2.0 166.60 2.0 333.2
4 106.1 1.0 106.1 1.0 106.1
5 113.7 2.0 227.40 o o
6 107.6 1.0 107.6 -1.0 -107.6
7 81.4 2.0 162.80 -2.0 -325.6
8 44.0 0.7813 34.38 -3.0 -103.1
8.5 29.1 0.8438 24.3 -3.5 -85.1
9 17.4 0.8438 14.68 -4.0 -58.7
9.5 5.3 0.3138 1.66 -4.5 -7.5
9.565 3.3 0.13 0.43 -4.57 -2.0
9.63 o 0.0325 o -4.63 o
S1 = 944.33 s2 = 95.6
Sectional area curve extended beyond stations O and 9.5 to extremities, as shown in Fig. 6-1, and read at midpoint between last
station and extremity. Simpson's multipliers proportioned accordingly. At station -0.035, l/2 SM= 0.5(4)(0.035) = 0.07; at
station O, 1/2 SM = 0.25 + 0.0175 = 0.2675; at station 8, l/2 SM = 0.5[1.0 + (9/8)(0.5)] = 0.7813 (first and second rules);
at station 8.5 and 9, 1/2 SM = [(0.5)(9/8)(3/2)] = 0.8438; at station 9.5, 1/2 SM = 0.5[(9/8)(1/2) + (0.65/1.0)] = 0.3138; at
station 9.565, 1/2 SM = [(112)(4)(0.065/1.0)] = 0.13.
Volume of displacement, \7 = S (2/3) s = 944.33 (2/3) 15/499 = 9,757 m3
Displacement, ~ = 1.025(9757) = 10,000 t (seawater)

Longitudinal center ofbuoyancy, LCB = ~: (s) = ( 9 ~~:~ 3 )(15.499) = 1:57 m forward of station 5

Lewis, E. V. (Ed.) (1988). Principies ofnaval architecture (2nd rev.). Jersey City: Society ofNaval Architects and Marine Engineers.

Transverse stability is of the most concern because it usually determines whether a vessel will or will not
capsize, or turn upside-down. In the English system, the displacement, weight, and buoyant forces are
expressed in long tons (or lb), but in the SI system, the displacement (Ll) is expressed as mass in metric tons
(or kg). Righting and heeling moments are expressed as metric ton-meters (t-m) or long ton-feet (ft-t). As
previously discussed, the weight or displacement is determined from the curves of form and draft marks.
The center of gravity (G) location is determined by experiment or calculation. Calculating the
location of G requires knowledge of the weight of all items on a vessel and their location with respect to a
selected coordinate system. The total weight of the vessel is assumed to act through the center of gravity.
An inclining experiment is conducted to experimentally determine the center of gravity location (G), which
is established relative to three reference planes. The verticallocation of the center of gravity (VCG) is refer-
enced toa horizontal plane passing through the baseline (keel). A vertical transverse plane passing through
the midship location or through the forward perpendicular is the reference for the longitudinal center of
gravity (LCG). The transverse center of gravity (TCG) is referenced toa vertical plane passing through the
vessel centerline. Usually, Gis located very near to the centerline plane.
The buoyant force (Fb) acting on the vessel is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid, and
it acts vertically upward through the center of buoyancy (B). The submerged volume is normally
 Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 183

Table 6-6. Example Calculation of the Volume of Displacement and Height of the Center of Buoyancy
Height Above Waterplane Area Multiplier for Product Multiplier for Product
Baseline (m) (m2) Volume Moment
o 194 5 970 3 582
1 1714 8 13712 10 17140
2 1976 -1 -1976 -1 -1976
S1 = 12706 s2 = 15746
1 1714 5 8570 3 5142
2 1976 8 15808 10 19760
3 2137 -1 -2137 -1 -2137
s3 = 22241 s4 = 22765
Values for 1m draft

Volume of displacement, Y' = [ 1s2 ] S 1 = 1~ (12,706)

Moment of volume about baseline, Mv = (~:) = S2 = (i~)l5,746 = 656.1 m4

Height of center of buoyancy, KB = ~v = ~g~~ = 0.62 m

Values for 2 m draft

Added volume of displacement, oY' (1 to 2m) = [ 1s2 ] ( S3) = 1~ (22,241) = 1853 m3

Total volume, LV' = Y' + dY' = 1059 + 1853 2912 m 3

=
2 12
Moment of added volume, oMv (1 to 2m) about 1m waterline = ~4 (S 4) = 24 (22765) m4 = 948.5 m4

Moment of added volume about baseline = 948.5 + 1853(1 - O) = 2801.5 m4

Moment oftotal volume about baseline, LMv = 656.1 + 2801.5 = 3457.6 m4

Height of cénter of buoyancy, KB = L;v = 32~?26 = 1.19 m

converted to the weight or mass of the displaced fluid and is termed the displacement (W or L1). The
orientation or attitude of a ftoating vessel is determined.by the interaction of the forces of buoyancy
(Fb) and weight (Fg)· When no other forces are acting., the vessel will immerse until the forces of
buoyancy and weight are equal, and will rotate until the centers of gravity (G) and buoyancy (B) are
in the same vertical line. A submerged vessel will rotate until the center of gravity is directly below
the center of buoyancy. An important difference between ftoating and submerged objects is that for a
ftoating body, the center of buoyancy location changes when the object is rotated, whereas it has a fixed
location for a submerged object.
A vessel's position is determined by two types of hydrostatic moments that act on ftoating and
submerged vessels: the righting moment and the heeling moment. The righting moment occurs when the
vessel inclines toa position where the forces of weight (Fg) and buoyancy (Fb) cause the vessel to return to
an upright and vertical position. Heeling moments occur at any angle of inclination, and the forces of weight
and buoyancy cause the vessel to move away from the upright position.
The effect of the location of the center of gravity in ftoating and submerged vessels is illustrated
in Fig. 6-4. Lowering the center of gravity increases the stability by increasing the separation of the forces
of weight and buoyancy. Lowering the center of gravity can also change a heeling moment to a righting
moment. The longitudinal separation of B and G affects the draft and trim of the vessel. In a submerged
body, the center of buoyancy does not move, and positive stability requires that G remain below B. An
unstable condition occurs when G mm-·es above B.
Upsetting forces may act on a vessel, causing it to heel, and the forces of weight (Fg) and buoy-
ancy (Fb) must create a righting moment to offset the heeling moment and prevent capsizing or excessive
184 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Floating Body
Positiva Stability Negativa Stability

MWL
~--~----~----~L---------~-----*+---~L---

Submerged Body

Figure 6-4. Location of center of gravity effects on stability, where MWL is the mean waterline.

heel. Examples of upsetting forces include wind, lifting of a heavy weight over the side, high-speed turns,
grounding, mooring lines, towlines, shifting of onboard weights, and entrapped water on deck.
In the design process, it is important to catalog all weights and their locations so that the overall
weight and location of the center of gravity can be estimated. The height of the center of gravity and weight
estimates are critica! for determining the adequacy of the vessel stability. The weight and longitudinal cen-
ter of gravity determine the drafts at which the vessel will fioat. The distance G is offset from the vessel
enterplane and determines the list of the vessel. An example calculation of the weight and height of G
bove the keel is shown in Table 6-7.

Table 6-7. Example Calculation of Vessel Weiglit and Vertical Center of Gravity
ltem Weight Vertical Location Moment
(lb) (ft) (ft-lb)
1 400 2 800
2 900 1.5 1350
3 600 3.0 1800
4 750 0.5 375
5 500 2.5 1250
6 1200 0.75 900
7 300 4.0 1200
8 150 5.0 750
9 400 1.75 750
VCG = L Moments = L Weight X Vertical Location
L Weights L Weights
9125 = 1 75 ft
VCG = 5200 .
KG = 1.75 ft
Similar procedures are used to evaluate transverse and longitudinal CGs.
Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 185

6.2.6 Metacentric Height

When a symmetric vessel is heeled to a very small angle cf>, the center of buoyancy moves off the
vessel centerline as a consequence of the inclination (Fig. 6-5). The resultant forces dueto weight (Fw) and
buoyancy (Fs) are separated by a distance GZ called the righting arm. A vertical line is drawn through
the new center of buoyancy (B) and intersects the original verticalline drawn through the initial center of
buoyancy. The intersection of these two lines is called the transverse metacenter (M). The location of the
metacenter varies with the displacement and trim, but it is constant for a given draft. The metacenter is
essentially stationary for small vessel angles of inclination (<7-1 O degrees).
If the locations of G and M are known, the calculation of the righting arm is then accomplished by

GZ = GM sinc;o (6-12)

The distance GM is an important index of the transverse stability at small angles of heel, and is
termed the transverse metacentric height. GM is positive when M is above G and negative when M is below
G. A vessel is stable when GM is positive, and unstable when GM is negative. The GM is used to measure
the initial stability of the vessel. Other useful relationships include the following:

BM =_!r (6-13)
V'
GM=KM-KG (6-14)

GM = KB + BM - KG (6-15)

For a submerged submarine, the center of buoyancy is stationary with respect to any angle of
inclination. When the submarine is submerged, B and M coincide. Therefore, the initial stability of a
submerged body is GB instead of GM. For fioating bodies, the metacentric height is also used to deter-
mine the moment to heel 1 degree, moment to trim 1 cm, and moment to trim 1 in. These parameters are
expressed as

Moment to heel 1 degree = ~ GM sin(l) (6-16)

. ~GM
Moment to trim 1 centimeter = lOO~ (t- m) (6-17)

WGM
Moment to trim 1 inch = 12 L L (ton - ft) (6-18)

Fb
Figure 6-5. Schematic of transverse metacenter (M) and righting arm (GZ).
186 Elements of Ocean Engineering

where L is the ship length and GML is the longitudinal metacentric height. The period of roll in still water
is estimated by

T = eBeam (6-19)
JGM

where e is a constant obtained from measured data. The value of e does not vary much and can be reason-
ably assumed as 0.8 for surface ships and 0.67 for submarines (Lewis, 1988). This expression can be used
to estímate GM when the period of roll is measured.

6.2.7 Cross Curves of Stability

The moment of weight and buoyancy that is necessary to return a vessel to its upright position is
determined by ascertaining the distance between the center of gravity and the verticalline through the cen-
ter of buoyancy for a particular inclination angle and displacement. This distance is called the righting arm
(GZ) and is illustrated in Fig. 6-6.
The cross curves of stability can be used to illustrate the righting arm for any probable value
of displacement and for several angles of heel. lt is convenient to assume a location for the center
of gravity, such as point A in Fig. 6-7 or the baseline. The distance (d) is calculated for several
waterlines (displacements) and various angles of heel. If G is abo ve A, the actual values of GZ are
obtained from

GZ = d - AG sin cp (6-20)

If G is below A, then

GZ = d + AG sin cp (6-21)

A is often taken at the baseline (K), and the value KG sin cp is always subtracted from d. A sample
set of cross curves of stability is illustrated in Fig. 6-7, whiGh shows the distance (d) for several displace-
ments and angles of heel.
There are different ways-!Q obtain the cross curves of stability. The manual method uses transverse
-----
sections of the vessel. The most comm~ethod is to use digital computers along with inputs of the vessel
offsets, such as those provided by the USN's\SHeP mentioned above. Another method is to use mechanical
integrators. All of these methods are descri~ed by Lewis (1988).
/

Fb
Figure 6-6. Illustration of transverse righting arms.
Chapter6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 187

60 •

..-.
.§.
E~
<bl)

·=
....
f.,
2-c
~s

15"
ji 1
{ 42
All curves are for an assumed KG of20 ft (6.1 m)
oi10~------~.5------~2~0------2~5------~30-------3~5
1 1
Displacement in tons (thousands)
Figure 6-7. Example of cross curves of stability. (Reprinted with permission from Lewis, E. V. (1988).
Principies of naval architecture (2nd ed.). Jersey City: Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.)

6.2.8 Curves of Static Stability

The static stability curve is a graph of the righting arm versus the angle of inclination (heel) for a
given vesselload condition. An example curve obtained from the cross curves of stability is illustrated in
Fig. 6-8. Calculations of the righting arms using values from Fig. 6-7 for a displacement of 30,000 metric
tons and KG of 8.8 m are tabulated in Table 6-8.
Vessel stability criteria are governed by several international and national organizations, including
the International Maritime Organization (IMO), U.S. Coast Guard (USCG, 1990), American Bureau of
Shipping (ABS, 2000), and USN (1987). The metacentric height is an approximate indication of the stabil-
ity, but a more accurate indication can be achieved by comparing the righting arm curve (static stability
curve) with the n eling arm curve, as illustrated in Fig. 6-9. The residual dynamic stability is represented
by the cross-hatch' d area between the righting and heeling .arm curves. Satisfactory stability is attained if
1) the heeling arm t the intersection of the righting arm and heeling arm curves (point C) is not greater than
0.6 of the maximu righting arm, and 2) area A 1 is not less than 1.4 A 2 where area A 2 extends 25 degrees
to windward from p int C (Lewis, 1988).

RANGE

E 2
1
w
:i ...J
(!)
~ ~
~ 1

~
~ o~~--+-----~--~-----+-----+---4--
15 30 45 60 75 30 45 60 75
ANGLE OF INCLINATION, DEG. ANGLE OF INCUNATION, DEG.
-1 -1

Center of gravity on centerline Center of gravity off centerline

Figure 6-8. Typical static stability curve with center of gravity on and off the centerline.
 188 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 6-8. Example Calculation of Righting Arm from the Cross Curves of Stability
Angle of inclination, q¡, degrees o 15 30 45 60 75
Righting arms, m, from Fig. 6-8 o 1.17 2.44 3.57 3.79 3.41
Adjustment of actual KG, (6.1-8.8) sin <1> o -0.70 -1.35 -1.91 -2.34 -2.61
Free surface effect o -0.05 -0.06 -0.05 -0.05 -0.04
Righting arms, m o 0.13 0.77 1.40 1.25 0.68

t: 4
<Ji CURVE A: INTACT RIGHTING ARM CURVE
2 CURVE 8 HEEUNG ARM CURVE
a:
<{ 3
{!)
~

60 90
L__ ANGLE OF INCLJNATION. DEG

1 TOLEEWARD

Figure 6-9. Example of USN criteria for stability in wind and waves. (Reprinted with permission from Lewis, E. V. (1988).
Principies of naval architecture (2nd ed.). Jersey City: Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.)

6.3 RESISTANCE ANO PROPULSION

6.3.1 Resistance

Vessels that move through ocean waters, or any other fluid, must have sufficient thrust from a pro-
pulsion device to overcome the resistance to movement of the vessel through the water or fluid. The resis-
tance is different for a completely submerged vessel and a vessel that moves through the water at the surface.
Resistance forces are usually distributed over the entire wetted surface of the vehicle. Propulsion forces are
applied at the stern of the vehicle, where the propeller is located.
In real fluids, the relative motion between the marine vehicle and fluid results in the develop-
ment of a boundary layer. lt is assumed that no relative motion exists at the surface of the vehicle, or, in
other words, that the velocity of the fluid and the ve hiele are the same (otherwise known as the no-slip
condition). Assuming that the vehicle is moving through a fluid at rest, the velocity of the fluid near
the vehicle will vary from the velocity of the vehicle to zero far away from the vehicle. If the vehicle
is stationary and the fluid is moving by it, the velocity will vary from zero at the vehicle surface to the
fluid velocity at sorne distance away from the vehicle. The layer of fluid between the vehicle surface
and the location where it approaches the freestream velocity is called the boundary layer. Since the
velocity in the boundary layer approaches the freestream velocity asymptotically, the thickness is not
easily defined, but is usually assumed to be the distance at which the velocity in the boundary reaches
95% to 99% of the freestream velocity. In many cases, the fluid separates from the rear of the vehicle
and forms a wake, and as a result there is a pressure difference between the bow and stern of the ve-
hiele. Por surface vehicles, there is an additional phenomenon resulting from the generation of waves
developed at the air-water interface.
The only horizontal force is that caused by drag or resistance when steady motion is assumed
and the effects of lift and side forces are neglected. The weight and buoyancy forces are in the vertical
direction. Por the submerged ve hiele, the total resistan ce (drag) is the summation of the forces resulting
Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 189

from the summation of the pressure and shear stress distribution over the wetted hull surface. Therefore,
the total resistance (RT) is the sum of the pressure resistance (Rp) and skin-friction resistance (RF), and
it is expressed as

(6-22)

A surface vehicle moving at the air-water interface results in the added complication of including
the resistance dueto wave-making. In this case, the total resistance must include the wave-making contribu-
tion to the resistance (Rw ), and is written as

(6-23)

For the vehicle, a dimensionless resistance coefficient is defined as

~
e= (6-24)
lpu2A
T
2
where (112)pU2A is the dynamic pressure, andA is a characteristic area of the body. The total resistance
equation is now expressed in dimensionless form as

(6-25)

Cp is the pressure coefficient and CF is the skin-friction coefficient, which are defined as
R R R
C= P. C= F. C= w (6-26)
p lpu2A' F lpu2A' w lpu2A
2 2 2
For bluff bodies such as a sphere, cylinder, or disc normal to flow, the boundary layer separation
produces a large wake behind the body that results in a large pressure drag, and consequently Cp is much
greater than CF. When a body is streamlined, the boundary layer separation occurs near the rear or not at
all, and the skin friction resistance dominates.
lt is very difficult to determine the total resistance _of a vessel (RT) because there is no general re-
lationship between the coefficient of resistance (CT) and the Reynolds (Re) and Froude (Fr) numbers. The
Reynolds number is the ratio of the inertia to viscous forces, and the Froude number is the ratio of the iner-
tial to gravitational forces. The Reynolds and Froude numbers are expressed as

Re= UL/v, Fr = Vljg[ (6-27)

Equivalency of the prototype and model Re and Fr ensures a dynamic similarity between the model
and the prototype. Thus, laboratory modeling is used to determine the resistance of the model vessel, and
scaling laws are used to evaluate the prototype resistance. The CT is split into its components and each com-
ponent is evaluated using the appropriate scaling law. The Froude procedure is as follows:

l. Determine RT for the model when (Fr)M = (Fr)p, where subscripts M and P refer to model and
prototype, respectively.
2. Evaluate the skin friction resistance RF for the model using data from submerged planks of equal
surface area, length, and finish, and model Reynolds number.
3. Determine the residual resistance (RR)M from (RR)M = (RT)M - (RF)M and determine (CR)M. CR
is assumed to be a function of the Froude number only, so that (CR)M = (CR)p.
4. Compute the frictional resistance RF for the plank corresponding to the Reynolds number of the
prototype and deduce (CF)P.
5. Evaluate the prototype resistance from (CT)P = (CF)P + (CR)M·
 190 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Once CT is determined, the resistance can be evaluated from

(6-28)

The assumptions are good for streamline hull forms and Fronde numbers greater than 0.35. Also,
very fast digital computers, such as workstations, parallel processing computers, and super computers, can
be used to perform numerical computations of resistance and obtain good results. More-detailed descrip-
tions of resistance determination can be found in Lewis (1988) and Clayton and Bishop (1982).

6.3.2 Propulsion

Marine vessels are propelled through a fluid medium by sorne type of propulsion device that gener-
ates enough thrust to overcome the vessel resistance. In the early days, thrust was provided by wind (sailing
vessels) or oars (human-powered vessels). Later, steam was used as the energy source to drive propulsors.
Currently, diesel fuel, gasoline, and natural gas are commonly used to drive propulsors. Sorne of the differ-
ent types of propulsors used on marine vessels are tabulated in Table 6-9.
To ensure the steady flow of a fluid through a screw propeller, the propeller is replaced by a thin ac-
tuator disc. The fluid passing through the disc is assumed to experience a sudden increase in pressure while
the fluid axial velocity remains continuous. The magnitude of the thrust developed by the disc is determined
by evaluating the change in the axial momentum of the fluid. The flow relative to an actuator disc in open
water is illustrated in Fig. 6-10. The disc advances forward at a steady velocity (Va), called the velocity of
advance, that is parallel to the axis of rotation. The fluid is assumed to have a constant density and to be
stationary, inviscid, and infinite in extent. lt is assumed that the propeller disc uniformly accelerates all of
the fluid passing through it, and that therefore the thrust generated is uniform over the disc. The axial veloc-
ity relative to the disc increases from Va far upstream of the disc to Va(l + a) at the disc to Va(l + b) far
downstream of the disc. The term "a" is the axial inflow factor.
As shown in Fig. 6-10, the uniform pressure on the upstream face of the disc is termed p, and that
on the downstream face is termed p + p'. Using the Bernoulli theorem between the upstream location and
upstream side of the actuator disc yields

Po+ !pv; = P + !p[Va (1 + a)] 2 (6-29)

On the downstream side, it is

(6-30)

Table 6-9. Summary of Typical Marine Propulsors

Propulsor Advantage Disadvantage Comments
Oars, paddles human-powered small, unsteady thrust small boat use only
Paddle wheel efficient requires low-speed engine used with steam power
Vertical axis propellers efficient, high degree of weight and cost used on ferries
speed, control, and thrust
Sails free power ineffective without wind used for sport and recreation
Hydraulic jets no parts externa! to vessel large duct losses efficiency increases at high
speeds
Pumpjet reduced duct length costly and difficult to instan used in shallow draft vessels
Kort nozzle high thrust at zero speed cavitation occurs earlier than used on tugs and large
pumpjet tankers
Screw propeller reliable, simple, and efficient cavitation limits performance most common propulsor
Clayton, B. R., & Bishop, R. E. D. (1982). Mechanics ofmarine vehicles. Houston: GulfPublishing Co.
Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 191

Actuator disk
cross-sectional area

CD Po
Po ~

_1 Va (1+b)
-1

L Streamtube

Pressure curve p
Figure 6-10. Flow relative toan actuator disk in open water.

Combining equations 6-29 and 6-30 and solving for p' yields

p' = ipb(2 + b)V; (6-31)

The thrust of the fluid on the disc of area (A) is

T = Ap' = ipAb(2 + b)V; (6-32)

The force of the disc on the fluid is written as

T = (mass flow rate) [Va (1 + b) -Val (6-33)

Using equations 6-32 and 6-33, it is shown that b = 2a, and thus the thrust is expressed as

T = 2p Aa (1- + a) v; (6-34)

The velocity at the disc is the arithmetic mean of the velocities well upstream and downstream of
the disc. Using energy concepts, the ideal efficiency 7]¡ for the actuator disc model is

7]¡ = 1 la (6-35)

The equation for thrust can be used to define a thrust coefficient CT as

C = T = 4a(1 + a) (6-36)
T lpAV2
2 a

and the inflow factor is determined from

a= 1- [(1 + CT )~ - 1 l (6-37)

The ideal efficiency is now expressed as

7]¡ = 2 1 (6-38)
1+ (1 + CT)2
The above equation is illustrated in Fig. 6-11 and represents the highest possible propeller efficiency. An
ideal efficiency of 0.7 is common.
 192 Elements of Ocean Engineering

1
0.9 '\.
i 0.8
' ' -...
-
0.7
- 0.6
•ü 0.5
erilil o.4
0.3
-
0.2
0.1
o
o S 10 1S 20

Tbrust CoetTICieut
Figure 6-11. Relationship between ideal efficiency (7J¡) and thrust coefficient (CT). (Reprinted with permission from
Clayton, B. R., & Bishop, R. E. D. (1982). Mechanics of marine vehicles. Houston: Golf Publishing Co.)

When a propeller is placed at the stern of the vessel, an effect is caused by the hull-propeller in-
teraction. The difference between the bare hull resistance and thrust as a result of adding the propeller is
expressed as a thrust deduction fraction defined as
T- Rr
t = -=--'-
T
(6-39)

and

RT = T(1- t) (6-40)

where the thrust deduction factor is always positive, and thus RT is less than T. There is also an effect result-
ing from the wake behind the vessel. The overall effect is that the velocity of advance is slightly less than
the forward velocity (U) of the vessel. A wake fraction is defined to account for the wake effect by

W = U-Va (6-41)
u
or

Va = U(1 ::.. _ w) (6-42)

The total propeller efficiency (TJT) is usually expressed as the product of the open water efficiency
(rlo), hull efficiency (7JH), and relative rotative efficiency (7JR). The open water efficiency is defined as
ToVa
7Jo = 2'7TDQ0 (6-43)

where T0 is the thrust delivered at a torque Q0 for a relative rotative speed of n (revolutions per unit time)
when the velocity of advance is Va. The hull efficiency is expressed as
1- t (6-44)
7JH = 1 - W

The overall efficiency is then expressed as

TJT = 7Jo 7JH 7JR (6-45)

Sorne representative values of the wake fraction, thrust deduction fraction, relative rotative effi-
ciency, hull efficiency, and overall efficiency are tabulated in Table 6-10.
Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 193

Table 6-10. Representative Values ofEfficiency, Wake Fraction and Thrust Deduction Factor
'
Vehicle Type 1-Cd 1-t 71H '1R 1h
Single-propeller submarine 0.50-0.80 0.80-0.90 1.10-1.45 1.00-1.10 0.72-0.93
Single-propeller merchant ship 0.55-0.85 0.75-0.85 1.10-1.30 0.99-1.09 0.72-0.86
Dual-propeller merchant ship 0.83-0.95 0.82-0.89 0.96-0.97 - 0.62-0.70
Dual-propeller destroyer 0.93-1.01 0.9-0.99 - - 0.61-0.70
Four-propeller ship 0.87-0.99 0.82-0.95 - - 0.60-0.67
Ducted-propeller cargo ship 0.66 0.8 1.21 0.98 0.80
Clayton, B. R., & Bishop, R. E. D. (1982). Mechanics ofmarine vehicles. Houston: GulfPublishing Co.

A propeller converts the power supplied by the propulsion motor into thrust as efficiently as pos-
sible, but this process always produces losses. The power delivered by the propulsion device (electric or
hydraulic motor) to the propeller shaft is the shaft horsepower (SHP). The effective horsepower (EHP) is the
product of the vessel speed and the hull resistance expressed in the units of horsepower as
RrV (6-46)
EHP = 550

where the constant 550 is the conversion of ft-lb/s to horsepower. The thrust horsepower (THP) is the
product of vessel speed and the thrust delivered by the propeller. The difference between EHP and THP is a
result ofthe thrust deduction (1 - t) and the wake fraction (1 - w), and is expressed as

EHP = (_1.=..!_)
1- W
THP = r¡ (THP)
H
(6-47)

The relationship between the SHP and EHP is illustrated in Fig. 6-12 and expressed in equation
form by

'Y) = EHP (6-48)

"IT SHP
The total efficiency TIT does not include power reductions resulting from reduction gears or bear-
ing losses, which must be included if these devices are being used. In many cases, these are not present in
submersibles (Allmendinger, 1990). Typical values of the thrust deduction factor (1 - t) and the wake frac-
tion (1 - w) used to evaluate the hull efficiency are illustiated in Fig. 6-13. The determination of the hull
resistance requires model testing or calculation using equation 6-28 if the total resistance coefficient (CT) is
known. Values for streamlined hull shapes typical of a submarine hull are shown in Fig. 6-14.
Propeller model tests are usually conducted to assess the performance of marine propellers. The first
test is used to determine the open-water characteristics of the propeller. The model propeller is placed on a
long shaft in a water tunnel or beneath a towing carriage in a towing tank, and measurements of torque and
thrust are made for various velocities of advance and rotative speeds. For the second test, the model propeller

~'
j
''
THP ' EHP
i
1

~!
Propeller
Figure 6-12. PropeUer power relationships.
194 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Typical
Range
0.9 ..--··
1.2
1-w .::::
.:::: o
0.8
.Q
""o
~ 1.0 ::1

u. i
(1)
o
0.7 ;¡¡
~ 0.8 2
~ {3.

0.6

0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

Propeller Diameter
Hull Diameter
Figure 6-13. Typical wake fraction and thrust deduction for the range of the propeller diameter/hull diameter ratio.
(Reprinted with permission from Allmendinger, E. E. (Ed.). (1990). Submersible vehicle systems design.
Jersey City: Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.)

is installed in its proper position on a model hull and similar measurements are conducted as in the first test.
Dimensional analysis is applied using the parameters of torque, thrust, velocity of advance, diameter, rotative
speed, fluid density and viscosity, pressure, and vapor pressure of fluid. This analysis shows that

(6-49)

where

thrust coefficient = ~ = +, (6-50)

pn D

~--·
---- ). - - - - -

L
..
AV.\
li' A C t.
A R C
AR e:
A .ft C
.á O :S
SJ>f!tROtD
SUEA.&l'Ll:fl BODY
B O D T
st~E"-IItt!I"E
"<litiS

AIRSHJP A 1J t lo
.aonr
:rrAEA.Ili.I!fE &OI>Y
l/-d•1.6
t/<1i ... 2
1/<t •
l/4 •
1/d ..
4
l/-d. ,. 8.}
)
,
¡"'u.,'
71."
22,a

21.1J
21,'!1
JODT JJf TOb'J~ T .l lf' r
' ATÁ PUStt,.¡::;¡:
Jr A C lt. :iTiiiEoUC'-l!(!: SODY
1/tl • 6
1/4.•6.}
1/4 • 1 '5
22,e
22' ,b
u .•
""¡:;
V
.
_., .. Ir 4 C 4 JXFIOII' RULL lt1l'fl
B O S IPL-SHORT .1I)SKIJI'
l/d • '),9
l/d. "' 6.7
21.0
21 ••

.•
A. R C R- 101 UiiiS:l:IIP l/d • 5.5 21,f
WI ! lt -10Qi USISRIP 1/~ • ').O ll.¡,
STti:Ulll.Hrt &OIHES 1/d ..- 6.1 lliD ..,. 10 2'2.4
u J. i C S!:U:.lKLl n: BODI!S l/d .. 4.7 :n.~:~

~
A tUtltiCII STtU:Antllll BO»Y 1/11 ,. -4.8 (22.o1

~= .ol
"'
~
'S
....
=
.'!ll
u
E
~
u

.ool

Reynolds Number (Vj/v)

Figure 6-14. Resistance coefficients for streamlined hull shapes. (Reprinted with permission from Allmendinger, E. E.
(Ed.). (1990). Submersible vehicle systems design. Jersey City: Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.)
 Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 195

torque coefficient = KQ = +,
pnD
(6-51)

V
advance coefficient = J = n~ (6-52)

pVD
propeller Reynolds number = Re 0 = -¡}-- (6-53)

· 1 cavltatwn
nomma · · m · dex = crN = p1 - Pv2 (6 - 54)
2PVa
and p is the upstream static pressure, D is the propeller diameter, n is the propeller rotative speed, Pv is the
fluid vapor pressure, and JL is the fluid dynamic viscosity. Typical open-water performance characteristics
curves for a noncavitating propeller are shown in Fig. 6-15.

Desígn values
1
1

A= K r !J 2 for ve hiele

Advance coofficient, } 0
Figure 6-15. Representative propeller performance curves. (Reprinted with permission from Clayton, B. R.,
& Bishop, R. E. D. (1982). Mechanics of marine vehicles. Houston: Golf Publishing Co.)

6.4 BUOY SYSTEMS

Numerous types of buoy systems are placed in inl¡md, coastal, and ocean waters for different pur-
poses. The objective of this section is to discuss the various types and uses of buoy systems and the static
analysis of these systems. Buoys, like other vessels, are placed in a very dynamic ocean environment and
consequently experience dynamic responses induced by ocean waves and currents. However, the dynamic
analysis of buoy systems is beyond the intended scope of this text, and the reader is referred to more
advanced publications such as that of Berteaux (1991).

6.4.1 Buoy Types and Uses

Buoys are floating or submerged objects that are typically cylindrical, spherical, discoid, or toroidal
in shape, and are moored to the seafloor with sorne type of anchor and mooring line (i.e., wire rape, chain,
synthetic line, ora combination thereof). Buoys are commonly used as navigation aids to mark ship chan-
nels, obstacles such as wrecks or other underwater hazards, and port entrances. It is estimated that in the
United States alone, sorne 24,000 buoys are deployed and maintained as aids to navigation by the USCG
(Berteaux, 1991). Buoys are often equipped with bells, whistles, and lights, and sometimes depend on wave-
induced motion to produce sounds. Heavy chain and clump anchors are frequently used to s1ack moor the
buoy system in depths usually not exceeding 45.7 m (150 ft). The offshore industry emp1oys precise naviga-
tion aids for exploration and seismic surveys. Buoys may be moored with elastic tethers in water depths up to
305 m (1000 ft), and the elastic tethers are kept under high tension to limit the lateral movement of the buoy.
196 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Buoys are also used as markers and ship moorings. Marker buoys are used to locate and retrieve ob-
jects on the seafloor, such as anchors, lobster traps, sunken ships, and offshore pipelines. Large cylindrical
buoys are used to mark rig anchors for offshore drilling platform moorings. Buoys are also used to identify
the location of ship moorings used in bays and harbors when dock space is limited or when the water depth
is too shallow near the shore. Very large single-point mooring systems are used to moor oil tankers while
oil is being transferred to the tanker for eventual transport to land.
Buoys are also used for weather stations and oceanic platforms. The U.S. National Data Buoy
Center has a network of sorne 50 moored weather stations that measure and report wind speed and direction,
air temperature and pressure, wave conditions, and visibility. These systems benefit maritime, fishing, and

"16

------------------~1
ti-=-- Novigation bu o y

11
LtGHT
J~ Chaia

8ELi
L Sw1vel
Wire Rape
8UOY

Elostic Tethers

-E-- Choin
CHAlN
. 1---- Releose Mechonism

(a)
1 1-1 1-1 1-1 1~1 1 II,J.III~I~::I~pll~~l~lh::l~
(b)

ANCHOR MARKER 8I.JOY ...._

,... W!Ré HOPé WIRE ROPE-

(iX,J7 6X/9

CONNECrJON
'
NAVY STOCKlESS ANCHOR SINKER ONE MOORIN-6 LEG SHOH'N,
(2!),0001~/ {8,200 lb1) IJ) EOUALL'f" SP4CED !IEOf.IIREIJ

(e) (d)
Figure 6-16. Examples ofbuoy systems. (a) USCG navigation buoy (reprinted with permission from U.S. Coast Guard
(USCG). (1990).Aids to navigation manual-technical. Department ofTransportation. COMDINST MI 65003).
(b) Small watch circle marker buoy. (e) Offshore semisubmersible mooring with anchor marker buoy.
(á) USN free-swinging buoy. (Reprinted with permission from Navy Facilities Engineering Command (NAVFAC).
(1968). Design manual, harbor and coastalfacilities, DM26).
Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 197

Toroid Flat Dlsc

Figure 6-17. Examples of bu oy hull forms.

offshore industries, as well as the general public. Oceanic buoy platforms are either moored or free-drifting,
and can also be used to support sensors to measure a variety of oceanic parameters. In scientific and engi-
neering fields, buoy systems are used to measure wind, atmospheric pressure, air and surface temperature,
wave evolution and noise, ocean currents, water temperature, salinity and dissolved oxygen, distribution
of trace metals, sedimentation rates, ambient acoustic noise, light transmission and turbidity, and other
parameters. The data are transmitted by satellites and radio transmitters through the atmosphere, and by
acoustical systems for transmission through the water column. The da.ta can be stored internally on tapes or
in computer memory. Examples of these buoy systems are shown in Fig. 6-16.
The basic hull forms for surface buoy systems are a disc (toroid or flat disc), sphere, cone, boat hull,
and spar, as shown in Fig. 6-17. Disc buoys are easier to design and build, and are more cost-efficient, but they
follow the waves in heave and slope. Sphere and cone buoys respond to the wave amplitude but not the slope.
Boat hull buoys align themselves with the direction of the waves, current, and wind, but still heave and roll
considerably. Spar buoys have the advantage of good stability. The techniques commonly used to moor surface
buoy systems in deep or shallow water (e.g., slack, taut, and three-point mooring) are illustrated in Fig. 6-18.

o. c.
l.
Shallow Water

·--~~ --------~------- .
·cnAw

IJCPTH: 60<>hJ

.. \:::-y·--·
b
DeepWater
ANCHoR {(YPJ
}d . . 1
~ r-
40:tJ;;oQJj!et;
CH4/N
;S)p::u

o.

Figure 6-18. Example shallow water and deep water mooring techniques. (Reprinted with permission
from Berteaux, H. O. (1991). Coastal and oceanic buoy engineering. Woods Hole: Berteaux.)
 198 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Typical subsurface buoy and mooring systems are shown in Fig. 6-19. These systems usually employ single-
point subsurface mooring that is recovered by disconnecting the mooring line near the anchor using a remote re-
lease mechanism (acoustic release is common). This configuration is economical and easy to deploy. When the
subsurface buoy is well below the free surface, the effect of wave motion is greatly reduced and the stability and
endurance of the mooring are improved. Multileg subsurface systems provide the advantages of reduced motion,
ample space below the buoy for instruments, and reliability, but they also cost more and are difficult to deploy.

MWL
y ________________________________ _

Subsurface Buey ~

Wire Rope Mooring Une ---.__

Sensor

Glass Floatation \

Pressure/ CTD Sensor~

Aooustic Release ~
~ Clump Anchor

Figure 6-19. Typical subsurface mooring configuration with an acoustic Doppler velocimeter (ADV) as the current speed sensor.

6.4.2 Static Analysis of Buoy Systems

The buoy weight (W) acts vertically downward through the buoy's center of gravity (G). The buoy-
ancy of the buoy is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid, and this buoyant force (FB) is directed verti-
cally upward through the center of buoyancy (B). The center of buoyancy is also the centroid of the buoy's
submerged volume. Since the buoy is either floating or submerged, it is also exposed to the flow of water
(ocean currents) past the buoy's surface, which results in drag and lift forces acting on the buoy. The drag
force (Fn) consists of friction and pressure forces as a result of tangential and normal stresses acting on the
buoy's surface. If the flow past the buoy is laminar, the shear (tangential), or friction, stresses will predomi-
nate. If the flow is turbulent and the buoy shape is blunt, normal stresses (pressure) will predominate. The
resultant force (i.e., the resistance force) is obtained by integrating the shear and pressure stresses over the
area of the buoy. This force has two components: drag (in the direction of flow) and lift (in the direction
normal to the flow). The common "drag law" is used to determine the drag force (F0 ), and the similar "lift
law" is used to compute the lift force (FL). The equations for determining drag and lift are

2 peDA N U "Drag Law"

FD = 1 (6-55)
2

FL = 1
2 pC LA L U "Lift Law"
2 (6-56)

where p is the fluid density, en is the drag coefficient, eL is the lift coefficient, AN is the area projected on a
plane normal to the fluid flow, AL is the characteristic area used in determination of eL, and U is the average
fluid velocity. As discussed above, drag coefficients (Table 6-11) are a function of the Reynolds number
Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 199

Table 6-11. Drag Coefficients for Two- and Three-Dimensional Body Shapes
Shape Reynolds Characteristic Drag
Number Length Ratio Coefficient
(R) (LID, LIH) (CD)
Description Schematic

Il ...
Rectangular plate normal to ftow >103 LIH- 1 l.l6
, V 5 1.20
lO 1.50
~L~ 00 1.90
Circular plate normal to fiow
bGJ-v >103 - l.l2

Circular cylinder with axis parallel

to ftow
D~ ._v >103 LID= O
1
l.l2
0.91

r-- L --1
2
4
7
0.85
0.87
l. OO
Circular cylinder with axis -105 LID= 1 0.63
perpendicular to ftow 2 0.68
5 0.74
1- :-1
D
lO 0.82
T
L
...L.
._V 20
40
0.90
0.98
00 1.20
>5 X 105 LID= 5 0.35

Sphere .__ V
-105
-3 X 105
00

-
0.34
0.5
0.2

>103
tD~
Hemisphere concave to ftow - 1.33
V

>10 3
()~
Hemisphere convex to ftow - 0.34
V
Ellipsoid with major axis perpendicular
to ftow nl.-v <5 X 105
>5 X 105
LID= 0.75 0.6
0.21

1 Ll
Ellipsoid with major axis parallel to -- >2 X 105 LID= 1.8 0.07
ftow -- D
~ V

1 L 1
-- ....
Airship hull D
~~'-'
.... >2 X 105 - 0.05
--
~L -l
Solid cone (apex pointing in opposite - - - 0.34
direction of velocity vector) D ~ V
-
~00
Solid cone (apex pointing in same -- - - 0.51
direction as velocity vector) D 411111 V
-~ 60°
200 Elements of Ocean Engineering

(UD/v), where D is the characteristic buoy dimension and v is the fluid kinematic viscosity. The drag force is as-
sumed to act through the centroid of the projected area (AN). Waves acting on buoys a1so add a resistance force,
but this force is usua1ly sma11 and can be neglected.

6.4.3 Moored Subsuñace Buoy

The free body diagram for a subsurface buoy moored in a current is illustrated in Fig. 6-20. Por
static equilibrium to exist, the sum of the forces and moments must be zero.
By summing the forces at the attachment point, one obtains

(6-57)

and

(6-58)

where T H and T v are the horizontal and vertical tension, respectively, in the mooring cable. F 0 , Fs,
FL, and W are the drag force, buoyant force, lift force, and weight of the buoy, respectively. Equations
6-57 and 6-58 are used to estímate the tension in the mooring cable. The resultant cable tension is
determined by

(6-59)

and the angle between the cable and the horizontal is found by

O = tan- 1 (~:) (6-60)

MWL
'!' ____________________________________________________________ _

Fe

Fr
Figure 6-20. Free-body diagram of a moored subsurface buoy in a current.

6.4.4 Static Cable Analysis

Buoy systems are moored with flexible cables that are subjected to ocean currents. As a result, the
cable tension increases and strong anchoring systems are needed. In this description, only two-dimensional
cases with coplanar currents are considered. The cable immersed weight (W1) is defined as

(6-61)
Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 201

If W r is positive, the cable is positively buoyant (polypropylene rape), and if it is negative, the cable
is negatively buoyant (wire rape). The hydrodynamic force resulting from the current is expressed as

Rds = l2 pCON DU2 ds (6-62)

where CoN is the normal drag coefficient and R is the drag force per unit length of cable normal to the cur-
rent. A schematic ofthe hydrodynamic forces is provided in Fig. 6-21.

V
Current (V)------------
~ .. cos<l>
Mooring Une
Element - j -
ds

1
f
Figure 6-21. Schematic of forces on a cable element.

When the cable is at an angle 4> with the horizontal direction of the current, the resistance is ex-
pressed as two components normal or tangential to the cable. The normal component F 0 ds and tangential
component F~s are expressed as

,~.ds = Rsin 2 '1-'

FO ds = l2 pCON DU 2 sin2 '1-' ,~.ds (6-63)

FT ds = i pyC 0 N(7TD)U 2 cos 2 lj>ds = 1ryRcos2 lj>ds (6-64)

where y is the ratio between the tangential and normal drag coefficients (CDT = y CoN), CoN is the normal
drag coefficient, CoT is the tangential drag coefficient, and (1rD)ds is the surface area of the cable element
(ds). Normal (l/> = 90 degrees) and tangential (l/> =O degrees) drag coefficients for severa! cables are shown
in Fig. 6-23. The vector summation of the forces in the normal and tangential directions yields the classical
cable equilibrium equations: ·

Tdlj> = (Fo + Wr coslj> )ds (6-65)

dT = (Wr sinlj> - FT)ds (6-66)

These equations must be integrated numerically, and the result permits evaluation of tension and
cable geometry with known boundary conditions.
If heavy cables, such as chain or wire rape, are assumed, the resistance terms can be neglected. The
above equations reduce to

Tdlj> = W 1 coslj>ds (6-67)

dT = W 1 sinlj>ds (6-68)

Integrating these equations from the origin where 4> = O to any point on the cable where the cable angle is
4> yields
Tcoslj> = To (6-69)

Tsinlj> = W 1 s (6-70)
202 Elements of Ocean Engineering

where T0 is the tension at the origin and s is the cable length to the origin. The coordinates x and z of a point
along the cable atan angle cf> and the cable length (s) from the originare expressed as

(6-71)

(6-72)

s = T
~sinh - (Wx)
1- (6-73)
W1 To

6.4.4. 1 Example Problem 6-1

A surface buoy (Fig. 6-22) is moored in 185 ft of water with a chain weighing 2.8 lb/ft (immersed
weight), and the drag force on the buoy is 275 lb. Determine the length of chain necessary to maintain an angle
of 25 degrees or less at the anchor. Estimate the distance that the buoy moves downstream of the anchor, and
determine the tension at the buoy and anchor. The solution to example problem 6-1 is tabulated in Table 6-12.

z
__MWL
sz ___ _

x1
x2
Figure 6-22. Heavy-chain mooring of buoy.

6.4.5 Neutrally Buoyant Cables

A neutrally buoyant towing line for a towed body is illustrated in Fig. 6-24. For the neutrally buoy-
ant cable, the immersed weight (W1) and the tangential drag force can be neglected for relatively short
lengths (hundreds but not thousands of feet) of neutrally or nearly neutral buoyant cables, such as synthetic
fiber ropes. Previous expressions are simplified to

T de/> = R sin2 cf>ds (6-74)

dT =O (6-75)
ds
Integrating equation 6-75 yields that T = T0 = constant. Thus, the tension in the cable is the same
at both ends of the towing line. Substituting T0 for T in equation 6-74 and solving for ds yields

(6-76)
 ()
:::J"
lll

~
....
10 O>
' • ¡ 1 •

~ C11(f 8 PC~'"'" U947 ·

Em'
'- l
Lof..d'wobtr 8 Pootto~l (1944)
;.~
1 '-:-h
~ Lonchrttl•t (19471 l l i :
1 i;., Thowt 8 Lo""wobtr [19:16 ·--T--;-l·-;··· 1'1
1¡ ¡ .
11 1, ! ~

t:'s ~ - .. VJl/v 1 1 1 i i·-¡:l·:-

- 1 1 • 1 1 .!
[il' A Suondtd 'coolo 1 1 l ...!~ ' :
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. ~- - ;:=-:' -- W1Uflt.Otrqet
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~ ·~·'-l ~.. K.._ i 1 1 1 "T1
Rol!. INoll. l'hyt, Lob, Toii<fl,.tonll · --r-T" o
Yn " : : . - . ~-
....,., ~·-
.. ,-,

' l'lJ --- ~ .....r ' ' : a:r

o~ NP~M~h 1 ~fAG ~ Jl?oln 1
versys [rJ . ~z·p · · :_ ---~ 1!~ ce
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¡.._ ,.!.l V .--._,\ \ í ' -¡ :::J
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(/)
e
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Q.(¡ 1 'R:O 1111 1 1 11 1 1 111 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 ¡ 1 1 1111111 1 1 1111 f¡•;. ~~=~~~:f~ILorJ.·--t--t--i-ri-H· 3(1)
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o O.OO ll 10 z l5 ~ '1' RouQhnou Poro¡ntltl>ll i a
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·¡ LEGEND ~~;:::;... • ..-~~.., ,;ol 1'- 1 i ! ~ 1
c,,J,., """" lll
E ., 1~ ..;:"'i--1- 11 + 'ooor-¡;- 3
Q , J dio., Ttl~p/ICM Cobtt fSmcolh, Po/ytlhyltntl loo¡ .....,~ • + ,6t,'.....L.,;_ ()'
0.01 Zo¡oc (19571. (/)
+ ti" dio., Ttftpllone Cobte {R()<Jgl!, Tor-impreiJIIOifd .0200~
Jvle)- Zojr" (195?1. ,o:¡-::::=;:::
0.00') u rl" dio., lr?, Srronded Mo. Steet lllrr:toft Cobl• • toa!> ......,h. e ,~..,·,;,n~
" . P~d~~ (1950), 1'<ulo, TI/ti,¡, ' ' '!OlO~
• 1 1/Jo., l.r/9, Strr;ndtd M(). Sllfl llircrafl Cob/1 - •• r "•J !/ ,.g•q:::::=
Flxle (19~). wo~.......__
• l"dio., lx/9, Stronded Mo. Sllfl Aircrofl Coble • -~~ 288~~
f'rxll {19~). l002 ¡·· ' 1 ' ' '
o.ooz
& 4mm dio., Strondtd OclofiOgrophic Co/J/11 • Mosby T1 ! '¡
f/9521. • 1 '
O.OO\l v 12mm dio., Strondtd Ttowlin9 C<Jble • Kullenbttg f/95/J 1 1 1J j
1 • • 10 ~ • 101 101 10 101 10

Reynolds Number (R)

Figure 6-23. Normal and tangential drag coefficients for different sized cables. (Reprinted with permission from Berteaux, H. O. (1991).
Coastal and oceanic buoy engineering. Woods Hole: Berteaux.)
1\:)
o
Ú)
204 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 6-12. Results of Example Problem 6-1 Solution

Given W1 = 208 lb/ft, water depth = 185ft, buoy drag force = 275 lb, cable angle at anchor = 25 degreeso
Find TA, Ta, x2
Solution Horizontal component of tension at anchor (THA) equals the buoy drag: T HA = 275 lb
Vertical component of tension at anchor (TvA) equals weight of fictitious chain length (s 1) between the
anchor and origino
Tension at anchor (TA): TA COS =
275 =
25 303.4 lb
T vA= THA tan 25 = 128o2lb

S¡ = 1 ~~S 3 = 4508 ft

T sinh- 1 (Ws)
x= ~ - 1
Wl To
= 275 onh-1 (2o8(45o8)) = 44 3 f
X¡ 208 Sl 275 o t

z= ~ [cosh(~:x)- 1]
z2 - z 1 -- 185 -- TI
275[ cosh (208
275 ~) - cosh (208(44.3))]
275

Solving for x2, yields: ~ = 172.4ft

T
s=~sinh (Wx)
- 1
W1 To

= 275 o h ( (208)172.4) = 275 6 f

s2 208 sm 275 o t

The length of chain required is: s2 - s1 = 27506 - 4508 = 22908 ft

The distance downstream is: x2 - x1 = 172.4 - 4403 = 12801 ft
The vertical tension at the buoy T va equals the weight of the chain plus the vertical component of tension at
the anchor, T VB = 2o8(229o8) + 12802 = 773.4lb

Tension at the buoy is: TB = h75 2 + 773042 = 820o9lb

Al so,
T coscf>
dx = dscoscf> = --.2. - - dc/J (6-77)
R sin2c/J

dz = ds sincp = To ~cp (6-78)

R smcp

Tow
Vessel
X----------------~
MWL
__ y _____ _

Tow
z
Body Fb

Fw
Figure 6-24. Schematic of neutrally buoyant towing cable.
Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 205

For a constant current or boat speed, R is constant and the differential equations can be integrated
between any two points along the cable (i.e., P(o/1) and P(o/2)). The result gives the cable length and the
horizontal and vertical distances between the two points as

s= ~ [cot<f> 1 - coto/ 2] (6-79)

T
x= R[cseco/2 - csec<f> 1] (6-80)

z = To[lntan 4> 2 -lntan 4> 1 ] (6-81)

R 2 2

6.4.6 Static Mooring Line Analysis, lncluding Stretching

Evan Zimmerman (personal communication, Delmar Systems Inc., 2008) developed a single-line
catenary solver, and the general approach and an example result are discussed in this section. A single moor-
ing line catenary can be solved interactively using a math solver such as MathCad, computer software such
as MatLab, ora spreadsheet such as Microsoft Excel. Two assumptions are made, and these are that the hori-
zontal component of the tension force for the suspended part of a single catenary mooring line is constant,
and the drag and lift forces resulting from currents are negligible. Thus, the vertical component of tension is
reduced by the submerged weight of each nodal section of the mooring line. Fig. 6-25 illustrates this concept.
Since the horizontal component of tension for each node is constant, the horizontal tension is written as

(6-82)

The gravity and buoyancy forces for each node reduce the vertical component of tension from the surface
to the depth at each node as shown by

Tv 2 =Tv 1 -W 1
T V3 = T V2 - w2 = T Vl - w1 - w2
Tv4 = Tv3- W3 = Tv1- W¡- W2 = W3 (6-83)

Tvn = Tvn-1 - Wn-1 = Tv¡- W¡- W2 ... Wn-1

Figure 6-25. Single catenary mooring Iine divided into nodal sections.
206 Elements of Ocean Engineering

The angle change from node to node is determined from

(JI = tan -I ( T vi )
THI
(6-84)

When the mooring line reaches the seafloor, the section will no longer lose tension as a result of
the suspended submerged weight. The reduction in tension is caused by the friction between the mooring
line nodal section and the seafloor, which is typically 15% to 20% of the overalllength. The friction force
depends on the sediment strength and the submerged weight of the section. A general number for the friction
coefficient (¡..t) is 1.2 for chain and 0.5 for wire or rope sections. The tension from node to node along the
section lengths between nodes lying on the seafloor (bottom) is

(6-85)

One must calculate the tension from node to node of the single mooring line to arrive at the tension at the
anchor, which is important for anchor selection.
The single mooring line can be a polyester rope or other elastic material. The elongation of each sec-
tion can be determined from Hooke's law, and the totalline length, including the elongated length (stretched
length), is computed as follows:

&=Ii=l
n-I
(T.+2T.+!) L¡
1 1
(6-86)
EA
where T¡ is the tension at node, E is the elastic modulus, A is the cross-section of the mooring line, LlL is the
total change in length of the mooring line, and L¡ is the original (unstretched) length between nodes. The
software must keep track of the overalllength, which include.s the elastic stretch. The output of the software
or spreadsheet can include a plot of catenary shape, fairlead tension (top tension), fairlead angle (angle at
top), horizontal distance, amount of mooring line on the seafloor (grounded length), anchor uplift angle
at the bottom, and tension at the anchor (first node). Example problem 6-2 illustrates the use of the static
analysis including the effect of elastic stretching.

6.4.6.1 Example Problem 6-2

A buoy is moored in a water depth of 325 ft and the horizontal force on the buoy is 2000 lb. The
polyester mooring line has a diameter of 0.5 in and the unit submerged weight of the material is 0.2 lb/ft.
The polyester line modulus (E) is 200 ksi. The mooring line is divided into 10 nodes for purposes of the
example and table output. Use computer software ora spreadsheet to solve equations 6-82 through 6-86 and
determine the horizontal and vertical tensions, elongation, and x and z positions from the anchor, and plot
the catenary shape.

Given:
Depth in (ft): 325
Horizontal force on buoy (lb): 2000
Diameter ofpolyester line (inches): 0.5
Unit submerged weight of material (lb/ft): 0.2
Zero uplift angle at the anchor must be maintained.
Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 207

Find:

Fairlead tension, fairlead angle, scope with elongation, ground length, anchor uplift angle, anchor
tension, watch circle radius, and change in watch circle due to elongation.

Results:

Fairlead tension = 2.06 kips

Fairlead angle = 14.40 degrees
Scope with elongation = 2576.38 ft
Grounded length = 7.23 ft
Anchor uplift angle = 0.01 degrees (approximately zero uplift angle)
Anchor tension = 2.00 kips
Watch circle radius (WR) = 2544.66 ft
Change in WR due to elongation = 31.72 ft

The results of the single catenary mooring line analysis results are tabulated in Table 6-13 for each nade,
and the catenary shape is illustrated in Fig. 6-26.

Table 6-13. Example Results for Single Polyester Mooring Line

Node Z (anchor origin) X (anchor origin) Horizontal Tension Vertical Tension Total Tension Elongation
(ft) (ft) (lbs) (lbs) (lbs) (ft)
1 0.0 0.0 1998.0 0.0 1998.0 2.615
2 0.0 2.0 2000.0 0.0 2000.0 2.616
3 3.3 260.0 2000.0 51.4 2000.7 2.617
4 13.3 517.2 2000.0 102.7 2002.6 2.619
5 29.8 773.5 2000.0 154.1 2005.9 2.623
6 52.8 1029.3 2000.0 205.5 2010.5 2.629
7 82.8 1084.4 2000.0 256.8 2016.4 2.637
8 118.3 1538.7 2000.0 308.2 2023.6 2.647
9 160.6 1792.0 2000.0 359.6 2032.1 2.658
10 209.3 2044.0 2000.0 410.9 2041.8 2.670
11 264.1 2295.2 2000.0 '· 462.3 2052.7 2.685
12 325.0 2544.7 2000.0 513.7 2064.9 2.700

Caternary Shape
350 r'-"-"~~""'·.;_;,_"""'".;_;,_"''-"''4"'''''''"'''''"''

-vítith élongation
-Ideal
300 .

250' .......................................... .

j200
lm
d
~150
...o
"-·

100 .................. ..

50 ....

0o 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Oistance 'in (ft)

Figure 6-26. Shape of example polyester mooring line shape.

208 Elements of Ocean Engineering

6.5 OFFSHORE MOORING SYSTEMS

6.5.1 lntroduction

Floating production platforms must be moored to maintain their position over the oil and gas res-
ervoir and, more specifically, over the well that is being produced. Several types of mooring systems are
employed, including

• Multileg catenary spread mooring

• Multileg semitaut and taut mooring
• Multiple tension leg tendon mooring
• Dynamic positioning system
• Single anchor leg mooring (SALM)
• Catenary anchor leg mooring (CALM)
• External and internal turret mooring

The components used in a mooring system include chain, wire rope, fiber rope, buoys, tendons, and
various connectors, such as shackles, thimbles, and swivels. The ftoating platform (e.g., semisubmersible,
tanker, compliant tower, or spar) normally has mooring winches, chain jacks, and chain stoppers that are
used to adjust the tension and scope of the mooring line. An anchor (e.g., drag embedment, driven pile, or
suction pile) is connected to the mooring line to hold the ftoating platform in position. The analysis and
design of the mooring system discussed here follows the procedures outlined in the American Petroleum
Institute (API) Recommended Practices (API, 1994, 2005). Other commercial software (e.g., Orcina's
Orcaftex, Global Maritime's GMOOR, and DNV's Mimosa) can be used to analyze and design mooring sys-
tems. The environmentalloads for the ftoating platform must be determined first, and these loads are then
u sed to evaluate the movement of the platform and the required size of the mooring components to moor the
vessel within acceptable excursion limits. An example of the environmental loads on a drill ship and their
effect on the drilling riser is provided in Fig. 6-27. The blowout preventer (BOP) is shown at the seaftoor.
Amax is the maximum anchor force, T0 is the original mooring line tension befare the total environmental
force is applied, and Tmax is the maximum tension after the total force is applied.
The procedures for evaluating environmentalloads due to wind, current, and waves are described
in Chapter 3. The offset or excursion of a semisubmersible platform is shown in Fig. 6-28. The mooring

To
Total ~~-Wind
- - Force --Wave
~Current

Drilling
Riser

X Anchor

Figure 6-27. Catenary mooring of an offshore drill ship showing collinear environmental forces
(wind, wave, and current) acting on the drill ship and offsetting the drill ship a distance (x).
Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 209

Resultant Applied
Environmental Force

Figure 6-28. Schematic of semisubmersible drilling vessel offset (excursion).

system must keep the offset between 5% and 15% of the water depth depending on the type of riser and
surface floater.
There are three main types of mooring line systems: catenary, taut, and semitaut (see Fig. 6-29). The
catenary system commonly consists of a chain-wire-chain system, and the taut or semitaut systems typically
consist of a chain-polyester rope-chain system. The catenary systems typically use embedment anchors that
require no uplift force at the anchor, and thus the scope of the mooring line is typically 3-5 times the water
depth. In deep water (>915 m or 3000 ft), these systems require a large seafloor footprint, and the weight of
the mooring lines must be supported by the floater. Taut mooring systems require a smaller footprint and weigh
less because the polyester rope is much lighter than steel wire rope. The polyester rope is large in diameter
(125-300 mm or 5-12 inches), necessitating special handling on the anchor-handling vessel used to install the
mooring lines and anchors. The elasticity of the polyester rope makes it possible to reduce the vessel offset.
Other mooring systems include the CALM and SALM systems, as shown in Fig. 6-30, and various
turret mooring systems. CALMs and SALMs are frequently used by oil shuttle tankers. The shuttle tanker
is moored to the CALM or SALM system by means of the.hawser. It then connects the oil floating line to
the CALM or SALM and commences loading the crude oik Once the shuttle tanker is loaded with the crude
oil, it disconnects and sails to a port for offloading.

Drilling Vessel

MWL
~----------------

Taut Leg
Poly-System
~~ ---semi-Taut Leg
Drag Embedment
Anchorwith
Ground Chain -catenary Leg
Suction Pile

Figure 6-29. Schematic of catenary and taut-Ieg single mooring line using drag embedment or suction pile anchors.
210 Elements of Ocean Engineering

/ Oil Shuttle Tanker \

Figure 6-30. Catenary anchor leg mooring (CALM) (left) and single anchor leg mooring (SALM) (right).

FPSO facilities are large vessels that are permanently moored offshore. They use a turret mooring
system that allows the FPSO to weathervane around the turret system while extracting crude oil from the
subsea well through special swivels. The crude oil passes through these swivels to the FPSO, and the FPSO
deck-mounted crude-oil processing equipment removes sand, seawater, and paraffin from the crude oil. The
processed crude oil is then offloaded about every 10 days, depending on the storage capabilities, by shuttle
tankers. Common FPSOs can store 1-2 million barreis of oil. The turret mooring systems include externa!
turrets, interna! turrets, and disconnectable turrets as illustrated in Fig. 6-31, anda prototype externa} turret
moored FPSO as shown in Fig. 6-32.

Riser Turret Mooríng

Externa! Turret
Disconnectable

MWL
_7

Submerged Turret
Disconnectable
Interna! Turret

Figure 6-31. Example turret configurations used for floating production, storage, and
offioading vessels (courtesy of ConocoPhillips).
Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 211

Figure 6-32. FPSO with an external turret mooring omoading to shuttle tanker (courtesy of SOFEC).

6.5.2 Analysis of a Spread Mooring System

The procedure described above for a single line can be generalized to a spread mooring system con-
sisting of four to 16 mooring lines. The relationship between the position of the platform and its mean environ-
mentalloads can be determined by considering the contribution from each mooring line separately. Equations
6-87 and 6-88 show the relationship between the mean environmentalloads and the mooring line tension:

FBow = Í, THi cos cp¡ (6-87)

i=l

FBEAM = Í,THi sin cp¡ (6-88)

i=l

where T Hi is the horizontal tension from the mooring line number i, and cp¡ is the angle between the mooring
line and the direction of the x:-axis, as defined in Fig. 6-33.
Generally, the problem of finding the equilibrium position cannot be solved directly, and an
iteration procedure must be used. For mooring lines with a nonuniform weight (i.e., a combined chain
and wire rope system), the catenary relationships become more complex, and numerical techniques
such as a finite element method (FEM), finite difference method (FDM), or sorne other type of iteration
method are normally employed.

Beam

o
Figure 6-33. Example of spread mooring system for a semisubmersible.
212 Elements of Ocean Engineering

6.5.2. 1 Example Problem 6-3

A fioating semisubmersible platform is moored in 5000 ft of water with 8-leg wire cable. The
immersed weight of the 3.5-in wire rope is 20.2 lb/ft, and the horizontal tension at the fairlead of the most
loaded line is 329.4 kips. Determine the most loaded line length that can maintain an angle of zero at the
anchor. Determine the angle at depths of 500, 1000, 1500, 2000, 2500, 3000, 3500, 4000, and 4500 ft, and
the wire length between each depth.
Given: W1 = 20.2lb/ft, water depth = 5000 ft, horizontal tension for most loaded line = 329.4 kips, cable
angle at the anchor: O degrees.
Find: Totallength, angle at each depth, and length between each depth.
Solution: The horizontal component of the tension at anchor (THA) equals the horizontal tension of the
most loaded line at the fairlead. The vertical tension at anchor (TvA) equals the weight of the wire length(s)
between the anchor and the origin. The horizontal force on the mooring line is 329.4 kips, and the angle at
the anchor is O degrees.

TA = 329.4 kips/cosO = 329.4 kips

TvA = THA tan O= O kips

x = To cosh-1 (WrZ + 1) = 329.4 X 103 cosh-1 (20.2 X 5000 + 1) = 12463.7 ft

Wr To 20.2 329.4 X 103

s = To sinh (WrX )= 329.4 X 103 sinh (20.2 X 12463.7) = 13713.4 ft

Wr To 20.2 329.4 X 103

dz = 500ft, depth = 5000 ft - 4500 ft

x = To cosh-1 (Wrdz
1 Wr
+ 1) = 329.4 X 103 cosh-1 ( 20.2 X 500 + 1) = 4027.9 ft
To 20.2 329.4 X 103

dx = 12464.2 - 4027.9 = 8436.3 ft

s = To sinh (W1X1) = 329.4 X 103 sinh (?0.2 X 4027.9 ) = 4069 ft

Wr To 20.2 329.4 X 103

ds = 4069 - O = 4069 ft

angle at depth of 4500 ft: e= tan- 1 (dSWr) = tan- 1 ( 4069 X 20 ·2 ) = 14 degrees

To 329.4 X 103

Because of the repeated calculations required, a spreadsheet is used as shown in Table 6-14.

Table 6-14. Mooring Line Length Calculation Results

Depth (ft) dz X¡ dx S ds angle
5000-4500 500.0 4027.8 8436.0 4068.9 4068.9 14.0
4500-4000 500.0 5681.9 6781.9 5797.5 1728.7 19.6
4000-3500 500.0 6941.5 5522.2 7153.1 1355.6 23.7
3500-3000 500.0 7995.7 4468.0 8320.0 1166.9 27.0
3000-2500 500.0 8917.8 3546.0 9369.0 1049.0 29.9
2500-2000 500.0 9745.4 2718.3 10336.1 967.0 32.4
2000-1500 500.0 10501.2 1962.5 11242.3 906.3 34.6
1500-1000 500.0 11199.8 1263.9 12101.5 859.1 36.6
1000-500 500.0 11851.5 612.2 12922.9 821.4 38.4
500-0 500.0 12463.7 0.0 13713.4 790.5 40.1
Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 213

6.5.2.2 Example Problem 6-4

A platform (Fig. 6-34) is restrained from moving by two anchors with a chain mooring line. The
length (/) of the mooring line is 3500 ft and the horizontal pretension T His 200 kips. The submerged weight
of the chain in water (W1) is 200 lb/ft. It is assumed that the environmental forces on the platform are steady.
What is the distance between anchor A and anchor B? What is the line tension at the platform? Find the
environmental force on the platform required to move anchor A. Find the maximum displacement of the
platform as a function of the environmental force on the platform.
Given: l = 3500 ft, TH = 200 kips, L = 100ft, h = 2000 ft, and W1 = 200 lb/ft
Find: 1) the distance between A and B, 2) the line tension at the platform, 3) the environmental
force on the platform, and 4) the force displacement curve.
Solution:

1) s= h2 + 2h (TH)
Wr
= J~0002 + 2 X 2000 X ( 200 X 103 ) = 2828 42ft
200 ·

x = TH cosh- 1 (1 + h W¡) = 200 X 103 X cosh- 1 (1 + 2000 X 200 ) = 1762.74 ft

W¡ TH 200 200 X 103
X= l - S + X = 3500 - 2828.42 + 1762.74 = 2434.32 ft
2X +L= 2 X 2434.32 + 100 = 4968.64 ft
Distance between A and B = 4968.64 ft
2) Tz = W1 X s = 565.68 kips
T = jT~ + Ti = 600 kips
3) TH = (P - 2h~: Wr = 412.50 kips

4) SideA

x = TH cosh- 1 (1 + h Wr) = 412 ·50 X 103 X cosh- 1 (1 + 2000 X 200 ) = 2679.77 ft

W¡ TH 200 . 412.50 X 103
Therefore, the maximum displacement = 2679.77 ft - 1762.74 ft = 917.03 ft
Side B

1762.74 ft- 917.03 ft = 845.75 ft = i6~ x sinh- ~~ x )2000

1( 2 + 2 x 2000 x (i6~))
Using an iteration process, we find that T H = 63.06 kips, and the maximum force the mooring sys-
tem can resist is 412.50 - 63.06 = 349.44 kips.

h=2000 ft

Figure 6-34. Platform moored with two mooring lines.

214 Elements of Ocean Engineering

6.5.3 Response Amplitude Operator

The irregular nature of the sea is an important factor to consider when designing offshore struc-
tures. The irregular nature of the sea is described by the energy distribution as a function of frequency. The
properties of a linear system are used to statistically describe the response of the offshore floating structure
and structure responding to the forces of the sea. The sea is characterized by its spectral density function,
S(w), which has units of (length 2)-sec, where the length scale represents the wave amplitude. The motion of
the floating structure is normalized by the incident wave amplitude, which is called the response amplitude
operator (RAO). If the square of the RAO is multiplied by the spectral density function, S(w), of the sea,
the response spectral density function (RS) is

RS = (RAOf S(w) (6-89)

The spectral density function can be interpreted as the mean square density of the process. The
heave motion of the spar can be modeled as a spring-mass-damper system, and the RAO is determined as
shown in the example below. ·

6.5.3. 1 Example Problem 6-5

Evaluate the heave response of the spar platform shown in Fig. 6-35. Use a simplified spar model,
which is a uniform truncated cylinder in a regular wave field. The cylinder is moored to the seafloor by a
semitaut mooring system.

Given:
Diameter = 72 ft
Draft = 650 ft
Structure mass = 3.5 X 106 slug
Moonpool area = 1102.24 ft2
Damping factor(')= 2% (heave)
Significant wave height (Hs) = 40 ft
Peak period (Tp) = 13.5 sec

Find:
Natural period
RAO
P-M spectrum
Response spectrum
Significant motion
Maximum motion

Solution:
Find the natural frequency of heave motion assuming that the added mass is constant and can be calculated
using the following equation where r is the radius of truncated cylinder and pis 1.99 slug/ft3. The added
mass (Ma) of the structure is

Ma = 2.01p2 = 2.01 X 1.99 X 363 = 1.87 X 105 slug

The virtual mass (Mv) of the structure is the sum of the structure mass (Ms) and the added mass (Ma)

Mv = Ms + Ma = 3.50 X 106 + 1.87 X 105 = 3.69 X 106 slug

Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 215

Figure 6-35. Spar platform.

The waterplane area (Aw) is the horizontal cross-sectional area of the spar moon pool area, and is
determined by

The restoring force coefficient or equivalent stiffñess (k) is

k= pgAw

k = 1.99 slug/ft3 X 32.2 ft/sec 2 X 2.97 X 103 ft 2 = 1.90 X 105 lb/ft

The equation of motion is expressed as

The exciting force, F(t), for heave motion is

F(t) = pgAw y¡(t) = pgAw Acos w t (regular wave of amplitude A and frequency (w))

The solution for the equation of motion is

216 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 6-15. Example 6-5 RAO Calculation Spreadsheet

INPUT
Aw 2970 ft2 pgA, (=k.,q) 190311.66 1b/ft
M. 187000 slug p 1.99 slug/ft 3
M. 3500000 slug g 32.2 ft/sec 2
CALCULATION
Natural frequency 0.23 rad/sec
Natural period 27.66 sec
dw 0.025 rad/sec
z(%) 1 2 3 4 5
wd RAO (ft/ft)
o 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
0.025 1.0123 1.0122 1.0122 1.0122 1.0122
0.05 1.0509 1.0509 1.0508 1.0507 1.0506
0.075 1.1223 1.1222 1.1220 1.1218 1.1215
0.1 1.2402 1.2400 1.2396 1.2391 1.2384
0.125 1.4339 1.4334 1.4325 1.4313 1.4297
0.15 1.7723 1.7708 1.7684 1.7650 1.7607
0.175 2.4571 2.4519 2.4432 2.4311 2.4159
0.2 4.4297 4.3898 4.3257 4.2405 4.1380
0.225 36.2352 22.7123 16.0126 12.2662 9.9126
0.25 4.7172 4.6428 4.5262 4.3767 4.2047
0.275 2.1471 2.1384 2.1242 2.1049 2.0807
0.3 1.3439 1.3414 1.3372 1.3314 1.3241
0.325 0.9554 0.9543 0.9525 0.9501 0.9469
0.35 0.7280 0.7275 0.7266 0.7253 0.7237
0.375 0.5798 0.5795 0.5790 0.5782 0.5773
0.4 0.4762 0.4760 0.4756 0.4752 0.4746
0.425 0.4001 0.3999 0.3997 0.3994 0.3990
0.45 0.3421 0.3420 0.3418 0.3416 0.3413
0.475 0.2966 0.2965 0.2964 0.2963 0.2961
0.5 0.2602 0.2601 . 0.2600 0.2599 0.2598
0.525 0.2304 0.2304 0.2303 0.2302 0.2301
•.
0.55 0.2057 0.2057 0.2056 0.2056 0.2055
0.575 0.1850 0.1850 0.1849 0.1849 0.1848
0.6 0.1674 0.1674 0.1673 0.1673 0.1672
0.625 0.1523 0.1522 0.1522 0.1522 0.1521
0.65 0.1392 0.1392 0.1391 0.1391 0.1391
0.675 0.1278 0.1277 0.1277 0.1277 0.1277
0.7 0.1177 0.1177 0.1177 0.1177 0.1177
0.725 0.1089 0.1089 0.1089 0.1089 0.1088
0.75 0.1010 0.1010 0.1010 0.1010 0.1010
0.775 0.0940 0.0940 0.0940 0.0940 0.0940
0.8 0.0877 0.0877 0.0877 0.0877 0.0877
0.825 0.0821 0.0821 0.0820 0.0820 0.0820
0.85 0.0769 0.0769 0.0769 0.0769 0.0769
0.875 0.0723 0.0723 0.0723 0.0723 0.0723
0.9 0.0681 0.0681 0.0681 0.0680 0.0680
0.925 0.0642 0.0642 0.0642 0.0642 0.0642
0.95 0.0607 0.0607 0.0607 0.0607 0.0606
0.975 0.0574 0.0574 0.0574 0.0574 0.0574
1 0.0544 0.0544 0.0544 0.0544 0.0544
 Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 217

20.0 +---Hl----+----+--·-··-+--------+-·-·-·-·--···-

~ IS.O t - - - - f H - - - - f - - - t - - - t - - - - f - - - - - - - - 1
Q
~ 10.0
~
=
:1
5.0 +---t-+---+-----+----·-+----+·--·-·-----

0.0
l.-/
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.2

Freqoeuey (rad/see)
Figure 6-36. Example problem 6-5 spar heave RAO for 2% damping (z = 2%).

The first term on the right-hand side of the solution is a transient term and goes to zero as time
increases. The second term on the right-hand side of the solution (i.e., the steady-state portion) is used to
calculate the RAO in terms of the frequency ratio (w/wn), where wn is the natural frequency of the spar:

go = J(1 - (~ntr + (2( ~nt

RAO _,go,_ pgAwlk

-A- J( 1 -(~ntt+( 2(~nt

The RAO calculation results obtained by the process above are shown in Table 6-15. The response
spectrum (RS) is

and the root mean square (RMS) value is

RMS = jilw X (!,RA0 2 X S(w))

The significant wave response motion is 2*RMS, and the maximum wave response motion is 1.86*
significant wave response motion. The RS, significant wave motion, and maximum wave motion calculation
results are shown in Table 6-15, and the heave RAO is illustrated as a function offrequency (w) in Fig. 6-36.

6.5.4 Mooring System Design Process

A typical process for designing a mooring system for offshore facilities that require multiple moor-
ing lines (catenary, taut, semitaut, or turret-moored) is illustrated in Fig. 6-37. The design engineer needs to
determine the metocean data for the location of the facility (TLP, FPSO, spar, semisubmersible, etc.). These
data include the wind spectrum, wind speeds, ocean current profile, wave spectrum, significant wave height
(Hsig) and period (Tpeak), and the peak enhancement factor ('Y) for the wave spectrum. Mooring of these off-
shore facilities requires the use of commercial software such as Orcaftex, GMoor, and Mimosa because of
the complexity of the mooring line and the need to look at the results of many cases. Sorne types of software
require the input of a panel model of the ftoating structure, and other types allow the input of wind coef-
ficients, current coefficients, and wave drift coefficients for numerous headings between Oand 360 degrees.
These coefficients are used to determine the mean environmentalloads based on the metocean data for wind
 Determine
Environmental
Conditions

Calculate
Environmental
Load

Evaluate Maximum and Operating

Mean Enviromnental Load on Platfonn

Evaluate Mooring System

(Offset V s. Tension)

Evaluate
Restoring Force & Mean Vessel Offset

Not Acceptable

Not Acceptable

Calculate Required Mooring Line

Breaking Strength

Determine Mooring Line to Use

Determine Anchor to U se

Figure 6-37. Mooring system design process ftowchart.

Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 219

speed, current speed, and significant wave height. The vessel offset in terms of percent water depth and the
tension in the mooring lines are majar values that must be evaluated.
The breaking strength for the mooring line is determined from the manufacturer's data, and the
mooring line tension at the fairlead is used to determine the safety factor (SF) for each mooring line for the
design storm conditions (i.e., the 100-year return period for hurricanes or typhoons). In sorne cases, it is
necessary to evaluate 10-year and 1000-year return period events. The SF is defined as

SF = mooring line breaking strengthltension at the fairlead (6-90)

The API publishes guidance regarding the required safety factors for permanently moored facilities
and mobile moored facilities (mobile offshore drilling rigs). These safety factors are determined for both in-
tact and damaged mooring systems. The damaged case considers one mooring line missing and is normally
selected as either the first most loaded line, second most loaded line, or third most loaded line. The safety
factors for dynamic analysis are 1.67 for the intact condition and 1.25 for the damaged condition (API, 2005).
The vessel offset must be checked to determine whether it is small enough to ensure that the riser is not
damaged at the well head. The offset value is a function of the type of riser used. Steel catenary risers (SCRs)
are often used on semisubmersible fioating production systems, and these risers require the vessel offset to be
between 5% and 10% of the water depth. Por top tension risers (TTRs) on spar platforms, the offset must be <5%
of the water depth. Por flexible risers, the offset limits are between 10% and 15% of the water depth (API, 2005).

6.5.5 Example Results of a Truss Spar Mooring Analysis

The results of a senior design project (Cotten et al., 2008) are used to show an example of a mooring
design analysis. The analysis was conducted using Orcina's mooring software Orcafiex, and industry guid-
ance was provided by FloaTEC and SOFEC (Houston, Texas). Figure 6-38 illustrates the model ofthe truss
spar and a plan view of the mooring line layout used to analyze the mooring systems. The spar was located
in the east-central Gulf of Mexico ata water depth of 4000 ft (1219 m). Two different mooring line systems
(a chain-wire-chain system and a chain-polyester (poly)-chain system) were analyzed. Both mooring sys-
tems have three clusters of three lines (nine lines in total) spaced 120 degrees apart from the centerline, with
10 degrees of separation in each cluster.

.....

Figure 6-38. Truss spar model and plan view of mooring lines. (From Cotten, J., Dunbar, C., Garcia, D. Hartsfield, R.,
& Vallejo, R. (2009). Sirena Dotada truss spar design for Eastern Gulf of Mexico, final report.
Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas).
 220 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 6-16. Wire Chain Material Properties

R4S Studless Chain
Diameter 6 in (152.4 mm)
Fairlead Length 250 ft (76.2 m)
Anchor Length 200ft (60.9 m)
Breaking Strength 5027.4 kips (22362 kN)
Bridon Xtreme Spiral Strand (Wire)
Diameter 5.75 in (146.1 mm)
Length 5550 ft (1691.6 m)
Breaking Strength 5228.4 kips (23256 kN)
http://www.bridon.com

For the intact condition, the first environmental condition (bottom arrow in Fig. 6-38) produced the
highest declination angle. The second environmental condition (top arrow) produced the greatest offset. The
third environmental condition (middle arrow) produced the largest tension and smallest safety factor. The same
environmental conditions used for the intact case were run for the damaged case. For the first environmental con-
dition (bottom arrow), line 2 was removed and the maximum declination was found. For the second environmen-
tal condition (top arrow), line 3 was removed and the maximum offset was found. For the third environmental
condition (middle arrow), line 2 was removed and the maximum tension and lowest safety factor were found. The
initialline dimensions and material properties of the chain-wire-chain mooring line are tabulated in Table 6-16.
The mooring system was designed to meet all regulations set by the ABS (2008) and API (2005).
According to the API (2005), the factor of safety in the mooring lines must be > 1.67 for the intact condition
and 1.25 for the damaged condition, and the maximum offset must be <7% (280 ft or 85.3 m) of the water
depth. In addition, FloaTEC suggests that the maximum declination angle should be <11 degrees for both
the intact and damaged conditions.
The maximum declination angle is recorded as 10.5 degrees between 580 and 600 sec. Une 2 was
removed for the darnage analysis, and the results showed the maximum damaged declination angle to be 10.8
degrees, which is under the required value. After the OrcaFlex simulation was run, the maximum intact offset
was 48 ft (14.6 m), which is well under the API maximum value of 280ft (85.3 m). For the damage analysis, line 3
was removed and the maximum offset was found to be 65 ft (19.8), which is still under API RP 2SK requirements.
Table 6-17 shows the results of the chain-wire-chain maximum tension at the fairleads and the
lowest factor of safety for the 100-year hurricane return pe'riod. For the intact condition, the lowest factor

Table 6-17. Wire Chain Intact Factor of Safety

Factor of Safety-lntact (Chain-Wire-Chain) Factor of Safety-Damaged (Chain-Wire-Chain)
100-yr Storm Conditions 100-yr Storm Conditions
Line Max. - Design Line Factor of Safety Line Max. - Damage Design Factor of Safety
Tension Line Tension
1 2634.3 K (11718 kN) 1.91 1 3119.0 K (13874 kN) 1.61
2 2641.7 K (11751 kN) 1.90 2 o o
3 2674.8 K (11898kN) 1.88 3 3133.0 K (13936 kN) 1.60
4 1667.4 K (7417 kN) 2.72 4 2091.4 K (9303 kN) 2.4
5 1593.7 K (7089 kN) 2.84 5 1960.1 K (8719 kN) 2.56
6 1601.1 K (7122 kN) 2.83 6 1891.8 K (8415 kN) 2.66
7 1595.7 K (7098 kN) 2.84 7 1694.6 K (7538 kN) 2.97
8 1587.4 K (7061 kN) 2.85 8 175ü.4 K (7786 kN) 2.87
9 1676.4 K (7457 kN) 2.70 9 1673.1 K (7442 kN) 3.00
Cotten, J., Dunbar, C., Garcia, D. Hartsfield, R., & Vallejo, R. (2009). Sirena Dotada truss spar designfor Eastern Gulf of Mexico,
final report. Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas.
Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 221

of safety was 1.88, which is above the API-recommended value of 1.67. Por the damaged condition (with
line 2 removed), the lowest factor of 1.60 for line 3 was greater than the API-recommended mínimum
value of 1.25.

6.5.6 Mooring Line Components

A mooring line for an offshore application usually consists ofwire rope (65-153 mm, 2.5-6 in
diameter), chain (54-180 mm, 2-7 in diameter), and polyester rope (126-300 mm, 5-12 in diameter),
and associated connectors such as shackles, swivels, and thimbles. Selected physical characteristics
of chain, wire rope, and polyester rope can be found in Appendix A. Figure 6-39 shows large stud-
less and studlink chains that are used for offshore moorings. Additional mooring line connectors,
shackles, wire rope sockets, and thimbles are also illustrated in Fig. 6-39, and offshore polyester
mooring line and cross-sections of jacketed spiral strand and multistrand wire rope are shown in
Fig. 6-40. Most offshore mooring lines consist of a combination of chain and wire rope or polyester
rope. Chain is located at the top and bottom of the mooring line, and wire or polyester rope is found
in the center section.
Mooring lines depart the floating structure at the fairlead, which is commonly of the rotary
type or bending shoe type as illustrated in Fig. 6-41. Chain stoppers are used to hold the chain in
place when one winch serves several mooring lines. In many cases, mooring lines are grouped when
three or four lines spaced 5-10 degrees apart are used for the mooring. Onboard mooring chain
handling equipment usually includes winches (rotary or linear), chain windlasses or capstans, and
chain jacks.

Figure 6-39. Studless chain (left), mooring components (center), and studlink chain (right).

Figure 6-40. Example ofpolyester mooring rope used in offshore deepwater mooring (courtesy oflnterMoor),
and schematic of jacketed spiral strand and multistrand wire rope cross-sections (right).
222 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 6-41. Rotary mooring winch (left) and bending shoe and rotary sheave fairleads (right).

6.5. 7 Anchors

Offshore floating facilities are typically moored with mooring lines connected to anchors that
are embedded in the seafloor. Vryhof (2000) is an excellent source for information on offshore anchors.
The major components of a typical anchor are the flukes, stem (shank), and associated fluke angle,
as illustrated in Fig. 6-42. The purpose of an anchor is to hold a steady load of a floating body that is
normally connected to the anchor by a mooring line, which can be a chain, wire rope, synthetic rope,
or a combination thereof. In offshore mooring of floating platforms, the mooring lines are commonly
constructed of chain-wire-chain or chain-polyester rope-chain. Chain (100 m or 328 ft long) is usually
used to connect the platform to the wire rope. The wire rope or polyester rope is typically 1.3 times lon-
ger than the water depth for taut mooring systems and 3 times longer than the water depth for catenary
mooring systems. Chain (> 100 m or 328 ft long) is used near the bottom to connect the wire rope or
polyester rope to the anchor.
Anchors are classified as embedment anchors (Fig. 6-43), suction pile anchors, or vertically
loaded anchors (Fig. 6-44 and Fig. 6-45). Embedment drag anchors are typically used with catenary
mooring systems. However, these anchors cannot support a vertical load, and therefore the angle between
the anchor mooring line and the seabed must always be zero degrees or very close to zero. Suction pile
anchors and vertically loaded anchors are used with semitaut and taut mooring systems that must be able
to resist a vertical load. These anchors allow for an uplift an.gle between the mooring line and the seabed
at the anchor.
The amount of load a drag embedment anchor can· hold is called the holding capacity. This an-
chor holding capacity is primarily a function of the fluke area, shape, and angle, and the anchor weight.
Figures 6-46 and 6-47 (API, 2005) show the anchor holding capacity of various anchor types as a function

Stem
Stabilizer Bar
"Stock" ~

Figure 6-42. Definition of anchor terms.

Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 223

Figure 6-43. Sketches of the Stevpris Mark S (left) and the Bruce (right) anchors that are
commonly used as drag embedment anchors for offshore moorings.

Suction Pile Vryhof Stevmanta Bruce Dennla

Figure 6-44. Suction pile anchor (left) and vertically loaded embedment anchors (center and right)
used for taut and semitaut mooring syst~ms (courtesy of InterMoor).

Figure 6-45. OMNI-Max™ (U.S. Patent #7,059,263) vertically loaded anchor (left) and
on anchor-handling vessel (courtesy of Delmar).
224 Elements of Ocean Engineering

- - Stevfix, Stevdig

- • • Navmoor, Boss

- - Bruce TS, Stevpris

- · - Stevin

• • • • • • • Moorfast Offdrill 11-20

deg, Hook

- - - Danforth
10 100
AnchorWeight (kips)

Figure 6-46. Anchor-holding capacity in sand.

- - Bruce F"FTS Mk 11, Stevprís

Mklll
¡
-
:;¡ - • • Navmoor, Strato, Boss

- Bruce TS, Hook, Stevfix

- •- Flipper Delta, Stevin, Stevdig

........ • Moorfast, Offdrillll

- - - - Danforth

1 10 100

Anchor Weight (kips)

Figure 6-47. Anchor-holding capacity in soft clay.

Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 225

of the anchor weight in soft clay and sand. These design curves are based on data from the USN (1987) and
model and field test data for Moorfast and Stevpris anchors. New anchors with improved holding capacity
are being developed, but design curves are not yet available. However, procedures have been developed to
estímate the holding capacities of newer anchors based on the ratio of the fluke areas (API, 2005). The esti-
mated holding capacity can be estimated as

Hnew = H (Anew)n
A (6-91)

where Hnew is the estimated anchor holding capacity, H is the holding capacity from Figs. 6-46 and
6-47, Anew is the new fluke area, A is the fluke area of the anchor with same weight, and n is a value
of 1.4.
Wire rape and chain that are lying on the seafloor also have a holding capacity (API, 2005) that can
be estimated using

P = FLys (6-92)

where P is the chain or wire rape holding capacity, F is the friction factor, L is the length of chain or wire
rape on the seafloor, and 'Ys is the submerged unit weight of chain or wire rape. Friction coefficients for
general use are tabulated in Table 6-18.

Table 6-18. Coefficient of Friction for Chain and Wire Rope

Mooring Line Type Starting Friction Coefficient Sliding Friction Coefficient
Chain 1.0 0.7
Wirerope 0.6 0.25

6.6 NATURAL PERIODS FOR OFFSHORE FLOATING BODIES

The natural periods of typical floating offshore fa~ilities, such as a semisubmersible, FPSO system,
tension leg platform (TLP), and spar platform, can be found in Faltinsen (1993) and Bhattacharyya (1978).
The heave natural period for a semisubmersible and spar is

T = 21T (1 + Mac)M (6-93)

pgAw

where Mis the structure mass (kg, slug), Macis the added mass coefficient, pis the fluid mass density (kg/m3,
slug/ft3), gis the acceleration dueto gravity (m/sec2, ft/sec 2), andAw is the waterplane area (m2, ft2). The pitch
natural period for freely floating structures is

(6-94)

where M is the structure mass (kg, slug), Ma is the pitch added mass (kg, slug), r is the radius of
gyration with respect to an axis parallel with the y-axis through the CG (m, ft), GML is the longitu-
dinal metacentric height (m, ft), p is the fluid mass density (kg/m3 , slug/ft3), g is gravity acceleration
226 Elements of Ocean Engineering

(m/sec 2 , ft/sec 2), and 'V is the displaced volume of the structure (m3, ft 3). The roll natural periods is
evaluated using

(6-95)

where M is the structure mass (kg, slug), Ma is the roll added mass (kg, slug), r is the radius of gyration with
respect toan axis parallel with the x-axis through the CG (m, ft), GMT is the transverse metacentric height
(m, ft), pis the fluid mass density (kg/m3, slug/ft3), gis gravity acceleration (m/sec 2, ft/sec 2), and 'Vis the
displaced volume of structure (m3, ft 3).
The heave natural period for a TLP can be evaluated by

T = 27T + Mac)M
(1 (6-96)
(Et + pgAw)
where M is the structure mass (kg, slug), Mac is the added mass coefficient, E is the elastic modulus of the
tendon (N/m2, lb/ft2), A is the cross-sectional area of the tendon (m2 , ft 2), Lis the length of tendon (m, ft),
pis the fluid mass density (kglm3, slug/ft3), gis the acceleration dueto gravity (m/sec 2 , ft/sec 2), andAw is the
waterplane area (m2 , ft 2). The stiffness resulting from the waterplane area (pgAw) is small in comparison to
the tendon restoring effect and is sometimes neglected. For the TLP, the heave natural period increases with
water depth (i.e., the tendon length). Generally, the natural periods for the heave pitch and roll of a TLP are
low relative to most wave periods that occur in the ocean.
The natural period for an FPSO can be evaluated as

(6-97)

where Macis the added mass coefficient, CB is the block coefficient ('V/(LBD)), Cw is the waterplane area
coefficient (Aw/(BL)), gis the acceleration of gravity (m/sec 2, ft/sec 2), Aw is the waterplane area (m2 , ft2),
L is the ship length (m, ft), B is the beam of the ship (m, ft), D is the draft of the ship (m, ft), and 'V is the
displaced volume of ship (m3, fe). Because of the large waterplane area of the FPSO, the natural period of
heave is in the range of wave periods. Thus, the FPSO heave motion characteristics are closer to the wave
spectrum peak period than the other floating structures.

6.6.1 Example Problem 6-6

As an example, Table 6-19 illustrates the calculation of the heave natural period of a semisubmers-
ible floating production system that has a mass of 4.8 E + 07 kg and added mass of 40% of the structure
mass. The semisubmersible has six columns that are 11 m in diameter.

Table 6-19. Example Calculation of Heave Natural Period for Semisubmersible Floating Production System
Given: Semisubmersible, M = 4.8E + 07 kg, Mac = 40% of structure mass, diameter of
column = 11 m, number of columns = 6
Find: Heave natural period of the semisubmersible
Solution:
Calculate waterplane area:
Aw = 112 X 1T X
4 6 = 5.7E + 02m2
Calculate stiffness:
Keq = pgAv, = 1025 X 9.81 X 5.7E + 02 = 5.73E + 06 N/m
Calculate natural periods:
T =2 /(1 + 0.4) X 4.8E + 07 = 21 5
1T 5.73E + 06 · sec
Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 227

6. 7 OFFSHORE PRODUCTION RISERS

Production risers for the offshore oil and gas industry provide the pipe path for the oil and gas to flow
from the wellhead on the seaftoor to the production platform at the ocean surface. These risers may be single
or dual pipes. The annulus in the dual pipes serves as a means for other flowlines, electrical instrument wires,
chemical injection lines, and wireline service devices to enter the well (Fig. 6-48). The riser pipes range in out-
side diameterfrom 0.15 to 0.76 m (6-30 in) with a wall thickness of 1.3-2.5 cm (0.5-1.0 in), and can withstand a
pressure of 110.3 MPa (16,000 psi) ata water depth of 3050 m (10,000 ft). Risers are constructed in 15-m (50-ft)
sections with connectors on each end of the pipe. The risers are designed for a 100-year return event (hurricane
or typhoon), and the design life of the risers is 25-30 years. These risers are secured at the surface platform with
hydraulic tensioners for spar platforms and TLPs, or attached to riser porches for semisubmersibles and FPSO
systems. Jumper tubes connect the risers to the surface tree (dry tree) orto the production systems if subsea trees
(wet trees) are being used. Por further details about offshore risers, see Goodfellow Associates Inc. (1990) and
Bai & Bai (2005).
The most commonly used risers are top tension risers (TTRs), steel catenary risers (SCRs), rigid
risers, flexible risers, and hybrid risers. TLPs and spar platforms typically use TTRs because these floating
platforms have relatively low heave and use dry trees to control the well. SCRs and flexible risers are com-
monly used for semisubmersible floating platforms and FPSO platforms. An example of a TTR for a spar
platform is shown in Fig. 6-49; in this case, the riser uses buoyancy cans to ensure that the riser is always in
tension. The guide frame shows there is a capacity to have 25 risers. The number of risers for each platform
depends on the buoyancy of the platform and the number of accessible wells.
Steel catenary risers (SCRs) are often used on floating production platforms that experience more
heave motion and use subsea trees (wet trees) that are located on the seafloor. Flexible risers are used when
wells are distributed over a large distance on the seafloor, as illustrated in Fig. 6-50, which shows flexible
risers connecting to the manifold on the seafloor. The flowlines from the several wellheads connect to the
manifold. The oil and gas from the wells are processed onboard the FPSO with the production equipment
on the main deck. The processed oil is stored in tanks and eventually offloaded by a shuttle tanker. The
typical storage capacity of an FPSO is 1-2 million barreis of oil. The gas produced is usually reinjected
into the reservoir via a riser, and it is sometimes used to provide power for the vessel. Figure 6-51 shows a
spread-moored FPSO using SCRs that are hung-off riser porches. A shuttle tanker is shown offtoading the
processed oil using a floating hose. The shuttle tanker will disconnect when it is full and deliver the oil to
shore at the port of destination.

lnstrumentation
Cables Production
Tubing

lnner Casing
Lines

O uter
Casing

Figure 6-48. Schematic of an ofTshore top tension riser (TTR).

228 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Flexible Flow Une

Connectlon

Gapb&tween
Buoyancy-can and
GuideFrame

Spar Platform Vertical Riser

Figure 6-49. Schematic of spar platform and TTR supported by buoyancy caos (Koo, 2003).

Figure 6-50. Conceptual view of floating production storage and offioading (FPSO) vessel using flexible
risers connecting to manifold with shuttle tanker offioading. (Courtesy of Oceaneering International, loe.)
Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 229

Figure 6-51. A spread moored Zafiro Producer (left) and Ocean Producer (right) FPSOs with
flexible risers connecting to riser porches. (Courtesy of Oceaneering lnternational, Inc.)

The common types of flexible risers are illustrated in Fig. 6-52. These risers are typically used with
semisubmersible floating production systems, FPSOs, and hybrid risers. They can connect vertically to the
wellhead and use buoyancy-supported arches or other buoyancy modules to support the flexible riser. The
flexible risers forman "S" shape and are commonly called lazy S, steep S, lazy wave, or steep wave risers.
Flexible risers are also used to connect the free-standing fixed risers to the floater.
Production and drilling risers are subjected to ocean currents, and consequently the risers can
move significantly as a result of vortex-induced vibrations caused by ocean currents moving past the riser.
Currents moving faster than 1 m/s (2 knots) can induce this vibration or movement and fatigue the risers or
cause the risers to collide with one another. Helical strakes can be installed to reduce fatigue and riser mo-
tion by eliminating vortex formation, as shown in Fig. 6-53.

Drilling Vessel

MWL
---~-------------

Steel Catenary
Riser(SCR) -Fioatation

MWL
---~-------------

Figure 6-52. Sketches of common flexible riser configurations.

230 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 6-53. Helical strakes attached to risers to reduce vortex induced vibration. (Courtesy ofTrelleborg CRP.)

6.8 REFERENCES

Allmendinger, E. E. (Ed.). (1990). Submersible vehicle systems design. Jersey City: Society of Naval
Architects and Marine Engineers.
American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) (2000). Guide for building and classing facilities on offshore
installations. Houston, TX: ABS Inc.
American Petroleum lnstitute (API). (1994). Recommended practice for design, analysis, and maintenance
of moorings for floating production systems. Washington, DC: American Petroleum lnstitute.
American Petroleum lnstitute (API). (2005). Recommended practice for station keeping. Washington, DC:
American Petroleum Institute.
Bai, Y., & Bai, Q. (2005). Subsea pipelines and risers. New York: Elsevier.
Bhattacharyya, R. (1978). Dynamics ofmarine vehicles. NewYork: John Wiley & Sons.
Berteaux, H. O. (1991). Coastal and oceanic buoy engineering. Woods Hole: Berteaux.
Clayton, B. R., & Bishop, R. E. D. (1982). Mechanics ofmarine vehicles. Houston: GulfPublishing Co.
Cotten, J., Dunbar, C., Garcia, D. Hartsfield, R., & Vallejo, R. (2009). Sirena Dotada truss spardesignfor
Eastern Gulf of Mexico, final report. Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas.
Faltinsen, O. M. (1993). Sea loads on ships and offshore structures. NewYork: Cambridge University Press.
Goodfellow Associates Inc. (1990). Applications of subsea systems. Tulsa: Penn Well.
Koo, B. (2003). Evaluation of the effect of contact between risers and guide frames on offshore spar platform
motions. (PhD dissertation, Texas A&M University, 2001).
Lewis, E. V. (Ed.) (1988). Principies ofnaval architecture (2nd rev.). Jersey City: Society ofNavalArchitects
and Marine Engineers.
Morrish, S. W. F. (1892). Approximate rulefor the vertical position ofthe center ofbuoyancy. Transactions,
INA, now RINA.
Naval Sea Systems Command (NAVSEA). Ship Hull Characteristics Program (SHCP). (1976). NAVSEA
SHCP user's manual (CASDAC No. 231072). Washington, DC: U.S. Govemment Printing Office.
Navy Facilities Engineering Command (NAVFAC). (1968). Design manual, harbor and coastalfacilities
(DM26). Washington DC: U.S. Govemment Printing Office.
Posdunine, V. (1925). Sorne approximateformulae useful in ship design. The Shipbuilder, April.
Tupper, E. C. (1996). Introduction to naval architecture (3rd ed.). Jersey City: Society of Naval Architects
and Marine Engineers.
U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (1990). Aids to navigation manual-technical. (Department of Transportation.
COMDINST MI 65003). Washington, DC: U.S. Govemment Printing Office.
Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 231

U .S. N avy (USN). ( 1987). Drag embedment anchors for navy mooring s, N aval Civil Engineering Laboratory
Tech Data Sheet 83-08R, June.
Vryhof Inc. (2000). Vryhof anchor manual. The Netherlands: Vryhof Anchor Inc.
Zubaly, R. B. (1996). Applied naval architecture. Jersey City: Society of Naval Architects and Marine
Engineers.

6.9 PROBLEMS

6-1. A weight distribution for a vessel is given in the table below. Determine the location of the vertical
center of gravity from the keel.

ltem Weight (lb) Vertical Location Above the Keel (ft)

1 300 3
2 1000 2.5
3 500 4.0
4 950 0.75
5 400 3.5
6 1800 0.5
7 300 4.0
8 250 4.0
9 650 3.8
10 425 3.7
11 75 5.8
12 25 6.5
13 500 1.25

6-2. A diving bell has an outside diameter of 6 ft and is constructed of 0.75-in-thick steel (specific
weight = 490 lb/ft3). The diving bell is a sphere with a batch in the bottom through which the divers
enter and exit. How much weight must be added for the bell to be able to ftoat with a draft of 3 ft?
Determine how much weight will have to be added· with two 180-lb persons inside to make the bell
just submerge.

6-3. A rectangular barge is 100 ft long, 35 ft wide, and 6 ft deep. The draft of the barge is 3.5 ft.
Determine the displaced volume and the location of the center of buoyancy. If the center of gravity
is 4 ft above the bottom of the vessel, what is the condition of stability? Determine the location
of the metacenter assuming the second moment of area of the waterplane (h) is given by LB 3/12.
What is the magnitude of the righting arm when the barge is heeled over 2 degrees?

6-4. A spherical buoy is fully immersed in a tidal ftow. Calculate the drag force on the buoy knowing
that the buoy diameter is 6 ft, the current is 3 kts, and the water temperature is 60° F. Assume that
'Ysw = 64 lb/ft3 and V = 1.26 X 10- 5 ft 2/s.

6-5. The spherical buoy in problem 4 weighs 2000 lb. Find the tension in the mooring line that would
hold the buoy on station.

6-6. An aid-to-navigation buoy is moored in 80 ft of water. The anchor chain's immersed weight is
3 lb/ft and the drag force on the buoy is 300 lb. Compute the length of chain required to maintain
an angle of 25 degrees or less at the anchor. Compute the tension at the buoy and anchor. What is
the distan ce of the bu oy downstream of the anchor?
232 Elements of Ocean Engineering

6-7. A barge has a rectangular cross-section that is 15 ft high and 30ft wide. Its length is 120ft.
Ten items in the barge are vertically located, as shown in the table below. The weight of the barge
without the items is 1,200,000 lb. Determine the draft of the barge, the center of buoyancy of the
displaced volume, and the distance between the center of gravity and the center of buoyancy. If
the metacenter is 30 ft above the keel, what is the righting moment developed for a roll angle of
5 degrees?

ltem Weight (lb) Vertical Location Above the Keel (ft)

1 200,000 1.5
2 350,000 2.5
3 500,000 1.5
4 150,000 3.0
5 325,000 2.7
6 180,000 4.5
7 400,000 5.2
8 275,000 6.1
9 400,000 3.1
10 175,000 7.1

6-8. A submarine weighs 20,000 lb in air. Determine the displaced volume of the submarine in
seawater.

6-9. Find the angle of tilt of the cylindrical discus buoy shown below. The mooring line tension is
5000 lb and is applied at the apex of a rigid bridle 6 ft below the buoy keel. The drag on the buoy
is 868 lb and is applied at the buoy center of buoyancy when the buoy is on an even keel. The buoy
weight is 3000 lb, which acts through the center of gravity located at the geometric center of the
buoy. The diameter is 6 ft and the height of cylindrical section is 3 ft.

Cylindrical Discus Buoy

Still Water Level ,-L-------------~~

.,..
6ft

*
To anchor

6-10. A surface buoy is located in 180ft of water and is moored with a wire rope weighing 3 lb/ft. The
drag on the buoy is 350 lb. Determine the length of wire rope necessary to maintain an angle of
25 degrees or less at the anchor. Determine the tension at the buoy and anchor. What is the distance
of the bu oy downstream of the anchor?

6-11. A ship has the curves of form shown in Fig. 6-3. Sorne specifications for the ship are as follows:
LBP = 210m, beam = 18m, and maximum draft = 10m. If the ship is floating in seawater ata
weight of 22,000 long tons, determine the following quantities: 1) the wetted area of the hull, 2) the
block coefficient, 3) the waterplane area, and 4) the midship area.
Chapter 6 Floating and Submerged Body Hydrodynamics 233

6-12. A 50-m-long submarine of simplified geometry is operating with its deck flush with the seawater
surface, as shown below in the drawing on left. The hull is an equilateral triangle with dimensions
of 6 m along a side, as shown. The center of gravity (G) is 2 m above the keel. The submarine is
now disturbed and rotated to the position shown below in the drawing on the right. Determine the
righting arm and the righting moment.

6.om

\)J-----.-----2.0m
Figure
ll (a) ' Figure (b)

6-13. A single propeller submarine is in steady forward motion in the ocean at 30 kts. The following
specifications apply: diameter = 30ft, length = 300ft, wetted hull area = 20,000 ft 2, and resis-
tance coefficient (CT) = 0.003 (based on wetted area). Find the effective horsepower required.

6-14. A marine propeller is moving through seawater and producing a thrust horsepower of 5000 while
moving at 25 kts. If the ratio of thrust coefficient to advance ratio squared (KT/P) = 0.2225, find
the diameter of the propeller.
6-15. A ship model is to be tested in a seawater towing tank to determine its resistance coefficient for use
in predicting the behavior of the prototype. The important dimensions of the model are:
Scale: 1/100 of full-scale length of 311 ft 5 in
Wetted surface area: 1.9 ft 2
When the model is towed ata Fraude speed (see Chapter 10) corresponding toa prototype speed
of 15 kts, the total resistance of the model is measured to be 0.0820 lb. Determine the resistance
coefficient of the model ship.
6-16. A small submarine that displaces a volume of 15m3 is submerged in seawater with a salinity of
34 ppt anda temperature of l6°C. The water density is given approximately by the equation

p = 1001.52- 9.10 X 10- 3 T 2 - 4.09 X 10- 3 TS + 8.24 X 10- 1 S kg/m3

Determine the weight of the submarine when T is in degrees Centigrade ( 0 C) and S is in parts per
thousand (ppt).
6-17. A single-leg moored surface buoy is located at the water surface where the depth is 200ft of sea-
water. The buoy is moored with chain weighing 2.81lb/ft in seawater. The wind drag on the buoy is
450 lb. Determine the length of the chain necessary to just maintain an angle of zero degrees (0°) at
the anchor. Determine the tension at the buoy and anchor, and evaluate the distance from the buoy
to the anchor. Assume no current and no waves.
6-18. Determine the heave natural period of a semisubmersible that has a mass (M) of 4 X 107 kg and the
added mass (Mac) is 40% of the structure mass. The diameter of the four columns is 13 m.
 CHAPTER7 UNDERWATER SYSTEMS

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Underwater systems give humans the ability to live and work beneath the sea surface. With the
use of underwater video cameras and acoustic equipment, we can remotely view and record underwater
phenomena and the operation of undersea systems. Many subsea systems use pressure vessels or are housed
within pressure vessels. Consequently, the elementary design principies for pressure vessels are discussed in
this chapter with reference to appropriate design codes. Systems on the sea floor (subsea systems) are used
to transport oil and gas to surface-supported oil and gas platforms for processing and delivery to a pipe-
line or ship to bring the product to shore. Diving and life support technologies, remotely operated vehicles
(ROVs), submarines, underwater habitats, hyperbaric chambers, and the history of sorne of these intrigu-
ing systems are discussed. This chapter also briefly addresses energy sources such as batteries, fuel cells,
nuclear devices, and transmission lines, which provide electrical power for subsea systems and free them
from their dependence on surface-supplied sources.

7.2 DIVING ANO LIFE SUPPORT

7 .2.1 Physiology

A basic understanding of the human circulatory system (Fig. 7-1) and respiratory system (Fig. 7-2)
is necessary for the analysis and design of diving and underwater life support systems. For further informa-
tion about diving physiology, see Miles and Mackay (1976), NOAA (2001), Nuckols et al. (1996), Schilling
(1965), Schilling et al. (1976), and USN (2008). In the human circulatory system, blood is pumped by
the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs through the pulmonary artery, and from the lungs through the
pulmonary vein to the left auricle. Blood in the pulmonary artery is deficient in oxygen and rich in carbon
dioxide. The lungs provide the area for gas transfer of oxygen to the blood and removal of carbon dioxide.
The blood returning to the heart is now rich in oxygen, and the left ventricle pumps the oxygen-rich blood
to organs in the upper and lower parts of the body. Blood depleted of oxygen returns to the right atrium
through veins and is then pumped to the lungs by the right ventricle, completing the circuit. The distribution
of blood to body organs is accomplished by the continua! branching of arteries, which become capillaries.
Carbon dioxide and other substances are exchanged between the blood and body tissues at the thin walls of
the capillaries. Blood from the capillaries flows into veins and is returned to the heart. The carbon dioxide
is transported from the heart to the lungs, where it is exhaled.
In the respiratory system, breathing is the result of rhythmic changes in the volume of the chest wall
cavity. These changes are caused by the muscular action of the diaphragm and chest wall. This muscular
action is under the control of the central nervous system, which responds to changes in blood oxygen and
carbon dioxide levels. The normal respiratory rate at rest is 12-16 breaths per minute. The actual volume
change of air involved in a given breath is called the tidal volume, which is illustrated in Fig. 7-3. The respi-
ratory minute volume is defined as the respiratory rate (breaths per minute) times the tidal volume (volume
per breath).
During respiration, air is drawn into the lung alveoli, where the gas exchange takes place. The par-
tia! pressure of oxygen is lower in body tissues than in the blood because these tissues are continuously using
oxygen. Consequently, oxygen is transferred from the blood to the tissues. The partial pressure of carbon
dioxide is greater in the tissues because that is where carbon dioxide is produced. Consequently, carbon di-
oxide is transferred from the tissues to the blood. Flexibility of the gas exchange rate results from increased
movement of the chest, increased heart action, and increased differences in partial pressures.

235
 236 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Pulmonary
veins

Figure 7-1. Schematic ofhuman circulatory system. (Reprinted with permission from Schilling, C. W. (1965).
The human machine. Annapolis: U.S. Naval lnstitute.)

Three main respiratory problems can occur in diving operations. The first is hypercapnia (carbon
dioxide excess), a situation in which the tissues have an excess of carbon dioxide. This can be caused by
excess carbon dioxide in the breathing medium, an inability to remove carbon dioxide from the breathing
medium, or the inadequate removal of carbon dioxide from the tissues or blood. A relationship for the physi-
ological effects of carbon dioxide concentration and exposure period is shown in Fig. 7-4. The other two
respiratory problems are hypoxia (oxygen shortage) and oxygen poisoning. If the oxygen partial pressure
drops below 0.1 ata (atmospheres absolute), consciousness is usually lost. If oxygen is completely cut off for
3-5 minutes, the brain will be irreparably damaged. Oxygen poisoning occurs when there is an excess of
oxygen. The limits of oxygen partial pressure and concentration are illustrated in Fig. 7-5.
The effects of pressure also cause sorne problems for divers. The most common problem is ear
squeeze, but pressure can also cause problems in the sinuses and teeth. Gas embolism can occur if the pressure
Chapter 7 Underwater Systems 237

Conchae

Figure 7-2. Schematic of human respiratory system. (Reprinted with permission from National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA). (2001). NOAA diving manual. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.)

Moximum lun extension

lnspiratory Reserve
_Q_O_ ?o_vjtgl_ ~qpggty .... ___ _ ---- --l, -- ------ 11

1 j Vital

lc-h~t;JE~( --
Voiume Total
Lung
r l Volume 1Copocit) Volume

Expiratory Reserve
1
!
Residual Volume ,
-······-·-···---------L----1~-
Time
Figure 7-3. Volume relationship for a normal breath.
 238 Elements of Ocean Engineering

12.0 0.12 0.12

....
<;¡ 10.0 0.1 0.10
·=< ~

·Z
·-. -..
"'~
~s.o 0.08 .~
¡:¡., 0.08

i5 -§ 6.0 0.06 ~.
"!
_g< .
¡:¡., 0.06

a ~4.0 0.04 ~
s= 0.04
....l::
= 2.0 0.02 o
¡:¡., -e.. 0.02
u 0.005
0.0 o o
o 20 40 60 80 40 Days
Exposure Time (minutes)
Figure 7-4. Physiological effects of carbon dioxide concentration and exposure period.

.S 10.0

10 10000

Depth (ft)
Figure 7-5. Percentage of oxygen in breathing mixture as a function of depth and oxygen partial pressure.

is reduced too rapidly or the ascent from depth is too rapid. In this case, dissolved gas comes out of solution,
forming bubbles in the tissues and blood. These bubbles may block the circulation to the lungs, brain, heart,
and spinal cord, and death may result. Recompression is the only treatment. In this treatment, the diver is
placed in a hyperbaric chamber and the chamber pressure is gradually increased to that of the original depth
of the diver. Then a slow decompression procedure is followed to prevent the reoccurrence of the embolism.
Two important consequences of pressure are decompression sickness (bends) and inert gas narcosis
(rapture ofthe deep). The common inert gases (nitrogen and helium) are physiologically inert under normal
pressure, but nitrogen has distinct anesthetic properties when the nitrogen partial pressure is sufficiently
high. Nitrogen narcosis usually begins at depths of 30.5 m (lOO ft) to 45.7 m (150ft). Decompression sick-
ness occurs when the elimination of gases by the blood flowing through the lungs occurs more slowly than
the rate of reduction in externa! pressure. If there is a large amount of supersaturated inert gas in the tissues,
the gas may come out of solution in the form of bubbles that can cause rashes, block the circulation, and
distort body tissues. Again, the only treatment is recompression.
An important consideration in the design of underwater life support systems is the amount of
breathing gas required and oxygen consumed by the diver. Figure 7-6 shows the average required respira-
tory minute volume and oxygen consumption for different working contlitions. The amount of carbon diox-
ide produced is determined from the respiratory quotient, which is the ratio of the carbon dioxide produced
divided by the oxygen consumed. The typical respiratory quotient is 0.9, but it is often designated as 1.0 for
convenience.
Chapter 7 Underwater Systems 239

100
3.5
90
.e--- 80 3 ~
¡;;;.
~.. ~

]
70 2.5 a
Q 60 o=
> 2 >
~ 50 ~
=
= =
::E 40 1.5 ::E=
t' t'

·a...
Q
30 1 S
1;
f
:r¡
20 •t
0.5 IX
IX 10

0.5 ¡ 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

Oxygen Consumption (SLM)
Figure 7-6. Relation of respiratory minute volume in liters per minute (1/min) or cubic feet per minute (CFM)
and oxygen consumption in SLM to the type and level of exertion.

The units used to describe the respiratory minute volume are liters per minute and cubic feet per
minute, both of which refer to the volumetric flow rate at the diver's depth or pressure. Standard volumetric
conditions, such as standard cubic feet per minute (SCFM) and standard liters per minute (SLM), refer to
conditions at the surface or standard atmospheric and temperature conditions. The standard atmospheric
pressure is commonly assumed as 10 m (33 ft) of seawater, 101.33 kPa (14.7 psia), 1 ata, or 760 mm of Hg
(mercury). The standard temperature is normally taken as 15°C (59°F). Therefore, flow rates in CFM or
liters/minute refer to diver requirements at depth, and flow rates described as SCFM or SLM refer to condi-
tions at one atmosphere (1 ata), which is the absolute pressure assumed at the ocean (water) surface.

7 .2.2 Pressure

When pressure is measured relative to a perfect vacuum, it is called the absolute pressure, and when it is
measured relative to atmospheric conditions, it is called the gauge pressure. These pressure relationships are il-
lustrated in Fig. 7-7. The standard atmospheric pressure is the .average pressure found at sea level, and is given as
10m (33ft) of seawater, 101.33 kPa absolute (14.7 psia), and 760 mm ofHg. Partial pressure is frequently used in
diving and life support calculations. The partial pressure is the pressure a component of gas would exert if all the
other gases were removed and the component gas occupied the volume alone. Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure
states that the sum of the partial pressures of each component gas equals the total pressure of the gas mixture.

.4 ~ A~
gauge absolute
pressure pressure

standard ..4 ~
atm ospheric
.4 ~
,,
pressure vacuum (gauge)
101.33kPa
local
14.7 psia
atmospheric
10m sea water
33ft sea water
pressure .4 ~
vacuum (absoluta)

absoluta zero pressure {perfect vacuum)

Figure 7-7. Measured pressure relationships.

240 Elements of Ocean Engineering

7.2.3 Temperature

Temperature is measured in Centigrade ( 0 C) or Fahrenheit CF), and in absolute terms it is measured

in Kelvin (°K) or Rankine ( 0 R), respectively. In equation form, this is written as

(7-1)

0 R = op + 460 (7-2)

The absolute temperature must be used in many of the thermodynamic relationships involved in diver life
support calculations.

7.2.4 Equation of State

The equation of state (perfect gas law) expresses the relationship among pressure, specific volume,
and temperature for a substance. Por a gas, the expression is

pv = RT (7-3)

where p is the absolute pressure, v is the specific volume, R is the gas constant, and T is the absolute tem-
perature. The gas constant is defined as

R = Ru (7-4)
M
where Ru is the universal gas constant (1545 ft-lb/lb mole- 0 R or 8314 N-m/kg mole-°K) and M is the
molecular weight. The gas constants and molecular weights for several gases are tabulated in Table 7-1.
Other useful forms of the equation of state are

pV = mRT (7-5)

p=pRT (7-6)

R
pv= :MT (7-7)

pV = nRuT (7-8)

Table 7-1. Molecular Weight and Gas Constant for Typical Breathing Gas Components
Gas Molecular Weight Gas Constant (R) Gas Constant (R) Gas Constant (R)
(M) lbm ft-lb/slug- 0 R ft-lbflbm· 0 R J/KgoK
A ir 29 1716.3 53.35 286.9
Carbon dioxide 44 1129.5 35.11 188.9
Helium 4 12,424.1 386.2 2077
Hydrogen 2 24,659.3 766.53 4124
Nitrogen 28 1774.5 55.16 296.8
Oxygen 32 1553.5 48.29 259.8
Chapter 7 Underwater Systems 241

where V is the volume of the gas, mis the mass of the gas, p is the gas density, and n is the number of moles
(n = m/M). Special cases of the perfect gas law are

Constant Temperature (Boyles Law) p¡ V¡ = Pz Vz (7-9)

V V
Constant Pressure (Charles Law) T: = T~ (7-10)

p¡V¡ P2V2
General Gas Law ~ = T (7-11)

where the subscripts represent equilibrium state points for the gas. In sorne cases, the perfect gas law is not
satisfactory, and a real gas law that considers compressibility effects must be used. Two forms of the real
gas law are
pv = ZRTorpV = ZmRT (7-12)

where Z is the compressibility factor, which is a function of temperature and pressure.

7.2.4. 1 Example Problem 7-1

A SCUBA tank is fully charged to 3015 psia at 70°F. It contains 72 ft 3 of air under standard condi-
tions (15 psia, 70°F). Determine the tank internal volume and assume that the perfect gas law applies. The
example problem solution is shown in Table 7-2.

Table 7-2. Results ofExample Problem 7-1 Solution

Given p1 = 3015 psia, V 2 = 72 ft 3 , pz = 15 psia
Find v,
Solution As sume constant temperature, T 1 = T 2
Perfect gas 1aw reduces to Boyle's Law for constant temperature process
p¡V¡ = pzVz
3015(144)V 1 = 15(144)72
V 1 = 0.36 ft 3

7.2.5 Air Supply Calculations

The actual surface volume of air in a SCUBA tank at any pressure is given by

NVrPg
V=-- (7-13)
Pr
where Vis the actual volume of air available in the tank at the surface, N is the number of tanks, Vr is the
rated capacity of the tank, P g is the gauge pressure inside the tank, and Pr is the rated tank pressure in psig.
A consistent system of units (SI or BG) must be used to obtain dimensionally correct results. The effect of
temperature is calculated by

Vt = VctTz (7-14)
T¡
where V1 is the volume of air adjusted for temperature, Vct is the available air from equation 7-13, T 2 is the
absolute temperature of water, and T 1 is the absolute temperature of air. The duration of air supply in min-
utes for a SCUBA tank, leaving a reserve pressure, is evaluated by

S = _N_V:,.--rC_,Pg::_-_P_m)_(3_3_)T_z (7-15)
R(D + 33)PrTl
242 Elements of Ocean Engineering

where S is the duration in minutes, P m is the minimum reserve pressure in psig, R. is the breathing rate (re-
spiratory minute volume) in cubic feet per minute, and D is the depth of water in feet of seawater (Tucker,
1980). The ventilation requirements for surface-supplied diving rigs (helmet or mask) are calculated as

(7-16)

where Vis the volume rate of air required in SCFM, OsLM is the oxygen consumption in SLM, R is the respi-
ratory quotient (volume of carbon dioxide produced/volume of oxygen consumed), C2 is the desired partial
pressure of carbon dioxide in inhaled air (ata), e, is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in breathing air
from compressor (ata), and Pata is the pressure at depth in atmospheres. The constant 28.3 is a conversion
factor for converting SLM to SCFM and includes the temperature difference between standard liters and
standard cubic feet. A standard cubic foot is defined as conditions at 70°F and 1.0 ata, and a standard liter is
defined as the condition at 32°F and 1.0 ata. If oxygen consumption = 2.6 SLM, R = 0.9, and C 2 = 0.02, then

V= 0.0893Pata (7-17)
0.02- C¡Pata
When the breathing air contains no carbon dioxide, the equation reduces to

V= 4.5Pata (7-18)

For example, a surface-supplied diver working at 30.2 m (99 ft) of seawater will require 509.8 SLM
(18.0 SCFM) of air because 30.2 m (99ft) is equal to 4 atmospheres pressure absolute.

7 .2.6 Ventilation of Large Chambers

Underwater habitats are considered large chambers, and it is often necessary to evaluate the ventila-
tion rate necessary to avoid excess carbon dioxide concentrations. If the atmosphere is assumed to be flushed
continually by the incoming air, a rather simple analysis can be used. If it is assumed that pure air is entering
the chamber, and that complete mixing occurs, then the result is
. RT [ :_v..,t]
P = .!Q.- 1 - e----v;- (7-19)
co2 V· ..
rur

where Pco2 is the allowable partial pressure of carbon dioxide, mis the mass ftow rate of carbon dioxide, R
is the gas constant for carbon dioxide, T is the absolute temperature, Vair is the volumetric ftow rate of air at
depth, t is time, and V 1 is the volume of the chamber. If the time (t) is very long, then the steady-state value
of the carbon di oxide partial pressure is
rllRT
Pcoz = -.- (7-20)
Vair

7.2.7 Diver Breathing Equipment

The breathing equipment used by working and recreational divers must supply the necessary respi-
ratory minute volume containing the proper amount of oxygen. There are five general types of breathing
equipment: a demand regulator or self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA), a semiclosed
breathing apparatus, a surface-supplied deep-sea diving outfit, a surface-supplied deep-sea diving outfit
with carbon dioxide absorption, and closed-circuit breathing equipment.
The demand regulator is the primary equipment used by recreational divers. It consists of a breath-
ing gas supply tank, a first-stage regulator that drops the tank air pressure to about 1.03 MPa (150 psi) over
Chapter 7 Underwater Systems 243

ambient pressure, and a second-stage demand regulator that delivers air slightly above the diver's ambient
pressure. The regulator is the part of the diver's mouthpiece that supplies breathing gas when the diver
inhales and is shut off when the diver exhales. The breathing gas is stored in a compressed-gas cylinder
carried on the diver's back. The rate of breathing gas usage depends on the exertion effort of the diver and
the depth of water. Dive durations with this type of equipment can vary from approximately 12 min when
divers are under heavy exertion in deep water (approximately 39.6 mor 130ft) to several hours when divers
are under light exertion in shallow water.
Semiclosed breathing equipment is very efficient in the use of breathing gas. The breathing gas
has oxygen supplied at a partial pressure just under the toxic limit of 1.2 ata, and it is rebreathed after be-
ing passed through a carbon dioxide absorber until the oxygen partial pressure is reduced to 0.16 ata on
exhalation. Thus, a large majority of the oxygen is used as compared to about 20% for the open-circuit
systems. At moderate depths, the semiclosed breathing apparatus is the most economical means of supply-
ing breathing gas. The gas can be supplied by compressed-gas cylinders carried by the diver or through an
umbilical from a compressed-gas supply located in a diver lockout chamber, diving bell, or surface vessel.
For further information regarding the breathing gas fiow rates required for different diving operations, see
USN (2008).
Closed-circuit breathing rigs can be used to ensure that none of the breathing gas is vented to the
water. An inert gas, typically helium, is added to the breathing bags and adjusted as required by the diving
depth. Oxygen is added to the breathing mixture at the rate of consumption, and thus all of the oxygen is
used by the diver. When the diver exhales the breathing mixture, the exhaled gas is passed through a carbon
dioxide removal device to cleanse the gas of all the carbon dioxide, and the remaining inert gas and unused
oxygen are recirculated to the inhale bag and combined with the oxygen supplied to replace the used oxy-
gen. Such systems require automatic sensing of the partial pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide, and are
advantageous for deep-diving operations because no inert gas is lost. Closed-circuit systems are not well
known and are not yet used by recreational divers, but they are sometimes used in deep-diving and military
or scientific applications.
Open-circuit breathing equipment is used for light activity and moderate depths with air supplied
from the surface by air compressors or from a bank of compressed-air cylinders on a support vessel. The
breathing gas is supplied to a helmet, which is essentially a ventilated dead space. The supplied airfiow rate
must be sufficient to dilute the carbon dioxide exhaled by the working diver. This system is commonly used
for commercial diving in shallow waters (<30.5 m (100ft) to 39.6 m (130ft)). In sorne applications, the
diving helmet is equipped similarly to a semiclosed breat~ing apparatus, with recirculation of breathing gas
and carbon dioxide absorption. This is needed when the diving operation is conducted at depths that require
the use of helium, or when it is uneconomical to exhale the helium to the surrounding water.

7.2.8 Controlling the Underwater Chamber Environment

The environment inside underwater habitats, diver lockout chambers, submersible pilot chambers,
personal transfer capsules, and other underwater enclosures must be controlled. In addition to the require-
ments for proper breathing gas mixtures and supply rates, the environment must be maintained within
reasonable limits of temperature and humidity. Because of the increased pressures and various gas mix-
tures involved, special psychrometric charts must be used to evaluate the environmental conditions. Such
psychrometric charts can be found in the USN Diving Gas Manual (USN, 1971), Nuckols et al. (1996), and
Randall (1999).
Heating and cooling systems are needed to maintain the temperature and humidity at desirable
conditions. In normal air, these conditions are 23.9°C (75°F) and 50% relative humidity, but if the diving
depth (pressure) requires the use of helium/oxygen mixtures, the desirable temperature condition is more
like 29.4°C (85°F). Heat transfer analyses of the pressure vessel system are necessary to determine the
steady-state and transient conditions inside the habitat; such analyses are better discussed in more advanced
literature on the subject.
244 Elements of Ocean Engineering

7.3 PRESSURE VESSELS

Pressure vessels are used extensively in ocean engineering applications such as submarine hulls,
underwater habitats, instrument housings, breathing gas storage vessels (e.g., SCUBA tanks), subsurface
mooring buoys, diver lockout chambers for small submersibles, buoyancy tanks for offshore structures, flota-
tion devices, diving bells, hyperbaric chambers, underwater storage vessels, and many others. The process of
designing pressure vessels can be quite involved and is the subject of many handbooks. Originally, the elec-
tric power industry required pressure vessels to contain high-pressure steam. Similar pressure vessels were
also used in sea-going vessels. Consequently, there are many good references for designing pressure vessels,
including Megyesy (2005), Chuse and Eber (1984), Young and Budynas (2001), and American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME, 2002, 2007). Most underwater pressure vessels are thin-walled. When the ra-
dius-to-wall thickness ratio is > 10, the pressure vessel is classified as a thick-walled pressure vessel. Such ves-
seis require a different analysis (for appropriate analytical techniques, see, e.g., Young and Budynas (2001)).

7.3.1 Thin-Walled Cylinders and Spheres

Cylindrical pressure vessels (tanks) are used by recreational and working divers to provide breath-
ing gas underwater. These tanks must be designed to contain the breathing gas (air or helium and oxygen
mixtures) at high interna! pressures (e.g., 20.7 MPa (3000 psia) to 31.0 MPa (4500 psia)) while the divers
are at typical depths of up to 45.7 m (150 ft) using air, and at deeper depths using helium/oxygen or even
hydrogen/oxygen gas mixtures. The pressure, p, inside the tank causes tensile forces in the tank walls that
resist the bursting forces, as illustrated in Fig. 7-8.
The incremental normal force acting on the cylinder located at angle <1> from the horizontal diam-
eter is calculated as

dF = pdA = pL D d</J (7-21)

2
An equivalent force acts similarly on the other side of the vertical line, and the horizontal components
of these two forces act in the opposite direction; thus the two forces cancel each other. This is true for all
forces, so the total force due to the interna! pressure is the sum of the vertical component of the elemental
forces acting on the interna! cylinder surface. This summation is expressed as

(7-22)

which simplifies to
F=pDL (7-23)

F=pDL

t
Figure 7-8. Schematic of forces acting on a thin-walled cylindrical pressure vessel.
Chapter 7 Underwater Systems 245

Figure 7-9. Schematic illustrating bursting force on cylinder transverse section.

This total bursting force is resisted by the equal forces (P) that act on the cylinder wall surface. The
stress that is resisting the bursting force is expressed as
p pDL pD
St = A = 2tL = 2t (7-24)

The stress S1 is called the hoop, circumferential, girth, or tangential stress because it acts tangentially to
the cylinder surface. It is an average stress and is valid for cylinders with a wall thickness of:::::; 1110 of the
cylinder inside radius.
The bursting force acting on the ends of the cylinder is resisted by the force P acting over the
transverse section (shown in Fig. 7-9). The area of the transverse section is the product of the thickness
(t) and the mean circumference, and if the thickness is small compared to the diameter, the mean cir-
cumference is 'lTDt. In equation form, the equivalence of the bursting force (F) and resisting force (P) is
expressed as

P=F (7-25)

Equation 7-25 can be expressed as

1rDtS 1 = 1rD2p (7-26)

4..
which reduces to
pD
Sr=- (7-27)
4t
where S1 is the longitudinal stress since it acts along the longitudinal axis of the cylinder. Notice that the
longitudinal stress is one-half ofthe circumferential stress, and therefore the cylindrical pressure vessel will
fail much sooner along the longitudinal seam than at the transverse section. For the case of a thin-walled
sphere (thickness :::::; 0.1 radius) with uniform interna! or externa! pressure, the stress in the walls is calcu-
lated using equation 7-27.
Equations 7-24 and 7-27 also apply for externa! pressure acting on thin-walled cylinders, such as
those used for underwater habitats, submarine diver lockout chambers, and instrument housings. However,
the analysis is more complicated when different endcaps and welding characteristics or bolting schemes are
used to construct multiple-component structures. ASME (2007), Young and Budynas (2001), and Megyesy
(2005) should be consulted for preliminary design formulas. These pressure vessels are also reviewed by
appropriate regulatory bodies such as the American Bureau of Ships (ABS), det Norske Veritas (DNV),
ASME, and American Petroleum Institute (API), to name a few, before the actual design and subsequent
construction are approved. The handbooks published by these entities have more advanced design equations
and procedures.
 246 Elements of Ocean Engineering

7.4 SUBMARINES

7.4.1 Military Submarines

Large submarines are part of the military defenses of the United States and sorne other nations. These
submarines have the ability to remain unseen and undetected below the ocean surface, and are capable of
launching torpedoes, mines, and missiles to destroy enemy surface ships, submarines, and inland targets.
Information about military submarines and their history can be found in Sweeney (1970), Terzibaschitsch
(1991), Miller (1991), Burcher and Rydill (1994), Friedman (1994), Hervey (1994), and Sharp (1994). Mili-
tary submarine history is discussed on various Web sites, including http://www.submarinehistory.com and
http://www.submarin-history.com.
These submarines have a unique classification indicating the propulsion and weapon system used.
The designation SS means the submarine is a diesel-powered submarine. Diesel engines are used to
propel the submarine on the surface and to charge the electrical storage batteries that are used to propel
the submarine when it is submerged. These diesel submarines must return to the surface or use a snorkel
to run the diesel engines to charge batteries. Typically, diesel submarines operate submerged during the
day and surface at night to charge their batteries. The snorkel allows the submarine to raise a large tube
while at periscope depth (approximately 18m or 60ft), which provides an air inlet for the diesel engines
to charge the batteries while submerged. Extended submerged operations below periscope depth can last
for many days depending on the submarine's speed, use of auxiliary electrical equipment, and breathing
atmosphere. A photograph of the diesel submarine USS Grenadier (SS-525) is shown in Fig. 7-10. She
was operational in the 1960s and was subsequently transferred to Venezuela in 1973. Other SS designa-
tions include SSK for killer submarines used for antisubmarine warfare, and SSG for diesel submarines
armed with guided missiles.

Figure 7-10. Photograph of the USS Grenadier (SS-525) entering the port of Malta in 1965.

Submarines that are powered by nuclear energy are designated as SSN. Nuclear submarines have
almost unlimited power and need no access to surface air; consequently, they can be considered true sub-
marines. These nuclear submarines can dive to depths in excess of 457.3 m (1500 ft) and travel more than
111,180 km (60,000 nautical miles) before exhausting their initial nuclear fuel supplies (Hervey, 1994). A
nuclear submarine is designated SSGN if it is armed with cruise missiles, and SSBN if it is armed with bal-
listic missiles. Photographs of the nuclear submarine USS Texas (SSN 775) and the ballistic submarine USS
Pennsylvania (SSBN-735) are shown in Figs. 7-11 and 7-12.
 Chapter 7 Underwater Systems 247

Figure 7-11. Photograph of the modero nuclear submarine USS Texas (SSN-775) (http://www.submarinegallery.com).

Figure 7-12. Dlustration ofthe modero ballistic missile nuclear submarine USS Pennsylvania (SSBN-735)
(http://www.submarinegallery.com).

7 .4.2 Research and Work Submersibles

The development of research and work submersibles began in the 1950s. A summary of selected manned
submersibles is provided in Table 7-3; for more details, see Allmendinger (1990) and Busby (1976). In 1952, the
manned submersible Trieste was designed and built in Italy. This submarine was purchased by the USN and in
1960 made an historie dive to 10,915 m (35,800 ft) in the Mariana Trench near Guam. J. Y. Cousteau of France
used the French-built, shallow-water diving saucer Denice to make hundreds of dives worldwide. The USN
modified the Trieste and used Trieste II to investigate the tragic loss of the military submarine Thresher in 1963.
The Alvin, built by General Mills and Litton Industries (Fig. 7-13), was one of the most frequently
used U. S. submersibles. This submarine made more than 2100 dives (Allmendinger, 1990) during its first 25
years of operation. It is operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute with support from the USN. Its
original pressure hull was replaced with a titanium hull, giving ita depth capability of 4000 m (13,120 ft).
In the late 1980s, Alvin was used in conjunction with the ROV Argo-Jason to investigate the Titanic, which
rests in the deep waters of the North Atlantic.
The Johnson-Sea-Link (JSL) is a manned submarine that is operated by the Harbor Branch
Oceanographic Institute and used for research (see Fig. 7-14). This diver lockout submarine has a 1.5-m
(5-ft) diameter acrylic pilot sphere and an aluminum lockout chamber. The first JSL submarine (JSL I)
was built in 1971, and the JSL JI was built in 1975. These submarines have been in operation for more than
30 years. They were used to recover artifacts from the Civil War ironclad USS Monitor in 1977, and to
assist in the search for the wreckage of the U. S. Space Shuttle Challenger in 1985. These submarines are
7.2 m long, 3.3 m high, and 2.5 m wide (23.6 ft long, 10.9 ft high, and 8.3 ft wide), and can dive to 915 m
(3000 ft) with a maximum speed of 0.51 m/s (1 knot) and dive duration of 4 hours.
248 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 7-3. Selected Research or Work Submersible Information

Name Depth Dimensions, m (ft) Displacement tons Crew Builder (Country)
m (ft) length, width, height metric (short)
Aluminaut 1830 15.5 4.7 5.0 76 6 General Dynamics
(6000) (51) (15.4) (16.4) (83.7) USA
Alvin 4000 7.6 2.4 3.9 16.7 3 General Mills/Litton
(13,120) (24.9) (7.9) (12.8) (18.4) USA
Ben Franklin 610 14.6 6.1 6.4 143 6 Grumman USA
(2000) (47.9) (20) (21) (157.5)
Deep Quest 2440 12.2 5.8 4.0 52 4 Lockheed USA
(8000) (40) (19) (13.1) (57.3)
Deepstar 4000 1220 5.5 3.3 2.1 9 3 Westinghouse USA
(4000) (18) (10.8) (6.9) (9.9)
Johnson-Sea-Link //1/ 800 6.9 2.4 3.2 9.5 2+2 Harbar Branch
(2620) (22.6) (7.9) (10.5) (10.5) divers Oceanographic
Institute USA
LR-4 lockout 457 10.4 3.0 2.7 12.9 2+3 Slingsby England
(1500) (34.1) (9.8) (8.9) (14.2) divers
Mermaid IV lockout 600 8.0 2.9 3.2 19.1 2+3 Meerestechnik
(1970) (26.2) (9.5) (10.5) (21.0) divers Germany
PC 12 366 6.7 2.4 2.4 7.2 2-3 Perry USA
(1200) (22) (7.9) (7.9) (7.9)
PC9 412 7.9 2.2 2.4 10.4 2-3 Perry USA
(1350) (25.9) (7.2) (7.9) (11.5)
Pisces 8 1000 6.2 3.3 3.2 10.7 2-3 HYCOCanada
(3300) (20.3) (10.8) (10.5) (11.8)
Pisces 5 2012 6.1 3.2 3.3 10.8 2-3 HYCOCanada
(6600) (20) (10.5) (10.8) (11.9)
Shinkai 2000 2000 9.3 3.0 2.9 25 3 Mitsubishi Japan
(6560) (30.5) (9.8) (9.5) (27.5)
SM360 lockout 300 10.0 2.8 2.9 25 3+3 COMEX France
(980) (32.8) (9.2) (9.5) (27.5) divers
Star 1// 610 7.5 2.1 2.4 10.5 2 General Dynamics
(2000) (24.6) (6.9) (7.9) •. (11.6) USA
Allmendinger, E. E. (Ed.). (1990). Submersible vehicle systems design. Jersey City: Society of Naval Architects and Marine
Engineers.

Figure 7-13. Photograph ofthe manned deep-submergence submersibleA/vin in 1964 (left) and being lowered
into water (right). (Courtesy ofUSN, http://www.navsource.org.)
Chapter 7 Underwater Systems 249

Figure 7-14. Johnson-Sea-Link submersible being lowered into the water from support ship.
(Photo courtesy of Art Howard, http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov.)

7.4.3 Recreational and Tourist Submarines

Recreational and tourist submarines are currently being developed. In sorne tourist locations in the
Caribbean, passengers can take underwater tours in submarines. Popular theme parks in the United States
(i.e., Disneyland in California and Disney World in Florida) have offered submarine excursion rides for many
years. One of the more popular rides was the Jules Veme 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea ride at the Disney
World theme park in Orlando, Florida. Disney World had 12 submarines that could carry 38 passengers each
(see the Nautilus in Fig. 7-15). Tourist submarines have viewing windows along the port and starboard sides so
that the occupants can observe the underwater environment. The Submarine Voyage at Disneyland was open
from 1959 to 1998, and the 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea ride at Disney World was open from 1971 to 1994.
Tourist submarines are available in sorne vacation spots where warm, clear water is available.
Figure 7-16 shows a 48-passenger tourist submarine that is 22.3 m (73ft) long with a 4 m (13ft) beam. The
maximum operating depth is 100m (328 ft). lt has a maximum speed of 5 knots submerged and is operated
by a crew of three. The submarine is classified by the ABS and can make sixteen 45-min dives per day.
One-, two-, and three-person recreational submarines have also been developed for tourist locations
with good underwater visibility. Figure 7-17 shows a three:person submarine called the YS1000, which is
capable of going toa depth of 305m (1000 ft). The submariue has a hull diameter of 1.9 m (6.2 ft) and weighs
4.75 metric tons (5.24 short tons). The life-support system can sustain three persons for 72 hours. The Sportsub
is a three-person ambient-pressure submarine that is rated to 30.5 m (100ft). The Marine Reporter (2009)
describes a two-person winged submarine with a carbon-fiber pressure hull that is rated for 610 m (2000 ft).

Figure 7-15. The 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea submarine Nautilus at the Disney World theme park in
Orlando, Florida; viewing windows are shown at right. (Courtesy ofhttp://www.20kride.com.)
 250 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 7-16. The V48 tourist submarine (http://www.sub-find.com).

Figure 7-17. Two and three person recreational submarines Super Falcon (left) and the deep ftight Merlín (right).
(Courtesy of Hawkes Ocean Technology, www.deepftight.com.)

7.4.4 Human-Powered Submarines

The first human-powered submarine races were sponsored by the Perry Foundation and Florida
Atlantic University at Riviera Beach, Florida, in 1989. These races were organized to provide the oppor-
tunity for students and others interested in the advancement of underwater technology to participate in the
design, construction, and racing of submarines using human power only. No electrical energy was permitted
for propulsion, and the submarines were free-flooding, which eliminated the need for a pressure hull design.
Divers inside the submarines used a standard SCUBA breathing apparatus.
To date, 10 International Submarine Races (ISRs) have been held (for more information on these
races, visit http://isrsubrace.org). The first race included 19 submarines that were built and operated by uni-
versity students and members of the small-submersible industry. The first overall performance winner was
the U.S. Naval Academy's submarine Squid. The second ISR was conducted at the same location in 1991.
The FAU Boat won the 100m (109.3 yd) race with a speed of 8.7 kph (4.7 kts), and also won the 800 m
(875 yd) underwater oval race with two submarines simultaneously on the underwater race track. The third
ISR was staged off Ft. Lauderdale, Florida. Nearly 50 submarines participated over a 2-week period, with
Chapter 7 Underwater Systems 251

Tennessee Technical University's Tech Torpedo II winning the overall performance award. In 1994, the World
Submarine Invitational (WSI) was held in the Offshore Model Basin in Escondido, California. Florida Atlantic
University's FAU Boat won the 100m race with a speed of 10.94 kph (5.9 kts), eaming ita spot in the Guinness
Book of World Records, and in 1996 the record was broken by the University of Quebec's Omer with a speed
of 11.7 kph (6.3 kts). In 2007, the submarine Omer 5 set the current Guinness record of 14.9 kph (8.085 kts).
Ocean Engineering students at Texas A&M University have built four human-powered submarine hulls: the
Aggie Ray for the 1991 ISR race, Argo for the 1993 ISR (which subsequently became SubMaroon 1 and 11), TAMU
for the 1997 ISR race (which became Hydro Ag), Hullabaloo for the 2003 ISR (which became Ol' Sarge 1-l/1), and
Maroon Harpoon for the 9th (2007) and 10th (2009) ISRs. Examples of Texas A&M human-powered submarines
are shown in Fig. 7-18, and a history of the Texas A&M human-powered submarines is provided in Table 7-4.

Table 7-4. Summary ofTexas A&M Ocean Engineering Human-powered Submarines 1991-2009
NameYear Top Speed Type Location Speed Place Award
(knots)
Aggie Ray 1991 None Two-person, 2ndiSR Safety
propeller Riviera Beach, Florida
Argo 1993 None Two-person, 3rd ISR None
propeller Ft. Lauderdale, Florida
SubMaroon 1996 4.464 Two-person, WSI 5th
(TAMU record) propeller Offshore Model Basin, Escondido,
California
TAMU1997 3.1 Two-person, 5th ISR 3rd
propeller David Taylor Model Basin,
Carderock, Maryland
SubMaroon II 1998 4.4 Two-person, WSI 1st
propeller Scripps Pier, San Diego,
California
Hydro Ag 2001 3.808 Two-person, 6th ISR 2nd
propeller David Taylor Model Basin,
Carderock, Maryland
Maroon Typhoon 2002 4.221 Two-person, HPS 2002 3rd
propeller Offshore Model Basin, Escondido,
California
Hullabaloo 2003 4.835 One-person, 7thiSR 2nd
(TAMU record) propeller David Taylor Model Basin,
Carderock, Maryland
Ol' Sarge 2004 4.736 One-person, HPS 2004 3rd
propeller Offshore Model Basin, Escondido,
2nd, Best Manufactured
California Submarine
3rd, Overall Engineering,
Ol' Sarge II 2005 5.382 One-person, 8th ISR 2nd Inaugural
(TAMU record) propeller David Taylor Model Basin, Slalom race
Carderock, Maryland (2nd, 4.221 knots)
Ol' Sarge III 2006 4.516 One-person, HPS 2006 3rd
propeller Offshore Model Basin, Escondido, 1st, Best Operating Team
California
Maroon Harpoon 2007 5.002 One-person, 9th ISR 2nd Honorable Mention,
propeller David Taylor Model Basin, Overall Performance
Carderock, Maryland
Maroon Harpoon 2009 5.445 One-person, 10th ISR 3rd
(TAMU record) propeller David Taylor Model Basin,
Carderock, Maryland
252 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Aggie Ray (left) being tested in Offshore Teehnology Researeh Center and (right) at 1991 at 2°
Submarine Races in Rivera Beach, Florida

Submaroon 11 in 1998 at Scripps Institute Pier for World Submarine Invitational) and Hydro Ag at 2001 ISR
in Bethesda, Maryland

01' Sarge 11 (left) at 2005 ISR and Maroon Harpoon (right) at 2009 ISR in Bethesda, Maryland
Figure 7-18. Human-powered submarinesAggie Ray (1991), SubMaroon Il (1998), HydroAg (2001),
Ol' Sarge Il (2002), and Maroon Harpoon (2009).

7.5 REMOTELV OPERATED VEHICLES

7.5.1 Brief History

Remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) are unmanned underwater vehicles that are controlled from a
remote location such as a ship, fixed offshore platform, floating platform, or other above-water structure.
The development of unmanned underwater vehicles began in the 1950s, but progress was held back by the
lack of reliable waterproof electrical connectors. Shell Oil Company developed the first oil wellhead ROV,
called Mobot (Shatto, 1991). ROVs received worldwide publicity in 1966 when the USN's CURV (Fig. 7-19)
was used to recover an H-bomb in 868.9 m (2850 ft) of water near Palomares, Spain. CURV II and III fol-
lowed, and it was CURV III that was used to rescue Pisces II, a submersible that sank in 477.1 m (1565 ft)
of water off Ireland. These operations spurred the development of ROVs, especially by offshore industries.
Two of the most popular early ROVs were built by Hydroproducts (now Honeywell AMSO) and named the
Chapter 7 Underwater Systems 253

Figure 7-19. mustration ofthe ROV CURV. (Reprinted with permission from Shatto, H. L. (1991). Remotely operated
vehicles. In J. B. Herbich (Ed.), Handbook ofCoastal and Ocean Engineering, Vol. 11. Houston: GulfPublishing Co.)

Figure 7-20. Photograph of RCV 150 system giving wrench to diver while an RCV 225 observes in 1976.
(Courtesy of Drew Michel.)

Figure 7-21. Photograph of Scorpio built by Ametek Straza (left) and Triton built by Perry (right). (Reprinted
with permission from Shatto, H. L. (1991). Remotely operated vehicles. In J. B. Herbich (Ed.),
Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Vol. 11. Houston: Golf Publishing Co.)

RCV 150 and 225. These vehicles were often called "flying eyeballs" because they were very maneuverable
and contained an underwater video camera that enabled surface personnel to see underwater. Figure 7-20
shows the RCV 150 observing the 225 handing a wrench to a diver in a test tank facility.
One of the first ROVs that was capable of reliably doing underwater work was the Scorpio (Fig. 7-21),
which was first built by Ametek Straza in 1977. lt was a very popular ROV and nearly 60 of these vehicles
254 Elements of Ocean Engineering

were built and used by the offshore industry. Scorpio did not use a cage and was found to be very effective for
observation and medium to light work; however, it is no longer in production. Another vehicle that experienced
considerable use was the Triton (Fig. 7-21) built by Perry. Approximately 40 Tritons were built and equipped
with high-pressure jets for cleaning offshore structures, which they attached by means of suction cups.

7 .5.2 Classification and Applications

ROVs are generally classified (Wernli, 1998) into six types according to their means of propulsion,
i.e., tethered, towed, bottom-reliant, structure-reliant, autonomous, or hybrid. Table 7-5 lists sorne typical
characteristics and applications of ROVs. An ROV is usually near neutral buoyant and thus can hover to
enable inspection or observation by video, sonar, or still camera. lt can also push or pull, lift, and connect
or disconnect systems using only small forces on the order of 444.8 N (100 lb) to 889.6 N (200 lb). They
typically have a block shape when forward speeds of >3.71 kph (2 kts) are not needed, anda torpedo shape
when greater speeds are desirable. The response of the vehicle is largely determined by a comparison of the
available thrust to the weight of the vehicle. This thrust-to-weight ratio defines the quickness of response, or
how fast the vehicle can accelerate to its steady-state speed.

Table 7-5. Types of ROVs and Their Applications

Classification Characteristics Applications
Tethered, free-swimming Large majority of ROVs, closed- Observation, diver assistance, diver observation, pipeline
circuit video, cable connected to inspection, anchor survey, connect/disconnect guide
surface, positively buoyant wires, relocate drill strings, recover lost items, land tree
or wellhead, install jumpers, make hot stabs, cut cables,
connect/reconnect shackles, dredging/pumping operations
Towed Propelled by surface vessel Broad area reconnaissance, mineral and geological
surveys, route surveys
Bottom reliant Power and control from surface Pipeline/cable trenching, bottom excavation and
vessel, closed-circuit video, observation, geotechnical investigations, dredging
propulsion by wheels or tracks
Structurally reliant Power and control from surface, Subsea production system maintenance and inspection,
closed-circuit video, propulsion tank soundings, hull cleaning
from wheels or tracks in contact •.
with structure
Untethered (autonomous) Self-powered and 3-D Undersea surveillance, pipeline inspection, cable and
maneuverability, no physical pipeline route survey, fiber-optic cable laying, port
connection to surface security, mine reconnaissance/countermeasures, fish
counting, environmental monitoring, coral reef survey,
under ice inspection/mapping, subsea field inspection/
intervention
Hybrid Combination of above types Pipe trenching and pipe laying

Liddle et al. (2000) classified ROVs in the categories of observation (low cost, inspection); light, me-
dium, or heavy work; cable burial and maintenance (CMROV), remotely operated towed vehicles (ROTVs), cable
burial ploughs, autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs), and mine counter-measures vehicles (MCMVs). MTS
(1998) describes these vehicle classifications and shows examples, and Table 7-6 summarizes the classifications.
An international survey of work-class ROVs was conducted by Wagner (2001) and Wagner et al.
(2000). According to the survey in 2000, 2897 ROVs (47%) were observational ROVs. The distribution by
classification is shown in Fig. 7-22. Since then, the number and percentage of AUVs and work-class vehicles
have increased. The 2000 survey listed a total of 476 work-class vehicles (see Fig. 7-23 for the distribution
according to payload, operating depth, weight, and horsepower). These vehicles hadan average maximum
 Chapter 7 Underwater Systems 255

Table 7-6. Classification of ROVs

Class Description Weight Range
Observation- low cost Small vehicle with minimum viewing system. <50 kg (110 lb)
Observation - inspection Small vehicle with high-quality video and lights, 50-100 kg (110-220 lb)
and increased payload.
Light work Cameras, instrumentation, simple scanning sonar, 100-500 kg (220-1100 lb)
small manipulator.
Medium and heavy work Used for heavy-duty work applications in offshore 500-5000 kg (1100-11,000 lb)
industry. Open frame construction and work tools.
Multiple camera systems and lights. One or more
heavy-duty manipulators. Fiber-optic data lines.
CMROV Vehicles used to locate, unbury, and bury 3000-16,000 kg (6600-35,000 lb)
telecommunication cables. Water jetting system.
Trenching and gripping tools.
ROTV Towed from the surface. Cameras and side-scan ~150 kg (331lb)
sonar. Pipeline inspection and seabed survey.
Cable burial ploughs Large machines lowered to the sea floor and towed 20-150 tonnes (44,100-331,000 lb)
from the surface. Ploughs trenches for cables and
lays cable at same time.
AUV Unmanned and self-powered vehicle without cable 200-9000 kg (441-19,800 lb)
to surface.
MCMV Vehicle used to search and neutralize undersea mines. 350-3500 kg (772-7720 lb)

Workclass Ú;
¡

Observation
6
:¡::¡
light work 11
G Cable burial and mainenance (CMROV) !li!ll3 ¡
t;: 1¡
·¡¡¡ Remotel operated towed vehicles .. • 2 ¡
111
~7
m
'O Mine counter measures vehicles ..
• 2
Cable burial ploughs
Autonomous underwater vehicles .. .• 2 ! 1

o 10 20 30 40 50
Percentage
Figure 7-22. Vehicle classification by percentage based on a 2000 survey (Waguer, 2001).

horsepower rating of 102 hp, payload of 190 kg (419 lb), and weight of 2264 kg (4991 lb). A majority of
the vehicles had an operating depth capability of 1000-5000 m (3280-16,400 ft). Many work-class ve-
hieles, such as Oceaneering's Magnum (Fig. 7-24), require significant power to operate subsea valves, as-
sist in installation, power pumps, and cut cables. Hydraulic power has been the most widely used and most
dependable power source; however, advances in electrical systems have led to the development of new
all-electric work-class vehicles (see Oceaneering's e-Magnum and Sonsub's Quest in Fig. 7-25). Most work-
class ve hieles use a tether management system (TMS) located in the cylindrical apparatus on top of the ROV
(Fig. 7-26); this is called a top hat TMS. The umbilical cable is stretched between the surface support vessel
and the top of the TMS, and the tether for the ROV is released from the TMS. The tether reellocated in
the "garage" or "cage" for the Magnum can be seen in Fig. 7-25. In 2004, the MTS ROV Committee (http://
www.rov.org) reported that there were 435 work- and heavy-work-class ROVs operating in the world.
256 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Wn1:k Class ROV Capabllitfffl: (by Nu:ml>er)

--~~--~·------~

Figure 7-23. Work-class ROV capabilities for the offshore industry in 2000 (Wagner et al., 2000).

Figure 7-24. Work class ROV Magnum (left) and Millennium (right) with cage or garage tether management system.
(Courtesy of Oceaneering International, Inc. Magnum and Millennium are registered trademarks
of Oceaneering International, lnc.)

Figure 7-25. Oceaneering e-Magnum ROV (courtesy ofOceaneering International, lnc.)

and the Canyon all electric ROV (courtesy of Canyon Offshore).
 Chapter 7 Underwater Systems 257

Figure 7-26. Work-class ROV and TMS before launching. (Courtesy of Sam Ryu.)

7.5.3 Weight Distribution, Vehicle Velocity, and Thrust Calculations

The weight distribution of each component of an ROV is used to determine the center of gravity,
and the associated volume of each component is used to evaluate the center of buoyancy of the vehicle. The
equations commonly used to evaluate the longitudinal (LCG), transverse (TCG), and vertical (VCG) centers
of gravity are
í. W¡X¡ Í,W¡y¡ Í,W¡Z¡
LCG = ;~'w , TCG = ;='w ; VCG = i='w (7-28)

The equations used to evaluate the longitudinal (LCB), transverse (TCB), and vertical (VCB) cen-
ters of buoyancy are
í. V¡X¡ Í,V¡y¡ Í,V¡Z¡
LCB = ..!..:!.._____
V '
TCB = ..!=.!.._. VCB = ..!=.!.._
· V ' V
(7-29)

where W¡ is the component weight in air, V¡ is the component volume, V is the total volume, and W is the
total weight in air. Typically in this coordinate system, x is the longitudinal direction with x = O at the bow
of the vehicle, y is the transverse direction with y = O along the centerline and positive to starboard, and z
is the vertical direction with z = Oat the keel and positive upward. Table 7-7 shows an example spreadsheet
for evaluating the center of gravity and buoyancy for an ROV. The ROV is a submerged body, and thus in a
stable vehicle the VCG will be below the VCB. The longitudinal CG and CB should be at the same location
at the center of the longitudinal centerline, and the transverse CG and CB should be zero.
To estimate the speed at which the vehicle can move through the water, or the amount of current in
which the vehicle can hold its position, the available thrust in a particular direction is equated to the drag
force given by

(7-30)

where p is the mass density of water; Cctv is the vehicle drag coefficient, which is a function of the Reynolds
number; A, is the vehicle projected area normal to the flow direction; and V v is the current velocity or
speed of the vehicle. The drag coefficient is typically between 0.8 and 1.0 based on the vehicle projected
area normal to the flow or direction of vehicle motion. For the cables (tethers or umbilical), the Cct is near
1.2 for unfaired cables, 0.5-0.6 for hair-faired cables, and 0.1--0.2 for faired cables. Since the ROV system
 1\)
C11
Table 7-7. Example Spreadsheet for Calculating the Weight Distribution of an ROV 00
*The asterisk in the columns indicates that data must be input.
Assume the origin is at the bow of the vehicle and even with the keel.
The x-axis runs longitudinally along the vehicle keel.
The y-axis is transverse, running perpendicular to the keel (left from forward perspective).
The z-axis is vertical and perpendicular to the keel.
L-MOM: longitudinal moment; T-MOM: transverse moment; V-MOM: vertical moment.
From Volume From Weight
ITEM W(air) VOLUME LCB L-MOM TCB T-MOM VCB V-MOM LCG L-MOM TCG T-MOM VCG V-MOM
(lbs) (ft3) (ft) (ft4) (ft) (ft4) (ft) (ft4) (ft) (lb-ft) (ft) (lb-ft) (ft) (lb-ft)
'
'
* * * * * * * *
Aluminum Frame 15.00 0.50 l.O 0.50 0.0 0.00 0.50 0.25 1.00 15.0 0.00 0.00 0.50 7.50
m
Port Vertical Thruster 5.00 0.20 l.O 0.20 -0.4 -0.08 0.75 0.15 1.00 5.00 0.38 1.88 0.75 3.75 1D
Asimuthing Horizontal 9.00 0.40 l.O 0.40 0.0 0.00 1.25 0.50 1.00 9.0 0.00 0.00 1.25 11.25 3(1)
:::J
Thruster íit
Starboard Vertical 5.00 0.20 l.O 0.20 0.4 0.08 0.75 0.15 1.00 5.0 0.38 1.88 0.75 3.75 Q,
Thruster o
o
(1)
Pan Video Camera 8.00 0.40 0.8 0.30 0.0 0.00 0.50 0.20 0.75 6.0 0.00 0.00 0.50 4.00 lll
:::J
Electronics Housing and 10.00 0.60 1.8 1.05 0.0 0.00 0.25 0.15 1.75 17.5 0.00 0.00 0.15 1.50 m
:::J
Equipment ce
:r
(1)
Buoyancy Top Cover 65.00 2.00 l.O 2.00 0.0 0.00 0.75 1.50 1.00 65.0 0.00 0.00 0.75 48.75 (1)
~­
Port Light 2.00 0.10 0.0 .' 0.0() -0.4 -0.04 0.3 0.03 0.00 0.0 -0.38 -0.75 0.25 0.50 :::J
ce
Starboard Light 2.00 0.10 0.0 0.00 0.4 0.04 0.3 0.03 0.00 0.0 0.38 0.75 0.25 0.50
Mechanical Arm 20.00 0.40 0.5 0.20 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.00 0.75 15.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Ballast 5.00 0.10 l. O 0.10 0.0 0.00 0.1 0.01 1.20 6.0 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.50

TOTALS 146.00 5.00 l.O 4.95 0.0 0.00 0.6 2.96 0.98 143.5 0.00 0.00 0.56 82.00
Weight of Water Displaced 312
VCG (ft) 0.561
VCB (ft) 0.592
VGB (ft) 0.030
LCG (ft) 0.983
LCB (ft) 0.99
TCG (ft) 0.00
TCB (ft) '- o
Chapter 7 Underwater Systems 259

is composed of the vehicle and the umbilical, the drag force on the system is a combination of the force on
the vehicle and cable and is expressed as

(7-31)

where Au is the projected area of the umbilical, Vu is the velocity of the current past the umbilical or the
speed of the umbilical, and Cdu is the drag coefficient of the umbilical. An example of the specifications for
an ROV umbilical and tether is shown in Fig. 7-27 (Wernli, 1998).
The power required by the ROV is determined as

p = FctV (7-32)
550
where Fd is the drag force, Vis the speed of the ROV, and 550 is a conversion constant that converts ft-lb/s
to horsepower.
The available thrust for a propeller is usually determined from the standard bollard pull tests, and
this information is sometimes available from manufacturers. It can also be estimated from the available
power by assuming that a thruster develops about 111.2 N (25 lb) to 133.4 N (30 lb) of thrust per horsepower

ROV UMBILICAL
STEEL <XlUL\L RG-59 'l"'U'&-3 oars
AloiG No. 22(Sl'RANDED)S/C

s.i.la:.& ~ oars
AWG No. 18(S'íiíANí5ib)s/c
POOII!a a:.IOlC!QlS-17 or:ns
AWG No. ll ( S'l'RAHDED )8/C

~CI!:S~

SB-36670
CABLE CIWUICl"IIRI.SrCS ltEPUC
PHrSICAL
OO'l'ER DIAKE'l'ER l. 680 lNCHES 42.67 ....
WEIGH'l' IN .UR 3,330 t.BS/1000 FT 4, 956 KG/I<M
WEIGH'l' lN SEA WATER 2,440 I'..SS/1000 FT 3,631 KG/KM
l't!DWUCAI.
8REAlClNG S'l'RENGl'H lOO , 000 t.Bf' 444 KN
I1AXDUt LCW>
MlN. BllND DIAI'I!:1'ER
25' 000 t.Bf' 111 m
36 INCHES 91.4 cm
ELI!CIRICAL (IX: R.ESISTANCE @ 20° C)
RG-59 Cí!m'f:R ~ 16.4 CH!S/1000 FT 53.8 OHMS/KM
RG-59 BRA.IDED ~ 4.8 Ofi'IS/1000 FT 15.7 OHMS/KM
SHlELDI!:D~~ 10.4 CH!S/1000 fT 34.1 CH!S/111'1
SHIELDED ~ S8IELD 4.3 CDIS/1000 fT 14.1 0111S/KM
AWG No. 18 (1 KV) a:::tiDlJC'Ial 6. 2 CJitoiS/l 000 FT 20. 3 C»fMS/111'1
AWG No. 11 ( 3 KV) a:::tiDlJC'Ial 1.6 CH!S/1000 fT 5.2 DlflS/111'1
SHIELD OVER INNER LAlCER 2.0 CJitoiS/1000 FT 6.6 OtiHS/111'1
Figure 7-27. Example ofROV tether and umbilical specifications (Wernli, 1998). continues
 260 Elements of Ocean Engineering

75 Cftlt CDI!.X-3 (IQ'J:S

ROVTETHER AWG No. 22(S'l:RANDEP)B/C
lARGE VEHICLE SRlJ!l IZD (.11Ji1's00-3 tfil'1'S
AWG No. 22(S'l:RANDEP)a/c

P7B1!R CI'TICS
3 !t!! FIBER a>TICS IN A SS TOSE

l&\Dil 1f.tRE

Pafii!R <XIIIlllClCIIS-15 anm

AWG No. !S(STRANDEI>)B/C

SB-39063
Cill!LB~CS
PBXSl".CAL
OOTER DIAMETER 1.78 INCBf'S 45.2 lllll
WlllGH'l' IN AIR 1, 133 LBS/1000 PT 1686 KG/F;M
WEIGH'l' IN SEA WATER Z1 LBS/1000 F'l' 40 II:G/F;M
MIQIAIUCAL
~ 14,000 LBF 62KN
l'IAXlMlM LCii\0 2,000 LBF 9.kN
MIN. BP.ND DIA/'IETER 20 INCm"S 508 11111
Figure 7-27. Continued.

(Shatto, 1991). Also, the available thrust can be theoretically determined by computing the change in mo-
mentum of the water that is accelerated through the thruster using

(7-33)

where FT is the thruster force, p is the mass density of water, and AT is the cross-sectional area of the
thruster's stream of water being accelerated from zero velocity to the average velocity (VT) through the
thruster. The velocity of the water through the thruster is determined from

(7-34)

where N is the revolutions per minute (RPM) of the propeller, E is the propeller efficiency, and Pis the propeller
piteh. Thrusters usually have a large hub, and its cross-sectional area is subtracted when calculating Ar. Thus,

(7-35)

where dp and dh are the propeller and hub diameters. The thruster intake is usually not in still water because the
vehicle is moving through the water or holding against a current. When the thruster has a fixed pitch and a fixed
maximum speed, the thruster force (FT) is reduced approximately by the ratio ofVcNT and is expressed as

Ve]
FT = pAT vT2 [ 1vT (7-36)
 Chapter 7 Underwater Systems 261

An example of thrust versus speed is illustrated in Fig. 7-28 for an Innerspace thruster (model 1002) .

•
~
...o
.D
....
-..
~
400

...
.1:
300
..
z 200
i
~ lOO
e
•
11.
o o
-2 o 2 4 6 8 10 1~ 14

Forward Speed, Knots

Figure 7-28. Propeller thrust as a function of speed. (Courtesy of Innerspace.)

Calculations of vehicle performance require knowledge of the vehicle drag coefficient Cd and the
propeller efficiency E. These parameters are usually determined from empirical results. The drag force of
the tether should also be considered, and the drag on a long tether can exceed that of the vehicle.
The vertical thrust developed by the vehicle affects the response in the vertical direction, and it also de-
termines the amount of weight that can be lifted or carried by the vehicle. The amount of weight the vehicle can
lift is typically called the dead lift weight. The amount of thrust available for vertical acceleration is determined
by subtracting the dead lift weight. Vertical thrust is also used to control the vehicle attitude and to adjust the
pitch angle of the vehicle when the manipulator lifts or drops a weight. This is only needed when the loads to be
lifted may cause excessive pitch or roll. ROVs usually have a relatively large BG, which makes them very stable.
A typical work vehicle might have a BG of 27.9 cm (11 in), a weight and buoyancy of 3500 lb, and a stiffness of
56 ft-lb/degree at zero pitch and roll. The angle of pitch when picking up a load can be determined by

(7-37)

where H is the horizontal moment arm from the load centerline to the ROV's vertical center of thrust, WL
is the in-water weight of the load, Wa is the in-air weight or buoyancy of the ROV, and BG is the distance
between the center of buoyancy and the center of gravity. The vehicle described above could lift a weight
of 100 lb at a radius of 2.1 m (7 ft), resulting in a pitch angle of 12.6 degrees.

7.6 AUTONOMOUS UNDERWATER VEHICLES

AUVs are not physically connected to a surface vessel with a tether or umbilical cable. These vehicles
are also called unmanned untethered vehieles (UUV). Before the vehicle is launched into the ocean, its tasks
and navigation are preprogrammed into a computer that will then control the vehicle. Once in the water, the
vehicle will have limited communications or interactions with humans until it is recovered from its mission
task. AUVs are typically powered by a battery, but sorne are also powered by solar energy or diesel fuel, and
sorne are gliders that adjust to the density of seawater. Personnel communicate with the AUV by underwater
acoustics or radio telemetry when the AUV is near the surface. These vehicles are being used for sea fioor
mapping in the offshore industry and have a cost advantage over towed systems in very deep water depths.
Surveys of AUVs have been conducted by Bo (2001) and Bo et al. (2002a). The survey in 2001
showed that there were 177 AUVs with a distribution of 39% military, 41% academic, and 20% commercial.
262 Elements of Ocean Engineering

The vehicle operational duration distribution was 30% for >24-hour operation, 17% for 12-24-hour opera-
tion, and 53% for <12-hour operation. The speed distribution was 30% for >2 m/s (4 kts), 57% for 1-2 m/s
(2 and 4 kts), and 13% for <1 m/s (2 kts). Bo et al. (2002b) reported that AUVs were commonly torpedo-
shaped and encapsulated in a smooth outer hull with one or more propellers at the stern. Batteries (e.g.,
silver-zinc, lithium ion, lead acid, nickel cadmium, aluminum oxide, and gel cells) are the typical means
of power. Each vehicle has a navigation system (differential global positioning systems, inertial, long- and
short-line acoustic systems, and Doppler sonar), obstacle avoidance system, and instrument sensors (side-
scan sonar, multibeam sonar, subbottom profilers, sound velocity profilers, etc.).
Wernli (1998) and Bo et al. (2002b) describe the history of AUVs, which began in the 1960s with
the vehicle Sea Spook. Universities led the development of these vehicles in the 1970s and 1980s. In the
1990s, technological improvements allowed the development of many more AUVs, such as the Autonomous
Benthic Explorer (ABE) built by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute and the Aloupis built by Perry
Technologies (Fig. 7-29), and the REMUS vehicles (Fig. 7-30). After the year 2000, AUV development
for the commercial offshore survey market began with the Hugin 3000, which is a multimillion-dollar
AUV capable of performing deepwater surveys over a continuous 24-hour period (Fig. 7-31). Smaller and
less expensive AUVs for shallow water, such as the glider AUVs developed by Teledyne Webb Research
(Fig. 7-32), can adjust their buoyancy and wings for underwater flight. Sorne AUVs use alternative power
sources, including solar energy, as shown in Fig. 7-33.

Figure 7-29. Photograph of the Perry Aloupis (top; courtesy of Perry Technologies) and ABE (bottom;
courtesy ofWoods Hole Oceanographic Institute).
Chapter 7 Underwater Systems 263

Figure 7-32. Photograph of AUV glider. (Courtesy ofTeledyne Webb Research.)

Figure 7-33. Solar powered AUV. (Courtesy of Autonomous Undersea Systems Institute.)
264 Elements of Ocean Engineering

7.7 ONE-ATMOSPHERE DIVING SYSTEMS

One-atmosphere diving systems are also called atmospheric diving suits (ADS). These systems
were developed to overcome the difficulties associated with decompression sickness and high-pressure ner-
vous syndrome. The ADS diver remains at one atmosphere pressure and can work for relatively long periods
without having to spend many hours or days in decompression. The JIM suit (Fig. 7-34) was initially devel-
oped in England and has undergone design improvements to attain greater depth and flexibility capabilities.
Greater bottom times, security, and protection from cold are additional capabilities provided by the ADS.
In 1976, such a system was used for a dive in 275.8 m (905ft) of seawater in the Canadian Arctic through
a 4.9 m (16ft) diameter hole in the ice, and the diver worked for a 6-hr period. Using saturation diving for
the same operation would have required more than 8 days of decompression. Newer JIM systems have been
constructed with magnesium alloy and carbon steel fiber. The record dive for the JIM system is 548 m
(1780 ft) in the Gulf of Mexico. An adaptation of this ADS, called the WASP, allows a diver to operate at
midwater locations (Fig. 7-34). In this system, the legs have been removed and movement in the water is

WASP
Figure 7-34. Atmospheric diving suits SPIDER (courtesy of Silvercrest Submarines) and JIM and WASP.
(courtesy of Oceaneering International, Inc.)
Chapter 7 Underwater Systems 265

Atmospheric Diving Suit Distribution

(by company)

Underwater
Atmospheric Fuji Co. Ud
Systems (Hardsuits)
Silvercrest Navies
(Hardsuits) 3
Submarines
2
(SPIDER)
2

Nuytco
Research Ud
(Newtsuit)
1

Oceaneering
Stolt Offshore (WASP)
(Hardsuits) 7
14
Figure 7-35. Distribution of ADSs (Thornton, 2000).

accomplished by small propulsors similar to those found on small ROVs. Figure 7-34 also shows the self-
propelled inspection diver (SPIDER), which was developed in the 1970s.
A survey of ADS was conducted in 2000 (Thornton, 2000, Thornton et al., 2001a, 2001b). Figure
7-35 shows the worldwide distribution of ADS at that time, along with the companies that manufactured
or operated the ADS. The Newtsuit was developed in 1985 and later evolved into the Hardsuit (Fig. 7-36).
The Hardsuits have hydraulically compensated rotary joints that alloy the movement of legs and arms by
the diver. Manually operated manipulators at the end of each arm enable the grasping and maneuvering of

Figure 7-36. The Newtsuit (left; courtesy of Newtsuit Inc.) and Hardsuit (right; courtesy of OceanWorks International).
/

266 Elements of Ocean Engineering

underwater objects. The diver uses foot devices to operate the thrusters and move around in light currents.
The life support system allows the diver to work for as much as 6 hr at depths of up to 610 m (2000 ft), and
emergency life support is available for up to 48 hr. Several models of the Hardsuit (1000, 1200, and 2000)
signified the depth limitation in feet. The SPIDER is capable of working at depths of up to 600 m (2000 ft),
and the WASP is rated for up to 700 m (2300 ft).
The main advantages of the ADS are that it eliminates the need for a long decompression period, it
can place a person at the work location, its thruster packages enable midwater maneuvering, and it provides
a 6-hr working time and unlimited excursions up and down the water column. The primary disadvantages
are that it has a limited payload and access, and requires surface support and deck space. Applications of
ADS include anode replacement, pipeline and platform inspection, marine salvage, pipeline tie-ins, rigging
and salvage, and riser clamp installation. These suits are also used by various navies throughout the world.

7.8 UNDERWATER HABITATS ANO HYPERBARIC CHAMBERS

The use of underwater habitats began in the early 1960s and reached its peak in the late 1960s. The use
of these habitats diminished during the 1970s, and in the 1990s there were very few in operation. The National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)'s National Undersea Research Program (NURP) currently
operates a habitat called Aquarius near the Florida Keys. The Jules Undersea Lodge (formerly known as the
La Chalupa habitat) is operated by a prívate enterprise near Key Largo, Florida. An excellent description of
nearly 60 different habitats can be found in Miller and Koblick (1995). The basic characteristics and locations
of sorne of these underwater habitats are tabulated in Table 7-8. The early habitats were designed to determine
their engineering feasibility and to evaluate the ability of humans to live undersea. After the success of the
initial habitats, such as Man in the Sea, Conshelf, and SeaLab, habitat construction increased, and they were
used for observation stations, sea floor laboratories for scientists, and operational bases for working divers.
Underwater habitats are designed to provide diver scientists, engineers, and technicians easy access
to the ocean environment so that they can make observations, conduct experiments, and test new diving
systems. Since the habitats are normally open to the ambient pressure at the habitat depth, the aquanauts,
or divers, are saturated at the depth with the breathing gas mixture designed for the habitat or breathing ap-
paratus used for the habitat excursions. Consequently, the diver must undergo decompression upon leaving
the habitat, unless the depth is <10m (33ft) of seawater.
Habitats typically are pressure vessels that can withstand external and internal pressures during in-
stallation and decompression. They usually are built in the form of a cylinder or sphere, which can best resist
the pressure with minimal thickness of material and provides the most volume for the space. Combinations
of spheres, cylinders, and hemispheres are often used to increase the space available for divers.
Since 1962, more than 72 underwater habitats have been constructed around the world. These habi-
tats range from simple shelters to sophisticated large facilities used for extended stays on the ocean bottom.
The most used habitats include Tektite, Hydrolab, and La Chalupa in the United States; Chernomor in
Russia; and Helgoland in West Germany. Several universities in the United States have also ventured into
underwater habitat design and operation, including the University of New Hampshire (Edalhab), University
ofRhode Island (Portalab), and State University ofNew York (SUNYLAB).
Various technical, logistical, and habitability factors, such as comfort, simplicity, and functionality,
must be considered in the design of a habitat. The desired features for an underwater habitat were deter-
mined in a University of New Hampshire study and are tabulated in Table 7-9. These features include an
overall size of 2.4 m (8 ft) in diameter and 11.6 m (38 ft) in length with a separate wet room and living room.
The interior should be temperature- and humidity-controlled, and the divers should be able to communicate
among themselves and with personnel in the habitat. An external survival shelter and on-bottom and surface
decompression capability are also desirable.
The Hydrolab underwater habitat (Fig. 7-37) was built according to relatively simple design, had a
relatively low operating cost, and was used for over 20 years. lt was decommissioned by NOAA in 1985 and
 Table 7-8. Characteristics of Selected Underwater Habitats
Name Country Date Location Depth Crew Duration Size (m) Weight Breathing Suñace Mobility Decompression Comments 1

(m) (days) (tons) Gas Support (hr)

Aegir USA 1969-1971 Hawaii 24-157 4-6 14 2 cyl27 X 200 N2/02 Ship Towable Interna! control of
4.6 +3m He/02 ascent/descent
sph
Chernomor-1 USSR 1968 Black Sea 5-14 4-5 4-6 L = 7.9 62 Displ Air Ship Towable
D = 2.9
Conshelfl France 1962 Med. Sea 100 2 7 L = 5.2 Air Ship Readily 3
D =2.4 Shore movable
Conshelf-III France 1965 Med. Sea 100 6 22 D = 5.5 130+ 2.5%02 Ship Towable 84
sphere 97.5% He
Edalhab USA 1968-1972 Alton's Bay, 12.2 3 3-5 L = 3.6 14 A ir Shore Readily 19
NH 13.7 D = 2.4 25 ship movable
Miami,FL
Helgoland 11 Germany 1971-1977 North Sea 22-31 4 4-14 L = 13.8 102 N2/02 Buoy Towable Varied
USA W=6.0
Hydrolab USA 66-70 Florida 12-18 2-4 7-14 L = 4.9 40 Air Buoy Towable 13-20 Most utilized
1\) 70-74 Bahamas w = 2.4 habitat, retired
~ 75-84 Virgin l. and displayed
in Smithsonian
Institution
La Chalupa USA 1971-74 Puerto Rico 15-30 4-5 14 2cyl 150 N2/02 Buoy Readily 36-48 Converted to Jules'
2.4 X 6.01 movable Undersea Lodge in
room3 X 6 1986
Lakelab USA 1972 Grand 15.2 2 2 D = 3.0 25 Bal. Air Shore Readily NA
Traverse H = 2.1 movable
Bay,MI
Man-in-Sea 1 USA 1962 Med.Sea 61 1 1 L = 3.2 2.1 3%02 Ship Readily 65.5 First open-sea
D =0.9 97%He movab1e saturation
Meduzall Poland 1968 Gdansk, 26 3 7 L = 3.6 3 37%02 Shore Readily 22
Baltic Sea W=2.2 63%N2 movab1e
H = 2.1
Portalab USA 1972 Narragansett 11.3 2 <1 L = 2.4 7.2 Bal A ir Shore Readily o
Bay, RI w = 1.8 movable
H = 2.1 ---- -

continues
 Table 7-8. Continued.
Name Country Date Location Depth Crew Duration Size (m) Weight Breathing Surface Mobility Decompression Comments
1
(m) (days) (tons) Gas Support (hr)
Sealab-II USA 1969 LaJolla, CA 62.5 lO 15-30 L = 17.5 200 4%02 Ship Movab1e 30
!
D = 3.6 25%Nz
H = 3.6 17% He
SPID (Man- USA 1964-1974 Bahamas 131.7 2 1 L = 2.4 Inftatable 3.6%02 Ship Readily 92 Inftatab1e habitat
in-Sea II) Arctic 4.3 w = 1.2 5.6% Nz shore movable o
90.8% He
Sub-Igloo Cana da 1972-75 Cornwallis I. 12.2 2-4 1 D = 2.5 8 bal. A ir Shore Readily NA Under ice
1\) sphere movab1e
O'l
CXl SUNYLAB USA 1976 NewYork 12.2 2-3 1 1.5 6 A ir Ship Readily
movable
Tektite I-II USA 1969-70 Virgin I. 13.1 4-5 6-59 D = 3.8 79 92% N2 Ship Fixed 19.5 Longest open-sea
H = 5.5 8%02 shore saturation
Aquarius USA 1985-Pres Florida Keys 36,6 6 7-14 L = 13.1 81 A ir Buoy Movable -17 Active http://www.
W= 5 uncw.edu/aquarius
D = 3.2
Jules' USA 1986-Pres Florida Keys 6.2 13 1-14 2 cy12.4 X 150 A ir None Movable No Formerly the La
Undersea 6.01 room decompression Chalupa Active
Lodge 3X6 -------
http ://www.jul.com
Miller, J. W., & Koblick, I. G. (1995). Living and working in the sea (2nd ed.) Flagstaff: Best Publishing Company; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). (2001). NOM
diving manual. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
Chapter 7 Underwater Systems 269

Table 7-9. Desirable Design Features for Underwater Habitats

General Separate Wet Room Living Room
Size: 8ft (D, H, W) X 38ft (L) or 2.4 m X 11.6 m
Adjustable support legs, mobility Clothes dryer Bunks
Bottom and surface decompression capability Diving equipment storage Computer terminal
Externa! breathing gas cylinder storage and Freezer for samples Dry laboratory work bench
charging
Externallights at trunk and viewports Hookah and built-in breathing system Emergency breathing system
Externa! or protected interna! chemical hood Hot shower Food freezer and refrigerator
Externa! survival shelter Large entry trunk Individual desk and storage
Habitat to diver and diver to diver Rebreathers Library
communications
Hemispheric windows Scuba charging Microwave oven
Separate double chambers Wet lab work bench Tapes, TV, radio, CD player
Submersible decompression chamber for Toilet
emergency escape
Suitable entry height off the bottom Wet suit rack Trash compactor
Temperature and humidity control Water heater
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). (2001). NOAA diving manual. Washington, DC: Govemment
Printing Office.

Figure 7-37. Photograph ofHydrolab underwater habitat located near St. Croix, Virgin Islands, in 1978.
270 Elements of Ocean Engineering

can be observed at the Smithsonian Museum of Natural History in Washington, DC. The habitat consisted
of a 2.4 m (8 ft) diameter and 3.7 m (16 ft) long steel cylinder with a hemispherical viewing port at one end.
lt was supported by four short legs that provided a 0.91 m (3 ft) clearance above the concrete support base.
The habitat could be towed for short distances and was submerged by venting ballast tanks on the side of the
main structure and several tanks in its base structure. Hydrolab was designed for depths of 30.5 m (100 ft)
or less. An entrance batch was located at the bottom and near one end of the cylinder, and this batch was
also used as a lock when there was a pressure difference between the inside and ambient water pressure. The
habitat's one-room interior was furnished with three bunk beds, a dehumidifier, an air conditioner, folding
chairs, a sink, an electric hot plate, and a table surface. A shower hose was located in the entrance trunk, and
a 7 m (23 ft) long life support surface vessel was moored to the top of the habitat. This boat-shaped vessel
supplied electrical power, high- and low-pressure air and water, and communications through an umbilical.
The habitat was used for many years by NOAA's Manned Undersea Research Program and based in St.
Croix, Virgin Islands.
The habitat Tektite, shown in Fig. 7-38, was a four-person habitat consisting of two vertical cylin-
ders connected by a horizontal cylinder and mounted on a rectangular support base. The General Electric
Company sponsored the construction and operation of Tektite. The vertical cylinders were divided into
two compartments containing an equipment room, wet room, living quarters, and control room (dry scien-
tific laboratory). The living quarters contained four bunk beds, a small galley, storage, and entertainment
equipment. Environmental controls, a food freezer, and toilet facilities were contained in the equipment
room. Umbilicals from the shore provided air, water, electricity, and communications to the habitat. Several
hemispherical windows and a cupola at the top of one cylinder provided scientists a view of the surrounding
area. A personnel transfer capsule (PTC) was lowered to the bottom for decompression. Divers would enter
the PTC and be transported to the surface, where they would then enter a deck decompression chamber.
In 1969-1970, Tektite I and II missions were conducted in the Virgin Islands over a period of 59 days, the
longest duration for an open-sea saturation operation in the world.
NOAA constructed its current habitat, Aquarius, for the Manned Undersea Research Program in the
late 1980s (see Fig. 7-39). Plan and side views of the Aquarius are displayed in Fig. 7-40, which shows the

Figure 7-38. Conceptual view ofthe Tektite habitat. (Reprinted with permission from National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). (2001). NOAA diving manual. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.)
 Chapter 7 Underwater Systems 271

Figure 7-39. Aquarius underwater off Key Largo, Florida (top ), the surface support bu oy (bottom left), and the
habitat structure on the surface before installation (bottom right). (Courtesy ofNOAA, http://www.noaa.gov.)

main lock, entry lock, wet porch, galley, and bunk area. Aquarius was designed to operate at depths of 36.6 m
(120 ft) or less and accommodate six scientists. It was originally placed in water offshore of St. Croix in the
Virgin Islands in 1987, and completed 14 missions there. In 1992, it was placed at Conch Reef off the Florida
Keys in 20m (65ft) ofwater. The habitat was recovered and refurbished in 1996, and redeployed in 1998. The
Aquarius is operated through NOAA and continues to be used for scientific saturation missions and the train-
ing of astronauts. Information about the Aquarius is available at http://www.uncw.edu/aquarius.
The use of habitats for recreational facilities such as underwater hotels and restaurants has received
sorne interest. Currently, there is a small habitat called the Jules Undersea Lodge (Fig. 7-41) in the Florida
Keys that can accommodate divers for about 1 week. It is located at a depth of approximately 6.2 m (20.5 ft)
in a lagoon 9.1 m (30 ft) off Key Largo, Florida.
Ocean engineering students at Texas A&M University have conducted preliminary designs for an
underwater hotel and restaurant; their Underwater Wotel received sorne interest but has not yet been con-
structed. Several conferences have been devoted to the concepts of underwater cities. Areas for underwater
facilities may expand in the years ahead to accommodate expanding populations in land-starved areas and
to provide recreational facilities.
The use of underwater habitats at subsea bases for offshore oil wellheads has also been considered.
The concept is to bring divers down in a submersible to an underwater base that is kept at one atmosphere pres-
sure inside. The submersible is mated to the hatch on the habitat, and the divers are transferred to the habitat
to conduct their maintenance work. A similar scenario is used to rescue personnel from large submarines.
272 Elements of Ocean Engineering

viewport

entry
exit
hatch
entry lock

........J·.:~
;,)1~-.f'~

·.~:u;,JJ]~fTUY fiaíitt.

h'~rJf.
Figure 7-40. NOAA underwater habitatAquarius plan (top), starboard (middle), and port views (bottom).
(Courtesy of NOAA, http://www.noaa.gov.)
Chapter 7 Underwater Systems 273

Figure 7-41. Jules Undersea Lodge located in Key Largo, Florida. (Courtesy of Jules' Undersea Lodge, http://www.jul.com.)
274 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Hyperbaric chambers are facilities that are normally used to treat divers for decompression sick-
ness, conduct controlled diving experiments, and provide a means for divers to decompress after saturation
diving. These chambers are found in medical hospitals, diving surface support vessels, USN submarine
rescue vessels, and operational diving locations where decompression might be needed. Most hyperbaric
chambers are constructed with a double-lock capability that allows medical doctors and technicians to enter
the chamber to treat and observe patients and then leave. Most hyperbaric chambers are used primarily to
treat nondiving medical diseases.

7.9 ENERGY SVSTEMS FOR UNDERWATER APPLICATIONS

The power sources used for underwater applications include diesel generators, transmission lines
from local commercial power utilities, closed-cycle diesel systems, electrical storage batteries, fuel cells,
and small nuclear plants. Underwater habitats commonly use diesel-powered generators located onboard a
mother ship or nearby buoy, or at a shore station with emergency facilities available when needed. In 1969,
the habitat Hydrolab received all of its electrical power from a fuel cell (Miller & Koblick, 1995). The fuel
cell, called Powercel 8, was built by Pratt and Whitney. This fuel cell provided power for interior and ex-
terior lighting, C02 scrubbers, instruments, data recorders, communication equipment, a compressor, and
a motor generator. The fuel cell was located just outside one of the viewing ports so that the divers could
monitor the status of the generator. After 1970, the Hydrolab received its power from a surface buoy shaped
like a small 7 m (23 ft) boat hull, and was moored above the habitat with cables and hoses supplying air,
water, electricity, and communications. A 12.3 kw (16.5 hp) diesel engine powering a 7.5 kw generator
was located in the surface buoy along with a low- and high-pressure compressor. Storage facilities on the
buoy included 946.3 1 (250 gal) of freshwater and 946.3 1 (250 gal) of diesel fuel. These facilities could
provide an approximately 1-month supply befare refueling. The German habitat, Helgoland, used a simi-
lar buoy support system. Electrical power requirements for underwater habitats range from 10 to 100 kw
(University of New Hampshire, 1972).
The energy sources for ROVs and submersibles are typically batteries, fuel cells, and closed-
cycle engines. The batteries usually consist of lead acid, nickel cadmium, or silver zinc, and their energy
densities are tabulated in Table 7-10. Lead acid batteries are heavy and significantly increase the weight
of a vehicle. They also produce oxygen and hydrogen gases during the charging process that must be
carefully vented. Silver zinc batteries have been shown to be very attractive for submersibles because
of their high energy density. Fuel cells have been tried wiÍh sorne success, but they are expensive and
pose sorne safety concerns. Closed-cycle engines have also been tried, but the combustion by-products
are dangerous.
Battery energy sources are placed either externally or internally. For external storage, the battery
container must be pressure-compensated. Oil-compensated batteries have been used for many submersibles,
but they require maintenance and are less reliable than the dry storage containers; however, the majority of
submersibles use properly designed oil-compensated batteries for electrical energy. The internal containers
require a pressure vessel, and the greatest danger is associated with handling the gases that occur during the
charging process. Dry cells or rechargeable batteries are commonly used for emergency energy sources for
communication equipment, carbon dioxide scrubbers, and emergency lighting.

Table 7-10. Energy Densities for Submersible Batteries

Battery Type Theoretical watt-hours/ lb Actual watt-hours/lb watt-hours/in3
Lead acid 80-115 10-20 0.8-1.2
Nickel cadmium 105 12-19 0.7-1.25
Silver zinc 205 40-60 2.4-3.8
Chapter 7 Underwater Systems 275

7.10 SUBSEA SYSTEMS

As the development of offshore oil and gas resources extends into deeper water (> 1000 m, 3280
ft), the use of subsea systems continues to expand. Fixed and fioating oil and gas production platforms
provide the opportunity to use fiowlines to tie back to the production platforms for the subsea wells. Figure
7-42 shows fiowlines connecting the wellheads to the manifolds, which feed the risers that are connected
toa fioating production storage and offioading (FPSO) vessel. A shuttle tanker shown is offioading from
the FPSO. More detailed information and analysis procedures can be found in Lee (2008) and Bai and
Bai (2005).
According to Lee (2008), the deepest flowline is located at a depth of 2961 m (9713 ft) in
the Gulf of Mexico (Shell Perdido project), and the longest flowline is 120 km (75 mi) long (Norsk
Hydro's Ormen Lange). These deepwater flowlines must withstand high pressures (-1520 MPa,
15,000 psi) and temperatures ( -l77°C, 350°F). A sub sea wellhead is called a wet tree because it is
operated underwater and the valves that control the well are arranged in a manner that looks some-
thing like a tree. Examples of a conventional subsea tree and a horizontal wet tree are shown in Fig.
7-43, which also shows the many valves that are operated by ROVs. Since wet trees are typically
used in deep water (>610 m, 2000 ft), the val ves are actuated by means of ROVs or umbilicals from
the floater to the tree.
A typical subsea system (Fig. 7-44) consists of the wellhead structure, a control system, anda
connection system. The wellhead structure includes the subsea tree and manifold. The control system
consists of a control module, umbilical, umbilical termination assembly (UTA), fiying leads, and sen-
sors. The control module is retrievable and is used to control chokes and valves, and measure pressure,
temperature, and positioning devices that are located on the tree or manifold. The UTA uses fiying
leads to control the sub sea tree and relay measurements from sensors such as sand or pig detectors. Pigs
are devices that are sent through the fiowlines to clean out deposits of sand, paraffin, and other solids.
Jumpers and pipeline end terminations (PLET) make up the connection system between the wellhead,
manifold, and fiowline. Flowlines transport unprocessed oil and gas, and pipelines transport processed
oil and gas.

Figure 7-42. Floating production storage and omoading system connected to flowlines from subsea wells.
(Courtesy ofOceaneering lnternational, lnc.)
276 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 7-43. Conventional (left) and horizontal (right) "wetl' tree for subsea fields. (Courtesy of FMC.)

Figure 7-44. Subsea layout showing a manifold, umbilical, PLET, jumper, and UTA. (Courtesy of J. Lee.)
Chapter 7 Underwater Systems 277

The use of a subsea tieback means that the wellhead is connected to an existing fixed or fioating
production platform by fiowlines. In this case, a fixed or fioating production facility is not constructed
directly over or near the wellheads. Subsea tiebacks are economical because it is not necessary to design,
manufacture, and install a surface structure. The Canyon Express flowline (Fig. 7-45) is an example of a
subsea tieback system that delivers unprocessed gas from wellheads in the Kings Peak, Camden Hills, and
Aconcagua gas fields ata water depth of (1890-2200 m, 6200-7200 ft) to the Canyon Station fixed platform
in shallow water (92 m, 300ft) in the Gulf of Mexico. The pipeline and umbilicallength is 90 km (56 mi)
to the Camden Hills gas field.

MP 261 Canyon Station

Figure 7-45. Canyon Station subsea tieback from Camden Hills, Aconcagua, and Kings Peak fields.
(After Canyon Express.)
278 Elements of Ocean Engineering

7.11 REFERENCES

Allmendinger, E. E. (Ed.). (1990). Submersible vehicle systems design. Jersey City: Society of Naval
Architects and Marine Engineers.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). (2002). Safety standard for pressure vessels for
human occupancy. PVH0-1. New York: American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). (2007). Boiler and pressure vessel code. New York:
American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Bai, Y., & Bai, Q. (Eds.). (2005). Subsea pipelines and risers. San Diego: Elsevier.
Bo, G. (2001). Autonomous underwater vehicles: a survey and designfor subsea intervention. Texas A&M
University, College Station, Texas.
Bo, G., Randall, R., & Albaugh, K. (2002a). AUVS work fas ter and cheaper than tethered vehicles. Offshore,
PennWell.
Bo, G., Randall, R., & Albaugh, K. (2002b). Autonomous underwater vehicles enter the offshore industry.
Proceedings of the 11th Offshore Symposium, Texas Section of the Society of Naval Architects and
Marine Engineers, Houston, Texas.
Burcher, R., & Rydill, L. (1994). Concepts in submarine design. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Busby, R. (1976). Manned submersibles. Alexandria: Office ofthe Oceanographer ofthe Navy.
Chuse, R., & Eber, S. M. (1984). Pressure vessels: the ASME code simplijied (6th ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Friedman, N. (1994). U.S. submarines since 1945: an illustrated design history. Annapolis: Naval
Institute Press.
Hervey, J. B. (1994). Submarines. Vol. VIL Brassey's sea power: naval vessels, weapons systems and
technology series. London: Brassey's UK.
Lee, J. (2008). Introduction to offshore pipelines and risers. Retrieved from http://www.jylpipeline.com.
Liddle, D., Rousing, D., & Westwood, J. (2000). The world ROVreport. Douglas Westwood Ltd.
Marine Technology Reporter (2009). Deep flight super falcon. June (24-25). New York: Marine Technology
Reporter.
Megyesy, E. F. (2005). Pressure vessel handbook (14th ed.). Tulsa: Pressure Vessel Handbook Publishing
Company.
Miles, S., & Mackay, D. E. (1976). Underwater medicine (4th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Co.
Miller, D. (1991). Submarines ofthe world. NewYork: Qrign Books.
Miller, J. W., & Koblick, l. G. (1995). Living and working in the sea (2nd ed.) Flagstaff: Best Publishing
Company.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). (2001). NOAA diving manual. Washington,
DC: Govemment Printing Office.
Nuckols, M. L., Tucker, W. C., & Sarich, A. J. (1996). Lije support systems: diving and hyperbaric
applications. Needham Heights: Simon and Schuster Custom Publishing.
Randall, R. E. (1999). Diving and underwater life support. In J. B. Herbich (Ed.), Developments in Ocean
Engineering (473-560). Houston: GulfPublishing Company.
Schilling, C. W. (1965). The human machine. Annapolis: U.S. Naval Institute.
Schilling, C. W., Werts, M. F., & Schandelmeier, N. R. (Eds.). (1976). The underwater handbook: a guide
to physiology and peiformance for the engineer. New York: Plenum Press.
Sharp, F. (Ed.). (1994). Janesfighting ships. London: Butler and Tanner Ltd.
Shatto, H. L. (1991). Remotely operated vehicles. In J. B. Herbich (Ed.), Handbook ofCoastal and Ocean
Engineering, Vol. 11. Houston: Gulf Publishing Co.
Sweeney, J. B. (1970). A pictorial history of oceanographic submersibles. New York: Crown Publishers.
Terzibaschitsch, S. (1991). Submarines ofthe US Navy. NewYork: Arms andArmour Press.
Thomton, M. A. (2000). A survey and engineering design of atmospheric diving suits. Texas A&M
University, College Station, Texas.
Chapter 7 Underwater Systems 279

Thornton, M., Randall, R., & Albaugh, K. (2001a). Atmospheric diving suits bridge gap between saturation
diving and ROV units. Offshore, PennWell.
Thornton, M., Randall, R., & Albaugh, K. (2001b). Then and now: atmospheric diving suits. Underwater
Magazine, March/April.
Tucker, W. (1980). Underwater diving calculations. Centreville: Cornell Maritime.
University ofNew Hampshire. (1972). The impact ofthe requirements ofthe United States scientific diving
community on the systems' design, operation and management of underwater manned platforms.
Tech. Rep. No. 111. Rockville: Manned Undersea Science and Technology Office, National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration.
U.S. Navy (USN). (1971). US Navy diving gas manual. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
U.S.Navy(USN). (2008). USNavydivingmanual. Vol.I.NAVSEA0994-LP-001-0910(rev. 2). Washington,
DC: Government Printing Office.
Wagner, R. J. (2001) An international survey and engineering design of an underwater work class remotely
operated vehicle. Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas.
Wagner, R. J., Randall, R. E., & Albaugh, E. K. (2000). Work ROV contractors trying to evade cycle of
more power, heavier umbilicals with depths. Offshore Magazine, December.
Wernli, R. L. (1998). Operational effectiveness ofunmanned underwater systems. Washington DC: Marine
Technology Society.
Young, W. C., & Budynas, R. (2001). Roark's formulas for stress and strain (7th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

7.12 PROBLEMS

7-1. Explain the three respiration problems that can occur in diving operations. How can pressure affect
a diver?
7-2. A dive is planned for two divers ata depth of 85ft of seawater. The SCUBA tanks to be used are
rated at 72 standard cubic feet at 2514.7 psia. How many bottles are required for a 1-hr dive?
Assume that the perfect gas law applies and that each diver requires 1.5 cubic feet per minute of air
at depth. Assume that the temperature is 60°F and that one atmosphere equals 14.7 psia.
7-3. A dive is planned for two divers ata depth of 95ft of seawater. The SCUBA tanks are rated at 72
standard cubic feet at 2514.7 psia. How many bottles are required for a 1-hr dive? Assume that the
perfect gas law applies and that each diver requires 1.2 cubic feet per minute of air at depth. Assume
that the temperature is 60°F and that one atmosphere equals 14.7 psia.
7-4. Two divers are staying in a 750 cubic feet chamber for 1 day. The partial pressure of carbon dioxide
is to be maintained at 0.005 ata, and the temperature in the chamber is 75°F (T = 75°F). Each diver
has a carbon di oxide production rate of 0.8 SLM. The depth of the chamber is 60 ft. Determine the
airflow rate to maintain the partial pressure of carbon dioxide at 0.005 ata.
7-5. A diver is inside a chamber that has been pressurized with normal air toa depth of 150ft of seawa-
ter where the temperature is 75°F. Determine the partial pressure of oxygen in the chamber. If the
chamber is pressurized with normal air (02 is 21% by volume), determine the pressure at which
oxygen poisoning will occur. Assume that oxygen poisoning occurs when the partial pressure of
oxygen is 1.6 ata.
7-6. A diver is inside a chamber that has been pressurized with normal air to a depth of 200 ft of sea-
water where the temperature is 75°F. Determine the partial pressure of oxygen in the chamber. If
the chamber is pressurized with normal air (02 is 20% by volume), determine the pressure at which
oxygen poisoning will occur. Assume that oxygen poisoning occurs when the partial pressure of
oxygen is 1.6 ata.
280 Elements of Ocean Engineering

7-7. A surface-supplied breathing apparatus is to supply air to a diver at a depth of 120 ft of seawater.
Assuming that the breathing air has no initial concentration of carbon dioxide, estímate the airfiow
rate in SCFM.
7-8. A surface-supplied breathing apparatus is to supply air toa diver ata depth of 150ft of seawater.
Assuming that the breathing air has no initial concentration of carbon dioxide, estimate the airfiow
rate in SCFM.
7-9. If the allowable stress for the stee1 used in a 1.0-ft internal diameter pressure vessel is 33,500 psi,
evaluate the thickness of the cylinder walls for an interna! pressure of 3000 psi.
7-10. The allowable stress for the steel used in a 1.0-ft internal diameter pressure vessel is 30,500 psi.
Determine the thickness of the cylinder walls for an internal pressure of 4000 psi.
7-11. Three divers are doing light work in a 120 ft 3 habitat that is located at a depth of 50 ft. Determine
the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (Pc02 ) after a period of 3 hr. Assume that carbon dioxide pro-
duction equals oxygen consumption. Will the divers experience any physiological effects at the end
ofthe 3 hr?
7-12. Three divers are doing light work in a 120 ft 3 habitat that is located at a depth of 60 ft. Determine
the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (Pco) after a period of 1 hr. Assume that carbon dioxide pro-
duction equals oxygen consumption. Will the divers experience any physiological effects at the end
of 1 hr?
7-13. Two divers are resting quietly in a diver lockout chamber when the ventilation system fails. How
long will it take for the divers to immediately experience minar perceptive changes due to excess
carbon dioxide?
7-14. A habitat is designed to withstand an externa! pressure equal to 80ft of seawater with a safety fac-
tor of 4. The inside diameter of the spherical habitat is 8 ft and the thickness of steel is 0.25 inches.
Determine the allowable stress for steel using a safety factor of 4.
7-15. The inside diameter of the spherical habitat is 8 ft and the thickness of steel is 0.25 inches. The
habitat must withstand an external pressure equal to 90 ft of seawater with a safety factor of 4.
Using a safety factor of 4, determine the allowable stress for the steel.
7-16. SCUBA tanks are rated at 80 standard cubic feet at 3014.7 psia and 70°F. Three divers are planning
a dive toa depth of 66ft of seawater. How many bottles are required for a 1-hr dive? Each diver
is assumed to be doing moderate work during the entire dive, the water temperature is constant at
50°F, and the tank reserve pressure is 500 psig.
7-17. A dive is planned for three divers at a depth of 80 ft of seawater. The SCUBA tanks to be used are
rated at 80 standard cubic feet at 3014.7 psia and 70°F. How many bottles are required for a 1-hr
dive? Assume that each diver is doing moderate work during the entire dive and the temperature of
the water is constant at 50°F. The tank reserve pressure is 500 psig.
7-18. Determine the permissible range of oxygen concentrations and partial pressures for a depth of 60ft
of seawater when divers are going to stay in a habitat for 4 days. Also determine the maximum
allowable carbon dioxide concentration.
7-19. If divers are going to stay in a habitat for 4 days, what should be the maximum allowable carbon
dioxide concentration? What is the permissible range of oxygen concentrations and partial pres-
sures for a depth of 80 ft of seawater?
 CHAPTER8 UNDERWATER ACOUSTICS

8.1 INTRODUCTION

Like many areas of physical science, the study of underwater acoustics began many centuries ago.
In the 15th century, Leonardo da Vinci found that when he put one end of a long tube into the water and
one end against his ear while standing on a stationary ship, he could hear other ships from great distances
(Maceurdy, 1942). In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton provided the first mathematical analysis of sound, in which he
related the propagation of sound in fluids to physical quantities such as density and elasticity. eolladon and
Sturm measured the speed of sound in water in 1827 by using a flashing light and sounding an underwater
bell in Lake Geneva, Switzerland. They obtained a sound speed of 1435 m/s (4707 ft/s) when the lake wa-
ter temperature was 8°e. In 1840, Joule quantified and described the magnetostriction effect, which is the
change in the dimensions of a magnetic material caused by the presence of a magnetic field. In The Theory
of Sound, published in 1877, Rayleigh provided a fundamental theory to describe the generation, propaga-
tion, and reception of sound. In 1880, eurie discovered the piezoelectric effect, whereby a mechanical strain
applied to certain crystal types (e.g., quartz) causes an electrical charge on the crystal faces (Albers, 1965).
These piezóelectric and magnetostrictive effects are used in the production of transducers to generate and
receive underwater sound.
Fessenden developed the first electrically driven underwater sound source (known as the
Fessenden oscillator) in 1914 (Urick, 1983), which operated asan underwater transmitter and receiver in
a frequency range of 500-1000 Hz (where 1 Hz is one cycle per second). Fessenden also developed the
first commercial underwater acoustic device for ships to determine their range to a lightship. A foghorn
and underwater bell located on the lightship were sounded simultaneously, and the difference between
the arrival times of the sound signal from the foghorn (airborne) and the underwater bell were used to
evaluate the distance from shore.
At the beginning ofWorld War 1 (WWI) in 1914, acoustical sensing devices were acknowledged to
be the only practica! means of detecting the submerged submarines that were being used by the Germans
to attack ships. The United States developed the se tube (Fig. 8-1), a binaural air tube listening device that
used stethoscope earpieces. The se tube was effective at -:500 Hz and was successfully used to locate both

Stethoscope earpieces
1

Figure 8-1. SC binaural air tube listening equipment used during WWI.

281
 282 Elements of Ocean Engineering

submarines and surface ships. Subsequent devices, called MB, MV, and U-3, were developed to improve
sensitivity, allow higher ship speeds, and reduce the effects of self-noise (Burdic, 1991). During WWI,
the possibility of developing a system for underwater echo-ranging was explored by the Anti-Submarine
Division Investigation Committee (ASDIC). The principie behind echo-ranging (echo location) is that when
a pulse of sound is transmitted into the water, any refiection (echo) from a target (e.g., submarine) will be
received by a hydrophone, which is the underwater equivalent of a microphone. The received signal can
then be heard on headphones, and the time delay between transmission and reception can be used as to
measure the range to the submarine. However, the war ended before underwater echo-ranging could make
any contribution.
After WWI, advances in underwater acoustics continued with the development of depth sound-
ers, echo-ranging transducers, and the bathythermograph, as well as a better understanding of the phys-
ics of underwater sound propagation. When using a depth sounder, a sound pulse is directed vertically
downward, an echo is received from the sea bottom, and the depth of water is subsequently determined.
This particular instrument is still used as a navigational instrument. In the United States, Rayes pio-
neered the use of passive sonar arrays, which can detect sounds in the ocean from various sources,
including submarines. The acronym SONAR stands for sound navigation and ranging. In 1937, Spilhaus
invented the bathythermograph, which measures the temperature versus the depth of the water. This in-
strument was installed on submarines to measure the temperature pro file of the ocean and help determine
the characteristics of sound propagation and sonar detection. Ultrasonic frequencies were used to ob-
tain greater directionality with hydrophones of modest size, and transducer arrays were housed inside
streamlined domes to minimize interfering noise effects. QC sonars were standard SONAR equipment
on Navy surface ships, and JP sonars were installed on submarines. Operators on surface ships would
search in different directions (bearing) and listen for submarine echo returns with their headphones.
Similarly, sonar operators on submarines would search in bearing while listening for radiated noise
from surface ships and other submarines. A great deal of knowledge about the propagation of sound in
the sea was attained and published in a series of reports collectively titled Physics of Sound in the Sea
(NDRC, 1969).
After World War II (WWII), advances in electronic equipment, signal processing techniques, com-
puter equipment, underwater sound propagation models, and understanding of ambient noise and causes of
absorption fueled the further development of underwater acoustic equipment. The requirements of private
industry also increased the use of underwater sound devices, For example, the search for natural resources
beneath the sea fioor spurred the development of seismic exploration and subbottom profiling equipment
and techniques. Remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) required sonar for searching and tracking operations,
communications, and navigation. Sea fioor mapping and searching led to the development of side-scan so-
nar. Designers of oceanographic instruments used the principies of underwater sound to develop acoustic
release mechanisms, pingers and transponders, inverted echo sounders, and acoustic devices to measure
ocean currents (called acoustic Doppler current profilers [ADCPs]). Today, acoustic velocimeters are used
in laboratory studies and to measure fiow velocities in pipes, and oceanographers are using acoustic tomog-
raphy to examine sea fioor sediment.
Currently, underwater acoustic systems are used to aid in fishing, hydrographic surveys, oceano-
graphic and ocean engineering instrumentation, geophysical research, underwater communications, naviga-
tion, underwater searches, and sea-bottom surveys. Four types of underwater acoustic systems are described
in Table 8-1. Marine mammals such as dolphins, porpoises, and whales use natural sonar systems for their
navigation, and bats also use sound to navigate in the air.
Acoustic waves are used instead of electromagnetic waves for underwater detection and commu-
nications because electromagnetic waves do not propagate well in water. There are many excellent refer-
ences that treat the subject ofunderwater acoustics in greater depth, including Albers (1965), Brekhovskikh
and Lysanov (2003), Burdic (1991), Clay and Medwin (1977), Coates (1989), Etter (2003), Horton (1959),
Kinsler et al. (1982), Lurton (2002), Medwin (2005), Officer (1958), Randall (1999), Ross (1987), Strutt
(1945), Tolstoy and Clay (1966), Tucker and Gazey (1966), and Urick (1983). Underwater acoustics research
Chapter 8 Underwater Acoustics 283

Table 8-1. Examples of Four Types of Underwater Acoustic Systems

Equipment System Brief Description
Active Sonar Systems
Active echo-ranging sonar Used by ships to locate submarine targets. A short pulse of sound is uniformly generated
by a transmitting transducer. For reception, the same unit is used as a hydrophone.
Torpedoes Use moderately high frequencies to echo-range on targets and then steer on
reflected signals.
Depth sounders Equipment sends short pulses downward, and the time of the bottom return is used to
indicate the depth of the water.
Side-scan sonar Maps ocean terrain at right angles to a ship's track.
Fish-finding aids Forward-looking active sonar for spotting fish schools.
Diver hand-held sonar Used by divers to locate underwater objects.
Position-marking beacons Transmit sound signa] continuously.
Position-marking transponders Transmit sound only when interrogated.
Subbottom profilers Use low- and high-frequency sound signals to delineate the upper layers of the
sea floor structure.
Flow and wave height sensors Used to measure flow rate and wave height, respectively.
Sonobuoy Link between an aircraft and underwater sound source.
Seismic Systems
Seismic reflection systems Used to map the structure of the ocean floor. The acoustic pulses are basically
unidirectional pressure pulses that are generated by underwater sound sources such as
explosive charges, underwater ares (sparkers), electromagnetic (thumper) devices, and
air guns.
Seismic refraction system Similar to seismic reflection systems, but it measures different sea floor properties by
using wide-angle or oblique paths.
Underwater Communication, Telemetry, and Navigation Systems
Underwater telephone Device used to communicate between a surface ship and a submarine, or between
two submarines.
Di ver communications Divers have a full face mask that allows them to speak normally underwater, and a
throat microphone to emit speech signals. A transducer is used to transmit and receive
signals that are subsequently passed to the divers via an earpiece.
Telemetry systems Transmit data from a submerged instrument to the surface through the water column
without the aid of cables.
Doppler navigation Uses pairs of transducers pointing obliquely downward to obtain speed over the bottom
from the Doppler shift of the bottom returns.
Passive Systems
Passive ship sonar Detects acoustic radiation from another vessel or object.
Acoustic mines Explode when acoustic radiation reaches a certain value.
Torpedoes Home on acoustic radiation of submarine or ship.

is reported in various publications, including the Journal ofthe Acoustical Society of America, Journal of
Sound and Vibration, Journal of Geophysical Research, Journal of Ocean Engineering, and Ultrasonics.

8.2 UNDERWATER SOUND FUNDAMENTALS

Sound is defined as the periodic variation in pressure, particle displacement, and particle velocity in
an elastic medium. Water is the elastic medium for underwater acoustics, and it may be either fresh or saline.
Sound waves are produced by mechanical vibration, and the energy from the vibrating source is normally
transmitted as a longitudinal wave similar to the electromagnetic waves used for radios and radars. Sound
 284 Elements of Ocean Engineering

waves are longitudinal waves because the molecules transmitting the wave move back and forth in the di-
rection of wave propagation, producing altemate regions of compression and rarefaction. The transmission
of sound waves is very complicated. Thus, plane waves of sound are studied initially because they are the
simplest type of wave motion that propagates through a fluid medium. Plane waves are easily produced in
a rigid pipe with a vibrating pistan. In a plane wave, the acoustic pressures, particle displacement, density
changes, etc., have common phases and amplitudes at all points on any given plane perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation.
In a homogeneous medium, plane wave characteristics can be obtained at large distances from
a vibrating source. The term "particle of the medium" refers to a volume element that is large enough
to contain millions of molecules and thus may be considered a continuous fluid, but small enough so
that the acoustic properties of pressure, density, and velocity can be considered as constants throughout
the volume element. For the case of a plane wave of sound, the acoustic pressure (p) is related to the
particle velocity (u) by

p = pcu (8-1)

where p is the pressure, p is the density, e is the propagation velocity of the plane wave, and u is the particle
velocity. The term pe indicates the specific acoustic resistance; it has a value of 1.5 X 105 g/cm2s for seawa-
ter and 42 g/cm2s for air. Equation 8-1 is also known as Ohm's law of acoustics, which states that acoustic
pressure (p) is analogous to voltage, specific acoustic resistance (pe) is analogous to electrical resistance,
and particle velocity (u) is analogous to electrical current.
The energy involved in propagating acoustic waves through a fluid medium is a combination of ki-
netic energy (particle motion) and potential energy (stress in elastic medium). For aplane wave, the acoustic
intensity (I) of a sound wave is the average rate of flow of energy through a unit area normal to the direction
of wave propagation. The instantaneous acoustic intensity (1) is
p2
I =pe (8-2)

where p 2 is the time average of the instantaneous acoustic pressure squared. The intensity is also the acous-
tic power (P) per unit area (A) and the units are often watts/cm2 •
In practica! engineering and experimental work, it is common practice to describe sound in-
tensities and pressures with logarithmic scales known as ·sound levels. The most generally used loga-
rithmic scale for describing sound levels is the decibel .scale. The intensity level (IL) of a sound of
intensity I 1 is
I
IL = 10 lag...!. (8-3)
I2
where I 2 is the reference intensity. By substituting equation 8-2, the sound pressure level (SPL) is ex-
pressed as

SPL = 20 log ~~ (8-4)

where p 2 is a reference pressure. The intensity and SPL are indicated in decibel (dB) units.
The reference level must be known to ensure proper interpretation of the dB value. The current
reference pressure level used in underwater acoustics is 1 micropascal (1 ~J..Pa). Sorne old reference levels
are 1 dyne/cm2 and 0.0002 dyne/cm 2 (the threshold ofhearing). Note that 1 ~J..Pa equals 10-5 dyne/cm 2 and
1.45 X 10-9 psi. lt is often necessary to convert from one reference pressure W2) to another (PJ), and this
conversion is accomplished using

(8-5)

where Np3 is the level at reference p 3, and Np2 is the level at reference p 2 •
 Chapter 8 Underwater Acoustics 285

8.2.1 Example Problem 8-1

Express 125 dB relative to 0.0002 dyne/cm 2 in dB relative to 1 dyne/cm 2 • Table 8-2 shows the results.
The level of a sound wave (N) is the number of decibels by which its intensity differs from the inten-
sity of the reference sound wave. In the case of a sound wave with an intensity of I 1 and a reference intensity
of I 2 , the level of the sound wave is
I
N= 10 log_!_ (8-6)
12
For clarity, the level should be written as N dB re (the intensity of aplane wave of pressure equal to) 1 J.LPa
(the words in parentheses are normally omitted). If a sound wave has an intensity 500 times greater than that
of aplane wave with a root mean squared (rms) pressure of 1J.LPa, then the level N is

?
N= 10 log 5 0 = 27dB re 1,uPa (8-7)

Table 8-2. Results ofExample Problem 8-1

Given NP, = 125 dB, P2 = 0.0002 dyne/cm 2 ; p 3 = 1 dyne/cm 2
Find NP3
Solution NP3 = 125 + 20 log (0.0002/1) = 125 - 74 = 51 dB

8.3 SONAR EQUATIONS

Sonar equations are a means of determining the effects of the medium (i.e., ocean), target, and so-
nar equipment on sound propagation. These equations are part of the design and prediction tools available
to the ocean engineer for underwater sound applications. Sonar equations can be used to predict the perfor-
mance of sonar equipment of a known or existing design, as well as to design new sonar systems.
The total acoustic field ata receiver may be defined as a desired portion (signal) andan undesired
portion (background). The background is the noise or reverberation due to scattering of the output signal
back toward the source. The objective of the design engineer -is to discover a way to increase the overall re-
sponse of the sonar system to the signal and decrease the response of the system to the background. A sonar
system accomplishes its purpose when the signal level equals the background masking level ("masking"
means that the background interferes with a portion of the signal).
Sonar parameters are defined in relation to the equipment, medium, and target, as shown in
Table 8-3. All parameters are levels in decibels relative to the standard reference intensity of a 1 J.LPa plane
wave. To describe the meaning of the sonar parameters, let us consider the example of an active sonar. When
the sound source and receiver are in the same location, as shown in Fig. 8-2, the sound source produces
an intensity level of SL dB at a distance of 1 m (1 yd) along its acoustic axis from the acoustic center of
the source. The radiated sound is attenuated by the transmission loss (TL) before it reaches the target, and
the level at the target is then SL - TL. As a result of reftection and scattering by the target, the reftected
or backscattered level is SL - TL + TS (where TS is the target strength) at a distance 1 m (1 yd) from the
acoustic center of the target in the direction back toward the source. In traveling back, the level is again
attenuated due to TL. Therefore, the intensity leve1 of the reftected signa1 when it reaches the receiver is
SL - 2TL + TS. If the background is isotropic ambient noise, then the background noise level is NL. Next,
the background level is reduced by the directivity index (DI), so the relative NL is NL - DI. Thus, the echo
(SL - 2TL + TS) to noise (NL- DI) ratio is

SL - 2TL + TS = NL - DI (8-8)
286 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 8-3. Definition of Sonar Equation Parameters

Parameter Symbol Reference Definition
Equipment-related parameters
Projector source SL 1 yd from source source intensity
10 log
level acoustic center along reference intensity1
acoustic axis
Noise 1evel NL At hydrophone noise intensity
10 log
location reference intensity1
Receiving DI At hydrophone 10 1 noise power generated by equiva1ent nondirectional hydrophone
directivity index terminals og noise power generated by actual hydrophone
Detection threshold DT At hydrophone 10 lo Signal power to make decision on presence of target
termina1s g noise power at hydrophone terminals1
Medium-related parameters
Transmission loss TL 1 yd from source 10 lo . ~ignal ~ntensity at 1 yd .
acoustic center and g s1gnal mtens1ty at target or rece1ver
at target or receiver
Reverberation level RL At hydrophone reverberation power at hydrophone terminals
10 log
terminals power generated by signal of reference intensity1
Ambient noise NL At hydrophone noise intensity
10 log
level terminals reference intensity 1
Target-related parameters
Target strength TS 1 yd from acoustic refiected signal (echo) intensity at
center of target 10 lo 1 yd fro~ a~ousti~ cent~r of target
g me1dent mtens1ty
Target source level SL 1 yd from acoustic 10 lo source intensity at 1 yd from acoustic center of target
center of target g rel'erence mtens1ty
. . 1

1Reference intensity is that of aplane wave with an rms pressure of 1 J.LPa.

Detection Threshold (DT)

Noise Leve! (NL)

and Receiver

Figure 8-2. Schematic of an active sonar system.

Since detection is normally the purpose of the sonar, it is desirable to have sorne means of deter-
mining when the target is present. Thus, a detection threshold (DT) is established. When the signal-to-noise
ratio equals the DT, the decision is made that a target is present. This may be accomplished by a person
using headphones or by electronic means. The active sonar equation is

SL - 2TL + TS - (NL - DI) = DT (8-9)

 Chapter 8 Underwater Acoustics 287

Another common form of the active sonar equation is

SL - 2TL + TS = NL - DI + DT (8-10)

where the left side of the equation is the signallevel, and the right side is the noise masking level. In the
monostatic case, the source and receiver are coincident, and the reftected signal from the target returns back
to the source location. In the bistatic case, the source and receiver locations are different and separated by
sorne distance. Therefore, the TL path lengths are not always the same, and equation 8-1 Omust account for
the different TL paths.
A modification of the active sonar equation is necessary when the background is reverberation rather
than noise. In this case, DI is not correct as defined for noise. For a reverberation background, NL - DI is
replaced by an equivalent reverberation level (RL), and the active sonar equation becomes

SL - 2TL + TS = RL + DT (8-11)

In the case of a passive sonar system, the target itself produces the signal or sound source by which
it is detected. Therefore, the source level (SL) parameter refers to the level of the radiated signal of the target
at the distance of 1 m (1 yd) from its acoustic center. Also, the TS parameter is no longer meaningful, and
the TL occurs only from the target to the receiver. Thus, the passive sonar equation is

SL - TL = NL - DI + DT (8-12)

The sonar performance figure (PF) is the difference between the SL and the NL [SL - (NL - DI)]
measured at the hydrophone. The figure ofmerit [SL- (NL- DI+ DT)] is the maximum allowable TL for
a passive sonar, or the maximum allowable two-way loss for an active sonar when TS = O dB. An example
of the use of the passive sonar equation is illustrated in Table 8-4.

8.3.1 Example Problem 8-2

A passive sonar system is being used to detectan object with SL = 20 dB re 1 dyne/cm 2 , and
DI = 12 dB. If DT = 15 dB 1 j.LPa, and TL = 70 dB, deter-mine the NL that will just permit detection of
the target.

Table 8-4. Results of Example Problem 8-2

Given SL = 20 dB re 1 dyne/cm2 , DI = 12 dB, DT = 15 dB, TL = 70 dB
Find NL
Solution Passive sonar equation: SL - TL = NL - DI + DT

NP, = Np2 + 20 log ~

_ Pz _ 1 dynes/cm 2
Nlp.Pa - Nldyne/cm2 + 20 log P3 - 20 + 20 log 5 2
10 dyne/cm
N1p.Pa = 20 + 20 (+5) = 120 db re 1¡LPa; :. SL = 120 db re 1¡LPa
SL-TL=NL-DI+DT
NL = SL - TL + DI - DT =120- 70 + 12 - 15 = 47 dB re 1¡LPa

The sonar equations are a statement of the equality between the desired part of the acoustic field
(signal, i.e., echo or noise from the target) and the undesired part (background noise or reverberation).
In most cases, this equality holds at only one range. Echo and reverberation signals decrease with range,
but the background noise is relatively constant. The sonar parameters ftuctuate randomly with time, and
changes in equipment and platform conditions can occur. Therefore, the solution of the sonar equations
yields a time-averaged result of a stochastic problem.
288 Elements of Ocean Engineering

8.4 TRANSDUCERS ANO BEAM PATTERNS

8.4.1 Underwater Acoustic Transducers

Underwater sound equipment enables an observer to detect the presence of an underwater sound
wave. This equipment consists of a hydrophone or hydrophone array that converts acoustic energy into
electrical energy, which is then delivered to the electronic signal-processing equipment for display.
Transducers are devices that convert sound into electrical energy and vice versa. In the most general
sense, transducers are used to convert one form of energy into another. In the field of underwater acous-
tics, a hydrophone is a transducer that converts sound into electrical energy, and a projector is a trans-
ducer that converts electrical energy into sound energy. Sorne examples of hydrophones and projectors
are shown in Fig. 8-3.
The conversion of sound into electrical energy and vice versa is accomplished with the use of
special materials that have certain specific properties, as described below:

l. Piezoelectric materials, such as quartz, ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (ADP), and Rochelle
salt, acquire a charge between crystal surfaces when placed under pressure, and conversely they
acquire a stress when a voltage is placed across the surface. The electrical potential between the
crystal surfaces can be varied periodically at the frequency of the desired sound signal, making
the material vibrate at the desired frequency and generating an acoustic signal.
2. Electrostrictive materials, such as barium titanate and lead zirconate, have the same effect as
piezoelectric materials. However, these materials are ceramics that have been properly polarized.
3. Magnetostrictive, or ferrous, materials can change dimensions when subjected to a magnetic
field, and conversely their magnetic field is changed when they are placed under stress.

The design of transducers is still an art and not an exact science, and therefore transducer design is a
special technology in its own right. In most underwater acoustic applications, hydrophone arrays consisting

Figure 8-3. Example underwater acoustic transducers (hydrophones and projectors).

(ITC, A Division of Channel Technologies Group [CTG].)
Chapter 8 Underwater Acoustics 289

of a number of elements spaced in such a way as to generate the most desirable beam pattern for a particular
application are used. The advantages of arrays over a single-element hydrophone are increased sensitivity,
better directional capabilities, and greater signal-to-noise ratio.

8.4.2 Receiving Directivity lndex

When a signal is a unidirectional plane wave (perfectly coherent) and the noise is isotropic (the
same in all directions, N (8,<!>) = 1), a quantity called the directivity index (DI) is used. For simple
arrays (line and circular plane), the DI can be computed using the expressions for simple transducers
shown in Table 8-5. The DI is restricted to the special case of a perfectly coherent signal in isotropic
noise. These conditions seldom occur in the real ocean. Signals transmitted in the ocean are perfectly
coherent only at short ranges; at long ranges, signals are received from various directions and by differ-
ent paths. Noise is anisotropic in the real ocean. Therefore, the receiving DI is useful for approximate
calculations.

Table 8-5. Mathematical Expressions for the DI of Simple Transducers

Transducer Type Beam Pattern Function [b(S)] Directivity Index (DI)
Continuous line with length L,
whereL>>A. sin {(:L) sin e}
2 10 log ( 2 t)
(1TL)
T sme.

Piston with diameter D in infinite

baffle where D >>A..
2J1 [ ( 1T~) sin e]
2
10 log ( 1TJ> t
(1T~) sin e
Line array with "n" elements equally n
sin [( n~d) sin e]
2 10log
spaced a distance "d" apart.
2 n-1 (n-p) sin ( 2':;d)
nsin[(~d)sine] 1 +¡¡: ~
p=:::l 2p1Td
-A-

8.4.3 Beam Pattern

The response of a transducer array varies with direction relative to the array. This very desirable
property of array directionality allows the direction of signal arrival to be determined, and also facilitates
the resolution of closely adjacent signals. In addition, directionality reduces noise relative to the signal
by discriminating against noise arriving from directions other than the signal direction. The response of
an array varies with direction in a manner specified by the beam pattern of the array (see Fig. 8-4 for an
illustration of two-dimensional beam patterns for a line and circular plane array). Further information on
the theory and design of acoustic transducers can be found in Wilson (1988).
The beam pattern, b (8), for a line array of equally spaced elements is defined as

b(O) = J sin[{~ )sin o] ) 2

(8-13)
l n sin [{~d) sin O]

where n is the number of elements, d is the spacing between elements, e is the angle clockwise from the
acoustic axis, andA is the wavelength. The main lobe of a beam pattern is illustrated in Fig. 8-5, which
shows the beam width at -3 dB.
290 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Acoustic axis Acoustic axis

Liue array Circular plane array

Figure 8-4. Examples of a beam pattern for line array and circular plane array. (Reprinted with permission from
Urick, R. J. (1983). Principies ofunderwater sound (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.)

t - - - - 1 - Beam width at -3 dB
dB

Acoustic
axis

~ ~ ~ ~ ~
'Eiements
Figure 8-5. Definition of the negative 3 dB beam width.

8.4.3.1 Example Problem 8-3

Given: n = 5 equally spaced line arrays, d = 0.5 ft, e = 5000 ft/sec, f = 5 kHz.
Find: b (a), make a plot in a spreadsheet, and determine the -3 dB beam width.
Solution:
b(O) = J sin [{~) sin O] ) 2

lnsin[(~d)sino]
A. = f. = 5000 = 1ft
f 5000

b(O) =
l
sin [(57T0.5) sin o] )
1
5 sin [( 7T?· 5 ) sin O]
2

For a = O degrees, b (0) is equal to 1 in the limit, the intensity level (N) is found as
N= 10 log10 b (a)= O dB
and b (1) is 0.994, which gives an intensity level of -0.025 dB. The beam pattem results for angles between
O and 25 degrees are tabulated in Table 8-6 and illustrated in Fig. 8-6. The -3 dB angle is shown as
10.4 degrees, and therefore the -3 dB beam width is 20.8 degrees (2 X 10.4).
The significance of 6 dB down point (- 6 dB) is that the response of the transducer is reduced by
one-half, as illustrated in example problem 8-4, where N is the intensity level in dB and v is the voltage.
Chapter 8 Underwater Acoustics 291

Table 8-6. Output from Excel Spreadsbeet for 6 Equal

to 0-25 Degrees
Theta b(6) Intensity (dB)
0.000001 1 -2.5E-14 .
1 0.994002 -0.02613
2 0.976183 -0.10469
3 0.947066 -0.2362
4 0.907493 -0.42157
5 0.8586 -0.66209
6 0.801764 -0.95954
7 0.738552 -1.31619
8 0.670662 -1.73496
9 0.599853 -2.21955
10 0.527886 -2.7746
10.38
12
0.500591
0.387151
-3.00517
-4.1212
----.¡ -3 dB beam width = 2 X 10.38 = 20.76°

13 0.321373 -4.92991
15 0.204978 -6.88292
16 0.156036 -8.06775
17 0.113949 -9.43291
18 0.078907 -11.0288
19 0.050861 -12.9362
20 0.02954 -15.2959
21 0.014489 -18.3897
22 0.005096 -22.9276
23 0.000638 -31.9524
24 0.000315 -35.0223
25 0.00329 -24.8279

o
dB.

270 90

180
Figure 8-6. Beam pattern for example problem 8-3 (circle increments are -3 dB).

8.4.3.2 Example Problem 8-4

N= 10 log v2
-6 = 10 log v2
-6 = 20 log v
-0.3 = log v
v= 0.5 volts
 292 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Additional simple equations for evaluating the beam pattern b (8) for a continuous line array anda
circular plane array are shown below:

b(e) = ¡sin ( -n:L sin

1t

(?)sin e
e) )
2
(8-14)

¡21 (-n:D sin e))

2
1
b(e) = 1t (8-15)
(7Tf) sin e
where J1 is a Bessel function of the first kind.

8.5 UNDERWATER SOUND GENERATION

Active sonars use a projector to generate acoustic energy, and this projector normally consists of
an array of individual elements that produce a directional beam pattern. The projector SL designates the
amount of sound radiated by the projector. The directionality of the array is described by the transmitting
directivity index (DIT ), which is the difference (measured ata point on the acoustic axis of the beam pattern)
between the intensity level of the sound generated by the projector (10 ) and the intensity level 0No) that
would be produced by a nondirectional projector radiating the same total amount of acoustic power. The
Dh is expressed as
lo
1-
Dh = 10 log- (8-16)
NO

The projector SL can be expressed as a function of the total radiated acoustic power (P):

SL = 171.5 +_10 log P (8-17)

If the projector is directional, then

SL = 171.5 + 10 log P + Dh (8-18)

In the case of an electroacoustic projector, the radiated power (P) is less than the electric power (Pe)
input to the projector. The ratio of the total radiated power to the input electric power (Pe) is the projector
efficiency (E),

(8-19)

and the projector SL can be expressed as

SL = 171.5 + 10logPe + 10logE + Dh (8-20)

The typical ranges of total radiated power (P), Dh, SL, and projector efficiency (E) for ship sonars are
0.3-50 kW, 10-30 dB, 210-240 dB re 1 ¡.tPa, and 20% to 70 %, respectively.
Sonar power is limited mainly by cavitation and interaction between array elements. Cavitation bub-
bles form on the face of the projector when power is increased to a certain value. Interaction between sonar
array elements can also reduce sonar power as a result of one element absorbing power from another element.
Chapter 8 Underwater Acoustics 293

8.6 PROPAGATION OF UNDERWATER SOUND

The ftow of acoustic energy from a so-luce to a receiver is described in terms of its intensity at a
distance 1 m or 1 yd from the source, and the reduction in intensity between this point and the receiver.
The transmission (propagation) loss (TL) is the reduction in intensity between the reference point and the
receiver, as defined by
I
TL = 10 log _!_ (8-21)
Iz
where I 1 is the source intensity referenced to 1 m (1 yd) and I2 is the intensity at a distant point. TL
is affected by two primary factors: spreading and attenuation. In the case of spreading, acoustic energy
becomes diluted as it spreads over a larger area and thus intensity is reduced. Near the source, spreading is
spherical, and the loss is proportional to the inverse square of the distance. At larger distances, the spread-
ing is affected by refraction, i.e., the bending of rays along the paths by which the waves travel. In the case
of attenuation, the loss of energy from the wave is a result of absorption and scattering. Absorption results
from the conversion of acoustic energy into heat (frictional effects), and scattering is the process whereby
ob)ects in the medium cause some of the energ)' to be detlected in various directions.

8.6.1 Spreading Laws

The two main spreading laws are spherical spreading and cylindrical spreading. Spherical spread-
ing considers a source located in a homogeneous, unbounded, and lossless medium. The power generated
by the source is radiated equally in all directions so as to be distributed over the entire surface of a sphere
surrounding the source. The TL due to spherical spreading is
I
TL = 1O log I~ = 10 log S = 20 log r 2 (Spherical Spreading Law) (8-22)

where I 1is the intensity 1m (1 yd) from the acoustic center, and I2 is the intensity ata range r2 . The intensity
decreases as the square of the range, and the TL increases as the square of the range. The expression for
cylindrical spreading is
I
TL = 10 log I~ = 10 log rl· (Cylindrical Spreading) (8-23)

where I1 is again the intensity at 1 m (1 yd) from the acoustic center of the source, and I2 is the intensity
at the range or distance r2• Cylindrical spreading occurs at moderate and long ranges whenever sound is
trapped in a sound channel, as illustrated in Fig. 8-7.

8.6.2 Absorption

The absorption of sound results from the viscosity of pure water and the presence of dissolved salts
in the water, whose effect is dominant in seawater when the frequency is below 100 kHz. Francois and

Spherical Spreading Cyllndrical Spreadlng

Figure 8-7. lllustration of spherical and cylindrical spreading.
 294 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Garrison (1982) presented a relationship for evaluating absorption that considers the sum of the effects of
boric acid, magnesium sulfate, and pure water. The expression for sound absorption (ex) is

ex = B1D 1f1f 2 + B2D2f2f 2 + B D f2 (8-24)

f2fi f2f~ 3 3
where f is the frequency in kHz, f1 and f2 are the relaxation frequencies in kHz, and ex is the absorption coef-
ficient in dB!km (multiply by 1.0936 to get dB/kyd). The first term of equation 8-24 represents the effect of
boric acid in seawater, and the equations for evaluating the coefficients B 1, D 1, and f 1 are
- 8.86 X 10(0.78pH-5) -
B1 - e ,D 1 -1
(8-25)
S o5 ( 1245 )
f 1 = 2.8 ( 35 ) · 10 4 -273 + T, e = 1412 + 3.21T + 1.19S + 0.0167 d
where e is the sound speed in rn/s, T is the temperature in degrees Celsius, S is the salinity in parts per
thousand (o/oo), and d is the depth in meters. The second term in equation 8-24 accounts for the effects of
magnesium sulfate, MgS04, in seawater, and the coefficients B 2, D2, and f 2 are determined from

B2 = 2 1.~S (1 + 0.025T), D2 = 1-1.37 X 10-4d + 6.2 X 10-9d2,

(8-26)
(8 1990 )
f _ 8.17 X 10 -273+1'
2 - 1 + 0.0018(S-35)

The third term represents the contribution of pure water to absorption, and the coefficients B3 and
D3 are evaluated using

D3 = 1 - 3.83 X 10- 5 d + 4.9 X 10- 10 d 2,

for T :5 20°C; B3 = 4.937 X 10-4 - 2.59 X 10- 5T + 9.11 X 10- 7 T2 - 1.50 X 10-8 T3 (8-27)
for T > 20°C; B3 = 3.964 X 10-4 - 1.146 X 10- 5T + 1.45 X 10- 7 T 2 - 6.5 X 10- 8 T 3

Figure 8-8, developed by Francois and Garrison (1982), shows the variation of the absorption
coefficient (ex) as a function of frequency from 0.1 to 1000· kHz at zero depth (surface) for a salinity of
35 o/oo and pH of 8.0. The accuracy of the predicted absorption coefficients is estimated as ±5% for the
ranges of 0.4-1000 kHz, -1.8 to 30°C, and 30-35 o/oo.

8.6.3 Spreading and Absorption Loss

Propagation measurements made in the ocean indicate that spherical spreading together with
absorption yields a reasonable approximation to measured data for a wide variety of conditions. Therefore,
the TL may be expressed as

TL = 20 log r +ar X 1o-3 (8-28)

where r is the range in yards and ex is the absorption coefficient in dB/kyd. This is a rough approximation,
but a good rule of thumb.

8.6.3.1 Example Problem 8-5

An active sound source operates at a frequency of 80 kHz and is located at a depth of 30 ft where the
temperature is 10°C and the salinity is 35 o/oo. It is desired to detecta target ata range of at least 3000 yd.
 Chapter 8 Underwater Acoustics 295

1--
z
w
o
lL
lL
w
o
u
z
o
t
~ 0.1
(/)
m
-::{

O• O m

10 lOO 1000
FREQUENCY (kHz)
Figure 8-8. Absorption coefficient and correction for depth over useful sonar frequency range
for salinity of 35 o/oo and pH of 8 (Francois & Garrison, 1982).

Table 8-7. Results of Example Problem 8-5

Given f = 80kHz, r = 3000 yd, d = 30ft, T = 10°C, pH = 8, and S = 35 o/oo
Find TL
Solution TL = 20 log r + a r X 10-3
Figure 8-8 shows a= 28 dB/kyd when d =O ft, S = 35 o/oo, pH = 8, T = 4°C. The depth of 30ft is
assumed to have negligible effect. Equations 8-24 through 8-27 can be solved to get the exact value of the
absorption coefficient (a).
TL = 20 log (3000) + 28(3) = 69.5 + 84 = 154 dB

If the major causes of TL are spherical spreading and absorption, predict the magnitude of the TL. The
solution to this example problem is shown in Table 8-7, and the predicted TL is 154 dB.

8.6.3.2 Example Problem 8-6

An example problem for evaluating the transmission loss using equation 8-24 for evaluating
absorption coefficient (a) because the water depth is 4000 ft. Once a is determined, the transmission loss
is found by solving the equation for spherical spreading and absorption. The results are shown in Table 8-8.
296 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 8-8. Illustrative Example for Evaluating TL in the Ocean

Given: f = 50 kHz r = 4000 yd. pH = 8
d = 4000ft T = 8°C S= 30%o
Find: Two-way TL (2 X TL)
Solution: TL = 20 log r + a r X 10-3
e = 1412 + 3.21 (8°C) + 1.19 (30%o) + 0.0167 (4000 ft/3.28 ft/m) = 1493.7 m.s
- 8.86 X 10(0.78(pH)- 5) - 8.86 X 10(0.78(8) - 5) -
B1 - e - 1493 _7 - 0.1031 dB/(km-kHz)

D1 = 1

f, = 2.8 (S 0.5 (4- 1245 ) (30)0.5 10(4-~)

35 ) 10 273 + T = 2.8 35 273 + 8oc = 0.962 kHz

Using equation 8-3 to obtain eoefficients in term 2 of equation 8-1

B2 = 21.44 ~ (1 + 0.025T) = 21.44 14~~-~~/s ( 1 + 0.025WC)) = 0.517 dB/(km-kHz)

D2 = 1 - 1.37 X 10-4 d + 6.2 X 10-9 d2 = 1-1.37 X 10-4 ( 3:g~~S~) + 6.2 X 10-9 ( 3:g~~s~r = 0.5512

1990 ) ( 1990 )
8.17 X 10(8- 273+1' _ 8.17 X 10 8 - 273+8'C
62.28 kHz
1 + 0.0018(S - 35) - 1 + 0.0018(30 - 35)
Using equation 8-4 to obtain eoeffieients for term 3 of equation 8-1

D3 = 1 - 3.83 X 10-5 d + 4.9 X 10-!0 d2 = 1 - 3.83 X 10-5 ( 3:g~~S~) + 4.9 X 10-10 ( 3:g~~s~r = 0.8546
Sinee temperature (T) is <20°C

B3 = 4.937 X 10-4 - 2.59 X 10-5 WC) + 9.11 X 10-7 WC) 2 - 1.50 X 10-8 (8°C) 3 = = 0.000337 dB/(km - kHz 2)

a = (O.l031)(l)(0.962)(5W + (0.517)(o.ss1)(68.28)(5W + (o.ooo337 )(o. 8546)(SW

(SW + (0.962) 2 (SW + (68.28) 2 .
a = 7.61 dB/km, or a = (7.61 dB/km)/(1.0963 kyd/km) = 7.0 dB/kyd
Evaluate TL using spherieal spreading and absorption equation
TL = 20 log r + a(r X 10-3) = 20 log (4000 yd) + 7.0 dB/kyd (4kyd) = 72.0 + 27.8 = 100 dB
Therefore, the two-way TL = 2 (100) = 200 dB

8.6.4 Sound Velocity Variation with Depth

The velocity profile or varíation of sound velocity with depth is illustrated in Fig. 8-9. The main
features of the sound velocity profile are the surface layer, seasonal thermocline, main thermocline, and
deep isothermallayer. The surface layer is where the sound velocity is subject to daily and local changes
in heating, cooling, and wind action. The seasonal thermocline is the negative thermal (or velocity)
gradient, which varíes with the season. In the summer and fall, the near surface waters are warm, and
the seasonal thermocline is well defined. However, in the winter and spring, it tends to merge and be
indistinguishable from the surface layer. The main thermocline is affected only slightly by seasonal
changes, and it is in this layer that the majar decrease in temperature occurs. The deep isothermallayer
has a nearly constant temperature of 3.9°C (39°F), and consequently the sound velocity increases as a
result of the effect of pressure with depth. The sound velocity profile also varíes with the latitude, sea-
son, and time of day.
 Chapter 8 Underwater Acoustics 297

SOUND SPEEO
1479 1494 1509
m ft 4850 4900 4950
Surface~-
Layer -

915 3000

DEPTH

1829 6000

2744 9000

3659 12000f

Figure 8-9. Typical deep-water sound velocity profile.

The speed of sound in water has been determined both theoretically and experimentally. Mackensie
(1981) developed the following equation:

e= 1448.96 + 4.591T- 5.304 X 10- 2T 2 + 2.374 X 10-~3 + 1.340(S- 35) +

1.630 X 10- 2d + 1.675 X 10-7d 2 - 1.025 X 10- 2T(S- 35) -7.139 X 10- 13Td3 (8-29)

where e is the sound speed (m/s), T is the temperature ( 0 C) at the depth, S is the salinity (o/oo), and d is
the depth (m). The range of validity for this equation is ooc :5 T :5 30°C, 30 o/oo :5 S :5 40 o/oo, and
O m :5 d :5 8000 m. The expression is good for practica! work, and it shows that sound speed increases with
temperature, salinity, and depth.
Instruments that are used to measure sound speed either directly or indirectly are the bathythermo-
graph, sound velocimeter, and the expendable bathythermograph (XBT). The bathythermograph measures
temperature as a function of depth as it is lowered into the water. The sound velocimeter measures sound
velocity in terms of the travel time of the sound over a fixed path. The XBT measures temperature versus
depth without the need to retrieve a sensing unit. ·

8.6.5 Snell's Law

To illustrate Snell's Law, two sound rays of aplane wave are shown propagating from a slow sound
velocity medium to a faster sound velocity medium in Fig. 8-10. A plane wave is traveling downward in the
first medium with rays (normal to the wave front) atan angle 81 with the boundary. The wave front at the instant
when the ray AB reaches the boundary is shown as BB ', which is perpendicular to A'B '. As the wave eros ses
the boundary, the speed of propagation is suddenly changed from c1 to Cz. While ray A'B'C'D' is traversing
the distance B'C', the ray ABCD traverses a different distance BC. When ray A'B'C'D' reaches point C', the
wave front lies along the line CC'. To locate point C, swing an are of radius BC about point B and then draw a
tangent line from C' to the are. The time it takes to travel from B'C' and BC is a constant, and the magnitude
of BC equals ezt. The tangent line determines the direction 82 in which the ray BCD travels. The relationship
between BC, B'C' and the sound speed is expressed as
BC B'C' (8-30)
Cz ----ci

BC = BC'cos 82 ; B'C' = BC'cos 8 1 (8-31)

 298 Elements of Ocean Engineering

A'
A

sound veloeity e = e
1

O'

sound veloeity e = e
2
D'
e2 > ct
Figure 8-10. Schematic ofplane sound wave propagation.

Therefore,
BC' cos 02 _ BC' cos 0 1 (8-32)
c2 - c1

e os ()2 cos () 1
c2 c1
(8-33)

For many layers, Snell's Law is expressed as

e1
--()- -
- c 2 - - -c(3) -
--()- -
-- ••••••• -
- constant -- eV (8-34)
cos 1 cos 2 cos 3
If we approximate the ocean with layers in which the sound speed is constant, let the number of
layers approach infinity, and let the thickness of the layer go to zero, then

C = Cv COS () (8-35)

The limitations of Snell's Law are that it is valid only when the speed of sound is a one-dimensional
space function, and the constant Cv applies only to a particular ray. The constant Cv is the speed of propaga-
tion at the depth at which the ray is horizontal. The critical.angle (Oc) is defined as
C.¡
cos Oc = c 2 (e¡ ( c2) (8-36)

and is illustrated in Fig. 8-11.

Slowmedium (c1 )
'
''
'

Reflected ray

- Refracted ray
Fast medium (c2 )

Figure 8-11. Definition of critica( angle.

When a ray in the slower medium is incident on the layer boundary at an angle 01 > Oc with the
horizontal, the ray enters the faster medium and is bent toward the horizontal. At the critica! angle Oc, the
refracted ray travels along the interface ((h = 0). When the incident ray is more nearly horizontal than the
Chapter 8 Underwater Acoustics 299

critica! ray (01 <Oc), the ray does not enter the faster medium and is totally reftected. When a ray is incident
from the faster medium, there is no critica! angle and refraction occurs for all angles of incidence. Also, the
angle between the refracted ray and the horizontal is never less than Oc.

8.6.6 Method of Rays

In the real ocean, the speed of sound varíes as a function of the space coordinates, and generally a
solution of the basic differential equation (wave equation) is not possible. Therefore, approximate methods
are necessary. One such method is known as the method of rays. Newton's Second Law and Hooke's Law
are applied to an elemental volume of seawater that is insonified by an acoustic wave. Thus, the angle is
measured positive upward from the horizontal, as shown in Fig. 8-12.

MWL X (horizontal distante)

~--Sl---r------------

y
(depth)

Wavefront

Figure 8-12. Schematic for ray angle measured positively upward.

The four differential equations for the approximate method of rays are

dx = - _y
e
g cos e de

dy = - i sin e de (8-37)

ds = - Cv de
g
dt = - ____@____
gcos e

These equations assume that the sound velocity medium has a constant gradient (g), and that the sound ve-
locity (e) is a function of depth (y) only. The slope ofthe ray is dy/dx =tan e. The vertex velocity (cv) is a
constant. Using these assumptions and integrating equations 8-37, the equations are written as

X = ~V sin e + const

e
y= gcos e + const
(8-38)
s= i' e + const(e is in radians)
t = _L In 1 + s~n e + const
2g 1- sm e
300 Elements of Ocean Engineering

The origin of the x- and y-axes is located such that the constants are zero. The translated axis is
defined as x' and y', and therefore

X1= Cv sin e
g
(8-39)
e
y'= i
cose
If equation 8-39 is squared and added, then

x' 2 + y' 2 = (if (sin e + cos e) = (it

2 2 (8-40)

and the ray is the are of a circle ofradius (cvfg). Ifthere is an isothermal ocean medium (g = 0.0182 s- 1 and
the vertex velocity is 4914 ft/s, then cvfg = 4914/0.0182 = 270,000 ft = 90 kyd = 45 nautical miles. When
the ray is horizontal (i.e., e = 0), y' has its maximum value of cvfg as shown in Fig. 8-13.

Posifive Gradient Negative Gradient

MWL
o _sz_ ____________________________ _
Q
p

MWL
_sz_ __ ~------
S~floor

p
Q
o
Seafloor
Figure 8-13. Examples of positive and negative gradients.

For a positive gradient, the origin is in the sky, and in the case of a negative gradient, the origin is
below the bottom of the ocean. Assuming that point S is the location of a sound source, the speed of sound
at that depth is C0 , and the velocity gradient is positive, the angle of inclination of a ray at the source is called
the initial angle, e0 • If a family of rays leaves the source in any one vertical plane, then each individual ray
of the family of rays is identified by its particular value of eo. Since

e =--o-
e
(8-41)
v cos eo
the coordinates at any point on a ray are

X1 = Co sin e
g cos eo
e (8-42)
y'= o cose
g cos eo
where x' and y' are measured from the center of curvature Oof the circular rayare ST (Fig. 8-14). The coordinates
(Xo', Yo') of the source S are the values obtained when e = e0 • The y' coordinate is independent of e 0 , which means
that the centers of all circles lie on a horizontalline at a distance cJg above the source, called the line of centers.

X1
o
=Cotan
g eo
(8-43)
Y'o = ~
Chapter 8 Underwater Acoustics 301

o o

Y':::Co
g

Xo'::: (Cofg ) tan So

Figure 8-14. Coordinate transformation.

The ray equations in terms of original coordinates x and y, where x and y are measured from the
source, are

X = i sin e + COOSt
y = i cos e + const
e
(8-44)
S=
e
ge+ COOSt
t = _L lo 1 + s~n e + const
2g 1 - sm e

If the source is at depth Yo and the sound speed at Yo is C0 , then the constants in previously derived equations
are evaluated from the following initial conditions:

e = eo; X = O; y = Yo;" S = O; and t = o (8-45)

The result is

X = Co e (sin e - sin e 0 )
g cos o
e
y - Yo = o e (cos e - cos e o)
g cos o
(8-46)
Co
S= g COS eo
(e - e )0

t = _L [lo 1 + s~n e - lo 1 + s~n eo]

2g 1 - sm e 1 - sm eo

To perform a practica! computation of ray paths in a constant-gradient medium, treat y as the inde-
pendent variable and then {nl}

l. Select a value for y.

2. Solve the y equation for cos e.
3. Determine e and sin e.
4. Compute X, S, e, and t.
 302 Elements of Ocean Engineering

There is an ambiguity in algebraic sign in the determination of a and sin a because both plus and
minus values of a give the same value for cosa. The physical significance of this ambiguity (Fig. 8-15) is
demonstrated by the fact that a horizontalline (y = const) intersects the ray circle at two points. There are
two ranges x 1 and x 2 corresponding to the same depth (y). One range occurs before the vertex, and the other
occurs beyond it. The sketch in Fig. 8-15 shows which range to use.

MWL X {helrizantal dist:mce)

___ sz __·~------------------------------~~
y
(dept11)
1
91

·---·+Layer
}(¡¡· · Boundary

92

Figure 8-15. mustration of the ambiguity in algebraic sigo for a ray.

8.6.7 Multiple Constant-Gradient Layers

Constant-gradient layers have rays (i.e., ares of circles) that curve upward when the gradient is posi-
tive and downward when the gradient is negative. Consider first the simple case of two constant-gradient
layers having different gradients, as shown in Fig. 8-16. Any ray, such as SA, that leaves the source with a
positive upward angle continues upward. A ray whose initial angle is slightly negative descends to a vertex
and then rises again due to the upward curvature. A ray such as SD has a large negative initial angle and
crosses the layer with a finite slope at E. lt then penetrates into the second layer, where it curves downward.
Somewhere in between SD and SB, there is a special ray whose vertex occurs at a point of tangency T
on the boundary. This ray is the limiting case between SB and SD, and thus it is called the limiting ray. Beyond
the vertex T, it splits into the near branch TC and the far branch TC'. Between TC and TC' is a region (according
to ray theory) into which no sound rays enter. This is called the shadow zone. Shadow zones occur in the vicin-
ity of a region of maximum sound speed. Shadow zones do not exist in the strict sense of the real ocean, for two
reasons: 1) sharp, discontinuous changes in velocity gradients do not occur in nature, anda small number of rays
enter the shadow zone; and 2) ray theory breaks down whenever the velocity gradient changes rapidly with depth.
Nevertheless, very pronounced shadow zones (Fig. 8-17) in which the sound intensity is very small
are actually observed in the ocean. The effects described above result in a continuous transition into the
shadow zone rather than a mathematically abrupt one, but inside the zone the spreading loss is so high that
detection is all but impossible. A similar pattern exists when the source is located in the lower layer. In this
case, the limiting ray leaves the source with an upward angle. Assume that the surface acts as a surface
reflector (good for low sea states).
For multiple-gradient layers, the rays are as illustrated in Fig. 8-18. The ray SPQR leaves S horizontally,
crosses the boundary at P, and is refracted upward in the lower layer. The ray vertexes at Q and T. The vertex at T is
the same depth as the source. The ray oscillates up and down, but remains within the boundaries of the two layers.
The ray SP'Q'R' is the limiting ray at boundary A. It crosses the sound channel axis at Q' and
vertexes at R' at depth C. Since the ray is horizontal at both A and C, it is evident from Snell's Law that the
speed of sound is the same at both depths. Thus, the limiting ray from S is confined to the channel A-C, and
this is true for a source located at any depth within the channel. The ray that leaves at a steeper angle than
ehapter 8 Underwater Acoustics 303

Sound Velocity Profile Ray Path Profile

MWL e A B
52---.-------
e

y
(depth)
e·

D
Figure 8-16. Schematic for two-layer ocean.

Sound Velocity Profile Ray Path Profile

MWL e
'S7-- ,--------ti--

Figure 8-17. Illustration of shadow zone for two-layer ocean.

Sound Velocity Profile Ray Path Profile

MWL e
'7--.------.--~--

Q"
D
Figure 8-18. Example of rays in a multiple gradient layer ocean. Note that Bis sound speed minimum,
A and D are sound speed maximums, and all rays leaving S curve downward.
304 Elements of Ocean Engineering

SP'Q'R' leaves the boundary. Any ray, such as SP"Q"R", that leaves ata correspondingly steep downward
angle vertexes at a depth Q" below C and upon returning upward leaves the channel at T". If the ray is suf-
ficiently steep, it may cross the lower boundary and leave the sound channel.
In summary, a region in which the sound speed passes through a mínimum gives rise to a sound
channel. The depth of this mínimum is the axis of the sound channel. To determine the thickness of the
sound channel, locate the smaller maximum sound speed above or below the channel axis. Draw a verti-
calline to where it intersects the other gradient. The intersections are the limits of the sound channel. The
sound speed at any intermediate depth can be computed from the appropriate linear formula using the sub-
scripts as illustrated in Fig. 8-19.

Sound Velocity Profile

MWL C Layer Gtadienl
g--~--------~----------~-

e12 _______ ~2
>_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ >_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

y23 __ _923 --------------------------

--------1---------
4 94

Figure 8-19. Example subscripts for multiple layers.

Asan example, the sound speed (e) ata depth (y) in the second layer is obtained from

(8-47)

where
c23 - c12
g 2 = Y23> Y12 (8-48)

A sound ray reaches a vertex where e = O. To locate the vertex in the first layer, the values of x, s, y, and t
are determined by setting e = Oin the respective equations. The horizontallocation of the vertex in the first
layer is determined by setting e = Oin the equation below, and setting x = xv. with the subscript v meaning
the vertex location:

x = Co () (sin() - sin 00 )
g cos (8-49)
Xv = -co sin Ool(g¡ cos Oo)

The limiting ray from a source in layer 1 reaches a vertex at y12 . The vertex speed Cv is c12 . To locate
the limiting ray, its initial angle (OL) must be determined, and this is found using Snell's Law:

C = C12 e = 0
eo = eL
e Co_
cose - cos eo
(8-50)
c12_~
1 - cos eL

COS eL =c12
Co-
Chapter 8 Underwater Acoustics 305

The values of x, s, and t are determined by setting 60 = 6L and 6 = O in the appropriate equations.
If the initial angle is large enough, the ray will cross into the layers below. The value of x at the boundary
between layers 1 and 2 is

x 12 = Co (sin 612 - sin 60 ) (8-51)

g¡ cos 6o
To determine x at any depth in the second layer, we return to the original equation. The vertex velocity (cv)
is constant in alllayers. The initial conditions in the second layer are

x = x 12 when 6 = 612 (8-52)

Therefore, the increment of x in the second layer is

x - x 12 = Co (sin 6 - sin 612) (8-53)

g2 cos 6o
At the boundary between layers 2 and 3, the above equation becomes

X23 - Xn = Co (sin 623 - sin 6n) (8-54)

g2 cos 6o
The increment in the third layer is

x - x23 = Co (sin 6 - sin 623) (8-55)

g3 cos 6o
The cumulative value is the sum of all the increments. Por example, in the third layer,

Xt = Xn + (x23 - xn) + (x - X23) (8-56)

The corresponding values of s and t are obtained in a similar manner.

8.6.7. 1 Example Problem 8-7

Example problem 8-7 illustrates ray tracing with three constant gradient layers (Table 8-9).
Spreadsheets and computer software, such as MatLab, can be used to solve the previous ray equations
(equation 8-46). The results are tabulated in Table 8-9, aqd an example graphical user interface is illustrated
in Fig. 8-20.

i -
......
.......
..
illo¡llho~IJIIOIII
~
.¡--¡

3
DislaRce lft)

Figure 8-20. Example ray tracing results from computer program for rays between
+20 and- 20 degrees in 0.5 degree increments. (Courtesy ofBiUy Ballard.)
306 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 8-9. Example Ray Tracing for a Constant-gradient Ocean Medium

A sound source is Iocated at 1500 m; the sound speed profiie for that Iocation is shown beiow. Determine the x and y
coordinates for the vertex point of a ray that Ieaves the source with an initiai angie of zero degrees.
sound speed (m/s)
horizontal distonce (x)
A1480 1490 1500 1510
o
V 1 1 1
1000 1 1
2 rource {S)

~
2000 --- --
depth 3
(m) 1
3000
3 1
4000 1
r
5000

e = = 1490 m/s = 1490 m/s·

__fQ_
v COS COS (O)
80 '
g = o· g = 1480 - 1500 mis = -o 02 s-1. g = 1510 - 1480 m/s = o01 s-1
1 ' 2 2000 - 1000 m · ' 3 5000 - 2000 m ·
Angle of ray crossing interface 23

Y23 -Yo= Ca () (cos ()23- cos 0 0 )

g2 cos o

2000 - 1500 -- ( -0.0

1490 ) (cos () 23 - 1)
2

500( -0.02) + 1 - ()
1490 - cos 23

0 23 = 6.64°= -6.64°(negative sign is inserted because angie is measured downward)

Yv - Y23 = Ca () ( COS ()v - COS ()23)

g3 cos o

y -2000 = 1490m/s(cos(O)- cos(-6.64))

V 0.01 S 1
= 3000m
Yv
---
Horizontal distance •.

x 23 = Ca (sin() 23 - sin() ) = 1490 m/s (sin( -6.64) - sin(O)) = 8614 m

g2 COS ()o 0
-0.02 S 1 =

Xv- X23 = Co () (sin Ov- sin 023); Xv- 8614m = 1490m~s (sin(O)- sin(-6.64)); Xv = 8614 + 17229 = 25843 m
g3 cos o 0.01s
Distance along the path

s = Ca (() _ () ) = 1490 m/s ( _ 6.64'7T _ 0) = 8634 m

23 g2 cos 00 23 0
-0.02s 1 180 =

s - s = Ca (() - () )· s - 8634 m = 1490 m/s (O - (- - 6·64 '7T) )· s = 8634 + 17268 = 25902 m

V 23 g3 COS ()O V 23 ' V -0.01 S 1 180 ' V

Time to travel along the path

t 23 -
_ - 1 [I n 1+sin023 _In 1+sin0a]- - 1 [I n 1+sin(-6.64)_In -
1+0]_
- - 58 s
2g2 1 - sin 0 23 1 - sin 00 2( -0.02s 1) 1 - sin( -6.64) 1- O ·

_ 1 [ 1 + sin Ov
2 In 1 . () - In 11 + sin 023
. () , tv- 5.8 s +
1 [ 1+ O ¡. _
1 + sin( -6.64) ]-
_ In l O - In I . (
_
) - 5.8 + 11.6 - 17.4 s
2(0.01 s 1)
tv- t23 -
g3 - sm v - sm 23 - - sm - 6.64 =
Chapter 8 Underwater Acoustics 307

8.7 AMBIENT NOISE LEVELINTHE OCEAN

Ambient noise is the composite noise from all sources at any specific point in the ocean, except for
desired signals and the noise inherent in the measuring equipment and platform.
.
Ambtent N . L 1_ intensity of ambient background
mse eve - mtenstty
. . of p1ane wave h avmg
· rms pressure of 1 1..1. p a (8-57)

The frequency ranges for ambient noise in deep water are illustrated in Fig. 8-21 and defined as
follows:

l. Tides and hydrostatic effects of waves are pressure fluctuations resulting from tides and waves at
very low frequency and are not too important at the frequencies of interest in underwater sound.
Tidal currents can cause flow-induced noise.
11. Seismic disturbances result from earth's constant seismic activity and have a low frequency
(<100Hz).
111. Oceanic turbulence is caused by turbulence.
a) lt induces motion of a transducer and causes self-noise.
b) Pressure changes associated with turbulence may be radiated.
e) Turbulent pressure fluctuations are most significant at low frequency.
IV. Ship traffic is the dominant noise source at 100Hz and the principal source of noise between 50
and500Hz.
V. Surface waves cause ambient noise between 500 Hz and 25 kHz that correlates well with the sea
state or wind speed. The wind causes the waves to break (called white caps), creates flow noise,
and results in cavitation due to the collapse of air bubbles. The rough sea surface is the dominant
noise source at 1-30kHz.
VI. Thermal noise is caused by molecular agitation in the sea. Thermal noise is important at high
frequencies (2::750 kHz).

The ambient NL in the sea caused by ship traffic and surface waves is an important factor in sonar
design, and the spectrum levels are shown in Fig. 8-22. The effect of rain can also be important and is il-
lustrated in Fig. 8-23.

11 1 11 111 IV V
11

120
1 1
"
1 1 11
1 .. , 1
1
1
\
110 \

8!.
;- 100
~
co 90
"O
80
1
E 70
2
tí
Q) 60
c.
en
50

40

30

10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000

Frequency, Hz
Figure 8·21. Ambient noise spectrum level as a function of frequency for the deep ocean (after Urick, 1983).
308 Elements of Ocean Engineering

90

•....
¡:¡,
80

70
..-
~ • _. ··•····•.. •• ¡,.~ ..... ....

~ 60
....
= __...,_ Heavy Shipping

. •.. ..
._,
"CC

..
a¡ 50
"
'·- . ·- ......
• •· ·Moderate
~
J. \ ............. \
'\"""
'-
"'. .... _ ....
Shippinz
...:l
S 40 ~·· \ ~-. -11- Lighl Sliipping

...=....
~
-IJJ.- 28-33 knots/6

·. -..
~
g.
r.t:J.
30
~, ·,., • .¡c. ·11-16 knots/3
..,
~

·s
z 20
\
... ·.... _ . ·4-6 knots/1

10

o
0.001 0.01 0.1 10 100

Frequency (kHz)
Figure 8-22. Average deep water ambient noise spectra in the ocean (after Urick, 1983).

SOr-----------------.---------------~.----------------.

70L-~----~======t:======~~~------__j

~ 60T-----------------r---------------~r-~-------------4
~
=-
...
~
~ 50+-------------~~~~ra~~~~--~r----------------4
............. _... .......... ····· ... .
• • ...... .. • 1111

-
1:3'
~
e
.. ..
407-----------------+-----------------r---------·~·~r.-.~-4
...----·-·· . ···------- .. ··-····· ... .. ....
.. ••

.. •· • --Heavy (100 mmlhr)

• • • Moderate (5 mmlhr)
~- 30 ••
... -·--- ...... • • • Light (0.3 mmlhr)

..
~
·· .
~ 20+-----------------r---------------~r----------------4

10+-----------------~--------------~r----------------4

0.1 10 100

Frequency (kHz)

Figure 8-23. Ambient sea noise including shipping, rain, and design sea state (DSS) (after Waite, 2002).
 Chapter 8 Underwater Acoustics 309

8.8 REVERBERATION LEVEL ANO SCATTERING

The sum contribution of all the inhomogeneities in the ocean medium, i.e., scatterers such as dust
particles, schools of fish, pinnacles and sea mounts, and marine organisms, are the cause of reverberation in
the ocean. The reverberation level (RL) is sometimes the main limitation toa sonar system's performance.
There are three types of reverberation: volume, surface, and bottom. Volume reverberation occurs in the
volume of the sea and is caused by marine life, inanimate matter, and the inhomogeneous structure of
the ocean water. Surface reverberation occurs at the ocean surface as a result of waves and aerated water.
Bottom reverberation is the result of scatters on the sea floor resulting from bottom sediment, an uneven
bottom, and other inhomogeneities on the ocean ftoor.
The scattering strength parameter (Ss,v) is defined as

S = 10 log 1scat (8-58)

s,v linc
where lscat is the intensity of sound scattered by an area of 1 yd2 or volume of 1 yd 3, and Iinc is the intensity
of the incident p1ane wave, as shown in Fig. 8-24.

UaltA....,=lyd l

Volume S =lOiag .!at_ Suñaee

v Iiac

Figure 8-24. Schematic of volume and bottom reverberation.

The expression for calculating the volume RL is

R4 = SL - 40 log r + Sv + 10 log V
(8-59)
V= cr '1Jfr2
2
where e is the velocity of sound, 'T is the pulse duration, r is the range, 'IJf is the opening angle of ideal beam
pattern, SL is the source level (10 log L,), and Sv is the scattering strength parameter. Table 8-10 shows
expressions for evaluating the opening angle ('1'). These simple models are valid for short pulses (<10 ms)
and for relatively short ranges in which multipath effects are absent.
The scatterers that cause the volume scattering are biological in nature (i.e., marine life). The deep
scattering layer (DSL) is a complex aggregate of different biological organisms, and its scattering strength
varies with the frequency, location, season, and time of day. The DSL undergoes a diurna! migration in
depth, i.e., it is located at greater depths during the day (e.g., 183-915 mor 600-3000 ft at mid-latitudes)
than at night, and these changes occur rapidly at sunrise and sunset. The DSL migrates in depth over several
hundreds of feet and appears to adjust itself to maintain a constant intensity of light illumination. The DSL
is a common acoustic feature in the oceans; near 24kHz, the volume scattering strength is -70 to -80 dB,
310 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 8-10. Values of Equivalent Two-way Beam Widths W and «<J in Log Units
Array 10 log W dB re 1 steradian 10 log «<J dB re 1 radian
Circular plane array, in an infinite baffle of 20 log ( 2 ~a) + 7.7 or 10 log 2 A + 6.9 or
radios a > 2A 1ra
20 logy - 31.6 10 logy - 12.8
Rectangular array in an infinite baffle, side A2
10 log 47rab + 7.4 or 10 log 2 A
7Ta
+ 9.2 or
a horizontal, b vertical, with a, b >>A
10 logy.yb - 31.6 10 logy. - 12.6
Horizontalline of length L > A A A
10 log 27TL + 9.2 or 10 log 27TL + 9.2 or
10 logy - 12.8 10 logy - 12.8
Note: y is the half angle, in degrees, between the two directions of the two-way beam pattem in which the response is 6 dB down
from the axial response; that is, y is the angle from the axis of the two-way beam pattem such that b(y)b'(y) = 0.25. For the
rectangular array, Ya and Yb are the corresponding angles in the planes parallel to the sides a and b.

and Sv is frequency-dependent between 1.6 and 12 kHz. The DSL is right under the ice in the Arctic region,
and layers of scatterers occur in shallow water as well.
Surface reverberation is produced by scatterers distributed over a nearly plane surface at the sea
surface and bottom. The expression for the equivalent plane wave level of surface reverberation is

RLs = SL - 40 log r + Ss + 10 log A

(8-60)
A= CT <l>r
2
where A is the area of the surface of scattering strength Ss lying within the ideal beam width <1> that
produces the same reverberation as that actually observed. Expressions for evaluating <1> are tabulated in
Table 8-10.
The sea surface is frequently rough and has entrapped air bubbles just beneath the surface, which
makes it a good scatterer. The scattering strengths of the sea surface are a function of angle, frequency, and
roughness (measured by wind speed). Examples of surface scattering strength variations are illustrated in
Fig. 8-25. The sea floor is an effective reflector and scatterer of sound. An example surface RL calculation
for the sea bottom is shown in Table 8-11. An example of sea-bottom backscattering scattering strength is
shown in Fig. 8-26.

8.8. 1 Example Prob/em 8-8

An echo-ranging sonar with SL = 220 dB, frequency = 50kHz, and pulse duration = 1 ms is used
100 ft above a mud bottom. The line transducer is 1 ft long. The wavelength is 0.1 ft at 50 kHz and the graz-
ing angle (9) is 9.5 degrees. The RL is calculated as shown in Table 8-11.

8.9 TARGET STRENGTH

The target strength (TS) refers to the echo returned by an underwater target:
intensity of sound retumed by the targetl
at a distance 1 yd from its acoustic center
TS = 10 log (8-61)
incident intensity from the source

1
TS = 10 lag..!
l¡
 Chapter 8 Underwater Acoustics 311

-10

ID
~ -20
.S::. X15
oe: x16
~
1i) 15 X17
Cl
e:
"&5 X14 X X15
:¡¡¡ -30
u
(/) 014
010
• 7/12/55
10 X 7/13/55
10 L!-9
o 7/14/55
L!. 7/19/55
-40 o 7/20/55
010010 L!-9 10 010 1\ 7/21/55
Ro~ 013
10/o
10 _10
__a_ _
9 _
• 16 +--- Wind speed, knots
AS

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Grazing angle, deg

Grazing angle S~(dB) Grazing angle

30° 30°
-----20°
20°
-40 -30 ----10°
1oo

-50 so -40

-60 -50

Sea state 2 Sea state 6

Wind speed 1O knots Wind speed 30 knots
2 4 6 8 10 24 6 8 10
(a) Frequency (kHz) (b) Frequency (kHz)
Figure 8-25. Variation of sea-surface scattering strength at 60 kHz with angle at different wind speeds off
Key West, Florida (after Urick, 1983), and for various sea states and grazing angles. The dashed line
indicates values recommended for sonar design (after Waite, 2002).
312 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 8-11. Example of Surface RL Prediction for Bottom Scattering

Given: Echo-ranging sonar, f = 50 kHz, SL = 220 dB, pulse duration 1 ms. Line transducer, 1 ft long, 100 ft above mud
bottom. A = 0.1 ft at 50 kHz, grazing angle e = 9.5 degrees
Find: RL for diagonal range to bottom of 200 yd.
Solution: e = A f = 0.1 (50000) = 5000 ft/s
From Table 8-10

10 log <1> = 10 log 2 ~L + 9.2 = 10 log 2 ~A) + 9.2

10 log <1> = -8.8
<1> = 0.13 radians or 7.5 degrees
A= C'T <1> = 5000 ft/s(O.OO ls) (O 13 ) (200 d) = 22 dz
2 r 2(3 ft/yd) · y y

From Fig. 8-26, S,= -41 dB

RL = SL - 40 log r + S, + 10 log A = 220 - 40 log 200 - 41 + 10 log 22 = 220 - 92 - 41 + 13
RL = 100 dB re 1 ¡.tPa

0----o 24kHz
• - - • 55 and 60 Khz -+--+---+---+-----+~'-----!
- - - 100Khz

10 20 30 40 50. 60 70 80
Grazing angle, deg
Figure 8-26. Measured backscattering strength of the seabed for various coastallocations (after Urick, 1983).

A sphere (Fig. 8-27) is assumed to be an isotropic reflector, which means the echo is distributed
equally in all directions. The sphere is insonified by aplane wave of sound intensity l¡. The power inter-
cepted by the sphere is

(8-62)

Using the isotropic assumption, the intensity of the reflected wave ata distance (r) yards from the acoustic
center (center of sphere) is
21
1 _ 'ITa ¡ _ 1 a
2
r - 41Tr2 - i 41T2 (8-63)

For r = 1 yd
a2
1r = ¡.-
1 4
(8-64)

2
TS = 10 log -ª-- (8-65)
4
Chapter 8 Underwater Acoustics 313

Figure 8-27. lncident wave approaching a sphere, where the reference range is 1 yd.

Thus, the arbitrary reference often causes the TS to be positive for targets. This should not be interpreted as
meaning that more sound is coming back from target than is incident upon it; rather, it is a consequence of
the reference distance.
The variation of TS for a submarine at various aspect angles is illustrated in Fig. 8-28, and nominal
TS values for different targets are tabulated in Table 8-12. One can reduce submarine TS by coating the
submarine hull with a layer of anechoic material. The thickness depends on the wavelength (A.). A useful

oo

Figure 8-28. Theoretical submarine TS variation with aspect angle (after Urick, 1983).
314 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 8-12. Nominal Values of Target Strength

Target Aspect TS (dB)
Smal! Cladded Large
Submarines Beam +5 + 10 +25
Bow-stern +O +5 +lO
Intermediate +3 +8 +15
Surface ships Beam +25 (highly uncertain)
Off-beam + 15 (highly uncertain)
Mines Beam +lO
Off-beam +lOto -25
Torpedoes Bow -20
Fish of length L (inches) Dorsal view 19 log L - 54 (approx.)
Unsuited swimmers Any -15
Seamounts Any +30to +60
Towed Array Beam o
Whale, 30m Dorsal +5
Shark, 10m Dorsal -4
Iceberg Any +lO

reduction in TS is obtained when the coating (cladding) is A./2 thick. At 30 kHz, a thickness of 50 mm (2 in)
is practica! for large submarines. A submarine that is made less vulnerable (110-15 dB reduction in TS) with
the addition of the 50 mm cladding for weapons may only achieve an ~ 3 dB reduction for typical search so-
nars (with frequencies of 3-10kHz) and no reduction for frequencies of <3 dB. The TS of large objects that
are similar to submarines can be approximated with simple shapes such as cylinders, wedges, and plates. The
TS is determined by adding the contribution of the various simple forms using the information in Table 8-12.

8.1 O RADIATEO NOISE

Ships, submarines, and torpedoes are all sources of iadiated noise. The machinery in these vessels
generates vibrations that appear as underwater sound at a .distant hydrophone after they are transmitted
through the hull and the sea. Passive sonar systems distinguish between radiated noise and a background of
self-noise and ambient noise. The two basic types of noise spectra are broadband noise, which has a continu-
ous spectrum, and tonal noise, which has line components.
The radiated noise from vessels is usually measured by having the vessel move by a stationary
distant hydrophone array system. The Atlantic Undersea Test and Evaluation Center (AUTEC) is a U.S.
Navy test facility near the Bahamas that is instrumented to measure radiated noise from submarines. The
measured NLs are normally reduced by spherical spreading to a 1 yd or 1 m reference distance. There are
several sources of radiated noise, as described below:

l. Machinery noise results from mechanical vibration that is coupled to the sea by the hull. Noise
originates inside the vessel and is caused by rotating parts, reciprocating parts, cavitation and
turbulence, and mechanical friction.
2. Propeller noise is the result of cavitation, tip vortex cavitation, and blade surface cavitation.
It has a continuous spectrum. Damaged propellers make more noise than undamaged propel-
lers. Ship and vessel turns and accelerations result in more noise. "Singing" propellers result
when the propeller b1ades are excited by the flow into the vibration resonance. Propeller
noise is amplitude-modulated or has a beat that increases wit~ rotation speed and can be used
to estímate speed.
Chapter 8 Underwater Acoustics 315

Table 8-13. Average SL Values for Several Types of Surface Ships (dB re 1 JIPa at 1 yd)
Frequency Hz Freighter 10 kt Passenger 15 kt Battleship 20 kt Cruiser 20 kt Destroyer 20 kt
100 152 162 176 169 163
300 142 152 166 159 153
1000 131 141 155 148 142
3000 121 131 145 138 132
5000 117 127 141 134 128
10000 111 121 135 128 122
25000 103 113 127 120 114

3. Hydrodynamic noise is caused by the irregular and fluctuating flow of fluid pasta moving ves-
sel. Flow noise is a normal characteristic that results from the flow of a viscous fluid over an
immersed body.

Radiated noise level (SL) data for surface ships and submarines are shown in Table 8-13 and
Fig. 8-29. Approximate equations (Urick, 1983) for evaluating the radiated SL for ships are shown below:

SL = 51log V+ 15log T- 20 log F + 20 log D- 13.5 (8-66)

where Vis the propeller tip speed (ft/s), T is the displacement tonnage (tons), F is the frequency in kHz,
and D is the distance in yards.

SL = 60 log K + 9 log T - 20 log F + 20 log D + 35 (8-67)

where K is the forward speed in knots and cr is 5.5 dB at 5kHz.

8.11 SELF-NOISE

Self-noise differs from radiated noise because the t:eceiving hydrophone is located on the platform
that is making the noise. Sources of self-noise are machinery, propellers (screws), and hydrodynamic ef-
fects. The effect of speed on the self-noise level is shown in Fig. 8-30, and sorne self-noise level values for
destroyers and submarines are illustrated in Fig. 8-31. Flow noise is the result of turbulent pressure fluctua-
tions over the face of the hydrophone. Pressure fluctuations are the result of the turbulent boundary layer
about the hydrophone. One can reduce flow noise by making the hydrophone larger, moving the hydrophone
forward, removing the hydrophone from the turbulent boundary layer, and ejecting polymer fluids. Sonar
domes reduce self-noise because the dome minimizes turbulent flow, delays the onset of cavitation, and
transfers the flow noise source away from transducer.

8.12 DETECTION THRESHOLD

The detection threshold (DT) is the ratio of the signal power in the receiver bandwidth to the
noise power in a 1 Hz bandwidth measured at receiver terminals that are required for detection with sorne
assigned confidence. The detection probability indicates a correct decision. The false-alarm probability
indicates an incorrect decision. The concept of the DT is to set a threshold that determines whether a
target is present:

DT = lOlog~ (8-68)
N
316 Elements of Ocean Engineering

150
s~ips
1 1
Small warships Merchant
Escorts
140
C?
a..
:l. Minesweepers Freig~ery
130
~
ro
:S.
l/
N
I 120
Tankers
\ /'
~~
-"
1.()
1
Oí
Qi
>
~ 110 ,_ /!
E
2 1
üQ)
a.
(/) 100
¡-- Passenger
ships and
1 transports

90
1 1
6 7 8 10 15 20 30 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 15 20 30 5 6 7 8 10 15 20
Speed (knots)

Oí
&
:l.
110 r-------------------+---------~~------,_~~~------~

~
ro
:S.

~
E
2
ü
Q)
a.
(/)

15
110~----------------1---~~----~~~-+~~~1·4----~
10
100~----------------1-------------~~-+----------_,

6
100 1,000 10,000
Frequenzy (Hz)
Figure 8-29. Average radiated NLs (standard deviation of O") for surface ships
(Dow et al., 1945) and submarines (Knudsen et al., 1943).
Chapter 8 Underwater Acoustics 317

Dominant noise
100
Machi~ery/~ Flow ~ Propeller
ambient
. ~ Propeller noise

.
V
<?
a.. 80
::l
.'1
~ Total noise in sea state 4-.........._
.'1 /
'/ /
Flow noise
en
~
:S.
-¡¡¡
-ª! 1
E 60 /• _ - Machinery noise
2
1---------- - _/. -- ~·- - ------
ü / /'
O>
o.
(/)
- ------""'""" =-?"'- - - - - - - - sea state 4
/ _./
- - - - T - -- - - - - - - sea state 2
/ ./
40 / ...... /
/ ~·----·
10 20 30
Speed (knots)
Figure 8-30. Variation of self-noise with speed, where SS4 and SS2 are sea state 4 and 2 (Waite, 2002).

N'
&
i
~ 20~--~--~~--4----A----~
:::t 120
~

2! 110
........
.......

"","
ce r--...
2! :S 100 25

"'
ce
:S 15 ~--~--~~---hf------+----~ ~ 90 íil
~
......... :S
~ E ~o·r~ 20
)
2 80

'"""' "\, ~""" 1

""""' ~ ""
.l!l 1o ~---1-----1~.,_-1--------+----~ tí
Q)
c. 70 Q)
oe
"' ·5 15
.,!.
a;
(/)

~
Q)

·a"'e
.,!.
60
50 ~
& ¿
3l
.!: 1o
V
a;
['._
/
"'
~ (/) Q)
a;
" 40 "'~
a: o ·c.
o
e
!!!.
30
1'- E"
5
vv
o 5 10 15 20 25 100 200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 o 2 4 6 8
Speed (knots) Frequency (Hz) Speed (knots)
(a) (b)
Figure 8-31. Self-noise level for a destroyer (a) and submarine (b) (Urick, 1983).

The DT is determined using Fig. 8-32 to eva1uate the "d" term based on an assigned probability of
detection and the probability of a fa1se a1arm. The DT for two simplified cases are a signal in Gaussian noise
(case 1) andan unknown signa1 in Gaussian noise (case 2). In these two simple cases, equations 8-62 and
8-65 are used to eva1uate the DT that is used in the sonar equations.
Case l. Signa1 known exactly

d = 2E total input signa1 energy (8-69)

Na noise power in 1hz band
318 Elements of Ocean Engineering

99.9999
/ / / / '1' / V
99.999
99.99
// /V V V // vv V
99.9 o~
~~ / // /V
/
V / /
99.8
99.5 / ~rt' V / /
99.0 / o "'<> / /
e: ~ / / /
V V ~<1)y V
(J)
¡: / /
~ ~~ ~ V
(J)
a.
90.0 L L IL k"'
o L ILv o~ / /
:§;
/ /
/
o~ " 1:) V
/

ª'
:eas
..e
50.0 /
/
/
/
o~/
V
ea. 1/ / / V
e:
o 10.0 !/ / / /
t5
(J) 5.0 / / ~ /
Qí
Cl 2.0 / /
1.0 / V
0.5 / /
0.2 V
/
0.1 V
0.01 / /
0.001 V
0.0001 V
0.001 1 0.10¡ 0.5¡ 2 1 10 1 30 ¡50 1 70 1 90 1 98¡99.5 1 99.99 1
1

0.0001 0.01 0.2 1 5 20 40 60 80 95 99 99.9 99.999

False alarm probability [p(FA)]. percent
Figure 8-32. Receiver operating curves (ROCs) on probability coordinates (after Urick, 1983).

Por S defined as the signal power, and t as the signal duration, the value of the detection index (d)
is determined by

(8-70)

and the DT is evaluated by

DT = 1O log ~ = 1O log
No 2t
-º- (8-71)

Case II. Unknown signal in Gaussian noise

Por a signal power (S) in noise (N) within the bandwidth (w), the value of the detection index (d)
is evaluated as

(8-72)

S _ Sw _ (dw)v' (8-73)
No -N- -t-

The DT for the bandwidth (w) is

DT = 10 log ~ = 5 log dw (8-74)

N0 t
Chapter 8 Underwater Acoustics 319

8.13 APPLICATIONS USING UNDERWATER ACOUSTIC PRINCIPLES

Ocean engineers, as well as other engineers and scientists, apply underwater acoustic principies in
numerous ways to explore ocean resources and work in coastal and deep oceanic waters. These applica-
tions include seismic exploration, side-scan sonars, subbottom profilers, depth sounders, acoustic Doppler
current meters, sonic ftowmeters, underwater telephones, sound velocimeters, ultrasonic thickness gauges,
ship sonars, submarine sonars and weapon systems, marker beacons and transponders, data telemetry, and
acoustic tracking systems. A few of these applications are briefty discussed to provide an overview of the
use of underwater acoustics and demonstrate the importance of acoustics in ocean engineering and other
disciplines involved in working in the oceans, lakes, and other water bodies.
The purpose of underwater seismic exploration is to locate possible oil and mineral deposits located
deep beneath the ocean ftoor. Interpretation of the seismic data reveals the layered structure below the sea-
bed, and certain structural formations are known to trap oil and gas that can be extracted with the use of
offshore drilling and production techniques. Sorne of the various names for seabed structural formations in
which oil and gas are often trapped are anticlines, salt domes, fault traps, pinchouts, and limestone reefs.
The anticline is the most common type of trap, and it occurs when an impermeable bed overlays a permeable
bed. Salt domes are formed when a mass of salt ftows upward and causes a petroleum trap to form around
the sides of the dome. Fault traps occur when an impermeable bed overlays a permeable bed and is faulted
by an impermeable bed. Pinchouts occur when a reservoir bed gradually thins and eventually pinches out.
When limestone reefs are covered by the deposition of impermeable material, the reef material is usually
porous and acts as a trap for petroleum.
Two types of seismic profiling procedures are used for oil prospecting: seismic refraction, which
is used for engineering analyses of sediment properties, and seismic reftection, which is used for oil pros-
pecting or exploration. In seismic reftection, the velocity of a sound wave passing through a stratum of rock
depends on the elastic property of the rock. When an interface is encountered between two rock layers
of different sound velocities, part of the sound wave is reftected according to Snell's Law. Figure 8-33
illustrates the seismic survey method, in which an explosion is produced just below the water surface at a
known time. Sound waves radiate downward through the water and penetrate deep into the seaftoor. When
there is a major discontinuity between one type of rock and another, part of the signal is reftected back to the
surface. Then, by measuring the time it takes for this signal to reach and retum from each stratum, one can
estimate the depth of the stratum below the surface. Hydrophones are strung out in a straight line at known
intervals along an underwater streamer so that the signals' characteristics and arrival times can be recorded.
The records are stored and played back for interpretation. Grid lines are laid out for the tracts the seismic
vessels used for navigation and are subsequently used to characterize the sea ftoor structure. Coffeen (1986)
is suggested as an additional source for seismic reftection analyses and procedures.

Seismic Vessel

Ocean Surface

Figure 8-33. Schematic of seismic reftection system.

320 Elements of Ocean Engineering

A dynamic positioning system (Morgan, 1980) is composed of several basic elements as shown in
Fig. 8-34, and is used to maintain the position of drilling rigs over wellheads in deep water when conventional
mooring systems cannot be used. The purpose of the position and heading sensor is to gather information
with sufficient speed and accuracy for the controller to calculate the thruster commands and ensure that the
vessel will perform the desired task. Required information includes the vessel's position and heading, and
wind speed and direction. In addition to the navigation position, the offshore position reference must also
include an accurate, repeatable, local position reference. The navigation position is a location on earth, and
the local position, needed for thruster control, is the location relative to the point of interest on the sea fioor.

Environment
Wind
Waves
Currents
Position &
Heading
Commands
Automatic Thruster Thruster Thruster Vessel
Forces Dynamics

Position & Heading

Position & Heading
Sensor

Figure 8-34. Schematic of dynamic positioning system.

One of the most commonly used local position sensors is the acoustic position reference system. It
is restricted to a small area of coverage. There are two types of acoustic position reference systems: short
baseline and long baseline. These systems use the time of arrival, phase comparison, pingers, and transpon-
der acoustic systems, and depend on the propagation of acoustic signals from one point to another through
the ocean medium. Therefore, the propagation characteristics of acoustic energy in water will affect the
performance of the system. A schematic of a basic acoustic position reference system is shown in Fig. 8-35.
Acoustic systems operate by projecting acoustic ener-gy into the ocean medium. In simple systems,
the acoustic energy travels only from the subsea beacon to receivers on the vessel. In more complicated

Supporting
equipment

Signal Interface to
dynamic
processor
positioning
system

Position
Vessel mounted
display
acoustic units

¡ ______ _

Propagation
path

Figure 8-35. Schematic of basic acoustic position reference system.

Chapter 8 Underwater Acoustics 321

Figure 8-36. Side sean sonar tow fish (left) and output showing downed aircraft, anchor, and debris
on the sea floor (right). (Courtesy ofL-3 KleinAssociates, loe.)

acoustic systems, the acoustic energy is transmitted from the vessel to a subsea transponder, and the tran-
sponder then transmits an acoustic pulse back to the vessel. The transmitted acoustic signal is affected by
the medium through which it must travel, and the acoustic signal experiences TL. Sound is refracted and
rays follow curved paths that affect accuracy and range. Noise is also a problem that must be considered.
A side-scan or subbottom sonar system consists of a tow fish (Fig. 8-36) with transducers inside,
a data processor, a display, and an electromechanical cable. For the side-scan sonar, the acoustic beam is
directed perpendicular to the direction of travel. The ship moves at a constant velocity, and each ping from
the tow fish insonifies a slightly different wedge of the bottom. The backscattered sound is recorded. An
example side-scan sonar image of a downed aircraft is shown in Fig. 8-36. The subbottom profiler system
directs a sound signal directly below the tow fish or survey vessel, and the display shows the depth of the
sea floor and the near surface structure of the sea bed. The use of a lower frequency (10-50kHz) results
in lower resolution but provides good penetration into marine sediments and location of buried pipelines,
cable, and shipwrecks. Figure 8-37 shows a subbottom profiler output of brine jets in 70 ft of water from a
brine diffuser that was on the end of a buried pipeline for the Strategic Petroleum Reserve in Freeport, Texas
(McLellan & Randall, 1986). The brine jets were exiting ata velocity of approximately 20 ft/s anda salinity
of 230 parts per thousand (ppt). Additional descriptions and example graphical results are provided in Milne
(1980) and Klein Associates, lnc. (1985).
Acoustic Doppler velocimeters (ADVs) and acoustic Doppler current profilers (ADCPs) are most
commonly used to measure currents in physical modeling laboratories and the ocean. The principie behind
these techniques is that the acoustic signal is reflected from particles moving with the water, and the speed
of each particle results in a Doppler shift in the return signal. The frequency shift is directly related to the
water current in which the particle is traveling. Thus, it i~ assumed that the particle is moving at the same

12

14

16

65

70
75

Depth (ft} Depth(m}

Figure 8-37. Subbottom profiler output showing brine jets emanating from buried ditTuser at the end
of a buried brine pipeline in 70 ft of water offshore of Freeport, Texas.
322 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 8-38. Schematic of acoustic Doppler velocimeter probe and photograph of the system for
measuring velocities in the laboratory. (Courtesy of SonTek.)

velocity as the water. Acoustic Doppler current meters are typically used in the ocean and are capable of
measuring currents at different depths. The ADV shown in Fig. 8-38 is used in the laboratory and can mea-
sure all three components of velocity.

8.14 REFERENCES

Albers, V. M. (1965). Underwater acoustics handbook //. University Park: Penn State University Press.
Brekhovskikh, L., & Lysanov, Y. (2003). Fundamentals of ocean acoustics. New York: Springer.
Burdic, W. S. (1991). Underwater acoustic system analysis (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Clay, C. S., & Medwin, H., (1977). Acoustical oceanography: principies and applications. New York: John
Wiley & Sons.
Coates, R. F. W. (1989). Underwater acoustic systems. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Coffeen, J. A. (1986). Seismic explorationfundamentals (2nd ed.). Tulsa: PennWell Publishing Company.
Dow, M. T., Emling, J. W., & Knudsen, V. O. (1945). Survey ofunderwater sound no. 4: soundsfor surface
ships. National Defense Research Committee, Div. 6, Sec. 6.1, NDRC-2124.
Etter, P. (2003). Underwater acoustic modeling and simulation (3rd ed.). New York: Spon Press.
Francois, R. E., & Garrison, G. R., (1982). Sound absorption based on ocean measurements. Part II: Boric
acid contribution and equation for total absorption. Joumai of the Acoustical Society ofAme rica 72:6.
Horton, J. W. (1959). Fundamentals of sonar (2nd ed.). Annapolis, MD: U.S. Naval Institute.
Kinsler, L. E., Frey, A. R., Coppens, A. B., & Sanders, J. V., (1982). Fundamentals of acoustics (3rd ed.).
NewYork: John Wiley & Sons.
Klein Associates, Inc. (1985). Side sean sonar record interpretation. Salem: Klein Associates, Inc.
Knudsen, V. 0., Alford, R. S., & Emling, J. W. (1943). Survey of underwater sound no. 2: sounds from
submarines. National Defense Research Committee, Div. 6, Sec. 6.1, NDRC-1306.
Lurton, X. (2002). An introduction to underwater acoustics: principies and applications. Chichester, UK:
Praxis Publishing Ltd.
MacCurdy, E. (1942). The notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci. Garden City: Garden City Publishing.
Mackensie, K. V. (1981). Bottom reverberation for 530 and 1030 cps sound in deep water. Joumai ofthe
Acoustical Society of America 33:1498.
McLellan, T. N., & Randall, R. E. (1986). Measurement ofbrine jet height and dilution. Journal ofWaterway,
Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Vol. 112, No. 2, pp. 200-216, March.
Medwin, H. (2005). Sounds in the sea: from ocean acoustics to acoustical oceanography. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Milne, P. H. ( 1980). Underwater acoustic positioning systems. Houston: Gulf Publishing.
Chapter8 Underwater Acoustics 323

Margan, M. (1980). Dynamic positioning of offshore vessels. Tulsa: PennWell.

National Defense Research Committee (NDRC). (1969). Physics of sound in the sea. Washington, DC: U.S.
Govemment Printing Office.
Officer, C. B. (1958). Introduction to the theory of sound transmission with application to the ocean. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Randall, R. E. (1999). Underwater acoustics. In J. B. Herbich (Ed.), Developments in offshore engineering.
Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing.
Ross, D. (1987). Mechanics ofunderwater sound. Los Altos, CA: Peninsula Publishing.
Strutt, J. W. (Lord Rayleigh). (1945). Theory of sound (Vols. I and 11.) New York: Dover Publications, Inc.
Tolstoy, 1., & Clay, C. S., (1966). Ocean acoustics. NewYork: McGraw-Hill.
Tucker, D.G., & Gazey, B. K., (1966). Applied underwater acoustics. London: Pergamon Press.
Urick, R. J. (1983). Principies ofunderwater sound (3rd ed.). NewYork: McGraw-Hill.
Waite, A. D. (2002). SONARfor practising engineers (3rd ed.), Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.
Wilson, O. B. (1988). An introduction to the theory and design ofunderwater transducers. Los Altos, CA:
Peninsula Publishing.

8.15 PROBLEMS

8-1. The intensity level of a sound wave is 75 dB relative to 1 JJ.Pa. Determine the intensity level relative
to 1 microbar.
8-2. An acoustic plane wave in seawater has an SPL of 160 dB re 1 JJ.Pa. Find its intensity in watts/m2•
8-3. If a sound wave has an intensity of 50 dB re 0.0002 dynes/cm2, determine its intensity relative to 1 JJ.Pa.
8-4. Determine the TL for a sound source at a frequency of 80 kHz and a depth of 3000 m. The salinity
and temperature ofthe seawater at this depth are 35 o/oo and 4°C, respectively.
8-5. A sound projector is to be used in an active sonar system and it has a transmitting DI of 12 dB. The
total acoustic power radiated by the projector is 300 W. lf the expected target has a TS of 15 dB,
DT of 10 dB, anda transmitting and receiving DI of 10 dB, determine the maximum allowable TL
when the NL is 45 dB re 1 JJ.Pa.
8-6. An active sonar is designed to detect a submarine with a TS of 5 dB re 1 JJ.Pa at a range (r) of
20,000 yd. The DT for the sonar is 10 dB re 1 JJ.Pa and the DI is 25 dB re 1 JJ.Pa. The NL is set at
60 dB re 1 JJ.Pa. Assuming that spherical spreading (TL = 20 log r) can be used to evaluate the TL,
evaluate the design SL of the sonar system.
8-7. A passive sonar only detects a target with a source level of 115 dB re 1 JJ.Pa. The directivity index
and detection threshold are 15 dB re 1 JJ.Pa. The noise level in the area was 45 dB re 1 JJ.Pa due to
the high sea state. Determine the range to the target if the spherical spreading law applies.
8-8. At a location in the ocean the temperature, salinity, and depth are 10°C, 34 o/oo, and 2500 m.
Determine the speed of sound at this location.
8-9. Considera layered ocean where the sound velocity is 1475 m/s in the top layer and 1500 m/s in the
bottom layer. Evaluate the critical angle according to Snell's Law.
8-10. Determine the speed of sound in the ocean at a depth of 8000 ft, 40°F, and 30 o/oo.
8-11. The SL for an underwater sound signal is 158 dB re 1 JJ.Pa. Determine the acoustic pressure in pascals.
8-12. A passive SONAR consists of a 1.5-ft-diameter circular pistan array operating ata frequency of
10kHz, where the sound speed is assumed to be 4900 ft/s. The ambient NL and the DT are -37 dB
re 1 dyne/cm2 and 30 dB, respectively. What is the required SL of the target to detect it at a range
of 10,000 yd, assuming that the TL is determined by TL = 20 log r?
324 Elements of Ocean Engineering

8-13. An active sonar has SL = 150 dB, DI = 5 dB, DT = 13 dB. Find the detection range (r) for a target
with TS = 15 dB. The NL = 65 dB. Assume that the TL is given by TL = 10 log r (cylindrical
spreading), where r is the range in yards.
8-14. A passive SONAR consists of a 15-ft-long continuous line array operating ata frequency of 10
kHz, where the sound speed is assumed to be 4850 ft/s. The ambient NL and the DT are -40 dB re
1 dyne/cm2 and 20 dB, respectively. What is the required SL of the target to detect it at a range of
8000 yd, assuming that the TL is determined by TL = 1Olog r?
8-15. A sound projector is to be used in an active sonar system, and it has a transmitting DI of 12 dB. The
total acoustic power radiated by the projector is 500 watts. Ifthe expected target has TS = 18 dB,
DT = 15 dB, DI = 8 dB, and NL = 50 dB re 1 f.LPa, determine the maximum allowable TL.
8-16. Evaluate the SL of a projector radiating 40 KW of acoustic power anda Dh of 15 dB.
8-17. A 30kHz sound source is located at a depth of 10,000 feet. If TL is due to spherical spreading and
absorption, determine its value at a range of 20,000 yards at the same depth. The temperature of the
water is 4°C, pH is 8.5, and salinity is 35 ppt.
8-18. An active sonar is operating ata frequency of 500Hz and is located ata depth of 6000 feet, where
the temperature is 4 oc and salinity is 35%o. The allowable TL is 80 dB re 1 f.LPa, and it is caused by
spherical spreading and absorption. Determine the maximum range associated with this allowable TL.
8-19. The sound velocity profile in an ocean area is shown below, and the ocean bottom is at 5000 m.
Determine the following:
a. For the source located at 3000 m, determine the initial angle of the ray that vertexes at the ocean fioor.
b. For a 10-degree source located at the sound channel axis, what is the horizontal distance to the point
where a ray with an initial angle of-5 degrees makes a positive 2.5-degree angle with the horizontal?
c. For a source located at 500 m, determine the path length and time of travel to the sound channel
axis for a ray with an initial angle of -3 degrees.

1470 14130 1490 1500 1510 1520

0+-~~~-r-+~~~~~+-~~~-r-+~~~~~+-~~-r~~~~~

'1000 -----------

2000

3000

4000

~00._--------------------------------------------------~----~
Chapter 8 Underwater Acoustics 325

8-20. The sound velocity profile for an ocean area is shown below. Determine the following:
a. Evaluate the initial angle for the limiting ray for a source located at 1750 m.
b. For a source located at 750 m, determine the time for a ray to reach the bottom when the initial
angle is 5 degrees below the horizontal.
c. A ray leaves a sound source at the surface with an initial angle of 85 degrees below the horizon-
tal. Determine the angle of incidence with the bottom.

Sound Velocity {m/s)

1475 1480 1485 1490 1495 1500 1505 1510
0+-,-,-,-,-~,_,_,_,_~T-T-T-T-+-T-T-T-T-+-T-T-T-T-+-T-T-T-T-+-T-T-T-~

500

!:
t 1000 --------------------------¡----------------
1

1500

2000._---------------------------X------------------------------------~

8-21. A ship has a 20kHz sonar with DI = 15 dB and DT = 4 dB. The NL is dominated by ambient
noise. The ship is operating in deep water, where the sea state is 3. The ship is trying to detect a
WWII submarine operating at periscope depth and cruising at a speed of 6 kts. Estimate the range
of detection assuming that the TL is due to spherical spreading only.
8-22. A simpler equation for determining the acoustic speed in seawater at reasonable depths is given by
e= 1449 + 4.6T- 0.055T2 + 0.0003T3 + (1.39- 0.012T)(S-35) + 0.017d
where the units for e, T, S, and d are the same as in equation 8-29. Ifthe speed of sound in seawater
is 1500 m/s ata temperature of 18°C anda depth of 10m, use this equation to determine the salinity
of the water and substitute the results back into equation 8-29 to check for accuracy.
 CHAPTER 9 INSTRUMENTATION FOR OCEAN
APPLICATIONS

9.1 INTRODUCTION

Ocean engineers and oceanographers use a unique set of instruments to measure characteristics of
the ocean that are crucial elements in the design of ocean systems. Current meters, anemometers, tide and
wave gauges, multiparameter probes, pressure sensors, strain gauges, load cells, accelerometers, laser and
radar systems, water samplers, thermistors, acoustic systems, and other devices are used to evaluate these
physical characteristics and model ocean systems in the laboratory. To protect the ocean environment, the
ocean is monitored with many of the same instruments, as well as other sophisticated laboratory instru-
ments, to detect small but possibly toxic concentrations of contaminants in the ocean waters and sediments.
Ocean engineers also use these systems to measure the characteristics of lakes, estuaries, and rivers. Other
devices, such as wave basins and flumes, open-channel flumes, dredge and towing tanks, recirculating
flumes, and circulating water tunnels, are used in laboratory facilities to measure the physical behavior of
model ocean systems.
An instrument system normally consists of a transducer or sensor, a signal conditioner, and a read-
out or display device. These instruments must be accurate, sensitive, rugged, durable, convenient, simple,
cost-effective, and understandable. Not all instruments can meet all of these requirements, but an instru-
ment should meet as many as possible. The accuracy of an instrument is defined by three main parameters:
uncertainty (error), sensitivity, and repeatability. Uncertainty or error is the difference between the mea-
sured value and the true value of the parameter. Sensitivity indicates how much of a change in the measured
parameter results in a change in the output of the instrument. Repeatability is a measure of the instrument's
ability to produce the same result in successive measurements. Errors can be systematic or random, and
systematic errors can be corrected by calibration of the instrument. An instrument is calibrated by compar-
ing its measurements with a known standard, and this is a critica! process for any measurement program in
the field or laboratory.
Many of the instruments commonly used by ocean engineers, oceanographers, and other investiga-
tors -of the marine environment are summarized in this chapter. The web sites of sorne of the manufacturers
of these instruments are listed at the end of this chapter. These addresses are always changing, however, and
the reader is encouraged to use an Internet search engine to obtain more detailed specifications and perfor-
mance characteristics for a particular instrument or company.

9.2 TEMPERATURE

Temperature is usually defined as the thermal state of a body, as expressed on a Centigrade or

Fahrenheit scale. For bodies of water such as oceans, estuaries, lakes, and rivers, the temperature, the typi-
cal range is between -2°C to 40°C. The accuracy required for many deep-ocean measurements is typically
±0.02°C, and in estuaries and coastal zones, a typical accuracy requirement is ±0.2°C. For meteorological
measurements, an accuracy of ±0.5°C is commonly attained.
Thermometers and pyrometers are used to measure water temperature. Liquid-in-glass thermom-
eters (e.g., mercury-filled thermometers) have been in use for more than 100 years. Another type of ther-
mometer consists of a bulb or capillary tube filled with a liquid whose dimensions change with variations in
temperature. The end of the bulb or tube is connected to a Bourdon tube, and expansion and contraction of
the liquid inside the Bourdon tube produces a mechanical motion that moves an indicator device.
The bathythermograph was developed in the 1930s to measure temperature as a function of depth
in the upper layer of the ocean (Fig. 9-1). The liquid-filled tube is wrapped around the tail fins and is

327
328 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 9-1. Sketch of a mechanical bathythermograph. (Reprinted with permission from Wiltiams, J. (1973).
Oceanographic instrumentation. Annapotis: Naval Institute Press.)

DECKUNIT

RMISTOR TEMPERATURE SENSOR

Figure 9-2. Schematic of an expendable bathythermograph. (Reprinted with permission from Williams, J. (1973).
Oceanographic instrumentation. Annapotis: Naval Institute Press.)

attached to a stylus that moves as the temperature changes. A pressure bellows moves a slide in relation to
the pressure change, and the motion is perpendicular to the temperature stylus movement. Therefore, the
slide moves in one direction with a change in depth while the temperature stylus moves in a perpendicular
direction with the temperature variation.
There are four materials used for resistance thermometers, or thermistors: platinum, copper, nickel,
and semiconductor. Expendable bathythermographs use the ·semiconductor thermistor as a temperature sen-
sor, as shown in Fig. 9-2. Temperature distribution is determined by the thermistor, and time is used to
determine the depth. The device is designed to descend through the water column at a constant rate.
In a quartz crystal thermometer, the resonant frequency of the crystal varíes with the temperature.
This type of sensor is very stable and accurate, and its data can be readily input to computers.
Pyrometers are capable of measuring temperatures over a large area, and they provide good syn-
optic pictures. These instruments contain infrared thermometers that can be used on aircraft and satellites.
These devices are notas accurate as thermometers, but pyrometers have the advantage ofbeing able to cover
large areas in a relatively short period of time.

9.3 DEPTH

The most common method for determining the depth of water is to use an acoustic device com-
monly known as a depth (echo) sounder. This device transmits a sound signal from a transducer, and the
signal is reflected by the sea bottom and returns to the transducer. The depth can be determined if the speed
of sound in water is known. Thus, knowledge of the sound velocity, which is a function of the salinity and
temperature of the water column, is required. The exact location of the transducer must also be known.
These transducers are typically located on the bottom of ships and other vessels or instruments. A photo-
graph of a single-beam and multibeam echo sounder is shown in Fig. 9-3.
Chapter 9 lnstrumentation for Ocean Applications 329

Figure 9-3. Single beam (left) and multibeam (right) echo sounder. (Courtesy ofTeledyne Odom.)

Another way to determine the depth of water is to measure the length and angle of a cable support-
ing a device or instrument at the end of the cable (Fig. 9-4). However, currents and motion of the support
vessel tend to cause the cable to become curved, which can lead to considerable errors. Nevertheless, this
procedure can provide a good estímate of the depth of a sensor at the end of a cable, and an approximate
check for other pressure-measuring devices.
The hydrostatic equation expresses the relationship between the pressure (p) at a point, the specific
weight ('y), and the height of a column of fluid (h) above the point:

p = yh (9-1)

An aneroid element, or spring bellows, consists of a chamber that compresses a spring in the form
of a bellows (Fig. 9-5). As the pressure increases, the bellows is compressed and the movement is used to
drive an electrical transducer. Another commonly used pressure sensor is the Bourdon tube, which is a
fluid-filled, curved tube. The curvature of the fluid-filled tube tends to straighten as the pressure changes.
The change in curvature can be attached to a mechanical or electrical device to indicate the pressure. The
depth is evaluated by means of the hydrostatic equation. Semiconductor material undergoes a change in
resistance when the pressure applied to the material is changed, and consequently this material is often used
as a pressure-sensing device.

Statíooary Anohored V~sel

Currant

Figure 9-4. Cable length and angle used to measure the depth of a sensor.
 330 Elements of Ocean Engineering

PRESSURE (>
Figure 9-5. Example of bellows and Bourdon tube pressure sensors.

The output signal from the pressure sensors is conditioned with the use of several types of signal
conditioners, including strain gauges, linear differential transformers, variable-frequency oscillators, poten-
tiometers, and photocells. Strain gauges are often used with aneroid elements and Bourdon tubes. Linear
differential transformers connect to an aneroid element and convert the mechanical motion to electrical
output. The potentiometer is probably the most commonly used device for converting the mechanical mo-
tion of the pressure sensor to an electrical signal. One of the most difficult problems faced by designers of
depth or pressure sensors is the large range in pressure the instruments must measure. To attain the desired
accuracy, pressure sensors are frequently limited to a specific pressure or depth range.

9.4 SALINITY

Seawater is a solution that contains most of the known elements, but its primary components are
chloride (55%), sulfate (7.7% ), sodium (30.6% ), magnesium (3.7% ), and potassium (1.1% ). The total amount
of dissolved material in seawater is called the salinity, which is defined as the total amount of solid materi-
als in grams contained in one kilogram of seawater (Pickard, 1975). Salinity is expressed in units of parts
per thousand (ppt, %o). The salinity in the ocean typically varies between 33%o and 37%o in 99% of oceanic
water, with the average being 35%o. In coastal regions, salinity is commonly <35%o as a result of river
runoff, and in tropical areas it is larger due to evaporation. In deep-ocean areas, the change in salinity over
the depth of water is usually <1%o, and therefore very accurate measurements of salinity (i.e., ±0.02%o)
are required. In coastal regions, the salinity can vary 5%o-to 10%o over a tidal cycle, and in such areas an
accuracy of ±0.1%o is satisfactory.
The relationship between salinity and chlorinity is expressed as

S%o = 1.80665 Cl %o (9-2)

The relationship between salinity and electrical conductivity (Williams, 1973) is

S%o = -0.08996 + 28.2972R 15 + 12.80832Ri5 = 5.98624R~5 - 1.32311Ri5 (9-3)

where
R = conductivity of sample at 15°C and 1 atmosphere
(9-4)
15 conductivity of water at 15°C and 1 atmosphere with salinity of 35%o
The practical salinity scale was established in 1978. This scale defines salinity in terms of the
ratio K 15 of the electrical conductivity of seawater at a temperature of 15°C and standard atmospheric
pressure to that of potassium chloride solution at the same temperature and pressure (Pickard & Emery,
1990). Por a detailed explanation of the definition of salinity and the practica! salinity scale (PSS 78), see
Lewis (1980).

-
Chapter 9 lnstrumentation for Ocean Applications 331

Figure 9-6. Autosallaboratory salinometer. (Reprinted with permission from Guildline lnstruments Inc.)

In the laboratory, the salinity of water samples collected from offshore and coastal environments is
determined by chemical titration or, more commonly, by the use of laboratory salinometers. Refractometers
are also used, based on the fact that the refractive index of water is a function of salinity. Refractometers
can achieve an accuracy of 0.05%o. Most laboratory salinometers measure the conductivity and then con-
vert the result to salinity using equation 9-3. Laboratory salinometers (Fig. 9-6) can attain an accuracy of
±0.002%o.
The electrical conductivity of seawater is a functión of temperature and dissolved solids. Any in-
strument that uses conductivity as a measure of salinity must take into account the temperature effect by
means of a temperature compensation circuit or must include the temperature of the sample in the salin-
ity evaluation process. Electrodes and induction cells are two types of sensors that are commonly used to
measure conductivity. The electrode type uses bare metal electrodes immersed in water to determine the
electrical resistance between the electrodes. Although problems from fouling can arise during long-term
immersions (days or months), electrode sensors are less expensive and simpler to use than induction cells.
Additionally, although the electrodes are normally less accurate, they are considered to be acceptable for
coastal environments and brackish water. The induction cell has no electrodes, and consequently it is less
susceptible to corrosion and fouling, and has better accuracy. However, it is more complicated and more
expensive. The induction cell remains the most common choice for oceanographic measurements. Examples
of conductivity, dissolved oxygen (membrane and no-membrane), temperature, depth pH, turbidity, and
temperature sensors are illustrated in Fig. 9-7. The conductivity sensor uses four graphite electrode sen-
sors to derive the salinity of the water. The dissolved oxygen sensor measures the current caused by the
electrochemical reduction of the oxygen that diffuses through the membrane. The no-membrane dissolved
oxygen sensor uses luminescent technology and does not depend on oxygen diffusing through a membrane.
The temperature sensor is a variable resistance thermistor. The depth (pressure) sensor uses an internal dia-
phragm for the pressure measurement. The pH sensor measures the acidity of the water, which is typically
a value of 8-8.5 in ocean waters. The turbidity sensor is a four-beam acoustic transducer that measures the
backscatter from particles in the water caused by turbidity.
332 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 9-7. Examples of conductivity, depth, temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, turbidity, and
grouped multiple sensors used in the field and laboratory. (Courtesy of Hach Co.)

9.5 MULTIPARAMETER INSTRUMENTS

It is common practice to group severa! sensors into one instrument and measure multiple parameters
(e.g., temperature, depth, and conductivity [CTD]; salinity, temperature, and depth [STD]; and dissolved
oxygen [DO]). This combined instrument is sometimes called a multiparameter (CTD, CTD/DO, or STD)
probe. Other environmental parameters, such as pH, turbidity, reduced oxygen potential (REDOX), water
current, and sound velocity are sometimes added to the probe system. These instruments can be raised or
 Chapter 9 lnstrumentation for Ocean Applications 333

Figure 9-8. Field multiparameter probe by YSI and the S4CTD by InterOcean.
(Courtesy ofYSI Incorporated and InterOcean Systems, Inc.)

lowered through the water column on a cable attached to an oceanographic winch. Other probe systems are
placed in situ on a moored system or attached to a fixed pile, and the data are stored in computer memory.
Examples of these multiparameter probes are shown in Fig. 9-8.
The decision as to which sensors to include in a multiparameter probe system depends on the mea-
surements required and the manufacturer's preferences. The conductivity sensor may be an electrode or
inductive type. The salinity is then computed from the conductivity and temperature measurements. The
temperature sensor is commonly a thermistor, and the depth sensor is normally a semiconductor strain
gauge transducer or diaphragm. Sound velocity sensors usually send a sound signal over a known path,
and the time it takes to travel the known path distance is used to determine the sound velocity. Currently,
multiparameter probes are mounted on autonomous underwater vehicles to map water quality in the ocean
as well as in bays, rivers, and other bodies of water.
Dissolved oxygen in seawater is necessary to support marine life, and is a frequently measured pa-
rameter. A membrane-type sensor is commonly used. The rhembrane separates the polargraphic cell from
the water, and the membrane is permeable to dissolved oxygen. Sorne sensors require water to ftow past the
membrane, and use a stirrer (impeller) to move the water sample past the sensor. Temperature and salinity
affect the solubility of dissolved oxygen in water, and measurements from the respective sensors are used to
correct for these effects in the dissolved oxygen measurement.
The pH sensor combines a reference and measuring electrode into a single sensor and measures the
pH on a scale from 1 to 14. The pH of ocean water is typically around 8.5. The turbidity sensor can be a
transmissometer type, which uses a light source anda calibrated photosensor spaced a given distance apart
to measure the attenuation of the known light source by the turbid water. Underwater acoustic transducers
measure turbidity by measuring the backscatter intensity resulting from particles in the water. Optical back-
scatter sensors (OBS) sensors are also used. OBS sensors emit infrared light that is attenuated by the turbid
water, and have a linear response.

9.6 WATER CURRENT METERS

Ocean and coastal waters are in continuous motion, and in most cases are affected by turbulence.
Currents (the general movement of the water) are generated by the mechanical action of wind and the ther-
mal activity of uneven heating. Other forces, such as Coriolis and centrifuga! forces, also inftuence currents.
Gravitational forces cause tidal currents. Surface currents are typically near 1 knot or less, but may reach
 334 Elements of Ocean Engineering

values in excess of 5 knots. The higher values are usually tidal in nature and found near the shore. Nontidal
currents, which sometimes occur at speeds as high as 6 knots, are usually located near the water surface and
are caused by storms or hurricanes. Exceptions occur such as those found in the Gulf Stream and equatorial
undercurrents. Deep ocean currents are small in magnitude (0.02-0.2 knots, 1-10 cm/s). Vertical currents
are usually 1-3 orders of magnitude smaller than the horizontal current values. In sorne coastal and estua-
rine locations, the vertical currents differ by less than an order of magnitude and cannot be neglected. Many
current meters measure only horizontal currents, but newer instruments, such as acoustic Doppler current
meters, measure all three components (x, y, and z) of current (velocity).
Currents are measured directly or indirectly. Direct methods measure the flow itself, and indirect
methods measure sorne property of the medium to infer the flow. An example of an indirect instrument
is the electromagnetic current meter (Fig. 9-9), whereby the gradient of electrical potential produced by
a moving conductor (seawater) within the earth's magnetic field is measured. 1\vo electrodes are placed
within the volume of the water and the potential difference is measured. The direction of the current is mea-
sured using a flux-gate compass. Alkaline batteries are used to power the instrument, and the current speed
and direction are stored in solid-state memory and downloaded to a computer via an RS 232 port. Figure 9-9
shows the current meter, with additional probes for conductivity, temperature, depth, etc., on the left. In the
center of the figure, the current meter is shown in a vertical mooring system, and on the right the current
meter is installed in a bottom-mounted system to obtain measurements in close proximity to the sea floor.

e
Figure 9-9. Electromaguetic current meter (a) and the same meter shown in a moored configuration (b,c) and
bottom mounted configuration (d). (Courtesy of InterOcean Systems, Inc.)
Chapter 9 lnstrumentation for Ocean Applications 335

Figure 9-10. Drifter current measuring devices.

Direct methods for measuring current are usually characterized as Lagrangian or Eulerian.
Lagrangian methods use drifting objects to determine the current magnitude and direction by measuring
the sequential position of the object as a function of time. The Eulerian method places an instrument in a
fixed location and measures the current moving past it. Drift devices (Fig. 9-10) are the oldest means of de-
termining currents. One of the oldest techniques is the familiar stopper bottle with a note inside requesting
the finder to tell the sender when and where the bottle was found. Drogues are used in the same way, and can
be positive (surface currents) and negatively buoyant (bottom currents). Another form of Lagrangian current
measurement is the use of radioactive tracers and ftuorescent dyes. Submerged drifters are often tracked by
sonic devices. For a ship without propulsion, one can infer the motion of surface currents by using the ship's
navigation position systems.
Eulerian direct methods include the use of open propellers (Fig. 9-11), savonius rotors, and ducted
propellers (Fig. 9-12). Open propellers are still used for measurements in rivers and laboratories. Savonius
rotors were used in the 1970s to 1980s, and the ducted propeller current meter was used from about 1980
to the mid-1990s. Both used a magnetic compass to determine direction, and the rotor or propeller to deter-
mine the current speed.
Since the late 1990s, the most commonly used current meter for open-water measurements has been
the acoustic Doppler current profile (ADCP) meter (Fig. 9-13). ADCPs use acoustic beams that are reftected
back to a receiver by small particles in the water. The particles are assumed to be moving at the same
velocity as the water. ADCPs can be two-dimensional or three-dimensional. The two horizontal and one
vertical components of velocity are resolved to determine the direction of the current. The current velocity
is linearly proportional to the Doppler frequency of the particle reftected signal. The ADCP is al so capable
of measuring the velocity at different depths, and therefore is able to provide a velocity versus depth pro-
file. Many depth ranges (cells) are used depending on the capability of the current meter. The current data
are stored in solid-state memory and downloaded through a RS 232 port after they are retrieved. Alkaline
batteries are used to power the instruments, which can be mounted on the sea ftoor or on a moving vessel.
These instruments are the primary tool used by ocean engineers, oceanographers, and others to measure
water currents in oceans, bays, lakes, and rivers.

Figure 9-11. Open-propeller small-current meter. (Reprinted with permission from Ott Co.)
336 Elements of Ocean Engineering

l 10om

_l

Savonius rotor ducted propeller

Figure 9-12. Savonius rotor (reprinted with permission from lnterOcean Systems, loe.) and
ducted propeller current meters (http://www.ysi.com).

Figure 9-13. Example acoustic Doppler current meters. (Courtesy ofTeledyne RD Instruments.)
Chapter 9 lnstrumentation for Ocean Applications 337

Figure 9-14. Hot wire anemometer probes. (Reprinted with permission from Dantec.)

Figure 9-15. Particle image velocimetry (PIV) system (left; courtesy ofDantec Dynamics) and beams from three beam
laser Doppler anemometer used in measuring orbital velocities under breaking wave (right).

Laboratory current-measuring devices include h.ot wire anemometers (Fig. 9-14), particle im-
age velocimeters (PIVs), laser Doppler anemometers (LDAs; Fig. 9-15), and acoustic Doppler velocim-
eters (ADVs; Fig. 9-16). Hot wire anemometers are still used in airflow measurements, but LDAs and
PIVs are more commonly used for water current measurements in the laboratory. Figure 9-15 shows an
LDA measurement of water particle velocities under a breaking wave in the two-dimensional Ocean
Engineering wave tank at Texas A&M. There is no instrument in the water, so the LDA is considered
a nonintrusive means of measuring three components of velocity at the point where the laser beams
cross. The ADV is much smaller than the open-water ADCP current meter and is probably the pre-
ferred instrument for measuring water currents in the laboratory. It can be arranged as a down-looking,
up-looking, or side-looking instrument, as shown in Fig. 9-16. ADVs consist of an in-water probe and
housing for the electronics. A data acquisition card and software are used to acquire and store the ve-
locity data in a personal computer.

9.7 METEOROLOGICAL DATA

Meteorological data can be acquired by sensors that measure wind speed and direction, baromet-
ric pressure, air and sea surface temperature, and humidity. Many additional parameters can be added,
such as current speed and direction, wave height and direction, tides, conductivity (salinity), and water
338 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 9-16. Laboratory ADV (left; courtesy of NortekUSA), side-looking ADV, and down-looking ADV.

temperature. Figure 9-17 shows three buoy systems for monitoring meteorological and other parameters for
ocean, coastal, and near-shore applications. The standard height of the wind sensor is 10 m (33 ft) above
sea level. The wind direction is shown in degrees (0-360 degrees). The data are also telemetered from the
measuring location through satellite receivers, cellular phones, radio, and fiber-optic cables to computers
in engineering offices. These buoy systems are powered by rechargeable batteries, charging regulators, and
solar panels. Navigation lights are also included in the system. The mooring system must be designed well

Figure 9-17. Meteorological systems for coastal, offshore, and port applications. (Courtesy oflnterOcean Systems, Inc.)
Chapter 9 lnstrumentation for Ocean Applications 339

enough that the buoys can remain on station during weather events such as storms and hurricanes. Sorne
above-water sensors, such as the wind speed and direction sensor, antenna, solar panel, and navigation light,
are shown in Fig. 9-17. Other sensors are located below the water, and the battery power systems are housed
within the buoy.

9.8 WAVE ANO TI DE GAUGES

Wave and tide gauges measure the pressure variation of the water surface to evaluate the wave and
tide climate. One type of wave (pressure) sensor is a silicon semiconductor strain gauge, which is tempera-
ture-compensated and incorporares a low-pass hydraulic filter on one side of the differential transducer. The
sensor is isolated from the water by an oil-filled diaphragm. The typical installation depth for such meters
is 0-60 m, but greater depths are possible. The instruments can be placed on the sea floor, installed in a
moored system, or attached to a piling as illustrated in Fig. 9-18.
The recording of data is usually selectable as to rate, duration, and period, and these data are
recorded in solid-state memory. For example, the gauge may be set to record every 0.5 s and accumulate
1024 data points, and then shut itself off. This may be done every 3 hr, and the instrument willlast approxi-
mately 30 days before it has to be replaced. Another approach is to set the instrument to record for 15 min
every 3 hr. When the instrument is recovered, the microprocessor provides the data needed for computer
analysis. These instruments are powered by alkaline batteries, and the length of time the instrument can
remain in the water depends on the rate of data collection. An example of this type of wave and tide gauge
is illustrated in Fig. 9-19.
Another type of wave gauge is a wave following buoy similar to that shown in Fig. 9-20. This instru-
ment provides a means of measuring wave direction and heave. The sensors include pitch, roll, compass,
and accelerometer instruments that are located inside the pressure housing, and the electronics and battery
supply are located inside the sphere. The system may be moored or free-floating, and the data may be stored
internally or transmitted by radio link to shore or satellite. The wave array (Fig. 9-20) is an acoustic system
that measures the orbital velocities under the waves and uses a pressure sensor to measure the mean water
surface level to determine multidirectional wave characteristics.

~L

eottom Mounled
lnstall~on

Figure 9-18. Examples ofwave and tide gauge installations.

 340 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 9-19. Wave and tide gauge showing inner electronic circuitry.
(Reprinted with permission from lnterOcean Systems, lnc.)

Older tide gauges used floats to determine the tidal variation. A buoyant float was placed in
a stilling well that allowed water to rise and fall, but did not respond to short period waves. The float
device was connected mechanically to an ink-pen recording system to record the water level variation.
These systems were used in protected waters such as bays and estuaries. Pressure sensors, such as those
used in wave gauges and silicon semiconductor strain gauges, are commonly used in coastal waters,
bays, and estuaries. The tide gauge senses the tide through a low-pass hydraulic filter that removes the
short period waves typically caused by wind and boat wakes. Similar to the above-mentioned wave
gauge, this tide gauge can be mounted on a rigid mooring, bottom mount, or fixed pile. The instrument is
powered by alkaline batteries with a life expectancy of approximately 60 days, and the data are recorded
in solid-state memory.
Wave gauges are also important instruments for measuring water levels and wave heights in experi-
mental facilities. Laboratories commonly use resistance or capacitance wave gauges. Figure 9-21 illustrates
the resistance wave gauge. This type of laboratory wave gauge has two parallel wires separated by a fixed

Figure 9-20. Wave track buoy (left; reprinted with permission from ENDECO/YSI Inc.) and
acoustic wave array system (right; courtesy ofTeledyne RD Instruments.)

----------------------...................
 Chapter 9 lnstrumentation for Ocean Applications 341

Figure 9-21. Capacitance, wireless capacitance, and resistance wave gauges for laboratory.

distance, and the wires are oriented normal to the direction ~n which the wave train is traveling. The conduc-
tance between the wires is measured, and the conductance is proportional to the length of wire submerged
beneath the water surface. The conductance varies with the temperature and conductance of the water.
Sorne resistance gauges have compensating circuits to account for these variations, and frequent calibration
is necessary. The wave gauge accuracy is usually ::!:::1 mm, with a resolution of ::!:::0.1 mm.
A capacitance-type wave gauge (Fig. 9-21) consists of a thin, insulated wire held taut by a sup-
porting structure. The wire insulation acts as a capacitar between the inside conducting wire and the
water, which serves as a ground. The capacitance varies linearly as the sea surface elevation changes.
Electronic circuits determine the variation in capacitance as a voltage output, which is subsequently
converted to the sea surface elevation change after the appropriate calibration constants are applied.
The majar advantages of capacitance wave gauges are low costs, good linearity and dynamic responses,
and good stability.

9.9 WATER SAMPLERS

It is often necessary to collect samples of ocean, bay, or lake water for use in calibration or for
laboratory analyses of their chemical or biological contents. Water samplers (Fig. 9-22) are devices that are
attached to a winch line and lowered to a specified water depth from a surface vessel. The samplers can be
342 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 9-22. Example of a CTD rosette (left) and individual water sampler used in
ocean engineering and oceanography. (Courtesy of General Oceanics.)

as small as a liter oras large as 10 liters. Normally, the water samplers are open at the top and bottom while
they are lowered to the sampling depth. A small weight, called a messenger, is attached to the winch line
and released. The messenger weight slides down the line and contacts a triggering mechanism that closes
the bottom and top openings. Several samplers can be atta<;:hed to the winch line, and can be triggered by
the same messenger weight when rigged appropriately. Several water samplers are included in a rosette
device for sequential sampling. The water sampler, or rosette sampler, is brought to the surface by means
of a winch, and each water sampler's contents are emptied into an appropriate container through a special
spout on the sampler. Finally, the containers are delivered to the laboratory onboard the vessel or ashore for
further analysis.

9.1 O SEDIMENT SAMPLERS

1Wo devices used to collect sediment samples are the core tube sampler and the grab sampler. The
core tube sampler is an open-ended tube that is thrust vertically into the sediment to a desired depth. The sam-
pler is removed from the soil by a winch line while the sediment sample is retained inside the tube. The tube
usually has a thin-walled plastic liner that can be removed with the sample intact. A heavy weight that is hy-
drodynamically shaped and mounted on top of the tube is often used to drive the sampler into the sediment. In
ocean applications, the core tube and weight are dropped through the water, and the tube penetrates the ocean
bottom sediments. After the corer is winched back to the surface support vessel, the core sediment samples are
removed and refrigerated. Later, they are retumed to the laboratory for analysis. The Phleger corer is a well-
known coring device that is used in shallow waters to obtain core samples at penetration depths ranging from
0.61 to 1.8 m (2-6 ft), as shown in Table 9-1.
Chapter9 lnstrumentation for Ocean Applications 343

Table 9-1. Examples of Sediment Sampling Equipment

DeviceName Illustration Weight (lb) Description

~~~
Peterson Grab 40-90 Collects a sample covering an area of 1 ft 2 to a depth of
1 ft depending on sediment type.

~
Shipek 150 Collects a sample covering an area of 64 in 2 to a depth
of 4 in.

~
Ekman 9 Works only in soft sediments covering an area of up to
64 in2 to a depth of approximately 6 in.

~
Ponar 45-60 Collects a sample covering an area of 81 in2 to a depth of
1 ft. Not effective in clay.

DragBucket
/_1 Varies Collects a shallow sediment slice near the surface.
Comes in several sizes and shapes.

( -:....l_4
Phleger Corer 20-90 Core samples obtained by self-weight penetration
a{] :ru •

Piston Corer
c.
See Fig. 9-23
... •
200-300
or by pushing the barrel into the sediment. Depth of
penetration depends on sediment (e.g., 0.6-1.8 m (2-6ft)
in soft sediment).
Core samples obtained by self-weight and water pressure.
D"epth ofpenetration is up to 25m (82ft).

Grab samplers are frequently used to obtain surface samples of ocean, estuarine, or lake bottom
sediments. Severa! of the more common devices are shown in Table 9-1. Essentially, these devices scoop or
bite into the surface sediment with jaws and then close to contain the sample. As described above for the
coring device, grab samplers are normally attached to a winch line and dropped to the sea bottom. Once the
jaws close as a result of a tripping mechanism or making contact with the bottom, the sampler is winched
to the surface and brought aboard the support vessel. The sediment sample can then be analyzed onboard
or saved for later analysis at a laboratory after the vessel returns to port. Grab samplers are relatively inex-
pensive and easy to use.
Deeper sediment samples can be obtained with a piston corer, which is capable of penetrating
as much as 25 m (82 ft) into the sea bottom. Figure 9-23 shows the core barrel and top weight on a ship
before the piston corer is dropped over the side. The corer is allowed to free-fall to the sea floor, where
it continues to penetrate the sediment, and the sediment sample is forced into the cylinder. Tension on
the cable draws a piston within the core barrel up to the top of the barrel, minimizing the disturbance to
the sample. The corer with the sediment sample inside is then winched to the surface and retrieved. Very
deep cores can be obtained using rotary drilling techniques such as those used on oil drilling ships and
drilling platforms.
 344 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 9-23. Example of a piston corer being lowered from the research vessel Knorr (http://www. whoi.edu).

9.11 OCEANOGRAPHIC WINCHES

Winches are commonly used to lower and raise ocean instruments from ships, offshore platforms,
and fixed piers. These winches have a drum for storing the cable (typically wire rope or electromechanical
cable), and the cable is run over sheaves that are attached toan A-frame or sorne other structure on the vessel
to allow the instruments to be lowered over the side. Manual, electric, or hydraulic power is used to drive the
winch (see Fig. 9-24 for examples of oceanographic winches).
A winch is an important piece of equipment aboard a vessel and is used for various tasks, such as
coring, towing, making hydrographic casts, water sampling, mid- and deep-water trawling, buoy-laying, and
deploying large objects. Deck winches are typically classified as light-duty, hydrographic, or heavy-duty.
Light-duty winches use a small-diameter single- or multiple-strand wire or electrical cable on a small single
drum. A simple fairlead system is used, and the drive system is manual, electric, or hydraulic. The deck
winch may be portable. The hydrographic winch is somewhat heavier and more rugged, and carries larger-
diameter wire that makes it effective for water sampling, plankton trawls, and hydrographic measurements. It
is commonly mounted on a welded frame and usually has a variable-speed reversing electric motor, magnetic
brake, and chain drive, and may have a level-wind device. The magnetic brake can be used if electric power
is lost, and the level-wind device ensures that the cable is layered properly as it rolls onto the drum. Heavy-
duty winches are used for heavy trawling, anchoring, and other work that requires substantialline loads, such
as deep-sea coring. Deep-sea coring can expose the winch to loads in excess of 10 tons, and a large force is
required to pull out the coring device after it has penetrated deep into the sea fioor. High hoisting speeds are
necessary to conserve ship time on a station while the instruments are being recovered. A useful equation for
estimating winch horsepower and drum wire storage length (Interücean Systems, Inc., 1985) is

p- vw (9-5)
- 33,000 E
Chapter 9 lnstrumentation for Ocean Applications 345

Figure 9-24. Typical winches used in ocean research and operations.

(Reprinted with permission from InterOcean Systems, lnc.)

where W is the load in pounds, V is the desired cable speed (ft/min), andE is the drive efficiency. A reason-
able approximation for the length of wire that can be stored on the winch drum is

L = w h (d + h) (9-6)
4ct; d

where Lis the line length (ft) that fits on the drum, h is the height (in) of the wire rope on the drum when it
is full, dd is the drum diameter (in), w is the drum width (in), and dr is the wire rope diameter (in).
 346 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 9-25. Acoustic release systems for shallow water (left) and deep water (center),
and anchor rig release (right). (Courtesy oflnterOcean Systems, Inc.)

9.12 UNDERWATER RELEASE DEVICES

Many situations in ocean engineering require an instrument, mooring line, or anchor to be released
from the sea floor. In typical deep waters, it is impractical to use divers and/or remotely operated vehicles
for this type of activity, and therefore underwater release devices have been developed. These release de-
vices can handle loads of nearly a million pounds and can be actuated by an electric or hydraulic motor with
a control signal that is hard-wired, acoustic, or regulated by a timer.
Acoustic releases operate on multiple transponder interrogation frequencies. As illustrated in
Fig. 9-25, the equipment for an acoustic release system includes a command transmitter, acoustic receiver,
transponder, and range display. A secure, sequential tone-coding technique is used to eliminate problems
resulting from ambient noise and multipath distortion. Rig anchor releases (Fig. 9-25) are used to release
drill ships and semisubmersible drilling vessels from their mooring systems. With these devices, vessels can
quickly abandon a drilling site when unfavorable weather conditions arise. Later, the vessels can return to
the site and reconnect to the mooring systems without having to reset anchors.

9.13 MANUFACTURERS'WEB SITES

Dantec: http://www.dantecdynamics.com
General Oceanics, Inc.: http://www.generaloceanics.com
Hach Company: http://www.hach.com
Chapter 9 lnstrumentation for Ocean Applications 347

Interücean Systems, Inc.: http://www.interoceansystems.com

NortekUSA: http://www.nortekusa.com
SonTek/YSI: http://www.sontek.com
Teledyne RD lnstruments: http://www.rdinstruments.com
YSI, Inc.: http://www.ysi.com

9.14 REFERENCES

Interücean Systems, Inc. (1985). InterOcean Systems catalog. San Diego: Interücean Systems, Inc.
Lewis, E. L. (1980). The practica! salinity scale 1978 and its antecedents. IEEE Journal of Oceanic
Engineering OE-5:3-8.
Pickard, G. L. (1975). Descriptive physical oceanography (2nd ed.). New York: Pergamon Press.
Pickard, G. L., & Emery, W. J. (1990). Descriptive physical oceanography: an introduction (5th ed.). New
York: Pergamon Press.
Williams, J. (1973). Oceanographic instrumentation. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press.
 CHAPTER10 PHVSICAL MODELING

10.1 INTRODUCTION

Physical modeling is used extensively in the study of fluid dynamics, fluid/structure interactions,
and current/wave/structure interactions. The ocean engineer uses models to optimize the design of struc-
tures for various purposes, such as oil and gas production platforms, offshore breakwaters, vessel terminal
berths, pipeline scour, alternative energy, sediment resuspension, dredging, and shore protection, and to
evaluate physical processes in bays and estuaries and along the coastline. The hydraulic engineer uses hy-
draulic models to study the effects of hydraulic structures (e.g., spillways, river basin changes, locks, and
dams). Engineers from other disciplines use models in the design and analysis of aircraft, ships, turbines,
bridge supports, etc. This chapter briefly discusses the fundamental concepts of dimensions, dimensional
analysis, and similitude, and describes sorne facilities that are used in physical model testing.
The history of physical modeling dates back to the early 1500s, when Da Vinci investigated the fluid
flow associated with free jets and vortices by visual observation of experiments (Hughes, 1993). In the late
1600s, Newton studied the similitude criteria of mechanical processes, and later Smeaton conducted scale-
model tests to assess the performance of water wheels (Hudson et al., 1979). Froude obtained measurements
with ships in a towing tank in 1870, and Reynolds conducted movable-bed model tests for river beds in
1885. In 1914, Buckingham achieved a breakthrough with what is known as the Buckingham Pi theorem
for describing dimensionless parameters (Buckingham, 1914). A classic text on the subject of dimensional
analysis was published by Bridgeman (1922). Physical modeling and dimensional analysis are discussed in
many texts, including Murphy (1950), Langhaar (1951), Sedov (1959), Schuring (1977), Yalin (1971, 1989),
Sharp (1981), and Hughes (1993).
There are severa! excellent references related to physical modeling for ocean engineering applica-
tions. For information about basic fluid mechanics, see White (2006) and Munson et al. (2009). Modeling
related to coastal processes is described by Hudson et al. (1979), Hughes (1993), Dalrymple (1985, 1989),
Dean (1985), Kamphuis (1991), Keulegan (1966), Le Mehaute (1990), and Svendsen (1985), and modeling
of offshore structures is discussed by Chakrabarti (1994).

10.2 DIMENSIONS ANO UNITS

In ocean engineering and fluid flow processes, the primary dimensions are the mass (M), length
(L), time (T), and temperature (6). The secondary dimensions are derived from these primary dimensions.
To give meaning toa dimension, units are attached to the final result (e.g., pounds, newtons, centimeters,
and inches). lnternational system (SI) and British gravitational (BG) units are the most frequently used
units in engineering. One of the most important secondary dimensions is force (F), which is derived from
Newton's second law ( F = mii) and dimensionally written as

F = MLT- 2 (10-1)

In terms of the SI and BG unit systems, the units of force are

SI 1 newton offorce- 1 N= 1 kg m s- 2
(10-2)
BG 1 pound of force -1 lb = 1 slug ft s - 2

The primary dimensions and sorne important secondary dimensions in the SI and BG systems are tabulated
in Table 10-1.

349
350 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 10-1. Dimensions and Units in the lnternational (SI) and British Gravitational (BG) Systems
Primary Dimensions SI Units BG Units Conversion Factor
Mass(M) Kilogram (kg) Slug 1 slug = 14.5939 kg
Length (L) Meter(m) Feet (ft) 1 ft = 0.3048 m
Time (T) Second (s) Second (s) 1 S= 1 S
Temperature (6) Kelvin (K) Rankine (R) 1 K= 1.8 R
Secondary Dimensions SI Units BG Units Conversion Factor
Acceleration (LT-2) mls 2 ftls 2 1 ft/s 2 = 0.3048 mls2
Angular ve1ocity (T 1) S1 s-1 1 s-1 = 1 s-1
Area (L2) m2 ft2 1 m 2 = 10.764 re
Density (ML 3) kglm 3 s1ugslft3 1 sluglft3 = 515.4 kglm3
Dynamic viscosity (ML - 1 T-1) kgl(m-s) slugsl(ft-s) 1 slugl(ft-s) = 47.88 kgl(m-s)
Energy, heat, work (ML~-2 ) Joule (J) = N -m ft-1b 1 ft-lb = 1.3558 J
Force (MLT 2) Newton (N) Pound (lb) 1 lb = 4.4482 N
Frequency (T-1) s-1 s-1 1 s-1 = 1 s-1
Kinematic viscosity (L - 2 T) m21s ft21s 1 m21s = 10.76 ft 21s
Power (ML2 r 2) Watt (W) = Jls (ft-lb)ls 1 (ft-lb)ls = 1.3558 W
Pressure or stress (ML - 1 T-2) Pascal (Pa) = Nlm2 lblft2 1lblft2 = 47.88 Pa
Specific heat (L2T - 2 - 1) m 21(s2-K) ft 21(s2-R) 1 m21(s2 -K) = 5.980 ft 21(s2 -R)
Velocity (Lr1) mis ftls 1 ftls = 0.3048 mis
Volume (L3) m3 ft 3 1 m3 = 35.315 ft 3

10.3 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

A dimensional analysis is used to reduce the number and complexity of the experimental variables that
govem a particular physical problem. If the problem depends on "n" dimensional variables, dimensional analysis
will reduce the problem to "k" dimensionless variables. Usually n-k equals the number ofprimary dimensions
(mass, length, time, and temperature) that govem the problem. In addition to reducing the number of variables,
dimensional analysis saves time and money, assists in the planning of experiments, and provides scaling laws.
The principal of dimensional homogeneity is that an· equation will express the correct relationship
between the variables for a physical process when each of its additive terms has the same dimensions. In
other words, the equation is dimensionally homogeneous. Por example, the Bemoulli equation for incom-
pressible flow is

E. + V2 + z = constant (10-3)
y 2g
where pis the pressure, 'Y is the specific weight ofthe fluid, Vis the average velocity, gis gravitational accel-
eration, and z is the elevation. The additive terms and the constant have dimensions of length (L). Therefore,
the equation is dimensionany homogeneous and gives the correct results for any consistent set of units.

10.4 BUCKINGHAM PITHEOREM

The Buckingham Pi theorem, originally developed in the early 1900s (Buckingham, 1914), is a
well-known dimensional analysis that can be used to reduce the number of dimensional variables to a
smaller number of dimensionless groups. The number of dimensionless groups are power products defined
by 'TT¡, 7T2, ••• 1Tk. When a physical process involves "n" dimensional variables, it is possible to reduce the
number of variables to "k" dimensionless variables, or 1T terms. The reduction (j = n - k) is the maximum
number of variables that do not form a 1T group among themselves, and is less than or equal to the number
of primary dimensions describing the variables.
Chapter 10 Physical Modeling 351

Consider the case of a submerged sphere in a flowing stream. The force on the submerged body
depends on the body diameter (D), stream velocity (V), fluid density (p), and fluid viscosity (¡.L), and it may
be expressed as
F = f(D, V, p, Jl) (10-4)

This equation contains five variables (F, D, V, p, and ¡.L) that are described by three primary dimensions (M,
L, and T). Therefore, n = 5 and j ::::; 3. It is estimated that the number of variables can be reduced to two '1T
dimensionless groups (k = n - j = 5 - 3 = 2).
Next, the '1T terms are evaluated one at a time. Select j variables that do not form a '1T term them-
selves. Each '1T term is a power product of these j variables and one additional variable. Assign any conve-
nient nonzero exponent to the additional variable. The exponents of the various dimensions of the variables
are equated, and the equations are solved for the exponents of the selected variables for each '1T term. The
following steps are used in the Buckingham Pi analysis:

l. Determine the number of variables (n) affecting the problem. If any important variables are
missed, the analysis will be invalid.
2. Make a list of dimensions of each variable according to MLTe. The dimensions of the selected
fluid-mechanics properties are tabulated in Table 10-2.

Table 10-2. Dimensions for Selected Ocean and Fluid Properties

Quantity Symbol MLTO
Angle e none
Angular velocity w T-1
Are a A L2
Density p ML-3
Dynamic viscosity 11 ML- 1 T-1
Force F MLr2
Kinematic viscosity V= ¡.t/p L2r1
Length L L
Mass m M
Mass flow rate m MT- 1
Moment, torque M ML2 T-2
Power p ML 2 T- 1
Pressure, stress p, u ML-1 T-2
Salinity S none
Specific heat Cp,Cy L2 T-2 e-1
Specific weight 'Y= pg ML-2T-2
Speed of sound e LT- 1
Strain rate e T-1
Surface tension ., MT-2
Temperature T e
Velocity V LT- 1
Volume V L3
Volume flow rate Q L3T-1
Waterdepth d L
Wave frequency f T-1
Waveheight H L
Wavelength A,L L
Wavenumber k= 2-rr/L L-1
Waveperiod T T
Work, energy W,E ML2 1 2
352 Elements of Ocean Engineering

3. Determine the value of j by evaluating the number of different dimensions included in the vari-
ables. Find j variables that do not form a 1T term in themselves. If this is not possible, reduce j
by one and repeat.
4. Make a final selection of j variables that do not forma 1T term (these are called repeating vari-
ables). Try for sorne generality, since these repeating variables appear in each 1T term.
5. Add one additional variable from the remaining list of n variables and forma power product.
Equate the exponents and sol ve for the values that make the power product (1T term) dimension-
less. For better results, arrange for the dependent variables (e.g., force, pressure drop, power,
etc.) to be in the numerator if possible. Add one new variable each time to the selected j variables
until all (n - j = k) desired 1T terms are found.
6. Check the final'TT terms and ensure that each one is dimensionless. Determine the final dimen-
sionless function, which is typically one 1T term set equal to a function of the product of the
remaining 1T terms.

The above steps are best illustrated by an example problem. Therefore, let us consider the example
of a fixed submerged sphere in a flowing stream. The force on the submerged sphere depends on the sphere
diameter (D), average stream velocity (V), fluid density (p), and fluid dynamic viscosity (!J.).

Step 1: Determine the general function and count the variables.

F = f(D, V, p, p) (10-5)

There are five variables (n = 5).

Step 2: List the dimensions of each variable.

F D V p
L ML-3 ML-1 1 1

Step 3: Determine j. No variable contains 9. Therefore, j must be :5 3. Inspect the list of variables and find
that D, V, and p cannot form a 1T term because only p contains M and only V contains T. Therefore,
j = 3, and k = n - j = 5 - 3 = 2. Thus, two 1T terms can be found.

Step 4: Select the j repeating variables. The variables D, V, and p are good.

Step 5: The repeating variables (D, V, and p) are combined with one ofthe remaining variables sequentially
to find two 1T terms. For the first 1T term, add force (F). Select any exponent to place it in the nu-
merator or denominator to any power. In this problem, F is the dependent variable, so it is selected
to appear to the first power in the numerator:

7T¡ = UVbpcF = MIL0TJ

7T1 = (L)a (LT- 1)b (ML - 3)c (MLT- 2) = MIL0ro (10-6)

Equating the exponents yields

Length: a + b - 3c + 1 = O
Mass: e+ 1 =O
Time: -b - 2 = O

Solving the three simultaneous equations yields a = -2, b = -2, and e = -l. Therefore,

7T = L -zv-zp-tF = _F_ (10-7)

t Lzvzp
 Chapter 10 Physical Modeling 353

Now solve for 1T2 • Add the dynamic viscosity (~J.-) and select any power. By custom, the power ( -1)
is selected to place the dynamic viscosity in the denominator:

7T2 = UVbpcJL-1 = MOLOTO

7T2 = (L)a (LT-I)b (ML -3)c (ML -IT-I)-1 =M~ ~o
(10-8)

Equating the exponents yields

Length: a + b - 3c + 1 = O
Mass: e- 1 =O
Time: - b + 1 = O

The solution is a= 1, b = 1, ande = l. Therefore, the second 1T term is

_ pVL
1T2 = LVPJL 1 = - - = Re (10-9)
JL
This is called the Reynolds number (Re).

Step 6: Ensure that 'TT¡ and 1T2 are nondimensional, and determine the final functional relationship as

F (pVL)
pV2L 2 = g ---¡;:-
or (10-10)

F= g( p~L )pV L 2 2

where g indicates that the first 1T parameter is a function of the Reynolds number.

The typical expression for drag force on a submerged body is

(10-11)

where Cn is a function of the Reynolds number (Re), A is ·the cross-sectional area normal to the ftow, and
112 is a proportionality constant.

10.4.1 Dimensionless Parameters

The Buckingham Pi theorem may be used to analyze many different problems and find the
dimensionless parameters that apply in each problem. Another powerful approach is to use the basic
ftow equations. These equations and their boundary conditions may be nondimensionalized to reveal
basic dimensionless parameters. For further details about this procedure, see Munson et al. (2009) and
White (2006). Sorne of the typical dimensionless parameters in ocean engineering are tabulated in
Table 10-3.

10.5 MODELING

Dimensions, units, dimensional homogeneity, the Buckingham Pi theorem, and dimensionless pa-
rameters have been discussed so far. These concepts are straightforward and the analyses appear to be easily
accomplished. In actuality, the selection of important variables is difficult and usually requires good judg-
ment and experience. Many difficult questions must be answered, such as: Is viscosity unimportant? Can
surface tension be neglected? Is wall roughness important? Can sorne of the pi terms be neglected?
 354 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 10-3. Typical Dimensionless Parameters in Ocean Engineering

Parameter Definition Force Ratio Application
Cavitation number Ca=p-pv Pressure Cavitation
(Euler number) pV2 Inertia
Drag coefficient Drag force Hydrodynamics, aerodynamics
Co=-0-
lpv2A Dynamic Force
2
Froude number Fr= y2 = l Inertia Free surface flow
gL .jg[ Gravity
Keulegan-Carpenter KC= VT Period Parameter Hydrodynamics, wave forces
number D
Lift coefficient CL=_L_ Hydrodynamics, aerodynamics
Lift force
pV2A Dynamic Force
-2-

Machnumber Flow Speed Compressible flow

Ma =.Y.
e Sound Speed
Pressure coefficient e =p-p. Static Pressure Hydrodynamics, aerodynamics
p lpv2 Dynamic Pressure
2
Relative water depth WaterDepth Waves, hydrodynamics
d/L
WaveLength
Reynolds number Re= pVL Inertia Viscous flow
J.L Viscous
Roughness ratio e Wall Roughness Turbulent, rough walls, pipe flow
L Body Length
Strouhal number St = wL Oscillation Oscillating flow, vortex shedding,
V MeanSpeed vortex-induced vibration
Ursell number Ur = HL2 Depth Parameter Hydrodynamics, waves
d3
Weber number pV2L lnertia Free surface flow
We=--
<; Surface Tension

When the dimensional analysis is completed, the experimenter wants to have similarity between the
model and the prototype, and to determine the relationship between the 1T parameters:

(10-12)

When the above dimensionless parameters have the same corresponding values for the model and prototype,
there is complete similarity between the flow conditions in the model (subscript m) and prototype (subscript p).
This means that if 'TTzm = 1T2p, 'TT3m = 1T3p, etc., then 1T1mwill equal'TT 1p· However, it is very difficult to attain com-
plete similarity. Generally, there are three types of similarity: geometric, kinematic, and dynamic.

10.5.1 Geometric Similarity

Geometric similarity is attained when all body dimensions in all three coordinates for the model
and prototype have the same linear scale ratio. This means that alllength scales must be the same. If the
model is one-fifth (Lm/Lp = 1/5) the size of the prototype, then the model's length, height, and width will
be one-fifth as large, and all angles will be the same. The flow direction and orientation of the model and
prototype must be identical. If there is any change in these details, geometric similarity is violated and ex-
perimental justification is required to show that the change had little or no effect.
Chapter 10 Physical Modeling 355

10.5.2 Kinematic Similarity

Kinematic similarity is attained when the model and prototype have the same length-scale ratio and
time-scale ratio. The fact that the model and prototype have the same length-scale ratio implies a geometric
similarity. If they have the same time-scale ratio, additional considerations, such as Fronde or Reynolds
number equivalency (Frm = Frp, Rem = R~), may be required. In the case of free-surface and frictionless
flows, kinematic similarity is attained if the Fronde numbers (Fr) are equal:
y2 y2
Frm = g~ = g~P = Frp (10-13)

The Fronde number contains only length and time dimensions, which implies that kinematic simi-
larity determines the relationship between length and time. If the length-scale ratio is
L
a=~ (10-14)
Lp
and the gravitational acceleration is the same in the model and the prototype (which is usually the case on
the earth's surface), then the velocity-scale ratio is

(10-15)

Since V = Lff,
Lm
t t
Tp
= ¡a' = ~; ¡a' and ~; = ¡a (10-16)

Thus, the time-scale ratio is the square root of the length-scale ratio (a). For example, in wave modeling,
the wave height and length are related by the length scale (a), and the wave period, propagation speed, and
particle velocities are related by the square root ofthe length scale (a).

10.5.3 Dynamic Similarity

Dynamic similarity is attained when the model and prototype have the same length-, time-, and
force-scale ratios. Geometric similarity must be attained first. Dynamic similarity exists at the same time as
kinematic similarity when the force ratios are the same in the model and the prototype. For an incompress-
ible flow with no free surface, this dynamic similarity is guaranteed if the Reynolds number is the same in
the model and the prototype.
In the case of a free surface, both the Reynolds and Fronde numbers must be equal in the model
and prototype:

(10-17)

Dynamic similarity ensures kinematic similarity. Perfect dynamic similarity is rarely attained because si-
multaneous equivalence of the Reynolds and Fronde numbers requires drastic changes in the fluid proper-
ties. In the case of a free-surface hydraulic model, Reynolds number equivalency requires that
VmLm- VpLp
---v;;- - ----v;-
(10-18)
Vm _ VmLm
Vp - VpLp
 356 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Por a length-scale ratio (a), Proude number equivalency requires that

(10-19)

Therefore, the kinematic viscosity ratio is

(10-20)

Most hydraulic prototypes use water as the fluid. Por a 1110 scale model, the kinematic viscosity in the
model must be 3.16 X 10- 2 times the kinematic viscosity of water. No fluid satisfies this criterion. Mercury
and gasoline come the closest, but neither is desirable to use.

10.5.3.1 Example Problem 10-1

A ship of 400 ft length (Lp) is to be tested by a model 10 ft long (Lm). If the ship travels at a
speed (Vp) of 30 knots, at what speed must the model (Vm) be towed to achieve dynamic similitude
between the model and the prototype? If the drag force (Dm) on the model is 2 lb, what prototype drag
force (Dp) is to be expected? The Proude numbers of the model (Pm) and prototype (Pp) must be equal,
and the gravitational constant (acceleration due gravity) (g) must be the same for the model and the
prototype. The kinematic viscosity (v) of water is 1.05 X 10-5 ft 2 /s. The solution for example problem
10-1 is illustrated in Table 10-4.

Table 10-4. Results of Physical Modeling, Example Problem 10-1

Given L¡, = 400ft, Lm = 10ft, Vp = 30 kts, Dm = 2 lb, Vm = Vp = 1.05 X 10-5 ft 2/s
Find Vm,Dr
Solution Fronde number equivalence (Fp = Fm)
V V
Fp = Fm;_P_ = ~
{gL;;" ,¡gLm
Since VP = 30 kts X 1.689 ~~s = 50.7 ft/s; Vm = 5~.7 J32 ·2 (10) = 8 ft/s
S . j32.2(400)
Dm - Dr
PmV~L~ - PrV~L~

2 Dr
Since p = p · =
m P' ( 8)2(10)2 (50.7) 2(4oW
Dr = 128,525 lb

Check Reynolds number R = VL = (50 ·7)(400 ) = 1.9 x 109 · R = (8)(10) = 7.6 X 106
' P V 1.05 X 10-5 ' m 1.05 X 10-5
Exact dynamic similarity is not attained and there is a Reynolds number effect.

10.5.3.2 Example Problem 10-2

A fixed cylindrical pile for an offshore platform experiences a regular wave of 12.5 s period
(T), 4 m wave height (H) measured from crest to trough, anda current (V) of 125 cm/s. A 1120 scale
model of the pile is placed in a model wave basin. Determine the current speed, wave height, and pe-
riod that must be produced in the wave basin. The solution for example problem 10-2 is illustrated in
Table 10-5.
Chapter 10 Physical Modeling 357

Table 10-5. Results of Physical Modeling, Example Problem 10-2

Given Tp = 12.5 s, Hp = 4 m, Vp = 125 cm/s, Lm/L¡, = 1/20
Find
Solution Inertia and gravity forces dominate, and therefore Froude scaling in used for similarity.
Fr=l
¡gr.
Vp _ Vm
jgpL¡, - JgmLm
gp = gm = 9.81 m/s 2

V =V JgmLm = 125 f1 = 28 cm/s

m p gpL¡, -.Jw
Hm = Hp t: = 4( 210 ) = 0.2 m

Ji: = Jt
. V V
Smce gm = gp; then

Also Vm = ~mm and Vp = ~p

Subsituting yields
Lm _ L¡,
TmJl:: - Tpjl;

Tm = Tpff! = 12.5 j¡ = 2.8 S

10.5.3.3 Example Problem 10-3

The tidal period (T) for an estuary is 12.4 s and the tidal current (V) is 60 cm/s. A physical model-
ing facility is used to model the estuary, and the scale is 1:400. The tides are driven by a pumping system.
Determine the period of the model tide and current. The solution for example problem 10-3 is illustrated in
Table 10-6.

Table 10-6. Results of Physical Modeiing, Example Problem 10-3

Given Tp = 12.4 hr, Vp = 60 cm/s, Lm/L¡, = 1/400
Find
Solution Inertia and gravity forces dominate, and therefore Froude scaling in used for similarity.
Fr=l
¡gr.
VP _ Vm
jgpLp - JgmLm
gp = gm = 9.81 m/s 2

Vm = vPJ~:t = 6o{¡fo = 3.0cm/s

Ji: = Jt
V V
Since gm = gp; then

Also V = Lm and V = L¡,

m Tm p Tp
Subsituting yields
Lm _ L¡,
TmJl:: - Tpjl;

Tm = Tp ti! J6
= 12.4 4 0 = 0.62 hr = 37.2 min
358 Elements of Ocean Engineering

10.5.4 Fixed-Bed Modeling

Fixed-bed models have solid boundaries that do not change as a result of the hydrodynamic process
occurring within the model area. Such models are used to study waves and currents, and the interactions of
waves, winds, and currents with structures such as breakwaters, offshore fixed and floating platforms, piers,
jetties, and harbors. Two-dimensional model facilities usually contain long and narrow tanks or flumes that
are used to study wind, wave, and current interactions, and wave kinematics. Three-dimensional model fa-
cilities are usually large and more complex. Directionality effects can be studied in these facilities because
the length and width of the model are nearly the same order of magnitude.

10.5.5 Movable-Bed Modeling

In movable-bed modeling, the bed (bottom) is constructed of a material, such as sand, that can
move or react to the hydrodynamic forces applied. In most cases, the bed is constructed of sediment material
similar to that found in the bay, lake, estuary, or ocean that is being modeled. Scaling is difficult to satisfy
in movable-bed models because it is difficult to scale the sediment size; consequently, near prototype size
is desired for such modeling. Movable-bed modeling is used to model scour around subsea pipelines and
coastal structures (e.g., jetties, breakwaters, and bridges), bridge supports in rivers, beach profile develop-
ment, effects of storms on beach fills, seabed ripple formation, littoral drift, and dredged material islands.

10.5.6 Distorted Modeling

In sorne modeling applications, it is necessary to deviate from the geometric scale in one of the model
directions; thus, the resultant model is called a distorted model. In other words, the horizontal and vertical scales
differ, and as a consequence the geometric similitude is relaxed. An example is the modeling of an estuary that
is several kilometers wide and only 4 m deep. To fit the model into a facility, a horizontal scale of 1:500 may be
used. Applying the same scale to the depth yields a model depth of 8 mm, which is not reasonable. Using a scale
of 1:50 for the vertical dimension yields a depth of 8 cm, which is more reasonable. A physical model constructed
with the use of a 1:500 horizontal anda 1:50 vertical scale is considered a distorted model. Detailed discussions
about these distorted models may be found in Langhaar (1951), Hudson et al. (1979), and Hughes (1993).

10.6 PHYSICAL MODELING FACILITIES

Facilities used for physical modeling in ocean engineering include long, narrow wave tanks; towing
tanks; variable slope flumes; wind-wave tanks; shallow- and deep-water wave basins; circulating water tun-
nels; low-speed wind tunnels; centrifuga! pump test loops; and pipelines. Many of the smaller facilities are
located at academic institutions, and the larger facilities are usually operated by government organizations.
Sorne large modeling facilities that are used for offshore and coastal applications are listed in Table 10-7,
and selected universities with physical modeling facilities are tabulated in Table 10-8.
According to Hughes (1993), the first hydraulic modeling laboratory in the United States was estab-
lished at Lehigh University in 1887. In the 20th century, such facilities expanded worldwide. The Institute
of Hydraulic Engineering was founded in Hanover, Germany, in 1914, and the Hydraulic Laboratory at the
University of Iowa was established in 1918. In 1927, the Delft Hydraulics Laboratory in The Netherlands
began to assist that country in protecting the land from coastal flooding. The Waterways Experiment Station
(WES), founded in 1929 in Vicksburg, Mississippi, included a model ofthe Mississippi Riveras well as mod-
els of many important ports and harbors in the United States. Other well-known modeling facilities are the
Hydraulics Laboratory of the National Research Council of Canada (established in 1945), the Port and Harbor
Research Institute in Japan (1946), the Laboratoire National D'Hydraulique in France (1946), the Hydraulics
Research Station in Wallingford, England (1947), and the Danish Hydraulic Institute in Denmark (1964).
Chapter 10 Physical Modeling 359

Table 10-7. ..
Selected Deep Water and Towing Tank Model Testing Facilities Around tbe World
Name Size (lengtb, Wave maker and Wave Carriage Windand Location
widtb, deptb) (m) capabilities absorbing speed current
type (m/s)
Danish Maritime 240 X 12 X 5.5 Double flap hydraulic, NA 11 NA Lyngby,
lnstitute regular and irregular, Denmark
max height 0.9 m
period 0.5-7 s
David Taylor 79.3 X 73.2 X 6.1 Pneumatic, max Concrete with 7.7 Bethesda,
Research Center 846 X 15.5 X 6.7 height 0.6 m fixed bars 10.2 Maryland
(DTRC) 905 X 6.4 X 3 35.8-51.2
Memorial 61 X 4.6 X 2.4 Hydraulic random NA 5 NA St. Johns,
University 200 X 12 X 7 wavemaker Corrugated 10 NA Newfoundland,
lnstitute of Marine dual-flap, dry-back plated bolted Canada
Dynamics Towing max height 1 m to rigid
Tank framework
Marine Research 100 X 24.5 X 2.5 Regular and irregular, Lattice on 4.5 Current The
lnstitute (MARIN) Pit depth of 6 m max height 0.3 and circular are 9 O.l-0.6m/s Netherlands
60 X 40 X 1.2 0.4 m significant. plates 15 and 30
Pit depth of 3 m Period 0.3-5 s
252 X 10.5 X 5.5
220X4X4
Norwegian 80 X 50 X 10 Hinged double flap, NA NA Current Trondheim,
Hydrodynamic 144 flaps, hydraulic, 0.2 mis Norway
Laboratory regular and irregular
(MARINTEK) max height 0.9 m
Offshore Model 90 X 14.6 X 4.6 Single flap hydraulic Metal 6 NA Escondido,
Basin circular pit 9 m max height 0.74 m shavings California
deep
Offshore 45.7 X 30.5 X 5.8 48 paddles, flap, Progressive Instrument Wind: College Station,
Technology Pit 9.1 X 4.6 X 16.7 hydraulic, regular, expanded carriage multiple, Texas
Research Center with adjustable irregular, long- metal panels speedof0.5 variable-
(OTRC) Texas floor in pit and short-crested, speed fans
A&M University oblique and focused (0-12 m/s)
•.
Period 0.5-4.0 s Current:
max height 0.8 m multiport jet
manifolds
(0-0.6m/s)
Marine 109.7 X 6.7 X 3.7 Programmable wave Concrete 6.7 NA AnnArbor,
Hydrodynamics maker (regular and beach Michigan
Laboratory irregular waves)
University of
Michigan
U.S. Naval 116 X 7.9 X 4.9 Dual flap wave Four layer of Twotowing Fans Annapolis,
Academy maker rectangular carriages Maryland
bars (1: 3 slope)
MIT Towing Tank 32.9 X 2.6 X 1.4 Harmonic and NA NA NA Cambridge,
Massachusetts random wave Massachusetts
lnstitute of generator
Technology
Davidson 97.5 X 4.9 X 2.0 Programmable wave Porous metal 18.3 None Hoboken,
Laboratory maker (regular and be aeh New Jersey
Stevens lnstitute of irregular waves)
Technology
360 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 10-8. Selected Facilities Used for Physical Modeling of Ocean Engineering Systems and Ocean Processes
Name Location
Coastal Engineering Laboratory Gainesville, Florida
University of Florida
Coastal Engineering Laboratory Newark, Delaware
University of Delaware
Coastal Engineering Laboratory Dalian, China
Dalian University
Coastal and Hydraulic Laboratory, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Vicksburg, Mississippi
Engineering Research and Development Center
Delft Hydraulics Delft, The Netherlands
Technical University of Delft
Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Cambridge, Massachusetts
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Hydraulic Laboratory Tokyo, Japan
Ministry of Transportation
Hydraulics Laboratory Wallingford, England
Hydraulics Laboratory Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
National Research Council
Haynes Coastal Engineering Laboratory College Station, Texas
Texas A&M University
National Hydraulic Laboratory Chateau, France
Hinsdale Laboratory Corvallis, Oregon
Oregon State University
Davidson Laboratory Hoboken, New Jersey
Stevens Institute of Technology
Ship Hydrodynamic Laboratory
Shanghai Jiao Tong University
Shanghai, China (
Indonesian Hydrodynamic Laboratory Surabaya, Indonesia
INHA University Towing Tank Incheon, Korea
Korea Research lnstitute of Ships and Ocean Engineering Taejon, Korea
Pusan Nation University Pusan, Korea
Maritime Research Institute Netherlands (MARIN) Wageningen, The Netherlands
University of Trondheim, MARINTEK Trondheim, Norway
Delft Ship Hydromechanics Laboratory Delft, The Netherlands
Delft University of Technology
Swedish Maritime Research Center Gothenberg, Sweden
Krylov Shipbuilding Research Institute St. Petersburg, Russia
University of Glasgow Glasgow, Scotland
Defense Research Agency Haslar, England
Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research Iowa City, Iowa
University of Iowa
Wartsila Icebreaking Model Basin Helsinki, Finland

Many academic institutions, such as the University of Florida, Massachusetts Institute of

Technology, University of Michigan, University of Rhode Island, University of lowa, California Institute
of Technology, Texas A&M University, U.S. Naval Academy, University of Delaware, Oregon State
University, Technical University of Delft, and Newfoundland Memorial University, have physical model
testing facilities. In 1989, the Offshore Technology Research Center opened its large deep-water wave
basin (Fig. 10-1). The basin is 45.7 m (150 ft) long, 30.5 m (100 ft) wide, and 5.8 m (19 ft) deep, and has
 Chapter 10 Physical Modeling 361

Figure 10-1. Photographs ofthe Offshore Technology ~esearch Center wave basin, showing a model
ftoating production system, tension leg platform (TLP), spar platform, remotely operated vehicle (ROV), and
ftoating production storage and omoading (FPSO) system. (Reprinted with permission from the Offshore
Technology Research Center.)

a 9.1 m (30 ft) long by 4.6 m (15 ft) pit with a maximum depth of 16.7 m (55 ft). A picture of the two-
dimensional wave tank facility located in the Ocean Engineering Laboratory at Texas A&M University in
College Station, Texas, is shown in Fig. 10-2. The large towing tank housed at the U. S. Navy's David Taylor
Research Center is illustrated in Fig. 10-3. Figure 10-4 shows the large shallow-water basin used to model
Los Angeles Harbor at the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers Engineering, Research, and Development Center
(formerly the Waterways Experiment Station) in Vicksburg, Mississippi.
The Haynes Coastal Engineering Laboratory at Texas A&M University, erected in 2001, houses
a 36.6 m (120ft) long, 22.9 m (75ft) wide, and 1.22 m (4ft) deep wave flume anda 45.7 m (150ft) long,
3.7 m (12 ft) wide, and 3 m (10 ft) deep dredge/tow flume with a 7.6 m (25 ft) long, 3.7 m (12 ft) wide,
and 1.5 m (5 ft) deep covered sediment pit. Figure 10-5 shows models of levee and flood-wall structures
and rubble mound breakwaters in the shallow-water wave basin. Figure 10-6 shows an empty dredge tow
flume, along with the steel sediment pit covers, view windows, and dredge/tow carriage. The dredge/tow
carriage is shown towing ata speed of 2 mis (4 kts) and dredging in the sediment pit using the model
cutter suction dredge.
 362 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Figure 10-2. The glass-walled wave tank (36.6 X 0.9 X 1.2 m) at Texas A&M University.

Figure 10-3. Photograph of the towing tank atthe David Taylor Research Center.

Figure 10-4. Photograph of the shallow-water modeling facility for Los Angeles Harbor at the Coastal
Engineering Research Center, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Engineering Research and
Development Center (formerly the Waterways Experiment Station), in Vicksburg, Mississippi.

----------................................
Chapter 10 Physical Modeling 363

Figure 10-5. Photographs of the shallow-water wave ftume in the Haynes Coastal Engineering Laboratory at Texas
A&M University, College Station, Texas. A model rubble mound breakwater (right) and
concrete model flood-wall and levee structure (left) are shown.

Figure 10-6. The dredge/towing ftume in the Haynes Coastal Engineering Laboratory at
Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas.
364 Elements of Ocean Engineering

10.7 REFERENCES

Bridgeman, P. W. (1922). Dimensional analysis. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Buckingham, E. (1914). On physically similar systems; illustrations of the use of dimensional equations.
Physics Review 4:345-376.
Chakrabarti, S. K. (1994). Offshore structure modeling. River Ridge, NJ: World Scientific Publishing Co.
Dalrymple, R. A. (1985). Introduction to physical models in coastal engineering. In R. A. Dalrymple (Ed.),
Physical Modeling in coastal engineering. Rotterdam: Balkema.
Dalrymple, R. A. (1989). Physical modeling of littoral processes. In R. Martins (Ed.), Recent advances in
hydraulic physical modeling. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Dean, R. G. (1985). Physical modeling of littoral processes. In R. A. Dalrymple (Ed.), Physical modeling
in coastal engineering. Rotterdam: Balkema.
Hudson, R. Y., Herrmann, F. A., Sager, R. A., Whalin, R. W., Keulegan, G. H., Chatham, C. E., et al.
(1979). Coastal hydraulic models. Special Report No. 5, U.S. Army Corps ofEngineers Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi.
Hughes, S. A. (1993). Physical models and laboratory techniques in coastal engineering. River Ridge:
World Scientific Publishing.
Kamphuis, J. W. (1991). Physical modeling. In J. B. Herbich (Ed.), Handbook of coastal and ocean
engineering (Vol. II). Houston: Gulf Publishing.
Keulegan, G. H. (1966). Modellaws for coastal and estuarine models. In A. T. Ippen (Ed.), Estuary and ("
coastline hydrodynamics. NewYork: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Langhaar, H. L. (1951). Dimensional analysis and theory ofmodels. NewYork: John Wiley & Sons.
Le Mehaute, B. (1990). Similitude. In B. Le Mehaute (Ed.), Ocean engineering science (Vol. IX). New
York: John Wiley and Sons.
Munson, B. R., Young, D. F., Okiishi, T. H., & Huebsch, W. W. (2009). Fundamentals of fluid mechanics
(2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Murphy, G. (1950). Similitude in engineering. New York: Ronald Press.
Schuring, D. J. (1977). Scale models in engineering. New York: Pergamon Press.
Sedov, L. (1959). Similarity and dimensional methods in mechanics. NewYork: Academic Press.
Sharp, J. J. (1981). Hydraulic modeling. London: Butterworth.
Svendsen, I. A. (1985). Physical modeling ofwater waves. Iri R. A. Dalrymple (Ed.), Physical modeling in
coastal engineering. Rotterdam: Balkema.
White, F. M. (2006). Fluid mechanics (6th ed.). NewYork: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Yalin, M. S. (1971). Theory of hydraulic models. London: MacMillan Press.
Yalin, M. S. (1989). Fundamentals ofhydraulic physical modeling. In R. Martins (Ed.), Recent Advances in
Hydraulic Physical Modeling. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

10.8 PROBLEMS

10-1. The expression for evaluating the drag force on a submerged body is

F = lpCoAV 2
2
where F is the drag force, p is the fluid density, C0 is a dimensionless drag coefficient, A is the pro-
jected area normal to the flow direction, and V is the average fluid velocity. Show that this equation
is dimensionally homogeneous.
10-2. Use the Buckingham Pi theorem to determine the relationship for the drag force on a ship moving
through water. The important properties are the ship length (L), velocity (V), gravity (g), water
density (p), and dynamic viscosity (¡.L) of water.
Chapter 10 Physical Modeling 365

10-3. The period of heave oscillation (T) of a spar buoy varies with its cross-sectiona1 area (A), gravity
(g), and mass (m), and the water density (p). Use dimensional analysis to determine the relationship
for the heave period.
10-4. A prototype ship is 50 m long and designed for a cruising speed of 10 m/s. The drag is to be simu-
lated by a 1-m-long model that will be towed in a towing tank. Using Froude scaling, determine the
tow speed and the ratio of the model to prototype drag and power.
10-5. A vertical pile for an offshore platform is to be located in the ocean where the wave height is 3.5 m,
wave period is 10 s, and current is 3 m/s. A 1120 scale model of the pile is placed in a modeling fa-
cility. U sing Froude scaling, determine the magnitude of the velocity, wave height, and wave period
in the modeling facility to model the ocean conditions.
10-6. A 1:30 scale model of a submarine propeller is tested in a tow tank at 1600 rpm and exhibits a
power of 1.6 ft-lb/s. Using Froude's scaling law, determine the rpm and power output of the proto-
type propeller under dynamically similar conditions.
10-7. The cylindrical piling for an offshore platform is expected to encounter currents of 100 cm/s and
waves of a 1O s period and 2 m height. If a 1:40 scale model is tested in the wave tank, what will be
the current speed, wave period, and wave height?
10-8. The buoyant force (Fb ) acting on a body submerged in a fluid is a function of the fluid specific ('
weight ('y) and the body volume (V). Show by dimensional analysis that the buoyant force is
directly proportional to the specific weight.
10-9. The cylindrical piling for an offshore platform is expected to encounter currents of 160 cm/s and
waves of a 12 s period and 3 m height. If a 1:60 scale model is tested in the wave tank, what will be
the current speed, wave period, and wave height?
10-10. A 1:40 scale model of a submarine propeller is tested in a tow tank at 1500 rpm and exhibits a
power of 1.4 ft-lb/s. Using Froude's scaling law, determine the rpm and power output of the proto-
type propeller under dynamically similar conditions.
10-11. A vertical cylinder for a fixed offshore platform is located in the ocean where the wave height is
3.5 m, wave period is 13 s, and current is 3 m/s. A 1/20 scale model of the pile is placed in a model-
ing facility. U sing Froude scaling, determine the magnitude of the velocity, wave height, and wave
period in the modeling facility to model the oceari conditions.
10-12. A prototype ship is 40 m long and designed for a cruising speed of 12 m/s. The drag is to be simu-
lated by a 1-m-long model that will be towed in a towing tank. Using Froude scaling, determine the
tow speed and the ratio of the model to prototype drag and power.
10-13. A human-powered submarine has a length of 15ft and maximum diameter of 2.67 ft, and is designed
to operate at 3 knots in fresh water. Model testing to determine the submarine's drag coefficient
and control surface force coefficients is desired. No towing tank or water tunnel is available, but a
205 mph subsonic wind tunnel with a cross section 25 in X 36 in X 48 in long is available for test-
ing a scale model. Determine the length and diameter required for a model test in air to satisfy the
dynamic similarity requirements. Will this model fit in the tunnel test section?
10-14. A human-powered submarine has a length of 11 ft and maximum diameter of 2.5 ft, and is designed
to operate at 7 knots in fresh water. Model testing to determine the submarine's drag coefficient
and control surface force coefficients is desired. A towing tank is available for scale-model testing
that is 150 ft long, 12 ft wide, and 10 ft water depth, and has a carriage that can tow at 4 knots.
Determine the length and diameter required for towing a model to satisfy the dynamic similarity
requirements.
 CHAPTER 11 SAFETV ANO ENVIRONMENTAL
REGULATIONS, ANO ETHICS

11.1 INTROOUCTION

Ocean engineers design systems that function in the ocean environment. These systems must be
structurally sound so that they can withstand the severity of environmental forces (e.g., wind, current,
storm surges, and waves), and they must be designed to avoid polluting or damaging marine life in coastal
or offshore waters. Engineers need to be cognizant of the environmental consequences or effects of their
designs and prototype systems, as well as the safety of their operating systems and equipment for humans.
This chapter identifies the environmental and safety laws that apply to engineering in the ocean environ-
ment, and the regulatory agencies or organizations that enforce these laws or regulations. Malcolm Sharples
(personal communication, 2009) contributed material related to classification societies, regulatory bodies,
and offshore rules and regulations. Ocean engineers often must prepare environmental impact statements
concerning a proposed design for the ocean environment, and the rudiments of such statements are de-
scribed. The applicable safety laws for ocean operations are discussed. Engineers should also adhere to
certain ethics related to their professional activities and professional registration, as briefty described at the
end of this chapter.

11.2 REGULATORY ANO PROFESSIONAL SOCIETY RULES ANO GUIOELINES

The design of an ocean system (e.g., a fixed or ftoating offshore structure, drilling vessel, diving
system, or subsea system) is checked and its safety ensured through procedures known as verification, certi-
fication, and classification. These procedures are conducted by special agencies that are independent of the
organizations that design and operate ocean systems. Many of these agencies are nonprofit organizations
that have been set up to ensure the safety of human life and property at sea, and sorne have origins in ser-
vicing the insurance industries. Sorne classification societies are delegated by the government of a country
to certify equipment, and it is important to distinguish be~ween their industry standards and those set by
the government. Many agencies also operate a for-profit division that is involved in certifying equipment
according to specified standards. The verification process is also used to ensure that equipment complies
with government standards and classifications, and is often performed by commercial companies. In any
application of classification, certification, or verification, it is important for the ocean engineer to ascertain
what sort of agencies are to be involved in the process, as this may vary from project to project. Since their
roles are often interwoven, clarity of purpose is a key to understanding their functions.

11.2.1 Classification

Classification societies are noncommercial organizations with industry representation that pub-
lish rules and guidelines for the design of ocean systems to ensure the safety of life and property; they do
not necessarily ensure that the systems will work. Design organizations submit their engineering calcu-
lations, specifications, and drawings to the selected classification society, which then ascertains whether
the design complies with the society's rules, for a fee. If the design meets the society's standards, and
is then built, installed, and maintained to those standards, it is said to be "classed." Classification is
often a prerequisite for insurance, and the classification may be specific to the type of installation (e.g.,
a self-elevating platform or a barge). To ensure that the installation can remain classed, the integrity
and serviceability of the system are checked during its operationallifetime at specified times (e.g., once
a year or at 2 V2- or 5-year intervals). The classification of ocean-going vessels is a long-standing and

367
 368 Elements of Ocean Engineering

internationally accepted procedure. At one time, each maritime country had its own classification soci-
ety for this purpose. Currently, many classification societies work across borders, but their authority to
conduct work for governmental bodies varies according to the government under whose flag the vessel
in question will be sailing. Classification differs from certification in that certification only requires
confirmation that a standard has been met. lt is up to the classification society to determine whether its
rules have been complied with based on its own interpretation of those rules, and there is sorne latitude
in that determination.

11.2.2 Certification

A government or an owner of an ocean system may require documentation that the system con-
forms to specific industry or governmental rules or standards. This service is provided by authorized cer-
tification agents. If the ocean system is found to conform to the specified rules or standards, it is said to be
certified. Surveys and inspections are normally required after the initial certification to ensure continued
compliance with the rules.

11.2.3 Verification

The procedure for verification is similar to that of certification. In the United States, verification is
used to ensure the integrity of offshore platforms, and is administered by the Minerals Management Service
(MMS) according to the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). This procedure uses a third-party review to
ensure conformance to government standards. Verification is conducted separately for the design, fabrica-
tion, and installation of a system, and different inspectors may be used for each phase. The leaseholder
proposes a verification agent for each stage, and the government reviews and approves the agent depending
on bis or her qualifications, experience, and independence.

11.3 REGULATORY BODIES

The need of the shipping industry to ensure the stnictural and mechanical integrity of marine ves-
seis resulted in the development of independent regulatm:y bodies, or classification societies. Prominent
regulatory bodies include the American Bureau of Shipping (ABS), Det Norske Veritas (DNV; Norway),
Lloyd's Register of Shipping (LR; United Kingdom), Bureau Veritas (BV; France), and Germanischer Lloyd
(Germany). The services of these regulatory bodies and others have expanded to other ocean systems such
as offshore platforms, mobile drilling units, floating production systems, and offshore wind farms. These
regulatory bodies are typically not-for-profit organizations that assess fees for their services; however, they
often have a commercial (for-profit) arm that is used when they must compete with commercial orga-
nizations for sorne aspects of their work (e.g., commercial training, nongovernmental certification, etc.).
Table 11-1 contains an abbreviated list of the published rules, standards, and guidelines of selected regula-
tory bodies and professional organizations.
In the United States, there are many federal agencies that are involved in regulating various aspects of
offshore or outer continental shelf operations. These agencies include the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), Minerals Management
Service (MMS), Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
(USACE), and U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). There are often (but not always) memoranda of understanding
between these agencies that define their responsibilities.
The lead agency in any area is often responsible for all of the safety systems in that area, and the other
agencies take a minor role. For example, if the USCG is the lead agency for a vessel, its requirements rather than
those of OSHA may apply. In 1982, the MMS, which is an agency of the U. S. Department of Interior, assumed
Chapter 11 Safety and Environmental Regulations, and Ethics 369

Table 11-1. Examples of Rules, Standards, and Guides Published by Regulatory Bodies and lndustry
Regulatory Body Rules, Standards, Guides
American Bureau • Building and Classing Steel Vessels
of Shipping • Guide for Building and Classing Vessels Intended for Navigation in Polar Waters
(ABS) • Guidance Notes on Fire-fighting Systems
• Building and Classing Mobile Offshore Drilling Units
• Building and Classing Single Point Moorings
• Building and Classing Offshore Installations
• Building and Classing Subsea Pipeline Systems
• Building and Classing Floating Production lnstallations
• Building and Classing Offshore LNG Terminals
• Building and Classing Subsea Riser Systems
• Fatigue Assessment of Offshore Structures
• Surveys Using Risk-Based lnspection for the Offshore Industry
• Application of Synthetic Ropes for Offshore Mooring
• SafeHull-Dynamic Loading Approach for Floating Production, Storage and Offloading (FPSO) Systems
• Underwater Vehicles, Systems and Hyperbaric Facilities
• Building and Classing Membrane Tank LNG Vessels
• Building and Classing Mobile Offshore Drilling Units
• Floating Production Systems
• Website: http://www.eagle.org
American • Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing, and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms Working
Petroleum Stress Design, 20th Edition (RP 2A-WSD).
lnstitute (API) • Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing, and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms Working
Stress Design, 20th Edition (RP 2A-LRFD).
• Recommended Practice for Operation and Maintenance of Offshore Cranes (RP 2D)
• Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing, and Constructing Floating Production Systems (RP 2FPS)
• Interim Guidance for Design of Offshore Structures for Hurricane Conditions Bull 2INT-DG
• Interim Guidance on Hurricane Conditions in the Golf of Mexico (Bull 2INT-MET)
• Planning, Designing and Constructing Tension Leg Platforms (RP 2T)
• Design of Risers for Floating Production Systems (FPSs) and Tension-Leg Platforms (TLPs) (RP 2RD)
• Design and Analysis of Stationkeeping Systems for Floating Structures (RP 2SK)
• Planning, Designing, and Constructing Structu~es and Pipelines for Arctic Conditions (RP 2N)
• Recommended Practice for Design, Manufacture, Installation, and Maintenance of Synthetic Fiber
Ropes for Offshore Mooring (RP 2SM)
• Recommended Practice for Analysis, Design, Installation and Testing of Basic Surface Safety Systems
for Offshore Production Platforms (RP 14C)
• Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing, and Constructing Tension Leg Platforms, (RP 2T)
• Website: http://www.api.org
Det Norske • DNV-RP-BlOl Corrosion Protection of Floating Production and Storage Units
Veritas (DNV) • DNV-RP-B401 Cathodic Protection Design
• DNV-RP-C203 Fatigue Design of Offshore Steel Structures
• DNV-RP-F109 On-Bottom Stability Design of Submarine Pipelines
• DNV-RP-F205 Global Performance Analysis of Deepwater Floating Structures,
• DNV-RP-0401 Safety and Reliability of Subsea Systems
• DNV-OS-ClOl Design of Offshore Steel Structures, General (LRFD Method)
• DNV-OS-C103 Structural Design of Column Stabilized Units (LRFD Method)
• DNV-OS-C105 Structural Design of TLPs (LRFD Method)
• DNV-OS-E402 Offshore Standard for Diving Systems DNV-OS-C106 Structural Design of Deep
Draught Floating Units/Spars (LRFD and WSD Method)
• DNV-OS-E403 Offshore Loading Buoys
• DNV-OS-1101 Design of Offshore Wind Turbine Structures,
• DNV-OS-1102 Design and Manufacture of Wind Turbine Blades, Offshore and Onshore Wind Turbines
• DNV-OS-E304 Offshore Mooring Steel Wire Ropes
• DNV-OS-C503 Concrete LNG Terminal Structures and Containment Systems,
• Website: http://www.dnv.com
continues
370 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 11-1. Continued.

Regulatory Body Rules, Standards, Guides
Lloyd's Register • Rules &Regulations for the Classification of a Floating Offshore Installation at a Fixed Location
• Rules &Regulations for the Classification of Fixed Offshore Installations
• Rules &Regulations for the Classification of Mobile Offshore Units
• Rules &Regulations for the Construction & Classification of Submersibles & Underwater Systems
• Rules &Regulations for the Classification of Ships
• Rules &Regulations for the Construction & Classification of Ships for the Carriage of Liquefied Gases
in Bulk
• Website: http://www.lr.org
American Society • Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
of Mechanical • Website: http://www.asme.org/Codes/International_Boiler_Pressure.cfm
Engineers • Managing System Integrity of Gas Pipelines
(ASME) • Website: http://www.asme.org

responsibility for allleasing and resource management of submerged lands on the continental shelf outside state
boundaries. These responsibilities include resource development to meet the nation's energy needs, protection of
the marine environment, obtaining fair market value for resources, and maintaining competition.

11.4 RULES ANO REGULATIONS

Because the stakes are so high in the offshore sector, numerous rules and regulations have been
put in place to protect life, property, the environment, and the effective development of natural resources.
This section describes the general background, purpose, and structure of offshore regulations, regulatory
bodies, industry standards, and the "enforcers" of these standards. The offshore sector is a global business;
however, regulations can be either international or geographically specific. A comparison of geographic
regions shows that regulations at times have only subtle differences, and at other times have tremendous
differences. General comments will guide the reader to the principies, and references will allow the reader
to explore the specifics on their own.

11.4.1 Types of Offshore Regulations

Regional/local regulations can be divided into two categories: marine safety regulations and
petroleum-related regulations. These two categories are both referred to as "coastal state" regulations.
Additionally, because many offshore vessels are considered "international," they are subject to international
codes developed by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), which is sponsored by the United Nations.
Befare a mobile offshore drilling unit (MODU) or floating production unit (FPU) is allowed to
operate and move internationally, it must satisfy certain requirements related to marine safety. This means
that the hull itself must meet the criteria for structural strength, stability, and system operations.
Any time a natural resource is being developed through either oil or gas production, petroleum-
related regulations apply. These regulations relate primarily to the protection of the natural environment and
the protection and monitoring of the resource itself, although safety is also addressed. Often coastal state
regulations adopt parts of international regulations as a basis for their approval.
An international standard for offshore structures was established by the International Convention for
the Safety ofLife at Sea (SOLAS) in 1974 (IMO, 1974). This standard was modified to extend beyond aconven-
tional ship-type application to MODUs and similar vessels. The 1989 MODU code (IMO, 1989) was developed
to recommend design criteria, construction standards, and other safety measures for MODUs to minimize risks
to the personnel onboard, the environment, and the unit itself. Industrial (drilling and production) systems in-
stalled onboard are not addressed by this code and are the responsibility of the respective coastal states.
Chapter 11 Safety and Environmental Regulations, and Ethics 371

11.4.2 Prescriptive and Performance-Basad Regulations

Regulations can be written using two primary approaches: prescriptive or risk/performance-

based. In the prescriptive approach, the regulator establishes very clear, specific requirements. While the
prescriptive "values" that must be met are generally based on lessons learned, they also require interpreta-
tion and constant updating as technology develops and novel approaches are utilized. The advantage of
prescriptive regulations is their clarity. There is no ambiguity as to which criteria must be met, and the
design requirements are not subject to interpretation. Several regulatory bodies are moving toward a risk/
performance-based approach. In a performance-based approach, risks are determined and performance
objectives are set. It is the responsibility of the operators to define strategies to achieve these objectives and
provide evidence to demonstrate that the objectives are being met.
Because different regulatory bodies have taken different approaches, it can be a challenging pro-
cess to move a vessel from one offshore sector to another. The United Kingdom, Canada, Norway, and
Australia have taken fairly similar approaches (performance-based), so it is comparatively easy to move
vessels among these sectors. The United States has taken a more prescriptive approach, so a move from U. S.
waters to U.K. waters can be more complex.

11.4.3 Regulatory "Enforcers"

There are essentially three types of regulatory "enforcers." Regulations for marine safety come
under the jurisdiction of the USCG in U.S. waters, the Marine Safety Agency in the United Kingdom,
and the Australian Marine Safety Agency in Australia. Regulations related to the petroleum-producing
side of the business fall under the jurisdiction of the MMS in the United States, the Norwegian Petroleum
Directorate (NPD) in Norway, and the United Kingdom Health, Safety and Environment (UK HSE) in
the United Kingdom. A third type of "enforcer" is the classification societies (e.g., the ABS, DNV, LR,
and BV), which overlap to a large degree throughout the offshore sector and serve as rule developers,
regulators, independent verifiers, and industry associations. Classification societies also act with delegated
authority for the marine safety regulators, and to sorne degree the petroleum regulators as well. This del-
egation of authority occurs when both the classification society and the coastal (or flag) state regulator are
looking at the same issue(s).
Classification societies, while remaining independent, can work on behalf of different types of
clients. Sorne are hired by owners and/or operators of offshore systems or shipyards to actas an independent
third party and conduct design reviews and surveys to address safety issues. Classification societies can also
work under the delegated authority of flag states worldwide to survey vessels under that flag's jurisdiction.
Sorne are delegated the authority by coastal state regulators to enforce marine safety requirements, many
of which relate to classification. Specific delegations of authority in the United States by the USCG to the
ABS and other classification societies are written as Navigation and Vessel Inspection Circulars (NVICs)
(http://www.uscg.mil/hq/cg5/NVIC/). For example, NVIC 10-82 specifically addresses the "Acceptance
of Plan Review and Inspection Tasks Performed by the American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) for new con-
struction or major modification ofU. S. Flag Vessels." The classification societies with the most involvement
and experience in the offshore sector are the ABS (United States), BV (France), DNV (Norway), and LR
(United Kingdom).

11.4.4 lndustry Standards

At one time, offshore operators, designers, and contractors did not have industry standards or regu-
lations to follow. However, members of the offshore industry recognized the importance of safety and knew
that if they did not take the lead and develop standards and regulations, sorne would be imposed on them,
particularly if they moved to overseas locations. They decided to use the maritime industry model as a
372 Elements of Ocean Engineering

guide, and compiled comprebensive standards based on sound engineering principies and the judgment of
tbe designers, owners, and operators of vessels, and turned tbese standards over to tbe ABS for adminis-
tration in terms of classification. Tbis became tbe foundation for tbe first "Rules for MODUs," wbicb was
publisbed in 1968.
Altbougb tbe classification societies provided tbe original basis for offsbore rules, otber orga-
nizations bave also contributed to offsbore industry standards. Tbe American Petroleum Institute (API)
developed recommended practices for various types of offsbore structures (e.g., tension leg platforms
(TLPs), spars, and FPUs) and tbe International Standards Organization (ISO) is currently working on a set
of international standards for tbe offsbore. Tbe objective of ISO standards is to ensure common standards
internationally wbile taking into account local and regional conditions.

11.4.5 Differences Among Classification, Certification, and Verification

Tbe differences among classification, certification, and verification can be clarified in general terms
by analogy to tbe purcbase of a borne. Wben a person buys a borne, tbe insurance and mortgage companies
require an inspection of tbe borne. Tbey do tbis so tbat tbey can bave independent assurance tbat the borne
tbey are financing or insuring meets basic standards for construction. Simply put, tbey're protecting tbeir
investment. Tbis can be considered tbe "certification" process, and at a certain moment in time wben tbe
borne meets an agreed-upon standard or collection of standards as reviewed by a qualified and documented
independent third party, it is "certified."
Altbougb tbe objectives of classification are tbe same as tbose of certification, it differs in two fun-
damental ways: 1) Witb classification, it is the classification society's (ABS, DNV, LR, etc.) own standards
or "rules" tbat bave to be met. Tbese rules bave been developed over time and are generally prescriptive
(altbougb many classification societies are moving to risk-based approacbes). Tbese rules often contain
references to international standards, but tbey are primarily based on researcb, tecbnical analysis, lessons
learned, and industry participation. 2) Tbe process of classification, unlike certification, involves looking at
tbe structure periodically througbout its entire life, not just at a moment in time. Going back to tbe bome-
buying analogy, classification would involve tbe following:

l. During the design of the bouse, the classification society would review and approve all of the
architectural drawings to ensure tbat tbey meet it.s standards. For instance, if tbe pitcb of the roof
were sucb tbat the buildup of water around tbe bouse could eventually compromise the founda-
tion, the classification society would require cbanges to be made. In certain areas, copper ratber
tban plastic piping migbt be stipulated.
Additionally, tbe classification society would look at tbe location of the bouse, and tbere would
be more or less rigorous requirements based on the possible bazards that were typical of tbe
area, sucb as burricanes, tornadoes, floods, or earthquakes. In a burricane-prone area, the bouse
would bave to be built to withstand a 100-year storm (meaning, for example, tbat tbe windows
would bave to be stronger, and clips would bave to be available to bold the roof in place during
beavy winds).
2. All of tbe materials, equipment, and systems (e.g., air-conditioning unit, lumber, and plumbing)
would bave to be approved by the classification society to ensure tbat they were suitable for their
intended purpose and built to the society's standards.
3. A surveyor would visit tbe building site periodically througbout construction to ensure tbat
tbe builders followed the approved plans in every way. Sample frames would be cbecked to
make sure tbat tbey were nailed togetber properly, and tbat proper distances were left be-
tween frames.
4. Mter the borne became occupied, tbere would be periodic surveys to ensure that it was being
properly maintained. Anything found to be unsatisfactory would bave to be repaired for the
borne to remain "in class."
 Chapter 11 Safety and Environmental Regulations, and Ethics 373

Unlike both certification and classification, which evaluate performance against a standard, verification
is a performance-based approach. Rather than looking at borne-building requirements, in a verification pro-
cess the homeowners set performance objectives based on their plans for the house. For example, a certification
scheme sets the minimum threshold for the amount of insulation needed in the attic and specifies the maximum
gap allowed in the fitting of the windows to the house frame. For verification, the homeowners set performance
objectives; for instance, they specify that their utility bilis must never exceed a certain amount each month. The
designers and builders then need to show that the objective can be met with insulation, double-pane windows, and
a highly efficient heating and air-conditioning system. This approach is assessed against the performance stan-
dard by a competent, independent third party for verification. In the verification mode, the owners are considered
the "duty holders" who are responsible for setting goals and ensuring compliance with their objectives. The veri-
fier is the "independent competent person" (ICP), who serves as the conscience of the duty holder and the public.

11.4.6 Historical Development of lndustry Standards

Classification society standards (rules) were developed by the classification societies and evolved over
time, with their roots in the maritime industry. The ABS develops its rules with the assistance of industry groups
in committees led by ABS personnel. Research, adaptation to new technology, lessons learned, and interna-
tional protocols all become part of "proposed rule changes," which are brought to the committees for approval.
This arrangement leads to a kind of self-regulation on the part of industry. In the ABS, special committee rules
have to be approved by the Technical Committee, which consists of prominent technical experts from industry.
Another group that promotes industry standards is the ISO. The ISO is attempting to develop global
standards for the oil industry while involving local industries in developing regional annexes to deal with lo-
cal conditions. ISO standards are developed by committees that are similar to classification societies. Unlike
classification, however, there is no feedback mechanism to turn lessons learned into revisions of the ISO
standards. Also, the ISO is a relatively slow-moving organization. Many of the ISO standards have evolved
from American Petroleum Institute (API) standards that were developed by volunteer experts. The API has
been the primary developer of standards for many types of offshore structures; however, it has no means of
confirming compliance with these standards or maintenance of a structure over its lifetime.
In addition to the standards and regulations related to "hardware," there is also a move toward
ensuring that offshore vessels comply with the International Safety Management (ISM) code, although
currently it is restricted to self-propelled vessels. The ISM code, developed by the International Maritime
Organization, defines the principies and objectives of offshore vessel owners in addressing safety issues and
protecting the environment. Its goal is to reduce accidents by encouraging a culture of safety management
in companies, rather than just verifying the safety of an individual rig.

11.4.7 Role of Accidents in the Development of Regulations

New regulations often follow major accidents. A number of changes were made after the capsizing of
the Alexander L. Kielland in 1980 and the sinking of the Ocean Ranger in 1982, but no accident has led to as
much change as that involving the Piper Alpha. As a result of that tragic accident, the regulatory world, led by
the UKHSE, made a leap toward establishing performance-based standards. Each operator should therefore be
required in the Safety Case to demonstrate that the safety management system of the company and that of the
installation are adequate to ensure that the design and operation of the installation and its equipment are safe.

11.4.8 lndustry Associations

Severa! industry associations actas lobbyists for offshore operators and contractors. These associa-
tions serve a number of functions, one of which is to represent the interests of oil producers and oil drilling
contractors in matters before the regulatory bodies. By joining together to present a common front, operators
374 Elements of Ocean Engineering

can communicate their interests more clearly and forcefully to the regulators. Three such associations are
the UK Offshore Operator's Association (UKOOA), Oil and Gas Producers (OGP; previously known as the
E&P Forum), and the International Association of Drilling Contractors (IADC).
Another way industry organizations can influence regulators is by conducting studies that help
illustrate the safety and/or environmental friendliness of their approach to offshore challenges. Deepstar,
an industry research consortium representing many of the oil and service companies that operate in deep
water, has organized and funded a number of studies, including one that produced an environmental impact
statement and comparative risk analysis for the development of floating production storage and offloading
(FPSO) vessels in the Gulf of Mexico.
In addition to the rules of the classification societies, and national and international regulations, the
offshore industry itself develops guidelines from time to time. One example is Bulletin 5-5a, "Site Specific
Assessment of Mobile Jackup Units," published by the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers
(SNAME, 2002). This document addresses the ability of jackups to operate safely ata particular site-specific
location. Although its findings are supported by many oil and gas companies and the UK HSE, it has been
criticized by sorne for favoring mathematical techniques over historical data. The bulletin is undergoing a
review and is expected to become the basis for the jackup section of the ISO offshore structures standard.

11.4.9 Working with Regulators and Classification Societies

Most regulators are practica!, experienced, and anxious to help solve a problem. Most are will-
ing to consider the merit of any proposed exception or change; however, they require solid justification
on engineering grounds for such a change. This can be most easily achieved by 1) getting to know the
representatives of the regulator and letting them observe how thorough and reasonable the organization is
in its regulatory approach, 2) starting the regulatory process early in the project, well before construction
is started, to minimize the possibility that expensive and time-consuming changes will be required during
construction, and 3) knowing the system for instituting change in the regulatory regime in question. This
leads to efficiency in devising a solution to any regulatory problem that might arise. Understanding the
reasons behind the rules, as well as the benefits that are derived from them, also makes it much easier to
comply with those rules.

11.4.1 O Additional Sources for Regulatory lnformation

Additional sources for regulatory information on the Internet are listed in Table 11-2.

11.5 SAFETY

Offshore platforms, floating production systems, mobile drilling units, offshore vessels, and dredges
require safety equipment and safety plans to be in place. The safety requirements for the United States are
outlined in the Code of Federal Regulations (46 CFR), and the USCG is responsible for enforcing and ap-
proving safety equipment and plans for the marine part of the vessel/platform. The safety equipment in a
production system is monitored by the Minerals Management Service (MMS) (33 CFR). The SOLAS treaty
also addresses issues regarding safety at sea, and the United States is a signatory of that treaty (IMO, 1974;
U.S. Department of State, 1974).
Safety equipment includes life-saving equipment, such as life preservers, lifeboats, and escape cap-
sules. For example, the CFR requires that each manned platform provide at least two approved lifeboats
with enough capacity to accommodate all persons present at one time. The CFR can be found in most
government and university technicallibraries in the government documents section, and is available on the
Internet (http://www.gpoaccess.gov/cfr/).
Chapter 11 Safety and Environmental Regulations, and Ethics 375

Table 11-2. Internet Sites for More lnformation Related to Offshore Regulations, Rules, and Guides
~
Organization/Agency lnternet"'We'bslte
U. S. Coast Guard http://www.uscg.mil
Canadian Coast Guard http://www.ccg-gcc.gc.ca
Australian Maritime Safety Authority http://www.amsa.gov.au
U.S. Minerals Management Service http://www.mms.gov
Norwegian Petroleum Directorate http://www.npd.no
UK Health and Safety Executive http://www.hse.gov.uk
American Petroleum Institute http://www.api.org
National Offshore Industries Association http://www.noia.org
Norwegian Oil Industry Association http://www.olf.no
International Association of Classification Societies http://www.iacs.org
International Maritime Organization http://www.imo.org
Deepstar http://www.deepstar.org
UNEP Offshore Oil and Gas Environment Forum (good source for detailed http://www.oilandgasforum.net
descriptions of environmental regulatory regimes)
Australia Department of Industry, Science and Resources (Australia) http://www.isr.gov.au
Western Australia Department of Minerals and Energy (Australia) http://www.dme.wa.gov.au
Northern Territory Department of Mines and Energy (Australia) http://www.dme.nt.gov.au
Victoria Department of Natural Resources and Environment (Australia) http://www.nre.vic.gov.au
Australian Institute of Petroleum http://www.aip.com.au
Australian Petroleum Production and Exploration Association http://www.appea.com.au
National Energy Board (Canada) http://www.neb-one.gc.ca
Natural Resources Canada http://www.nrcan.gc.ca
Canada-Newfoundland Offshore Petroleum Board http://www.cnopb.nf.ca
Canada-Nova Scotia Offshore Petroleum Board http://www.cnsopb.nf.ca
Atlantic-Canada Petroleum Institute http://www.acpi.ca
Canada Association of Petroleum Producers http://www.capp.ca
Competitive Standing of the Norwegian Offshore Sector (NORSOK) - http://www.nts.no/norsok
NORSOK Standards
Offshore Operators Committee (United States) . http://www.OffshoreOperators.com
Offshore Technology Research Center (United States) http://www.otrc.tamu.edu
United Kingdom Offshore Operators Association http://www.oilandgas.org.uk/ukooa/home.cfm
Institute of Petroleum (United Kingdom) http://www.petroleum.co.uk
Society of Petroleum Engineers http://www.spe.org
International Association of Oil and Gas Producers (formerly E&P Forum) http://www.ogp.org.uk
International Association of Drilling Contractors http://www.iadc.org
International Marine Contractors Association http://www.imca-int.org
International Standards Organization (ISO): Materials, Equipment http://www.api.org/iso/tc67
and Offshore Structures for Petroleum and Natural Gas Production
(ISO/TC 67) Committee
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers http://www.sname.org
UK Offshore Operators Association http://www.ukooa.com.uk
Australian Marine Safety Agency http://www.amsa.gov.au
UK Marine Safety Agency http://www.mcagency.org.uk
International Maritime Organization (IMO) http://www.imo.org
Galbraith Consulting (has links to ISO and IMO regulations) http://www.galbraithconsulting.co.uk
M. Sharples, personal communication, 2009.
376 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Fire safety is another critica! issue for the ocean and maritime industries. Detection equipment must
be installed to determine the presence of a tire. Firetighting equipment (e.g., tire extinguishers, tire sprinkler
systems, tire water pumps, tire mains, and hose reels) is also required. Automatic tire sprinkler systems are
required in all accommodation spaces. Control rooms and machinery spaces should have tixed tiretighting
systems that use carbon dioxide and dry powder.

11.5.1 Offshore Accidents

The consequences of offshore accidents can be grave. The failure of a design or piece of equipment
could mean the loss of many lives and damage to the natural environment, not to mention the economic
loss incurred by the company or industry involved. For this reason, offshore owners, operators, equipment
manufacturers, and regulators all have a common purpose in following offshore regulations.
There are many possibilities for accidents to occur in the ocean environment. Dredges that are used
to maintain and deepen ship channels, reclaim land, and renourish beaches can sometimes sink and injure the
crew members. However, recent attention to safety in the dredging industry has improved the safety aboard
dredges. The offshore industry strives to minimize offshore accidents by incorporating safety measures and
abiding by regulatory rules, standards, and guidelines. Accidents can occur as a result of human error, forces
of nature (hurricanes, typhoons, storms, etc.), equipment failures, and lack of adherence to established safety
procedures. Figure 11-1 shows the initiallisting of a semisubmersible drilling rig and its subsequent sinking
as a result of uncontrolled ftooding. A ballasting equipment malfunction in a semisubmersible production
platform is shown in Fig. 11-2; however, in this case, the malfunction was discovered in time and the vessel
was brought back to its normal operating position. Offshore platforms are designed to survive hurricanes and
typhoons, but in sorne cases a hurricane can exceed the 100-year hurricane design conditions, resulting in
signiticant damage or complete destruction. Figure 11-3 illustrates the capsizing of a tension leg platform and
damage to the workover rig on a spar platform after a hurricane. More information on hurricane damage to
oil and gas platforms in the Gulf of Mexico can be obtained from the MMS website (http://www.mms.gov)
and professionalliterature such as the proceedings of the Offshore Technology Annual Conference.

Figure 11-1. Semisubmersible drilling rig listing and then sinking as a result of uncontrollable ftooding.
(Source: http://members.tele2.nllthe_sims/rig/p36.htm.)
Chapter 11 Safety and Environmental Regulations, and Ethics 377

Figure 11-2. Semisubmersible production platform listing dangerously because of a malfunction

in the ballast control equipment. The equipment was repaired and the vessel was righted.
(Courtesy of U.S. Coast Guard, photograph by Petty Officer 3rd Class Robert M. Reed.)

Figure 11-3. A mini tension leg platform (TLP; top left), mini TLP capsized (top right), and spar production
platform (bottom) shown with toppled workover rig after a hurricane (http://www.mms.gov).
 378 Elements of Ocean Engineering

11.6 ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS

Regulation of the placement of structures, dredging of navigable waterways, and disposal of dredged
material within the waters of the United States and ocean waters is a complex issue, and is the shared responsibil-
ity of the EPA and USACE. The Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA), Clean Water Act
(CWA), and National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) are the major federal statute/laws goveming dredging
projects, but several other federallaws and executive orders must also be considered. The jurisdiction boundar-
ies of the MPRSA and CWA are illustrated in Fig. 11-4. The USEPA/USACE govems procedures for evaluating
dredged material proposed for discharge in ocean waters (USEPNUSACE, 1991), inland or near coastal waters
(USEPAIUSACE, 1996), or island, nearshore, or upland confined disposal facilities (USEPAJUASCE, 2003).
Below are sorne brief descriptions of these environmentallaws, many of which can be found in the
CFR (http://www.gpoaccess.gov/cfr/).

11.6.1 Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act; Ocean Dumping Act;
London Dumping Convention

The Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA) is also referred to as the
London Dumping Convention and the Ocean Dumping Act. Section 102 requires the EPA to develop

Figure 11-4. Jurisdiction boundaries for the MPRSA and CWA. (Reprinted with permission from EPA/USACE. (2004).
Evaluating environmental effects of dredged material management alternatives-a technicalframework (EPA 842-B-92-008).
Washington, DC: U.S. Govemment Printing Office.)

\
Chapter 11 Safety and Environmental Regulations, and Ethics 379

environmental criteria in consultation with the USACE. Section 103 assigns the USACE responsibility for
authorizing the ocean disposal of dredged material. The USACE must apply the criteria developed by the
EPA. Section 102 gives authority to the EPA to designate ocean disposal sites. Section 103 authorizes the
USACE to select ocean disposal sites for project-specific use when an EPA site is not feasible ora site has
not been designated.

11.6.2 elean Water Act [33 USe ff 1251-1387]

The Clean Water Act (CWA) is also known as the Federal Water Pollution Control Act and Amendments
of 1972. Section 404 requires the EPA, in conjunction with USACE, to publish guidelines for the discharge of
dredged or fill material to avoid unacceptable adverse environmental impact. Section 404 assigns responsibil-
ity to USACE for authorizing all discharges, and requires the application of EPA guidelines. Section 401 gives
the states a role in certifying project compliance with applicable state water quality standards.

11.6.3 National Environmental Policy Act

Dredged material disposal activities must comply with the applicable National Environmental
Policy Act (NEPA) requirements regarding the identification and evaluation of alternatives. Section
102(2) requires an examination of alternatives to the action proposed, and these alternatives are analyzed
in an environmental assessment (EA) or environmental impact statement (EIS). For USACE dredging
projects, USACE is responsible for developing alternatives for the discharge of dredged material, in-
cluding all facets of the dredging and discharge operation (e.g., cost, technical feasibility, and overall
environmental protection). Compliance with the environmental criteria of the MPRSA and/or the CWA
guidelines is the controlling factor used by the USACE to determine the environmental acceptability of
disposal alternatives.
The NEPA process is finalized in one of two ways. First, a finding of no significant impact (FONSI)
is issued when an EA concludes that preparation of an EIS is not required. Second, an EIS is prepared, and
a record of decision (ROD) is issued that specifies the recommended action and discusses the alternatives
considered (EPA/USACE, 2004).

11.6.4 Resource eonservation and Recovery Act (1976) [42 USe ff 6901- 6992k]
•.

The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976 regulates the collection, generation,
transportation, recovery, separation, and disposal of solid wastes, including liquids, semiliquids, and con-
tained gases. Under the RCRA, a waste is considered hazardous if it is specifically listed as hazardous or it
has a hazardous characteristic (i.e., the waste is ignitable, corrosive, reactive, or toxic). Anyone who generates,
stores, treats, processes, or disposes of a hazardous waste must abide by the RCRA hazardous waste manage-
ment provisions. Sorne wastes associated with offshore oil and gas exploration and production are exempt
from RCRA. The EPA lists exempt and nonexempt offshore oil and gas wastes (Butler & Binion, 1993).

11.6.5 eomprehensive Environmental Response, eompensation,

and Liability Act (Supeñund) (1980); Supeñund Amendments
and Reauthorization Act (1986) [42 USe ff 9601-9675]

The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (Superfund)

(CERCLA) of 1980 gave the government authority to publish a prioritized list of highly polluted locations
or sites. Only hazardous substances are covered by CERCLA, and petroleum is excluded from the definition
of hazardous substances. Natural gas, natural gas liquids, and refined petroleum products, such as gasoline,
are also excluded. However, substances associated with oil and gas exploration and production, including
 380 Elements of Ocean Engineering

methanol, caustic soda, and many mud additives, are considered hazardous. The liability under CERCLA
is very formidable because it is strict, retroactive, and joint. "Strict" means that it is immaterial whether the
party involved is at fault or not. "Retroactive" means that a party may be liable for cleaning up a hazardous
site even if the pollution occurred before it owned the site. "Joint" means each party that is potentially Hable
may be Hable for the total clean-up costs and not just a proportionate amount. A party that did not contribute
at all to the pollution is not liable, but the party must prove that it did not contribute to the pollution and
did not know of the polluted condition of the site. The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act
(SARA), enacted in 1986, provides the means and funding for quick, responsible clean-up of locations that
threaten the environment or public health.

11.6.6 Safe DrinkingWater Act (1974) [42 USC ff 300f-300h-26]

The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) of 1974 applies to the protection of drinking water from
underground sources through underground injection.

11.6.7 Oil Pollution Control Act (1990) [33 USC ff 2701-2761]

The Oil Pollution Control Act of 1990 (OPA-90) addresses marine oil spills for both onshore and
offshore facilities.

11.6.8 Toxic Substances Control Act (1976) [15 USC ff 2601-2671 ;

40 CFR Part 761]

The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) of 1976 states that chemical manufacturers, importers,
and processors must supply information related to the chemicals handled by each organization. Crude oil
and natural gas are naturally occurring substances and are excluded by EPA regulation from the TSCA
reporting requirements.

11.6.9 Occupational Safety and Health Act [29 USC FF 651 et seq.]

The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) has wide applications and requires notification
of users of hazardous substances. Such notification includes the use of warning labels on containers, and
material safety data sheets (MSDS). Organizations are required to evaluate and inventory chemical hazards,
properly label on-site containers, make the MSDS available to workers, train workers to protect themselves,
and develop programs for communicating procedures for handling hazardous substances.

11.6.1 O London Dumping Convention (1972) [26 UST 2403:TIAS 8165]

The United States is a signatory to the London Dumping Convention (LDC), which is an interna-
tional treaty concerned with marine-waste disposal. LDC jurisdiction includes all waters seaward of the
baseline of the territorial sea. MPRSA Section 102 criteria reflect the standards of the LDC.

11.6.11 Coastal Zone Management Act

The Coastal Zone Management Act requires the USACE to coordinate the permit review of all
federal projects with all participating state-level coastal zone review agencies.

\
Chapter 11 Safety and Environmental Regulations, and Ethics 381

11.6.12 River and Harbors Act of 1899 [33 USe f 407]

The River and Harbors Act of 1899 requires a USACE permit for any work or structure in navi-
gab1e waters of the United States. The act also requires permits for the placement of fill material in
navigable waters.

11.6.13 Fish and Wildlife eoordination Act of 1958

The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1958 requires USACE to consult with federal and state
fish and wildlife agencies to prevent damage to wildlife and provide for the development and improvement
of wildlife resources for any proposed federal project in a stream or other body of water.

11.6.14 Endangered Species Act of 1988 [16 USC ff 1531-1544]

The Endangered Species Act of 1988 establishes a consultation process between U. S. federal agen-
cies and the Secretaries of the Interior or Commerce to conduct programs for the conservation and protec-
tion of endangered species of animal or plant life.

11.6.15 Water Resources Development Act of 1986

The Water Resources Development Act of 1986 created a financing arrangement for dredging
associated with navigation maintenance and improvement projects. Local sponsors finance one-half the
cost of improvement and one-half the cost of additional maintenance dredging, and the federal government
finances the other half.

11.6.16 National Historie Preservation Act of 1966

[16 use ff 470-470w-6]

The National Historie Preservation Act of 1966 requires the consideration of the effects of a pro-
posed project on any site building, structure, or object that is- or may be eligible for inclusion in the National
Register of Historie Places.

11.6.17 Migratory BirdTreaty Act [16 USe ff 703-711]

Under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, operators are responsible for covering open pits and storage
containers with covers or nets to keep migratory birds out.
Many other federal statutes are related to activities in offshore and coastal waters, including the
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980; Rivers and Harbors
Improvement Act of 1978; Submerged Lands Act of 1953; Rivers and Harbors, and Flood Control Acts
of 1970; National Fishing Enhancement Act of 1984; Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
(1972); the Marine Mammal Protection Act (1972); and Hazardous Material Transportation Act (1990). In
addition, there are numerous executive orders that affect ocean engineering projects. For example, Executive
Order No. 11988-Flood Plains requires consideration of alternatives to incompatible development in fiood
p1ains, and Executive Order No. 11990-Wetlands provides for the protection of federally regu1ated wet-
lands. There are many other executive orders that may affect ocean engineering applications, and these can
be found in the very voluminous CFR (http://www.gpoaccess.gov/cfr/).

_f
382 Elements of Ocean Engineering

11.7 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

An environmental impact statement (BIS) assessing the possible effects of a new engineering system
or change to an existing system is often required before that system or change can be implemented. Studies
must be conducted, and the cost of these studies is borne by the person, organization, or agency requesting
the new or changed system. There are three types of permits: individual, nationwide, and general. Anyone
wishing to place a structure, or excavate or discharge dredged material in the waters of the United States
needs to obtain an individual permit. Nationwide permits are issued for sorne smaller or minor water bodies,
and general permits are issued for certain regions that may require specific notification and reporting proce-
dures. Asan example, a typical Corps ofBngineers review process is illustrated in Fig. 11-5. Herbich (2000)
discusses the preparation of an BIS and summarizes the permit application process including an example.

Applicatíon
Review
Federal Agencies

Applícatíon
approved

* Conservation
*Economícs
* Envíronmental concems
* Aesthetics
* Historie values
* Físh and wildlife values
* Flood damage preventíon
Applicatíon * Water qualíty
denied * Safety
* Energy needs
* Navigatíon
* Recreatíon
* Land use
* Water supply
* Food productíon
* Welfare of general publíc

Figure 11-5. Flowchart for the Corps of Engineers permit review process.
 Chapter 11 Safety and Environmental Regulations, and Ethics 383

11.8 ETHICS ANO PROFESSIONALISM

Ethics is defined in Webster's Dictionary as "the discipline dealing with what is good and bad and
with moral duty and obligation" or "the principies of conduct governing an individual or a group." The
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers (SNAME), the lead professional society responsible for
establishing the accreditation criteria for academic ocean engineering curricula, has developed a code of
ethics applicable to ocean engineers (see Table 11-3). The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE),
the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE), and other professional societies promote professionalism and ethics in their respective
fields.

Table 11-3. Modified SNAME Code ofEthics

Code of Ethics
FOREWORD
Engineering work continues to be an increasingly important factor in the progress of civilization and in the welfare of the
community. The engineering profession is held responsible for the planning, construction, and operation of such work, and
is entitled to the position and authority that will enable it to discharge this responsibility and to render service to humanity.
Honesty, justice, and courtesy form a moral philosophy that, associated with the mutual interest among all peoples, constitutes
the foundation of ethics. As professionals, naval architects and marine and ocean engineers should recognize such standards,
not by passive observance, but as a set of dynamic principies to guide conduct.
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
Naval Architects, Marine and Ocean Engineers should maintain and advance the integrity, honor, and dignity of their
professions by:
• using their knowledge, experience, and skill for the enhancement of human well-being andas good stewards of the environment
• striving to increase the competence of the professions of naval architecture, marine, and ocean engineering, and
• being honest and impartial, and serving with fidelity the public, their employers, and clients.
SPECIFIC CANONS
Naval Architects, Marine and Ocean Engineers shall:
l. carry on their professional work in a spirit of fairness to employees and contractors, fidelity to clients and employers,
loyalty to their country, and devotion to the high ideals of courtesy and personal honor.
2. hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public in the performance of their professional duties. They will
interest themselves in the public welfare, in behalf of which they will be ready to apply their special knowledge, skill, and
training for the use and benefit of mankind.
3. refrain from associating themselves with, or allowing the use of their names by, any enterprise of questionable character.
4. advertise only in a dignified manner, being careful to avoid misleading statements.
5. regard as confidential any information obtained by them as to the business affairs and technical methods or procedures of
a client or employer.
6. inform a client or employer of any business connections, interests, or affiliations that might influence their judgment or
impair the disinterested quality or their services.
7. refrain from using any improper or questionable methods of soliciting professional work and will decline to pay or to
accept commissions for securing such work.
8. accept compensation, financia! or otherwise, for a particular service, from one source only, except with the full
knowledge and consent of all interested parties.
9. build their professional reputations on the merits of their services and shall not compete unfairly with others.
10. perform services only in areas of their competence.
11. cooperate in advancing the professions of naval architecture and marine engineering by exchanging general information
and experience with their fellow naval architects, marine and ocean engineers and students, and also by contributing to
the work of technical societies, schools of applied science, and the technical press.
12. continue their professional development throughout their careers and shall provide opportunities for the professional
development of those naval architects, marine and ocean engineers under their supervision.
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers (SNAME). (2009). SNAME membership directory and information book. Jersey
City: Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.
384 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 11-4. Excerpt from the State of Texas Law and Rules Concerning the Practice of Engineering
and Professional Engineering Registration
PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITY
• The engineer shall not participate in any engineering practice, judgment, or decisions that may result in an engineering
system that endangers the lives, safety, or welfare of the general public.
INDEPENDENT PROFESSIONAL JUDGMENT
• Avoid all conflicts of interest with clients and employers.
• Do not accept financia! or other benefits from more than one party for services on the same project or assignment.
• Don't solicit or accept financia! or other favors from suppliers of materials or any other contractors for projects.
• As a public servant, don't make personal use of public property or services for personal use.
ACTION SHALL BE COMPETENT
• Engineer shall not accept any engineering employment or undertake an engineering assignment for which the engineer is
not qualified by education or experience to undertake.
CONFIDENCES AND PRIVATE INFORMATION
• The engineer must maintain confidence of information of clients and employers.
PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE AND REPUTATION
• Engineer shall not offer gifts or favors to secure any engineering work or assignments.
RESPONSIBILITY TO THE ENGINEERING PRACTICE
• Engineer shall not engage in illegal acts, circumvent laws, discredit the engineering profession, or conduct fraudulent acts.
PREVENTION OF UNAUTHORIZED PRACTICE
• Do not practice engineering in any way that would violate the laws regulating the practice of professional engineering.

Ocean engineers should strive to become professional engineers in the state or country in which they
practice. These states or countries have a governing organization that oversees the practice of engineering
within their boundaries of jurisdiction. lf an engineer does not abide by the ethical standards of the govern-
ing body, his or her license to practice as a professional engineer can be revoked. Table 11-4 is excerpted
from the State of Texas Law and Rules Concerning the Practice of Engineering and Professional Engineering
Registration (Texas State Board of Registration for Professional Engineers, http://www.tbpe.state.tx.us).

11.9 REFERENCES

Butler & Binion, Attorneys at Law. (1993). Environmentallaw simplified. Tulsa: PennWell Publishing.
EPNUSACE. (2004). Evaluating environmental effects ofdredged material management alternatives-a
technicalframework (EPA 842-B-92-008). Washington, DC: U.S. Govemment Printing Office.
Herbich, J. B. (2000). Handbook of dredging engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000.
International Maritime Organization (IMO). (1974). International Conventionfor the Safety of Life at Sea,
SOJAS. London: IMO Publishing Service.
Intemational Maritime Organization (IMO). (1989). Mobile offshore drilling unit code, MODU. London:
IMO Publishing Service.
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers (SNAME). (2002). Site specific assessment of mobile
jack-up units. T&R 5-5A. Jersey City: Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers (SNAME). (2009). SNAME membership directory and
information book. Jersey City: Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.
U.S. Department of State. (1974). United States treaties and other international agreements, safety of life
at sea. Washington, DC: U.S. Govemment Printing Office.
USEPNUSACE. (1991). Evaluation of dredged material proposed for ocean disposal-testing manual
(EPA-503/8-911001). Washington, DC: Office ofWater, U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency.
USEPNUSACE. (1996). Evaluation ofdredged material proposedfor discharge in inland and near-coastal
waters-testing manual. Washington, DC: Office ofWater, U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency.
USEPNUSACE. (2003). Evaluation of dredged material proposed for disposal at island, nearshore, or
upland confined disposalfacilities-testing manual (ERDC/EL TR-03-1). Washington, DC: U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers.
 CHAPTER12 OCEAN ENGINEERING DESIGN

12.1 INTRODUCTION

It is difficult to define the term "engineering design" precisely. Dym (1994) states that "engineering
design is the systematic, intelligent generation and evaluation of specifications for artifacts whose form and
function achieve stated objectives and satisfy specified constraints." Ray (1985) gives the following definition:
"Design is the formulation of an inquiry or a plan or a scheme in order to arrive at the required end-product.
This will involve a systematic and detailed evaluation of the problems, altematives, and solutions." Design
problems are usually considered open-ended or ill-defined, in that several solutions may be acceptable and the
engineer must determine the optimum solution. For ocean engineering, design may be defined as the system-
atic development of a facility that is to be placed in an ocean or other body of water, satisfy certain constraints,
and perform in a safe, environmentally sound, and reliable way. Sorne examples of ocean engineering design
include fixed structures (e.g., fixed offshore oil platforms, submerged pipelines, and subsea cables), mooring
and berthing facilities, moored systems (e.g., navigation buoys, instrument buoys, ftoating production &ystems,
tension leg platforms, and ftoating breakwaters), coastal protection facilities (e.g., breakwaters, jetties, revet-
ments, and seawalls), instruments (e.g., current meters, wave gauges, and sonar devices), dredges, submarines,
remotely operated vehicles (ROVs; tethered or autonomous), ftoating facilities (e.g., semisubmersible drilling
rigs, jack-up rigs, pipe-lay vessels, and barges), beach restoration projects, harbors, ports, and marinas.
In the first stage of the design process, the builder or manufacturer conveys the requirements for a
particular project to the engineer, who then draws an engineering design by mechanical means or with the
use of a computer (e.g., computer-aided drafting (CAD)). These drawings contain very detailed information
(e.g., dimensions, tolerances, materials, parts, and welding specifications) and must conform to the codes
and conventions specified by iegulatory agencies and other organizations. Designs on paper are often stored
in drawing files, but today the designs are also commonly stored electronically in computer files.
It is useful to introduce students to the design process at an early stage in their college career (i.e.,
the first or second year) so that they can be exposed to the exciting design problems dealt with by ocean
engineers. This also prepares theni for senior-level design courses, assists in maintaining continued interest
in their discipline, and provides a view toward the start of an engineering career. The fundamental design
process is described later, and several elementary design prbblems are given. Also provided are sorne in-
dividual or small-group design projects that can be completed in a short period (3-6 weeks) and include a
literature search, an elementary (conceptual) design, and a brief report. Of course, these projects can easily
be expanded to more detailed and complete design projects. For further details about engineering design,
see Allmendinger (1990), Cross (1989), Dominick et al. (2001), Dym (1994), and Ray (1985).

12.2 DESIGN PROCESS

Several different models can be used to describe the process by which engineering design is accom-
plished (Cross, 1989). Figure 12-1 illustrates a descriptive model for the design process. The ellipses indi-
cate endpoints in the design process, and the rectangular shapes show where work or studies are in progress.
The first step in the design process is to establish a need. This is usually initiated by representatives
of the public, an industrial organization, a commercial business, or the federal or state govemment. For ex-
. ample, an offshore petroleum company may ·establish the need to place an offshore platform in the Gulf of
Mexico, ora state may decide it needs an offshore breakwater to prevent further erosion of a shoreline. Now
that a need has been identified, the next step is to analyze the problem in sufficient detail to arrive at a clear
statement of the problem that identifies the criteria the new design must satisfy and the materials that may be
required. Example design criteria include the environmental conditions (waves, currents, and winds) the de-
sign must be able to resist, the cost constraints, and the codes of practice (e.g., as developed by the American

385
 386 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Analyze Design Problem

Figure 12-1. A descriptive model for the design process. (Reprinted with permission from French, M. J. (1985).
Conceptual designfor engineers. London: Design Council.)

Bureau of Ships [ABS], American Petroleum lnstitute [APÍ], Det Norske Veritas [DNV], U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers [USACE], and Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]). Once the problem statement has been
established, the design team can begin to develop several conceptual designs by using various methods, such
as brainstorming, searching the literature, reviewing similar previous design projects, interviewing prospec-
tive users, administering questionnaires, and performing simple tests. After they select several candidate
conceptual designs, the members of the design team must further develop those concepts by applying their
engineering knowledge and experience to analyze and determine the feasibility of the designs.
After the design team develops the initial conceptual designs, there is an opportunity to receive
feedback and return to the initial design steps and refine the problem statement. Also, the designers may
decide to eliminate one or more of the concepts, or to initiate a new design concept that must be further
analyzed and developed. This process may have to be repeated many times, and consequently the design
concepts may have to be reanalyzed. This iterative process has also been called the·design spiral and is il-
lustrated in Fig. 12-2 for a submersible (Allmendinger, 1990).
After the iterative process has been completed, the design team evaluates the conceptual designs to
select the best one to be further developed and result in a final design description and detailed design draw-
ings to manufacture, build, or construct the final project. A rational method for evaluating different concepts
is often called the method of weighted objectives (Cross, 1989). The objective and criteria identified in the
problem statement are given weights, and an evaluation number (e.g., from 1 to 10, or 1 to 5) is assigned
based on the engineer's best judgment. Numerical values are assigned and either the highest or lowest score
 Chapter 12 Ocean Engineering Design 387

Mission
Requirements
Conceptual Design - Loops A-B
Prelimina¡y Design - Loops C-0-E
Contrae! Design - Loops F-G
t
Performance
Select Point 0

Requirements
1
.. ,
\ · Arrangement 2 Cost-Estimate
Summary

Geometry 11 Weight Displacement

Displacement Center Summa¡y

Hull 4 _.__-+--r-+-+-H 1-+-+--tr--t---t----10 Energy Summa¡y

Structure Energy Storage
System

Propulsion 9 Outfitand
Plant Fumishings

Electrical 6 8 Auxilia¡y
Plant Systems
7
Commandand
Surveillance
Figure 12-2. The design spiral for the design of a submersible. (Reprinted with permission from Allmendinger, E. E. (Ed.).
(1990). Submersible vehiele systems design. Jersey City: Sociecy of Naval Arcbitects and Marine Engineers.)

determines the best concept that is to be developed further. For example, consider the evaluation of three
different automobile design concepts that will cost about the same to produce. The objectives of low fuel
consumption, low cost of spare parts, maintenance, and comfort are used in the evaluation. Weighting val-
ues of 0.5, 0.2, 0.1, and 0.2 are assigned to those objectives. The results are tabulated in Table 12-1, and show
that automobile #2 is the best overall design concept.

Table 12-1. Example ofthe Weighted Objectives Method Applied to Automobile Designs
Objective Weight Parameter Automobile #1 Automobile #2 Automobile #3
Mag. Seore Valoe M ag. Seore Valoe M ag. Seore Valoe
Low fuel 0.5 Miles per 33 2 1.0 40 4 2.0 36 3 1.5
consumption gallon
Low costof 0.2 Cost offive $36 7 1.4 $44 5 1.0 $56 2 0.4
spare parts typical parts
Maintenance 0.1 Simplicity Very 5 0.5 Complicated 2 0.2 Ave. 3 0.3
of service simple
Comfort 0.2 Comfort Poor 2 0.4 Very good 5 1.0 Good 4 0.8
rating
Totals 3.3 4.2 3.0
Cross, N. (1989). Engineering design methods. NewYork: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 388 Elements of Ocean Engineering

12.3 OCEAN ENGINEERING DESIGN PROBLEMS ANO SOLUTIONS

12.3.1 Simple Offshore Platform

12.3.1.1 Need
\ Environmental data must be collected over a 10-year period in offshore waters to support offshore
oil installations. A schematic of the platform is illustrated in Fig. 12-3.

instruments
&
equipment wind directi on
.....
Cylindricol Tubular- 25 m wove directi on
Support .....
o- ¡...-

~ current direct IOn

30.5 m

seo bottom

u
Figure 12-3. Schematic of a single pile platform.

12.3.1.2 Problem Statement

An oil company desires to place a single pile platform in 30.5 m (100 ft) of water to collect long-
term (10-year) environmental data in the Gulf of Mexico. The platform is to be located where a piled foun-
dation can be placed to secure the platform to the soft sediment sea floor. The platform must support two
people and ocean instrumentation to measure wind speed, water current, ambient pressure, tidal elevation,
wave height, dissolved oxygen, and salinity. The surface area of the housing for the instrumentation equip-
ment and power supplies is 2m2 (21.5 ft 2) and the estímate topside weight is 44.5 kN (10,000 lb). The com-
pany requests a preliminary design to determine the size of a single cylindrical tubular supported platform.

12.3.1.3 Design Gritería

After consultation with the oil company, the design team establishes a set of design criteria (see
Table 12-2).

12.3.1.4 Design Computations

A major part of designing a fixed platform is determining the wave, wind, and current forces and mo-
ments on the platform cylinder. Wave forces and moments are determined using linear wave theory and the
Morison equation, as discussed in Chapter 3. By comparing the results with the allowable bending moment
for different diameters, wall thicknesses, and yield strengths, one can determine the proper diameter for the
platform cylindrical pile. The results of the calculations are shown in Table 12-3 for a cylinder diameter of
1.067 m (42 in).
Chapter 12 Ocean Engineering Design 389

Table 12-2. Design Criteria for Single-leg Instrument Platform

Parameter Value
Water depth (mean low water) 30.5 m (lOO ft)
Maximum current 1.03 mis (2 kts)
Maximum deep-water wave height 17.4 m (57 ft)
Return period of maximum wave lOOyr
Maximum deep-water wave period l3s
Topside exposed surface area 2 m 2 (21.5 ft 2)
Maximum topside weight 44.5 kN (10,000 lb or 5 short tons)
Maximum wind speed 44 mis (98.4 mph)
Material for cylindrical tubular support steel

Table 12-3. Calculation of Forces and Moments on Cylinder Supporting lnstrument Platform
Given: Wave period (T) s 13
Gravity (g) mls2 9.81
Depth (d) m 30.5
Pi 3.14159
Wave height (H) m 17.4
Diameter (D) m 1.524
Density (p) kglm 3 1030
Kinematic viscosity m 21s 1.17E-06
Wind speed (U) mis 44
Current speed (U) mis 1.03
Area normal to the wind (Aw) m2 40.1
Topside surface area normal to wind (A¡) m2 2
Distance to the centroid of topside area (D2) m 0.5
Height of platform from SWL to top deck (H2) m 25
Air density (pair) kglm 3 1.23
Find: F¡, Fd, F~o M¡,~. M1 on one leg over one wave period and plot
Solution: Pipe area normal to the current flow (Ac) m 2 46.482
Deep water wave length (L0 ) m 1 Lo =·1.56 X T 2 263.64
Relative water depth diL0 • 1 This is an intermediate water depth. 0.115688
Wave length for intermediate water depth L using equation 2-39 207.896
Wave number (k) k=2 X PiiL 0.030223
Maximum horizontal velocity (UmaJ mis using equation 2-46 5.785938
Kuelegan-Carpenter number (K = UmaxTID) 49.35512
Reynolds number (R = UmaxDikinematic viscosity) 7,536,555
Drag coefficient Cd 0.62
lnertia coefficient Cm 1.8
Evaluate forces and moments using the Morison equation (equations 3-4 and 3-5)
A2 = (2kd +sinh 2kd)l(16 sinh 2 (kd)) 0.274938
Al = 1r(a/2H) 0.06879
C1 = 2 X 1T X p X a X H 2 X L!T 2 1,836,664
A3 = 1T X r(1+2kdsinh(kd)-cosh(kd))l(4 X H X sinh(kd)) 0.016887
A4 = -(2 X k 2d2+2kdsinh(2kd)+l-cosh(2kd))l64 X sinh 2 (kd)) -0.07175
C2 = 2 X 1T X p X a X H 2 X L21T2 =Cl X L 3.82E+08
Evaluate forces and moments dueto wind and current (equation 3-9)

continues
390 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 12-3. Continued.

Results from the Morison equation for theta varying between O and 2 1T (one wave period)
Theta Fmertia Fdrag Ftotal Minertia Mdrag M total

o o 313,081 313,081 o -1.7E+07 -1.7E+07

0.2 45,181.25 300,723.8 345,905.1 2,305,879 -1.6E+07 -1.4E+07
0.4 88,561.27 265,603.3 354,164.6 4,519,830 -1.4E+07 -9,889,460
0.6 128,410.6 213,264.1 341,674.8 6,553,590 -1.2E+07 -5,016,240
0.8 163,140.7 151,969.6 315,110.2 8,326,079 -8,244,528 81,550.52
Results from Morison equation for theta varying between O and 21T (one wave period)
Theta Finertia Fdrag Ftotal Minertia Mdrag M total

l. O 191,366.8 91,396.66 282,763.5 9,766,633 -4,958,376 4,808,257

1.2 211,963.7 41,108.52 253,072.2 10,817,822 -2,230,185 8,587,637
1.4 224,110.3 9044.543 233,154.9 11,437,739 -490,677 10,947,062
1.570796 227,419.4 3.34E-08 227,419.4 11,606,619 -1.8E-06 11,606,619
1.8 221,471.8 -16,161.5 205,310.3 11,303,078 876,779.7 12,179,858
2 206,791.8 -54,218.8 152,573 10,553,869 2,941,433 13,495,302
2.2 183,867.7 -108,430 75,437.28 9,383,910 5,882,479 15,266,389
2.4 153,613.4 -170,238 -16,624.2 7,839,844 9,235,591 17,075,435
2.6 117,235 -229,882 -112,647 5,983,228 12,471,386 18,454,614
2.8 76,182.79 -277,948 -201,765 3,888,080 15,079,003 18,967,082
3 32,093.42 -306,846 -274,753 1,637,926 16,646,757 18,284,683
3.141593 -0.07878 -313,081 -313,081 -4.02065 16,985,011 16,985,007
3.2 -13,275.4 -312,014 -325,290 -677,526 16,927,133 16,249,607
3.4 -58,115 -292,636 -350,751 -2,965,968 15,875,868 12,909,900
3.6 -100,638 -251,772 -352,410 -5,136,166 13,658,932 8,522,766
3.8 -139,148 -195,873 -335,021 -7,101,601 10,626,331 3,524,730
4 -172,112 -133,764 -305,875 -8,783,918 7,256,845 -1,527,073
4.2 -198,213 -75,250.8 -273,464 -1E+07 4,082,444 -6,033,604
4.4 -216,413 -29,571.6 -245,984 -1.1E+07 1,604,294 -9,440,589
4.6 -225,985 -3937.99 -229,923 -1.2E+07 213,640.7 -1.1E+07
4.712389 -227,419 1.2E-10 -227,419 -1.2E+07 -6.5E-09 -1.2E+07
4.8 -226,547 2,396.971 -224,150 -1.2E+07 -130,038 -1.2E+07
5 -218,078 25,191.82 -192,886 -1.1E+07 -1,366,686 -1.2E+07
5.2 -200,915 68,723.74 -132,191 -1E+07 -3,728,344 -1.4E+07
5.4 -175,742 126,120 -49,621.6 -8,969,183 -6,842,158 -1.6E+07
5.6 -143,562 188,319 44,756.72 -7,326,871 -1E+07 -1.8E+07
5.8 -105,660 245,500.8 139,841.3 -5,392,460 -1.3E+07 -1.9E+07
6 -63,544.5 288,637.8 225,093.3 -3,243,069 -1.6E+07 -1.9E+07
6.2 -18,896.1 310,919.5 292,023.4 -964,387 -1.7E+07 -1.8E+07
6.283185 0.000641 313,081 313,081 0.032735 -1.7E+07 -1.7E+07
Eva1uate the force on cylinder due to current
Fcurrent= 0.5 Cd p Ac U2 (N) 15,745.56
Mcurrent = Fcurrentd/2 (N-m) 240,119.8
 Chapter 12 Ocean Engineering Design 391

Table 12-3. Continued.

Evaluate the force of wind on platform above water
Fwind = 0.5 Cd p Aw U2 (N) 1 29601.69
Mwind = Fwind (d+h2) (N-m) 1 1272873
Evaluate the maximum force and moment of wave on cylinder
1 Fwave max (N) 313081
1
1 Mwavemax (N-m) 1 -1.7E+07
Evaluate the total maximum force and maximum moment about bottom
= Fwave + Fwind + Fcurrent (N)
1 Ftotal 1 358,428.2
1 Mmax = Mwind + Mwave + Mcurrent (N-m) 1 18,498,003

The wind, waves, and current are assumed to be in the same direction. The current is also assumed
to be constant over the water depth. The total maximum moment is determined by summing the contribu-
tions from the wind, wave, and current. Calculations of the total maximum moment were also performed
for cylinder diameters of 0.762 m (30 in), 0.9144 m (36 in), 1.219 m (48 in), 1.372 m (54 in), and 1.524 m
(60 in). Information on allowable bending moments for different-sized cylinder pipes, different wall thick-
·nesses, and two different yield strengths of steel pipe was obtained from Hsu (1984), and the results are
tabulated in Table 12-4.

Table 12-4. Comparison of Allowable Bending Moments for Three Cylindrical Pipe Wall Thicknesses with Computed
Moments (M) due to Wind, Wave, and Current Loads
Cylindrical Pile Maximum Moment (M) Allowable Moment for Allowable Moment for Allowable Moment for
Support Diameter Due to Environmental Wall Thickness Wall Thickness Wall Thickness
(m) Forces (kN-m) t = 0.0254 (m) t = 0.0381 (m) t = 0.0508 (m)
(kN-m) (kN-m) (kN-m)
0.762. 9280 2034 2983 3797
0.9144 11,124 2848 4475 5831
1.067 12,970 4204 6509 8272
1.219 14,809 4746 7458 9899
1.372 16,659 6102 •. 9628 12,882
1.524 18,498 9492 14,238 18,713
1.829 22,187 14,238 20,340 25,764
248 MPa (36 ksi) steel pipe of wall thickness (t)

Cylindrical Pile Maximum Moment (M) Allowable Moment for Allowable Moment Allowable Moment for
Support Diameter Due to Environmental Wall Thickness for Wall Thickness Wall Thickness
(m) Forces (kN -m) t = 0.0254 (m) t = 0.0381 (m) t = 0.0508 (m)
(kN-m) (kN-m) (kN-m)
Dia. (m) M(kN-m) t = 0.0254 (m) t = 0.0381 (m) t = 0.0508 (m)
0.762 9280 2576 3729 4746
0.9144 11,124 3932 5560 7051
1.067 12,970 5288 7865 9763
1.219 14,809 5560 8814 11,390
1.372 16,659 7322 11,255 14,238
1.524 18,498 10,848 16,272 21,018
1.829 22,187 16,272 23,730 29,832
290 MPa (42 ksi) steel pipe of wall thickness (t)
392 Elements of Ocean Engineering

12.3.1.5 Summary
The tabular results from Table 12-4 are also illustrated in Fig. 12-4 for 248 MPa (36 ksi) steel pipe
and Fig. 12-5 for 290 MPa (42 ksi). Steel pipes with wall thickness of 0.0254, 0.0381, and 0.0508 m (1, 1.5,
and 2 in) are shown. After evaluation of the forces and moments on the single cylindrical pile, the 290 MPa
(42 ksi) working stress steel pile with a leg diameter of 1.829 m (72 in) anda wall thickness of 0.0508 m
(2 in) was chosen. At this diameter, the bending moment at the bottom is 22,187 kN-m, and the allowable
moment is estimated at 29,832 kN-m. Since the allowable moment is greater than the moment computed
for the moment due to environmental forces, a margin of safety exists, which is typically called the safety
factor. In this design, the safety factor is 1.34, and this is within the range established in the design criteria.
With this size of wave, the calculations are made in the drag-dominated regime and inertia is an order of
magnitude less. The forces and moments due to inertia, wind, and current are included to show that they are
small. The shear stress due to the lateral forces caused by the same environmentalloads is neglected in this
design problem. Normally, the bending stresses near the mud line caused by the maximum bending moment
control the design. lf a greater safety factor is desired, larger working stress steel is required.

30000
'E 1
25000
z
=-...e 20000
cu -+-M {kN-m)
E
o 15000 -t=0.0254 (m)
::!:
E 10000 ~t-0.0381 (m)
:S
E
·;e 5000 -t=0.0508 (m)
111
::!:
o
o 0.5 1 1.5 2

Diameter (m)

Figure 12-4. Comparison of bending moment for wind, wave, and current forces with the allowable
bending moment for a selected steel pipe with 248 MPa (36 ksi) yield strength and wall thickness (t).

35000
'E·
1 30000
z
=-...e 25000
cu -+-M (kN-m)
E 20000
o -t=0.0254 (m)
::!: 15000
E ~t-0.0381 (m)
:S 10000
E
·¡;¡¡ -t=0.0508 (m)
111 5000
::!:
o
o 0.5 1 1.5 2

Diameter (m)

Figure 12-5. Comparison of bending moment for wind, wave, and current forces with the allowable
bending moment for a selected steel pipe with 290 MPa (42 ksi) yield strength and wall thickness (t).
Chapter 12 Ocean Engineering Design 393

12.3.2 Remotely Operated Vehicle

12.3.2. 1 Need
A small tethered ROV is needed for a wave basin facility (Fig. 12-6) to retrieve too1s, inspect equip-
ment and connections, and assist SCUBA divers in installing models and instrumentation.

Wave Absorber
Wave Generator

9.1 m (30 ft)

1¡~ 91
30.5 m
''m (>ó~):;w (1 00 ft)

Deep Pi\

~-------------------------~
45.7 m (150 ft)

Deep Pit
10.6 m (35 ft)

Figure 12-6. Schematic of a wave basin in which an ROV is to operate.

12.3.2.2 Problem Statement

Designa small ROV that can work in the wave basin shown in Fig. 12-5 and be capable of retrieving an
object weighing 111.2 N (25 lb) in water. The wave basin contruns fresh water at 21.1 oc (70°F). The maximum
speed ofthe ROV is to be 0.765 rnfs (1.5 kts). The ROV must have a mechanical arm that is capable of gripping
and twisting. An underwater video camera and lights are necessary to view the work. A video monitor and
controls for the mechanical arm and thruster are to be located on the deck at the wave basin for observation
and use by the ROV operator. Power and control signals for the ROV are to be delivered through an umbilical.

12.3.2.3 Design Gritería

The design criteria are summarized in Table 12-5. ROVs are near neutrally buoyant submersibles
that can be used for a number of operations in an underwater environment. As with any design, there are

Table 12-5. Design Criteria for ROV

Parameter Criteria
Maximum speed 1.5 kts (2.6 ft/s, 0.8 m/s)
Lifting capability 25lb (111.2 N)
Maximum depth 55ft (16.8 m)
Maximum footprint 2ft X 1 ft (0.61 m X 0.31 m)
Viewing Video camera only
Propellers Electric, caged
 394 Elements of Ocean Engineering

a number of factors that must be determined before proceeding with the design process. Key parameters
for determining the operating characteristics of a ROV include the determination of drag, thrust, and
hydrostatics.

12.3.2.4 Drag Force

The drag force is an important factor in estimating the speed of the vehicle. It can be determined
from the following equation:

(12-1)

where p is the mass density of water, C0 is the drag coefficient, An is the projected area normal to the ftow
direction, and Ve is the average magnitude of the current velocity or speed of the vehicle.

12.3.2.5 Thrust
The amount of available thrust can be determined theoretically by computing the change in mo-
mentum of the water that is accelerated through the thruster using the following equation:

(12-2)

where AT is the cross-sectional area of thruster' s stream of water and VTis the average velocity of the water
through the thruster. VT is computed using

(12-3)

where N is the number of revolutions per minute of the propeller, P is the propeller pitch, and E is the overall
efficiency of the propeller. AT is computed using

(12-4)

where dp is the diameter of propeller and dh is the hub diameter.

12.3.2.6 Center of Gravity and Buoyancy ·

To determine the longitudinal center of gravity (l,.CG) and vertical center of gravity (VCG), it
is necessary to itemize each piece of equipment by weight and location according to fixed axes. Then,
the moments of each item are calculated and the CGs are determined. An example of these calculations
is shown in Table 12-6. The results show that the VCG is below the vertical center of buoyancy (VCB)
by 0.043 m (0.14 ft), indicating that the vehicle is stable. A larger GB can be obtained by increasing the
ballast and amount of buoyancy material. The vehicle weighs 1036.4 N (233 lb) in air, and it is 4.5 N
(llb) positively buoyant in the water. The longitudinal center of buoyancy (LCB) and LCG are nearly
the same, so only a small pitch angle is expected. The transverse CB (TCB) and CG (TCG) are the
same, so no list angle is anticipated. If a smaller vehicle is desired, the designer will have to reduce the
overall vehicle weight and size.

12.3.2.7 Summary
Once the weight and the drag force are determined, the amount of thrust needed can be com-
puted. To change the amount of thrust produced, factors such as RPMs, propeller pitch, and propeller size
must be adjusted. The calculations of drag and thrust for the ROV are tabulated in Table 12-7. The total
drag (Ftotai) increases to 320.3 N (72 lb) ata vehicle speed of 1.04 m/s (3.4 ft/s). Propeller thrust is also
estimated for different values of RPM, propeller pitch, hub diameter, propeller diameter, and propeller
efficiency. The values of developed propeller thrust are plotted in Fig. 12-7 as a function of RPM for each
propeller type (propeller ID numbers 1-8). Figure 12-7 shows that, to develop a thrust of 320.3 N (72lb),
propeller ID #7 running at 2250 RPM is a possible choice. To obtain a verticallift of 111.2 N (25 lb), the
 o
:::T
lll
-e
¡¡;
.....
......
1\)

Table 12-6. Center of Gravity and Buoyancy for ROV

From Volume From Weight
ITEM W(air) Volume LCB L-Mom TCB T-Mom VCB V-Mom LCG L-Mom TCG T-Mom VCG V-Mom
(lbs) (ft3) (ft) (ft4) (ft) (ft4) (ft) (ft4) (ft) (lb-ft) (ft) (lb-ft) (ft) (lb-ft)
* * * * * * * *
Aluminum frame 15.00 0.50 1.00 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.25 1.00 15.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 7.50
Port vertical thruster 8.00 0.15 1.00 0.15 -0.38 -0.06 0.75 0.11 1.00 8.00 -0.38 -3.00 0.75 6.00
Azimuthing horizontal thruster 15.00 0.30 1.00 0.30 0.00 0.00 1.25 0.38 1.00 15.00 0.00 0.00 1.25 18.75
Starboard vertical thruster 8.00 0.15 1.00 0.15 0.38 0.06 0.75 O.li 1.00 8.00 0.38 3.00 0.75 6.00
o
()
Pan video camera 12.00 0.30 0.75 0.23 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.15 0.75 9.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 6.00 <1>
lll
Electronics housing and equipment 20.00 0.50 1.75 0.88 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.13 1.75 35.00 0.00 0.00 0.15 3.00 :;:¡
m
:;:¡
Buoyancy top cover 45.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.75 0.75 1.00 45.00 0.00 0.00 0.75 33.75 (C

Port light 4.00 0.10 0.00 0.00 -0.38 -0.04 0.25 0.03 0.00 0.00 -0.38 -1.50 0.25 1.00 s·
<1>
<1>
Starboard light 4.00 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.38 0.04 0.25 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.38 1.50 0.25 1.00 ::::!.
:;:¡
Mechanical arm 32.00 0.40 0.50 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.75 24.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 (C

Ballast 60.00 0.10 1.10 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.01 1.10 66.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 6.00
o<1>
m
Movable ballast 5.00 0.05 0.10 o.or 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 c3"
:;:¡
Movable buoyancy 5.00 0.10 2.00 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.75 0.08 2.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.75 3.75
TOTALS 233.00 3.75 0.99 3.72 0.00 0.00 0.54 2.01 1.01 235.00 0.00 0.00 0.40 92.75
Weight of water displaced 234
VCG (ft) 0.40 Note Assume origin of axis is at the bow of the vehicle and even with the keel
VCB (ft) 0.54 x-axis runs longitudinal along vehicle keel from bow to stern
V GB (ft) 0.14 y-axis is transverse running perpendicular to keel (+ starboard and - port)
LCG (ft) 1.01 z-axis is vertical and perpendicular to keel and positive vertically upward
LCB (ft) 0.99
TCG (ft) 0.00 * Input values
TCB (ft) o -- - --- ------- ----------
j ___

ú)
CD
c.n
396 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 12-7. Calculations of ROV Drag and Thrust Forces

Drag and Thrust Calculations
ROV projected area (ft 2) = 2
Tether diameter (ft) = 0.0625
ROV drag coefficient (Cd) = 1.5
ROV tether drag coefficient = 1.2
ROV characteristic length (ft) = 2
Water kinematic viscosity (ft2/s) = 1.21E-05
Water density (slugs/ft3 ) 1.94
Drag Force Calculations
Velocity Re(ROV) Re (tether) F(tether) F(ROV) F(total)
(ft/s) (lbs) (lbs) (lbs)
0.20 3.31E+04 1.03E+03 0.13 0.12 0.25
0.60 9.92E+04 3.10E+03 1.20 1.05 2.25
1.00 1.65E+05 5.17E+03 3.33 2.91 6.24
1.40 2.31E+05 7.23E+03 6.54 5.70 12.24
1.80 2.98E+05 9.30E+03 10.80 9.43 20.23
2.20 3.64E+05 1.14E+04 16.14 14.08 30.22 .,

2.60 4.30E+05 1.34E+04 22.54 19.67 42.21

3.00 4.96E+05 1.55E+04 30.01 26.19 56.20
3.40 5.62E+05 1.76E+04 38.55 33.64 72.18
Velocity of Water Through Thruster and Thruster Force
RPM Pitch Efficiency PropDia HubDia Area (At) V(t) Force Propeller
(ft) ft ft ft2 (ft/s) lb id
1000 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.125 0.18 4.17 6.20 5
1500 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.125 0.18 6.25 13.95 5
2000 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.125 0.18 8.33 24.80 5
2500 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.125 0.18 10.42 38.75 5
1000 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.125 0.18 5.00 8.93 6
1500 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.125 0.18 7.50 20.09 6
2000 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.125 0.18 10.00 35.71 6
2500 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.125 0.18 12.50 55.80 6
1000 0.33 0.5 0.33 0.08 0.08 2.75 1.18 1
1500 0.33 0.5 0.33 0.08 0.08 4.13 2.66 1
2000 0.33 0.5 0.33 0.08 0.08 5.50 4.72 1
2500 0.33 0.5 0.33 0.08 0.08 6.88 7.38 1
1000 0.33 0.6 0.33 0.08 0.08 3.30 1.70 2
1500 0.33 0.6 0.33 0.08 0.08 4.95 3.83 2
2000 0.33 0.6 0.33 0.08 0.08 6.60 6.80 2
2500 0.33 0.6 0.33 0.08 0.08 8.25 10.63 2
1000 0.75 0.5 0.5 0.125 0.18 6.25 13.95 7
1500 0.75 0.5 0.5 0.125 0.18 9.38 31.39 7
2000 0.75 0.5 0.5 0.125 0.18 12.50 55.80 7
2500 0.75 0.5 0.5 0.125 0.18 15.63 87.18 7
1000 0.75 0.6. 0.5 0.125 0.18 7.50 20.09 8
1SOO 0.75 0.6 0.5 0.125 . 0.18 11.25 45.20 8
2000 0.75 0.6 0.5 0.125 0.18 15.00 80.35 8
2500 0.75 0.6 0.5 0.125 0.18 18.75 125.55 8
1000 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.08 0.08 4.17 2.71 3
1500 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.08 0.08 6.25 6.10 3

continues
 Table 12-7. Continued.
2000 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.08 0.08 8.33 10.85 3
2500 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.08 0.08 10.42 16.95 3
1000 0.5 0.6 0.33 0.08 0.08 5.00 3.90 4
1500 0.5 0.6 0.33 0.08 0.08 7.50 8.78 4
2000 0.5 0.6 0.33 0.08 0.08 10.00 15.62 4
2500 0.5 0.6 0.33 0.08 0.08 12.50 24.40 4

140.00

120.00
--+--5
100.00 --6

ª"C
Cl)
Q.
o
-¡¡;
¡¡
80.00
_,. --~~r-1

""""*-" 2
--i!E---7
e.... 60.00
........
..
111
:::11
.e
1-
40.00
.....
¡...--
-e--8
--t-3

....... -4
20.00

0.00
o 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Propeller RPM
Figure 12-7. EtTects of ROV velocity and cross-sectiooal area on drag force.

tether cable
horizontal
thruster
horiz
thru

tether
cable

arm

----1

top v1ew
f{ lig~
u camera

arm

front v1ew
Figure 12-8. ROV drawing.
398 Elements of Ocean Engineering

two vertical thrusters can be estimated by using Fig. 12-7. Entering the ordinate axis at 55.6 N (12.5 lb)
shows that the propeller (ID #5) operating at 1500 RPM would develop the necessary thrust and have
additional capability by increasing the RPM to 1600 to bring the load up through the water column. In
Fig. 12-8, a schematic drawing of the ROV shows the overall dimensions of the vehicle as 0.61 m (2 ft)
long, 0.45 m (1.5 ft) wide, and 0.305 m (1 ft) high. The aluminum tubular frame holds three thrusters,
electronic equipment housing, a video camera, lights, and a mechaniéal arm.

12.3.3 Breakwater

12.3.3.1 Need
A port needs a breakwater designed to protect ships during berthing. A schematic of the breakwater
location is shown in Fig. 12-9.

Wave 1
Approach+
Breakwater

tN

Figure 12-9. Schematic for a port requiring a breakwater desigu.

12.3.3.2 Problem Statement

Design the north-side breakwater for the port. The breakwater design should allow minor over-
topping, and 25% damage is acceptable. Consider the design wave height on the ocean side of the break-
water only. The water depth in the port is to be dredged to 15.2 m (50 ft) and the mean low water depth
at the north-side breakwater is 16.8 m (55ft). The length of the breakwater is to be 915 m (3000 ft), and
the maximum tidal variation is 0.915 m (3ft).

12.3.3.3 Design Gritería

In consultation with the client, the design team establishes the design criteria shown in Table 12-8.

Table 12-8. Design Criteria for Breakwater

Parameter Criteria
Wave height and direction 6 ft, 180 degrees
Waterdepth 40 ft min, 46 ft max
Typeofwave Nonbreaking
'JYpe of construction Random placement from barge
'JYpes of armor units available Rough quarry stone, tribar, and dolos
Wave location Offshore side only
 Chapter 12 Ocean Engineering Design 399

12.3.3.4 Design Considerations

The design of a rubble mound breakwater involves the determination of three major variables: the
geometry of the structure, the methods of construction, and the selection of materials. There is no particular
order in which these must be determined, as they are all interrelated. The equations and methods used to
determine these variables are outlined below. Information regarding the design of this breakwater may be
obtained from Chapter 4, the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers Shore Protection Manual (USACE, 1984), and
the Coastal Engineering Manual (USACE, 2005).

12.3.3.5 Geometry of the Structure

The geometry of a rubble mound breakwater depends primarily on the crest elevation and width.
The determination of crest elevation is mainly dependent on whether the breakwater is meant to be over-
topped, and this depends on the wave conditions at that particular site. A typical recommended breakwater
cross-section is shown in Fig. 12-10 for the common situation in which the waves are expected only on one
side (USACE, 1984). The structure consists of a bed layer of quarry stone that weighs 200-6000 times less
than the armor or cover layer. The middle layer is 10-15 times smaller, and the cover layer consists of large
quarry stone or large manmade concrete armor units (e.g., tetrapod, dolos, tribar, accupode, core-lock, or
quadripod). Quarry stone is usually less expensive if it can be obtained close to the breakwater location. A
disadvantage of manmade units is that they can sometimes break.

Figure 12-1 O. Cross-section of the final break water design with dimensions.

The crest elevation is determined for no overtopping and depends on the height of the crest above the
maximum water depth. For linear waves, the wave amplitude is 0.91 m (3 ft), and to account for the nonlinear
waves and run-up, a wave amplitude of 1.22 m (4ft) is used. Therefore, the crest elevation is 15.2 m (50ft).
The breakwater crest width is governed by
W)'/3
B = nka ('Ya (12-5)

where B is the crest width, n is the number of stones, ka is the layer coefficient, W is the mass of the armor
unit in the primary cover layer, and 'Ya is the unit weight of the armor unit. This design is to consider only
minor overtopping, and a minimum number of three stones or armor units is recommended. The results for
the three armor units available for this designare shown in Table 12-9.

12.3.3.6 Methods of Construction

Typical construction methods that may be considered include dumping from a barge or off the
structure, using a trestle or movable platform, or a combination thereof. Sorne factors that may infiuence the
decision are the site conditions, wave climate at the site, final cross-section of the structure, materials to be
used, and equipment available. For this design, placement from a barge was selected.

----· ~--------
 Table 12-9. Spreadsheet Calculations for Rubble Mound Breakwater Design
Given: Design Wave Height, H = 6 ft (nonbreaking)
Slope (cot theta) = 2
Surface area = 1000fe
Crest Elevation Safety Factor = 1ft
Minimum Water Depth = 40ft
Maximum Water Depth = 46ft
Breakwater Length = 3000 ft
Find: W, B, r, Nr, estimated cost
Solution:
Crest Elevation of Breakwater
Crest Elevation ft
50

Weight of Individual Armor Units

Unit w(r) H S Cot theta K Weight of Individual Armor
(Ib/ftl) (ft) (r) (D) Unit, W (lb)
Quarry stone 140 6 2.1875 2 4 2257.31
Tribar 140 6 2.1875 2 10 902.92
Dolos 140 6 2.1875 2 31.8 283.94

CrestWidth
Unit k( delta) n w w(r) Crest Width,
(lb) lb/ftl B (ft)
Quarry stone 1 3 2257.31 140 7.57
Tribar 1.02 3 902.92 140 5.69
Dolos 0.94 3 283.94 140 3.57

Number of Individual Armor Units

Unit k(delta) n W(lb) gamma(a) P(%) A (ft2) Req. # of Armor
lb/ftl Units
Quarry stone 1 2 2257.31 140 40 1000 188
Tribar 1.02 2 902.92 140 54 1000 271
Dolos 0.94 2 283.94 140 56 1000 516

H/H(D =O) as Function ofDamage and Type of Armor

Damage in Percent
Unit O toS Sto 10 10 to 1S 1S to 20 20to30 30to40 40 toSO
Quarry stone H/H(D =O) 1 1.08 1.14"" 1.2 1.29 1.41 1.54
Tribar H/H(D = O) 1 1.11 1.25 1.36 1.5 1.59 1.64
Dolos H/H(D = 0) 1 1 1.14 1.17 1.2 1.24 1.27

Armor Layer Thickness

Unit k(delta) n W(lb) gamma(a) Thickness,
lb/ftl r (ft)
Quarry stone 1 3 2257.31 140 7.57
Tribar 1.02 3 902.92 140 5.69
Dolos 0.94 3 283.94 140 3.57

Estimate of Cost for Armor Layer

Unit Surface Area/ Surface Crest Total Total Weight Cost/ton Total Cost of Armor
Foot offshore Area/Foot Width Surface ofArmor 1996$ Layer 1996$
side ft harbor side ft ft Areaft2 Layertons
Quarry stone 49.19 35.78 7.57 277,627.53 58,860.91 50 294,3045
Quarry stone 49.19 35.78 5.69 271,988.84 33,235.96 65 216,0337
Quarry stone 49.19 35.78 3.57 265,617.90 194,463.85 65 126,5150
Chapter 12 Ocean Engineering Design 401

12.3.3.7 Selection of Materials

Points to consider in the selection of armor units are availability, sizes (forms) available, transporta-
tion to the site, stockpiling, amount needed, and cost. These factors may be applied regardless of whether
manmade or natural armor stone is to be used. The major variable in selecting armor stone is the weight of
the stone, and this can be determined using the Hudson equation:
W = YaH 3 (12-6)
Ko(Sa - 1) 3 cota
where W is the weight of the individual armor unit in the primary layer, Ya is the unit weight of the armor
unit, H is the design wave height, Sa is the ratio of the armor unit weight to that of the water at the structure,
a is the angle of the structure slope, and K0 is the stability coefficient.
The thickness of each armor layer and under layers can then be calculated using
W)'/3
r = nkt1 (Ya (12-7)

where n is the number of armor units that form the armor layer thickness. The final step is to determine the
number of individual armor units (Nr) needed, which can be determined by
213
Nr p ) (Ya
= nAkd (1 - lOO W) (12-8)

where A is the surface area, kt1 is the layer coefficient, and P is the average porosity of the cover layer in
percent.

12.3.3.8 Design Results

A spreadsheet is assembled to illustrate the design calculations. Formulas are used in the spread-
sheet (Fig. 12-9) to calculate the weight of individual armor units, crest width, cover layer thickness, and
number of individual armor units per 93 m 2 (1000 ft2) of surface area.

12.3.3.9 Summary
The breakwater design calculations show that the least-expensive design uses the dolos armor
unit. The cost shown is for the armor material only. Additional cost considerations need to be factored in
as well, such as shipping to the construction site and the time needed to place the armor units. The dolos
armor units are manmade and subject to breakage, which also needs to be considered in the design selec-
tion. The large stability coefficient, K 0 , is the main reason for the lower cost of the dolos armor units in
the breakwater construction. The schematic and characteristic breakwater dimensions are illustrated in
Fig. 12-11.

Figure 12-11. Schematic of a cross-section of the final breakwater design using dolos, with dimensions in feet.
402 Elements of Ocean Engineering

12.3.4 Optimization of Chain Mooring for a Meteorological Buoy

12.3.4.1 Need
A catenary mooring system with a deadweight (clump) anchor is required for a meteorological buoy.

12.3.4.2 Design Criteria

The water depth is 244m (800ft) of seawater and the sea bottom is soft mud. The meteorological buoy
(similar to the buoy shown in Fig. 12-12) provides a buoyant force of 66,720 N (15,000 lb), and the maximum
drag forces for wind and current are 24,464 N (5500 lb) and 2669 N (600 lb), respectively. There is a mooring
connection below the bottom ofthe buoy. The design must determine the weight and dimensions of a cylindri-
cal steel clump (deadweight) anchor, the size of the steel chain mooring line, the tension at the anchor and buoy,
the length of the mooring line, and the maximum horizontal distance from the anchor to the buoy. Assume
that the weight of the clump anchor is the sum of the vertical tension at the anchor and twice the horizontal
tension at the anchor. The mooring system is to be a catenary system with no vertical force at the anchor, and
the effects of current drag on the mooring line can be neglected because of the weight of the mooring line.

1
Lchain
Anchor //
~z_zz.:¿jJ/'7 7 7 ZZZ:Z::zl

Figure 12-12. Example meteorological buoy and schematic of a typical catenary mooring.

12.3.4.3 Design Approach

The design calls for catenary mooring, i.e., the chain mooring line should have a zero angle with the
horizontal at the sea floor. (The approach used to conduct the mooring analysis is discussed in Chapter 6.)
The surface meteorological buoy has 66,720 N (15,000 lb) of buoyant force, and the horizontal component
of force on the buoy is the sum of the wind and current drag. The water depth is 244 m (800 ft) and the disk-
shaped clump anchor is constructed of steel. The specific gravity of steel is 7.8. Characteristics for the moor-
ing chain are tabulated in Table 12-10.
For a catenary mooring, the tension at the origin (T0 ) or anchor is equal to the horizontal force at the
anchor (THA.) that is equal to the horizontal force on the buoy dueto the wind and drag. Therefore, T HA is equal
to 27,132.8 N (6100 lb). Since the water depth is known, the equation for evaluating the horizontal distance
between the buoy and the anchor is determined from

X= W¡ cosh-'[zW¡ + 1] (12-9)
To To
and

(12-10)

For the chain characteristics shown in Table 12-10, the above equations can be solved for the mooring
design. The results are tabulated in Table 12-11 and illustrated in Fig. 12-13.
Chapter 12 Ocean Engineering Design 403

Table 12-10. Mooring Chain Characteristics

Size (in) Size (mm) Submerged Weight/ Min Breaking Min Working Load
Length (lb//ft) Strength (lb) (lb)
0.38 9.45 1.64 8100.00 4050.00
0.50 12.60 2.81 16,000.00 6900.00
0.63 15.75 4.64 24,000.00 9750.00
0.75 18.90 6.32 30,000.00 15,000.00
0.88 22.05 8.08 44,200.00 22,100.00
1.00 25.20 9.83 57,000.00 28,500.00

Table 12-11. Results for Chain Sizes of 3/8 to 1 inch

Chain M in TvA THA To (lb) X (ft) S (ft) Tvu (lb) THB (lb) Tu (lb) Clump
(in) Breaking Anchor
Load (lb) Weight
(WA) (lb)
0.38 4050.00 0.00 6100.00 6100.00 2085.26 2196.23 3601.81 6100.00 7084.00 12,200.00
0.50 6900.00 0.00 6100.00 6100.00 1578.96 1721.91 4838.57 6100.00 7786.00 12,200.00
0.63 9750.00 0.00 6100.00 6100.00 1212.58 1391.97 6458.75 6100.00 8884.00 12,200.00
0.75 15,000.00 0.00 6100.00 6100.00 1027.06 1232.16 7787.28 6100.00 9892.00 12,200.00
0.88 22,100.00 0.00 6100.00 6100.00 897.94 1125.14 9091.13 6100.00 10,948.00 12,200.00
1.00 28,500.00 0.00 6100.00 6100.00 805.24 1051.03 10,331.60 6100.00 11,998.00 12,200.00

30000.00

25000.00

20000.00
:a
:;.
e
15000.00
~e ...,...Min Working Load
....
Gl

.......Tension at buoy
10000.00

5000.00

0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20

Chain Size (in)

Figure 12-13. Results of tension at the buoy as a function of the chain characteristics.
 404 Elements of Ocean Engineering

12.3.4.4 Summary
The design of the mooring system for the meteorological buoy shows that a chain size of 158.75 mm (0.625
inch) is just at the working load of the chain where it connects to the buoy. Perhaps a more conservative solution
would be to use a 190.5-m (0.75-inch) chain. The length of chain necessary is 375.6 m (1232 ft), and the horizontal
distance between the anchor and the buoy is 313.1 m (1027 ft). The clump anchor weighs 49,818 N (11,200 lb).

12.3.5 Observational ROV

12.3.5.1 Need
A medium-sized ROV is required to retrieve objects and have full observational capabilities to as-
sist in the maintenance of offshore structures.

12.3.5.2 Design Gritería

The ROV will be a medium-sized observational vehicle capable ofretrieving a 178-N (40-lb) object.
The ROV is to be deployed off of a fixed structure, such as a tension leg platform or a moored vessel. A
tether management system (TMS) will release the ROV from a caged surround containing 366 m (1200 ft)
of power and communication tether on a controlled winch. The ROV needs a maximum operating depth of
915 m (3000 ft) and must be able to maintain the following still-water velocity requirements with the tether
fully deployed: forward 2.25 knots (1.15 m/s or 3.8 ft/s), laterall.50 knots (0.77 m/s or 2.53 ft/s), and verti-
call.50 knots (0.77 m/s or 2.53 ft/s). In addition, a list ofbasic components (Table 12-12) is provided that
requires the engineer to research current manufactured products and determine component specifics on the
basis of function, cost, and efficiency. An iterative approach will be used for thruster power sizing because
of the dependency on total vehicle drag and positive buoyancy compensation.
Table 12-12. List ofRequired Components for an Observational ROV
l. Aluminum frame 7. Pan and tilt unit
2. Thrusters 8. Color camera
3. Manipulator arm 9. SIT camera
4. Gyrocompass 10. Tether termination can
5. SONAR 11. Buoyancy block
6. Lighting 12. Thruster PCB drives

12.3.5.3 Design Approach

The ROV designed to fulfill the aforementioned requirements will use a rectangular symmetric alumi-
num frame to house all components within its protective cage. Thrust is provided from a total of four gimbal-
mounted single propeller 440VAC units. The thruster units have 360 degrees of rotation in the vertical plane and
are limited to 90 degrees in the horizontal. This layout requires the ROV to tum into the new horizontal heading
for maximum effective thrust, but will still allow for minor sideway position corrections with thrusters at the
full 90 degrees to horizontal. However, two of the thrusters' ftow will be blocked by the components and frame.
The observational camera equipment is placed in the bow's center, where the frame and buoyancy
material are cut out to allow unrestricted viewing. The two lights are mounted well above the cameras on the
pan and tilt unit to reduce glare. The manipulator arm is mounted on the bottom and positioned as close to
the CG as possible while maintaining a good effective reach. The supporting equipment is placed centerline
and aft to offset the observational equipment and maintain a low projected area, thereby reducing drag. The
weights and dimensions of the individual components used in this design are listed in Table 12-13.
The properties in Table 12-13 were used to determine the stability and buoyancy requirements.
Custom enclosures are built to house the manipulator arm's power and valve pack and the thruster PCB
drives. The manufacturer supplies the weights for the manipulator arms' power pack, and valves are as-
sumed as in water weights. The weight in air is back-calculated from the listed dimensions to obtain the
weight of displaced sea water, which is then added to the in-water weight for the total item weight in air.
Figure 12-14 illustrates the generallocations of the components in front and rear isometric views.

'''••••a•••··~-.. wL•t~::--~~~~...~......................11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111~
Chapter 12 Ocean Engineering Design 405

Table 12-13. Physical Characteristics of Materials Required for an ROV

Bill of Materials Dimensions (in) Weight
Item Length Width Height Air (lb) sw (lb)
Thruster 17.5 10.6 6.5 57.3 26.5
PCB drives 4.8 5.2 9.1 12.0 3.7
Lights 5.4 4.4 4.0 2.2 1.3
360 pan and tilt unit 5.6 5.5 10.2 15.4 7.7
SITcamera 11.7 4.0 - 10.1 4.9
Color camera 6.9 3.7 - 4.0 2.2
Manipulator arm PP 5.0 5.0 5.0 13.1 8.5
Manipulator arm 16.1 8.6 4.3 25.1 3.0
SONAR 11.8 5.5 - 11.7 5.5
Gyro-compass 7.8 5.0 5.1 8.0 0.6
Terminator can 6.0 4.0 - 20.0 17.2

FnmtView

RearView

Figure 12-14. General layout of ROV components.

 406 Elements of Ocean Engineering

12.3.5.4 Component CG Dimensions

The components' locations should approximate the symmetry of the design, and the bulk of the
weight should be placed low on the frame for stability. Considerations are made for the footprint size and
projected areas to minimize drag. Figure 12-15 shows the dimensions of the items' individual CGs from the
origin. For reference, the origin is located centerline at the bow with the x-axis positive from bow to stern,
the y-axis positive to port, and the z-axis from the frame base measured positive upward.
The dimensions shown in Fig. 12-15 and the material properties listed in Table 12-13 are used in
Table 12-14 to calculate the LCG, TCG, and VCG for the ROV.

Plan View Longitudinal Dimensions

Plan View Transverse Item Dimensions

.:y
~

·---·
X

Side View Verticalltem Dimensions

Figure 12-15. Dimensionallocation of ROV components.

12.3.5.5 Buoyancy Calculations and Dimensions

The buoyancy requirements were calculated from the results of Table 12-14 using an iterative ap-
proach. The buoyancy material provides 142 N (32lb) of buoyancy per cubic foot in seawater. A net posi-
tive buoyancy is ideal before an object is retrieved, to ensure that the ROV will surface in the event of a
power failure. Moreover, when a downward vectored thrust is used for hovering, visibility is not impeded by
thruster wash disturbing sea floor silt. An LCB correction block is added to move the LCB aft, since mate-
rial was removed at the bow to increase the viewing area. The final dimensions are illustrated in Fig. 12-16.
 ()
::::r
lll
'S.
ro
,
.....
Table 12-14. Spreadsheet for Determining the Center of Gravity and Center of Buoyancy for an ROV I'V

ITEM Weight sw Weight Coordinates From Item Weight

in Air Dimensions (in) VOL. Displaced inSW y z LCG L-MOM TCG T-MOM VCG V-MOM
(lbs) L W/D H (ft3) (lbs) (lbs) X (in) (in) (in) (ft) (lb-ft) (ft) (lb-ft) (ft) (lb-ft)
; Aluminum Frame 130.00 12.00 12.00 12.00 1.00 64.00 66.00 28.00 0.00 9.00 2.33 154.00 0.00 0.00 0.75 49.50
Port AFT Thruster 57.32 - - - - - 26.46 41.39 -12.57 9.00 3.45 91.25 -1.05 -27.71 0.75 19.84
Port FWD Thruster 57.32 - - - - - 26.46 7.59 -12.57 9.00 0.63 16.73 -1.05 -27.71 0.75 19.84
Stb FWD Thruster 57.32 - - - - - 26.46 7.59 12.57 9.00 0.63 16.73 1.05 27.71 0.75 19.84
Stb AFT Thruster 57.32 - - - - - 26.46 41.39 12.57 9.00 3.45 91.25 1.05 27.71 0.75 19.84 1

Gyro-compass 8.00 7.80 5.00 5.10 0.12 7.37 0.63 53.25 0.00 8.05 4.44 2.81 0.00 0.00 0.67 0.42
oo
SONAR 11.70 11.75 5.50 - 0.16 1.36 5.50 47.35 0.00 3.50 3.95 21.70 0.00 0.00 0.29 1.60 ro
lll
Port Light 2.20 - - - - - 1.32 4.80 -5.00 14.00 0.40 0.53 -0.42 -0.55 1.17 1.54 :::J
m
Starboard Light 2.20 - - - - - 1.32 4.80 5.00 14.00 0.40 0.53 0.42 0.55 1.17 1.54 :::J
ca
Mechanical Arm 25.05 16.10 8.60 4.30 0.34 22.05 3.00 4.80 0.00 -2.40 0.40 1.20 0.00 0.00 -0.20 -0.60 s·
ro
PowerPack 4.00 42.00 0.00 3.50 3.50 14.00 0.00 0.00 0.29 1.17 ,ro
13.13 5.00 5.00 5.00 0.07 4.63 s·
Valve Pack 4.50 42.00 0.00 3.50 3.50 15.75 0.0 0.00 0.29 1.31 ca
oro
Pan and Tilt Unit 15.40 - - - - - 7.70 4.80 0.00 11.10 0.40 3.08 0.00 0.00 0.93 7.12 en
Color Camera 4.00 - - - - - 2.20 4.80 -3.86 3.50 0.40 0.88 -0.32 -0.71 0.29 0.64 c.C'
:::J
SITCamera 10.12 - - - - - 4.84 7.59 2.32 3.00 0.63 3.06 0.19 0.94 0.25 1.21
Thruster PCB 12.00 4.76 5.16 9.13 0.13 8.31 3.69 37.12 0.00 5.57 3.09 11.41 0.00 0.00 0.46 1.71
Termination Can 20.00 6.00 4.00 - 0.04 2.79 17.21 52.68 0.00 3.00 4.39 75.54 0.00 0.00 0.25 4.30
Sub-Totals 483.08 227.73 520.46 -0.13 0.23 9.61 150.84

Buoyancy Weight sw Weight Coordinates From Buoyancy

inAir Dimensions (in) VOL. Displaced inSW X (in) y z LCG L-MOM TCG T-MOM VCG V-MOM
(lbs) L W/D H (ft3) (lbs) (lbs) (in) (in) (ft) (lb-ft) (ft) (lb-ft) (ft) (lb-ft)
Main Block (1) 209.92 - - - 6.56 209.92 -209.92 28.67 0.00 23.18 2.39 501.53 0.00 0.00 1.93 405.50
Center Block 18.94 13.60 14.00 6.00 0.59 18.94 -18.94 26.25 0.00 14.00 2.19 41.44 1.0 0.59 1.17 22.10
LCB Correction 20.16 5.00 13.50 14.00 0.63 20.16 -20.16 16.00 0.00 9.06 1.33 26.88 0.00 0.00 0.76 15.22
Sub-Totals 249.02 7.78 249.02 569.85 1.00 0.59 3.85 442.82

.j:>.
o
....¡
 408 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Front View Buoyancy Block Dimensions

Plan View Buoyancy Block Dimensions

Figure 12-16. Dimensional drawing of buoyancy blocks (all dimensions in inches; multiply by 252 to get millimeters).

The results of the stability calculations are listed in Table 12-15. It is determined that a minimum of
0.22 m 3 (7.78 ft 3) ofbuoyancy material is required, thus giving the ROV 94.7 N (21.29lb) of added buoyancy
to surface. This volume is contained in three separate blocks. The previously mentioned LCB correction
block is located behind the pan and tilt unit. A center block is used within the frame to reduce the total
height of the top main block and the resulting projected area.
From the results in Table 12-15, the ROV is determined to be stable; the transverse center of buoy-
ancy (TCB) and gravity are in line, and the LCB and LCG are coplanar. With the use of thrust vectoring to
overcome the added buoyancy, the ROV will operate level and have a low roll and pitch response to current
ftuctuations with a VGB of 0.34 m (1.12 ft). The total weight of the ROV in air and seawater, excluding the
tether, is 3256.4 N (732.11lb) and -94.7 N (-21.29lb), respectively.

Table 12-15. Summary of Stability Calculations

Component Value Units
Weight in air 732.11 lbs
Weight water displaced 249.02 lbs
Weight in water 227.73 lbs
Volume ofbuoyant material 7.78 ft3
Bouyancy 21.29 lbs
VCG 0.66 ft
VCB 1.78 ft
VGB 1.12 ft
LCG 2.29 ft
LCB 2.29 ft
TCG 0.00 ft
TCB 0.00 ft

------------------------.................
 Chapter 12 Ocean Engineering Design 409

12.3.5.6 Sti/1-Water Velocity Thrust Requirements

The target ROV still-water velocities are designed to use less than 90% of the total available thrust,
to avoid reducing the service life by running the components at full capacity. The required thrust for the
given velocity is determined using the Morrison equation, given by

(12-11)

where (p) is the density of sea water, (Ap) is the projected area ofthe ROV, and (V) is the desired velocity in (ft/s).
The total drag force required to reach the still-water velocities is the sum of the vehicle and tether
drag components. The projected area of the ROV is dependent on the velocity direction; only the area of
the tether perpendicular to the flow is considered. The ROV projected area for the front, side, and top is
calculated as the area of a rectangle using the overall dimensions of 142.2 cm (56 in) long, 96.5 cm (38 in)
wide, and 72.4 cm (28.5 in) high. The area per foot of the ROV tether was obtained from the manufacturer
as 0.002 m 2/m (0.0645 ft 2/ft). The resulting calculations are shown in Table 12-16.
These results show that the greatest component of drag force is due to the tether's large projected
area during the lateral and vertical velocities. The mínimum required thrust is 3015.7 N (678lb). From this,
it was determined that using a four-thruster configuration that provides a maximum of 881 N (198 lb) of
thrust per single propeller unit would be ideal. The total available thrust is 3522.8 N (792 lb), and under
maximum drag, 86% of the total thrust is used during vertical motion.

Table 12-16. Summary of Drag Calculations

Vehicle Drag Max Tether Drag
Component Value Units Component Value Units
p sea water 2.00 slugs/ft 3 p sea water 2.00 slugs/ft 3
Area (frontal) 7.52 ft 2 - - -
Area (side) 11.08 ft 2 Area (Parallel fiow) o re
Area (top) 14.78 ft2 Area (_i) to fiow 76.32 ft2
Cn 0.95 - Cn 1.2 -
Velocity (FWD) 3.80 ft/s Ve1ocity (FWD) 3.80 ft/s
Velocity (lateral) 2.53 ft/s Velocity (lateral) 2.53 ft/s
Velocity (vertical) 2.53 ft/s Velocity (vertical) 2.53 ft/s
Thrust (FWD) 103.18 lbs Thrust (FWD) 0.00 lbs
Thrust (lateral) 67.58 lbs Thrust (lat~ral) 587.83 lbs
Thrust (verticle) 90.11 lbs Thrust (verticle) 587.83 lbs
TotalDrag Drag Constant
Thrust (FWD) 103.18 lbs (FWD) 7.14 lb/(ft/s) 2
Thrust (lateral) 655.41 lbs (lateral) 10.53 lb/(ft/s) 2
Thrust (verticle) 677.94 lbs (Vertical) 14.04 lb/(ft/s) 2

12.3.5.7 Object Retrieval Thrust Requirements

Since the reserve buoyancy of the ROV is 94.7 N (21.29 lb), upon retrieving the object, the ROV
would sink in a vertical position without the use of thrusters to offset the moment caused by the object. The
maximum allowable angle of declination was set at 1 degree below horizontal. Using the sum of the mo-
ments about the CG, the required thrust is solved by the following equation:

(12-12)

where w is the object weight, dw is the moment arm from the LCB to the object, W 8 is the buoyancy of the
ROV, and dT is the moment arm from the LCB to the thrusters. Solving for TT• the required force gives the
results shown in Table 12-17.
410 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table 12-17. Calculation of Thruster Forces Required to Retrieve an Object

Component Value Units
Moment art (object) 2.91 ft
Weight of object 40.00 lbs
(W) Buoyancy 21.29 lbs
VGB 1.12 ft
Moment arm (thrusters) 1.16 ft
Force per FWD thruster 24.92 lbs
Force per AFT thruster -24.92 lbs
Allowable angle 1.00 degrees
Percent of total thrust 12.60 %

It is determined that to maintain 1 degree of declination, each forward thruster would need to vec-
tor 12.6% of its total thrust downward. Each aft thruster would require the same, but vectored upward. This
sizing allows the ROV to reach the target still-water velocities while carrying the object, using a combined
total of 99% of available thrust while maintaining a level course. A solid works drawing of the final ROV
design is shown in Fig. 12-17.

Figure 12-17. Solid graphics drawing ofan ROV design.

12.4 REFERENCES

Allmendinger, E. E. (Ed.). (1990). Submersible vehicle systems design. Jersey City: Society of Naval
Architects and Marine Engineers.
Cross, N. (1989). Engineering design methods. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Dominick, P. G., Demel, J. T., Lawbaugh, W. M., Freuler, R. J., Kinzel, G. L., & Fromm, E. (2001). Tools
and tactics of design. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Dym, C. L. (1994). Engineering design: a synthesis ofviews. New York: Cambridge University Press.
French, M. J. (1985). Conceptual designfor engineers. London: Design Council.
Hsu, T. H. (1984). Applied offshore structural engineering. Houston: Gulf Publishing.
Ray, M. S. (1985). Elements ofengineering design: an integrated approach. New York: Prentice/Hall Intemational.
U.S. Army Corps ofEngineers (USACE). (1984). Shore protection manual (4th ed.) (Vols. I and Il). Coastal
Engineering Research Center, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Washington, DC:
U.S. Govemment Printing Office.
Chapter 12 Ocean Engineering Design 411

12.5 PROBLEMS

The following preliminary design problems are meant to be conceptual in nature. The design results
should include a review of the appropriate literature, development of design criteria, preliminary engineering
analysis and calculations, development of engineering drawings, and production of a final written design report.
12-1. Designa small steel-jacketed offshore platform for 45.7 m (150ft) water depth in the Gulf of
Mexico.
12-2. Designan ROV for surveying open-water placement sites for dredged material in <30.5 m (<100ft)
ofwater.
12-3. Designa taut line submerged mooring for a three-current meter array in 91.5 m (300ft) of water.
12-4. Design a buoy system for monitoring waves, currents, wind speed, atmospheric pressure, salinity,
and dissolved oxygen.
12-5. Designa small boat marina for boats <30.5 m (<100ft) long.
12-6. Designan offshore breakwater for a local coastallocation.
12-7. Design an underwater habitat for a locallocation in 9.1 m (30 ft) of water, where the water temperature
is 23.9°C (75°F).
12-8. Design a fishing dock for a shallow-water lake.
12-9. Designa two-person excursion submarine to operate in 27.4 m (90ft) of water.
12-10. Designa floating dock for small sailboats (<7.6 mor <25 ft long) for an inland lake or pro-
tected bay.
12-11. Design a small semisubmersible floating platform.
12-12. Designa model semisubmersible for testing in a wave basin/towing tank.
12-13. Design ajetty for a new entrance channel ata local coastallocation.
12-14. Designa spar floating platform.
12-15. Designa line array for a towed sonar array.

-- --------
 ..

APPENDIX A PROPERTIES ANO CONVERSIONS

Table A-1. Physical Properties of Selected Common Gases at Standard Atmospheric Pressure
lnternational System Units (SI)
Gas Temperature Density Specific Dynamic Kinematic Specific Gas Constant
Weight Viscosity Viscosity Heat Ratio
T p 'Y IL V k R
("C) (kg/m 3 ) (N/m 3) (N-s/m 2 ) (m 2/s) (J/Kg-K)
Air( standard) 15 1.23E+O 1.20E+1 1.79E-5 1.46E-5 1.40 2.869E+2
Carbon dioxide (COz) 20 1.83E+O 1.80E+1 1.47E-5 8.03E-6 1.30 1.889E+2
Helium (He) 20 1.66E-1 1.63E+O 1.94E-5 1.15E-4 1.66 2.077E+3
Hydrogen (H) 20 8.38E-2 8.22E-1 8.84E-6 1.05E-4 1.41 4.124E+3
Methane (MH 3) 20 6.67E-1 6.54E+O l.lOE-5 1.65E-5 1.31 5.183E+2
Nitrogen (N) 20 1.16E+O 1.14E+l 1.76E-5 1.52E-5 1.40 2.968E+2
Oxygen (Oz) 20 1.33E+O 1.30E+1 2.04E-5 1.53E-5 1.40 2.598E+2
British Gravitational Units (BG)
Gas Temperature Density Specific Dynamic Kinematic Specific Gas Constant
Weight Viscosity Viscosity Heat Ratio
T p 'Y IL V k R
("F) (slug/ft3) (lb/ft3 ) (lb-s/ft2 ) (ft2/s) (ft-lb/slug- R)
0

Standard air 59 2.38E-3 7.65E-2 3.74E-7 1.57E-4 1.40 1.716E+3

Carbon dioxide (COz) 68 3.55E-3 1.14E-1 3.07E-7 8.65E-5 1.30 1.130 E+3
Helium (He) 68 3.23E-4 1.04E-2 4.09E-7 1.27E-4 1.66 1.242 E+4
Hydrogen (H) 68 1.63E-4 5.25E-3 1.85E-7 1.13E-4 1.41 2.466 E+4
Methane (MH 3) 68 1.29E-3 4.15E-2 2.29E-7 1.78E-4 1.31 3.099 E+3
Nitrogen (N) 68 2.26E-3 7.28E-2 3.68E-7 1.63E-4 1.40 1.775 E+3
Oxygen (Oz) 68 2.58E-3 8.31E-2 4.25E-7 1.65E-4 1.40 1.554 E+3
Note: Va1ues of specific heat (k) vary on1y slightly with temperature, and va1ues of the gas constant (R) do not vary with temperature.

Tab1e A-2. Physica1 Properties of Selected Common Liquids

lnternational System Units (SI)
Liquid Temperature Density Specific Dynamic . Kinematic Surface Vapor Bulk
Weight Viscosity Viscosity Tension Pressure Modulus
T p 'Y IL V u Pv Ev
(oC) (kg/m 3) (kN/m 3) (N-s/m 2 ) (m 2/s) (N/m) (N/m 2 (abs)) (N/m 2)
Gaso1ine 15.6 6.80E+2 6.67E+O 3.10E-4 4.60E-7 2.20E-2 5.50E+4 1.30E+9
Mercury 20 1.36E+4 l.33E+2 1.57E-3 1.15E-7 4.66E-1 1.60E-1 2.85E+10
SAE 30 oi1 15.6 9.12E+2 8.95E+O 3.80E-1 4.20E-4 3.60E-2 - 1.50E+9
Seawater 15.6 1.03E+3 1.01E+1 1.20E-3 1.17E-6 7.34E-2 l.77E+3 2.34E+9
Water 15.6 9.99E+2 9.80E+O 1.12E-3 1.12E-6 7.34E-2 1.77E+3 2.15E+9
British Gravitational Units (BG)
Liquid Temperature Density Specific Dynamic Kinematic Surface Vapor Bulk
Weight Viscosity Viscosity Tension Pressure Modulus
T p 'Y IL V u Pv Ev
(OC) (slugs/ft 3 ) (lb/ft 3) (Ib-s/ft2) (ft2/s) (Ib/ft) (Ib/in 2 abs)) (Ib/in 2)
Gaso1ine 60 1.32E+O 4.25E+1 6.50E-6 4.90E-6 1.50E-3 8.00E+O 1.90E+5
Mercury 68 2.63E+1 8.47E+2 3.28E-5 1.25E-6 3.19E-2 2.30E-5 4.14E+6
SAE 30 oi1 60 1.77E+O 5.70E+1 8.00E-3 4.50E-3 2.50E-3 - 2.20E+5
Seawater 60 1.99E+O 6.40E+1 2.51E-5 1.26E-5 5.03E-3 2.56E-l 3.39E+5
Water 60 1.94E+O 6.24E+1 2.34E-5 1.21E-5 5.03E-3 2.56E-1 3.12E+5

413
414 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table A-3. Converting British Gravitational Units (BG) to lnternational System Units (SI)
Parameter To Convert from BG Units Multiplyby To Get SI Units
Acceleration ft/s 2 3.048E-1 m/s2
Are a in2 6.452E+2 mm 2
ft2 9.290E-2 mz
acres 4.047E+3 mz
mile2 2.590E+6 mz
Density lbm/ft3 1.602E+l kg/m 3
slugs/ft3 5.154E+2 kg/m3
Energy BTU (British thermal units) 1.055E+3 Joule
ft-lb 1.356E+O Joule (N-m)
cal 4.186E+O Joule
Force lb 4.448E+O N
long tons (2240 lb) 9.964E+O kN (kilonewtons)
short tons (2000 lb) 8.896E+O kN
kip (1000 lb) 4.448E+O kN
Length fathom 1.829E+O m
ft 3.048E-1 m
in 2.540E+O cm
mile 1.609E+O km
nautical mile 1.852E+O km
Mass lbm 4.536E-1 kg
slug 1.459E+l kg
Power ft-lb/s 1.356E+O watts (N-m/s)
hp 7.457E+2 watts
Pressure in of Hg (60°F) 2.532E+l mm ofHg (60°F)
in ofHg (60°F) 3.377E+3 N/m2 (pascal)
lb/ft2 (psf) 4.788E+l N/m2 (pascal)
lb/in2 (psi) 6.895E+3 N/m 2 (pascal)
ata 1.013E+5 N/m 2 (pascal)
ft of seawater 1.548E+4 N/m2 (pascal)
ft ofwater 2.989E+3 N/m 2 (pascal)
Specific weight lb/ft 3 1.571E+2 N/m 3
Stress ksi 6.895 MPa
Temperature OR 5.556E-1 OK
op (°F-32)/1.8 oc
Velocity ft/s 3.048E-1 m/s
knots 5.144E-1 m/s
mile/hr (MPH) 4.470E-1 m/s
mile/hr (MPH) 1.6093 km/hr(KPH)
Viscosity lb-s/ft2 (dynamic) 4.788E+l N-s/m2 (dynamic)
ft 2/s (kinematic) 9.290E-2 m 2/s (kinematic)
Volume flow rate ft 3/s 2.832E-2 m 3/s
gal/min (GPM) 6.309E-2 liters/sec
ft 3/min 28.32 liters/min
Volume in 3 1.639E-5 m3
ft3 2.832E-2 m3
yd3 7.646E-1 m3
barrel (oil, 42 gallons) 1.590E+2 liters
barrel (oil, 42 gallons) 1.590E-1 m3
gal (U.S.) 3.785E+O liters
ft3 2.832E+l liters
yd3 0.7651 m3
AppendixA Properties and Conversions 415

Table A-4. Converting lnternational System Units (SI) to British Gravitational Units (BG)
Parameter To Convert from SI Units Multiplyby To Get BG Units
Acceleration mls2 3.281E+O ftls 2
Area mm2 1.550E-3 in2
mz 1.706E+l ft2
mz 2.471E-1 acres
mz 3.681E-7 mile2
Density kglm3 6.243E-2 lbmlft3
kglm3 1.940E-3 slugslft3
Energy Joule 9.478E-4 BTU (British thermal units)
N-m 7.376E-1 ft-lb
Force N 2.248E-1 lb
kN (kilonewtons) 1.004E-1 long tons (2240 lb)
kN 1.124E-1 short tons (2000 lb)
kN 2.248E-1 kips
Length m 3.281E+O fathom
m 5.468E-1 ft
cm 3.937E-1 in
km 6.214E-1 mile
km 5.400E-1 nautical mile
Mass kg 2.205E+O lbm
kg 6.852E-2 slug
metric tons 1.102E+O shorttons
Power N-mis 7.376E-1 ft-lbls
watts 1.341E-3 hp (horsepower)
Pressure mm ofHg (60°F) 3.95E-2 in of Hg (60°F)
Nlm 2 (pascal) 2.961E-4 in of Hg (60°F)
11~ I.C-:1:
Nlm2 (pascai) 2.689E-2 lblft (psf)
i' ·- _.C\.

N1m 2 (pascal) 1.450E-4 lblin 2 (psi)

Specific weight N1m 2 6.366E-3 lblft2
Stress MPa 1.450E-1 k si
Temperature OK - 1.800E+O OR
Velocity mis 3.281E+O ftls
mis 2.237E+O mph
mis 1.944E+O knots (nautical milelhr)
Viscosity N-slm 2 (dynamic) 2.089E-2 lb-slft2 (dynamic)
m 21s (kinematic) 1.076E+l ft 21s (kinematic)
Volume flow rate m 31s 3.531E+l ft 31s
m 31s 1.585E+4 gallmin (GPM)
literslmin 3.531E-2 ft 31min (CFM)
Volume cm 3 6.102E-2 in3
m3 3.531E+l ft 3
m3 1.308E+O yd3
liters 6.290E-3 barreis (oil)
liters 2.642E-1 gal (U.S.)
liters 3.531E-2 ft3
m3 1.307E+O yd3

-------·---····---- ----··-- -·-

416 Elements of Ocean Engineering
AppendixA Properties and Conversions 417

Definitions: d = water depth, L0 = deep water wave length, L = water wave length, k = wave number ( 21TIL), H = water wave
height, and Ha= deep water wave height.

Table A-6. Common Unit Prefixes

Multiples and Submultiples Prefixes Symbols
1,000,000,000 = 109 giga G
1,000,000 = 106 mega M
1000 = 103 kilo k
o.o1 = 10-2 centi e
o.oo1 = 10-3 milli m
o.ooooo1 = 10-6 micro ll
o.ooooooo1 = 10-9 nano n

Table A-7. Density of Common Metals or Alloys

Material Density (kg/m3 ) Density (lbm/ft3) Specific Gravity
Aluminum 2560-2640 160-165 2.56-2.64
Brass casting 8400-8700 524-543 8.4-8.7
Bronze (8-14% Sn) 7400-8900 462-555 7.4-8.9
Cast lron 6800-7800 424-487 6.8-7.8
Copper 8930 557 8.93
lron 7850 490 7.85
Lead 11,340 708 11.34
Mercury 13,593 848 13.59
Monel 8360-8840 522-552 8.36-8.84
Nickel 8800 549 8.8
Platinum 21,400 1335 21.4
Silver 10,490 655 10.49
Steel, rolled 7850 490 7.85
Steel, stain1ess 7480-8000 467-499 7.48-8.0
Tin 7280 454 7.28
Titanium 4500 281 4.5
Zinc 7135 445 7.135
418 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table A-8. Densities of Common Liquids

Liquids Density (kg/m3 ) Density (lbmtfe) Specific Gravity
Brine, l5°C 1230 76.8 1.230
Butane, 25°C 599 37.4 0.599
Crude oil, 32.6°API, 60°F 862 53.8 0.862
Crude oil, 35.6°API @60°F 847 52.9 0.847
Crude oil, 40°API, 60°F 825 51.5 0.825
Crude oil, 48°API @60°F 790 49.3 0.790
Crude oil, California, 60°F 915 57.1 0.915
Crude oil, Mexico, 60°F 973 60.8 0.973
Crude oil, Texas, 60°F 873 54.5 0.873
Diesel fuel oil, l5°C 820-950 51.2-59.3 0.820-0.950
Ethane, -89°C 576 35.9 0.576
Fueloi1,60°F 890 55.5 0.890
Kerosene, 60°F 817 51.0 0.817
Methane, -164°C 465 29.0 0.465
Natural gasoline, 60°F 711 44.4 0.711
Propane, -40°C 583 36.4 0.583
Seawater, 25°C 1025 64 1.025
Seawater, 77°F 1022 63.8 1.022
Vehicle gasoline, 60°F 737 46.0 0.737
Water, 4°C 1000 62.4 1.000

Table A-9. Density of Other Common Materials

Material Density (kg/m3) Density (lbm/ft3) Specific Gravity
Ice, 0°C 920 57.4 0.92
Walnut wood 650-700 40.6-43.7 0.65-0.7
Teakwood 650-900 40.6-56.2 0.65-0.9
Sprucewood 400-700 25.0-43.7 0.4-0.7
Oakwood 600-900 37.4-56.2 0.6-0.9
Maplewood 600-750 •. 37.4-46.8 0.6-0.75
Balsa wood 110-140 6.9-8.7 0.11-0.14
Ash wood 650-850 40.6-53.0 0.65-0.85
Syntactic foam 350-610 22-38 0.35-0.61
Carbon fiber 1330 83.0 1.33
Polyester rope 1380 96.1 1.38
Polyethylene (HMPE) 990 61.8 0.99
Kevlar 1440 89.9 1.44
Sand particle 2650 165.4 2.65
Sand (saturated) 2100 131.0 2.1
Sand (dry) 1770 110.4 1.77
AppendixA Properties and Conversions 419

Table A-10. Mechanical Characteristics for Spiral Strand Wire Rope

Diameter Diameter Maximum Maximum Weight in Air Submerged
(mm) (in) Breaking Load Breaking Load Sheathed Weight Axial Stiffness
(kN) (kips) (kg/m) (kg/m) EA(MN)
76 3 5647 1269 31.4 23.8 540
90 3.5 7938 1785 42,8 33,3 760
102 4 10,266 2308 55.3 43.1 982
114 4,5 12,775 2872 68.3 53.6 1184
127 5 15,722 3534 83.6 66.1 1457
140 5.5 19,180 4312 102.4 81.4 1799
153 6 22,070 4962 119.7 95.5 2110
156 6.25 23,835 5358 129.0 103.1 2277
(Vryhof, 2000)

Table A-11. Mechanical Characteristics for Polyester Mooring Line

Diameter Diameter Maximum Weight in Air Submerged Weight Submerged Weight Stiffness EA
(mm) (in) Breaking Load (kglm) (kg/m) (lb/ft) (KN)
(KN)
113 4.5 3600 8.8 2.1 1.4 7.19e+04
137 5.4 5562 12.8 3.1 2.1 1.18e+05
154 6.1 7191 16.2 3.9 2.6 1.57e+05
169 6.7 8829 19.4 4.7 3.1 1.96e+05
183 7.2 10,467 22.7 5.4 3.6 2.35e+05
195 7.7 12,096 25.9 6.2 4.2 2.74e+05
207 8.1 13,734 29.2 7.0 4.7 3.14e+05
227 8.9 16,677 34.9 8.4 5.6 3.53e+05
245 9.6 19,620 40.6 9.7 6.5 3.72e+05
(Vryhof, 2000)

Table A-12. Characteristics ofPqlyethylene (HMPE) Rope

Diameter Diameter Maximum Breaking Load Weight in Air Weight in Air Stiffness EA
(mm) (in) (k N) (kg/m) (lb/ft) (KN)
81 3.2 3649 3.30 2.21 2.03e+05
93 3.7 5108 4.34 2.91 2.84e+05
108 4.3 7298 5.85 3.92 4.05e+05
117 4.6 8757 6.83 4.58 4.87e+05
129 5.5 10,946 8.28 5.55 6.08e+05
137 5.4 12,406 9.24 6.19 6.89e+05
147 5.8 14,595 10.7 7.17 8.11e+05
154 6.1 16,055 11.6 7.77 8.92e+05
163 6.4 18,244 13.0 8.71 l.Ole+05
169 6.7 19,703 13.9 9.31 1.09e+05
177 7.0 21,893 15.3 10.25 1.22e+05
182 7.2 23,352 16.3 10.92 1.30e+05
187 7.4 24,812 17.2 11.52 1.38e+05
(Vryhof, 2000)
420 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table A-13. Break Load for Chains in SI Units

Diameter Break Load (Stud and Studless) Weigbt in Air
R4-RQ4 R3S R3 RQ3-API Stud Studless
mm kN kN kN kN kg/m kglm
19 420 382 342 324 8 7
22 560 509 456 431 11 10
24 664 604 541 511 13 12
26 776 706 632 598 15 14
28 897 815 730 691 17 16
30 1026 932 835 790 20 18
32 1163 1057 946 895 22 20
34 1308 1188 1064 1007 25 23
36 1460 1327 1188 1124 28 26
38 1621 1473 1319 1248 32 29
40 1789 1625 1456 1377 35 32
42 1964 1785 1599 1513 39 35
44 2147 1951 1748 1654 42 39
46 2338 2124 1903 1800 46 42
48 2535 2304 2063 1952 50 46
50 2740 2490 2230 2110 55 50
52 2952 2682 2402 2273 59 54
54 3170 2881 2580 2441 64 58
56 3396 3086 2764 2615 69 63
58 3628 3297 2953 2794 74 67
60 3867 3514 3147 2978 79 72
62 4112 3737 3347 3166 84 77
64 4364 3965 3551 3360 90 82
66 4621 4200 3761 3559 95 87
68 4885 4440 3976 3762 101 92
70 5156 4685 4196 3970 107 98
73 5572 5064 4535 . 4291 117 107
76 6001 5454 4884 4621 126 116
78 6295 5720 5123 4847 133 122
81 6745 6130 5490 5194 144 131
84 7208 6550 5866 5550 155 141
87 7682 6981 6252 5916 166 151
90 8167 7422 6647 6289 177 162
92 8497 7722 6916 6544 185 169
95 9001 8180 7326 6932 198 181
97 9343 8490 7604 7195 206 188
100 9864 8964 8028 7596 219 200
102 10,217 9285 8315 7868 228 208
105 10,754 9773 8753 8282 241 221
107 11,118 10,103 9048 8561 251 229
111 11,856 10,775 9650 9130 270 246
114 12,420 11,287 10,109 9565 285 260
117 12,993 11,807 10,574 10,005 300 274
120 13,573 12,334 11,047 10,452 315 288
122 13,964 12,690 11,365 10,753 326 298
124 14,358 13,048 11,686 11,057 337 308
127 14,955 13,591 12,171 11,516 353 323
AppendixA Properties and Conversions 421

Diameter Break Load (Stud and Studless) Weight in Air

R4-RQ4 R3S R3 RQ3-API Stud Studless
mm kN kN kN kN kg/m kg/m
130 15,559 14,139 12,663 11,981 370 338
132 15,965 14,508 12,993 12,294 382 348
137 16,992 15,441 13,829 13,085 411 375
142 18,033 16,388 14,677 13,887 442 403
147 19,089 17,347 15,536 14,700 473 432
152 20,156 18,317 16,405 15,522 506 462
157 21,234 19,297 17,282 16,352 540 493
162 22,320 20,284 18,166 17,188 575 525
165 22,976 20,879 18,699 17,693 596 545
l68 23,633 21,477 19,234 18,199 618 564
171 24,292 22,076 19,771 18,707 640 585
175 25,174 22,877 20,488 19,386 671 613
178 25,836 23,479 21,027 19,896 694 634
185 27,383 24,884 22,286 21,087 750 685
(Vryhof, 2000)

Table A-14. Break Load for Chains in U.S. Units

Diameter Break Load Weight in Air
Stud and Studless Stud Studless
R4-RQ4 R3S R3 RQ3-API
inches kips kips kips kips lbs/ft lbs/ft
3/4 95 86 77 73 5 5
1 167 152 136 128 10 9
1 1/8 210 191 171 162 12 11
1 1/4 257 234 210 198 15 14
1 3/8 310 281 252 238 18 16
1 1/2 366 333 298 282 21 20
1 5/8 427 388 348 329 25 23
1 3/4 492 447 401 379 29 27
1 7/8 562 510 457 432 33 31
2 635 577 517 489 38 35
2 1/8 712 647 580 548 43 39
2 1/4 793 721 646 611 48 44
2 3/8 878 798 715 676 54 49
2 1/2 967 878 787 744 59 54
2 5/8 1059 962 862 815 65 60
2 3/4 1154 1049 940 889 72 66
2 7/8 1253 1139 1020 965 79 72
3 1356 1232 1103 1044 86 78
3 1/16 1408 1280 1146 1084 89 81
3 1/8 1461 1328 1189 1125 93 85
3 3/16 1515 1377 1233 1167 97 88
3 1/4 1570 1427 1278 1209 100 92
35/16 1625 1477 1323 1251 104 95
3 3/8 1681 1528 1368 1295 108 99
3 1/2 1796 1632 1462 1383 116 106
3 9/16 1854 1685 1509 1428 121 110
continues
422 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Table A-14. Continued.

Diameter Break Load Weight in Air
Stud and Studless Stud Studless
R4-RQ4 R3S R3 RQ3-API
inches kips kips kips kips lbs/ft lbs/ft
3 5/8 1913 1739 1557 1473 125 114
3 3/4 2033 1848 1655 1566 134 122
3 13/16 2094 1903 1704 1613 138 126
3 7/8 2156 1959 1754 1660 143 130
3 15116 2218 2016 1805 1708 147 135
4 2281 2073 1856 1756 152 139
4118 2409 2189 1960 1855 162 148
4114 2538 2307 2066 1955 172 157
4 3/8 2671 2427 2174 2057 182 166
41/2 2805 2549 2283 2160 192 176
4 5/8 2941 2673 2394 2265 203 186
4 3/4 3080 2799 2507 2372 214 196
4 7/8 3220 2926 2621 2480 226 206
5 3362 3055 2736 2589 238 217
5 1/8 3506 3186 2853 2700 250 228
5114 3651 3318 2971 2812 262 239
5 3/8 3798 3451 3091 2925 274 251
5 112 3946 3586 3211 3039 287 262
5 5/8 4095 3722 3333 3154 301 275
5 3/4 4246 3859 3456 3270 314 287
5 7/8 4398 3997 3579 3387 328 299
6 4551 4135 3704 3504 342 312
6118 4704 4275 3829 3623 356 . 325
6 1/4 4859 4416 3954 3742 371 339
6 3/8 5014 4557 4081 3861 386 353
61/2 5170 4698 4208 3981 401 367
6 5/8 5327 4841 4335 4102 417 381
6 3/4 5483 4983 4463 4223 433 395
67/8 5641 5126 4591 4344 449 410
7 5798 5269 4719 4465 466 425
7 1/4 6114 5556 4976 4708 500 456
(Vryhof, 2000)
 APPENDIX B NOMENCLATURE

Symbol Definition
A frontal area facing flow velocity direction
A anode surface area
ABS American Bureau of Ships
A,¡ projected area normal to flow direction
ANSI American National Steel Institute
Ap pile end area
AP after perpendicular
API American Petroleum Institute
A, pile side surface area
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
AT cross-sectional area of the thruster flow stream
ax water particle acceleration in x direction
az water particle acceleration in z direction
B buoyancyindex
B vessel breadth
B,CB center of buoyancy
BM distance between center of buoyancy and metacenter
bo distance between orthogonals in deep water
e wave celerity
e undrained shear strength of soil
e anode current capacity
e sound propagation velocity or sound speed
Ca cavitation number
Ca block coefficient
cd drag coefficient
CoN normal drag coefficient -
CoT tangential drag coefficient_for cable
CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
Cr friction coefficient
CF skin friction coefficient
CFM cubic feet per minute
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
Cg wave group velocity or wave group celerity
CG,G center of gravity
Ct.CL lift coefficient
Cm inertia coefficient
CM midship coefficient
Co deep-water wave celerity
Cp prismatic coefficient
Cp pressure coefficient
Cp, Cv specific heat at constant pressure, specific heat at constant volume
e, wave reflection coefficient
CT resistance coefficient
Cv volumetric coefficient
continues

423

---------- ~---
424 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Continued
Symbol Definition
Cv ray vertex velocity
Cvp vertical prismatic coefficient
Cw wave resistance coefficient
CWA Clean Water Act
Cwp waterplane coefficient
D depth of frictional influence
d water depth
D diameter
d sediment grain diameter
D cable diameter
D water depth
D inside diameter of tan k
dso median grain diameter
dB decibel
dg grain diameter
dh propeller hub diameter
DI directivity index
Dh transmitting directivity index
DNV Det Norske Veritas
dp propeller diameter
DT detection threshold
DWL design load waterline
E total average energy per unit width of wave crest
E potential
E propeller efficiency
E efficiency
E energy
EHP effective horsepower
Ek kinetic energy per unit width bf wave crest over the length of the wave
EL total energy in one wave length per unit width of wave crest
Ep potential energy per unit width of wave crest over the length of the wave
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
f Coriolis parameter
F force
f pile unit skin friction
F bursting force
f frequency
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
Fs buoyant force
Fe centrifuga! force
Fcf Coriolis force
Fct force due to drag
Fu drag force
Fu normal component of force on cable
Ft force due to friction
F_g gravity force
F¡ force due to inertia
F¡ force due to lift
Appendix B Nomenclature 425

Symbol Definition
FL lift force
Fn force in normal direction
FP forward perpendicular
Fpg pressure gradient force
Fr Fraude number
FT tangential component of force on cable
FT ROV thruster force
Fw submerged unit weight of pipe
FWS Fish and Wildlife Service
g acceleration of gravity
GM distance between CG and metacenter
GZ righting arm
H wave height
HIO one-tenth wave height
Have average wave height
Hb breaker wave height
H¡ incident wave height
Hmax maximum wave height
Hmo wave height based on energy methods
Ho deep-water wave height
H, refiected wave height
Hrms root mean square wave height
H,H 113 significant wave height
I average initial current at anode
I initial structure current density
I moment of inertia
I instantaneous acoustic intensity
IL intensity level
im maintenance current density
ltotal total current
J advance coefficient
k wave number (k= 21r/L)
K Keulegan-Carpenter number
K coefficient of lateral earth pressure
K keel
KB distance between keel and center of buoyancy
KC Keulegan-Carpenter number
Kn breakwater armor unit stability coefficient
KG distance between keel and center of gravity
KM distance between keel and metacenter
~ torque coefficient
KR wave refraction coefficient
Ks wave shoaling coefficient
KT thrust coefficient
Kx, Ky, Kz eddy viscosity coefficients
L wave length
L length of cylindrical anode
L vessellength
continues
426 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Continued
Symbol Definition
L length of tank
Lb length of basin
LCB,LCF longitudinal center of buoyancy, flotation
LCG longitudinal center of gravity
LDC London Dumping Convention
Lo deep water wavelength
m mass
m. mass flow rate
M moment
m beach slope
M transverse metacenter
m mass
M molecular weight
M moment, torque
Mt defined by equation 4-33
Ma Machnumber
MMS Minerals Management Service
MPRSA Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act
N total number of anodes
n number of moles
N number of revolutions per minute
N level
NEPA National Environmental Policy Act
NL noise level
Nq dimensionless bearing capacity factor
NR Reynolds number
oc degrees Centigrade
op degrees Fahrenheit
OK degrees Kelvin
OR degrees Rankine
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Üslm oxygen consumption
Po average wave energy flux in deep water
p resistivity of the electrolyte
p pressure
p pressure inside tank
p pitch of propeller
p acoustic pressure
p total acoustic radiated power
Patm atmospheric pressure
Pcoz partial pressure of carbon dioxide
Pe input electric power to transducer
Pg gauge pressure
PHP propeller horsepower
Po effective overburden pressure at pile tip
P, tank rated pressure
q unit end bearing capacity
Q volume flow rate
Qd ultimate pile bearing capacity
Appendix B Nomenclature 427

Symbol Definition
Q¡ pile skin friction resistance
Qp pile total end bearing capacity
r radius
R run-up height
R anode resistance
r radius of cylindrical anode
R gas constant
R respiratory coefficient (vol. of carbon di oxide produced/vol. of oxygen consumed)
r range
RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
Re Reynolds number
RF skin friction resistance
RL reverberation leve!
Rp pressure resistance
RT vessel total resistance
Ru universal gas constant
Rw wave making resistance
S salinity
S sieve size
S safety factor
S tank duration
S salinity
Sa specific gravity of armor unit material
SCFM standard cubic feet per minute
SHP shaft horsepower
S¡ longitudinal stress
SL source leve!
SLM standard liters per minute
SM Simpson multiplier
SNAME Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers
SOLAS Safety of Life at Sea
SPL sound pressure leve!
st hoop, circumferential, girth, or tangential stress
St Strouhal number
SWL still-water leve!
T temperature
t time
T wave period
T anode lifetime
T vessel mean molded draft
T vessel period of roll
T propeller thrust
t thrust deduction factor
T cable tension
T temperature
T absolute temperature
TCG Transverse center of gravity
TH horizontal cable tension
THP thrust horsepower
continues
428 Elements of Ocean Engineering

Continued
Symbol Definition
Ti period of oscillation in wave basin
TL transmission loss
Tm peak wave period
To cable tension at the origin
TS target strength
T., T 113 significant wave period
Tv vertical cable tension
u velocity component in x direction
u vessel velocity
u particle velocity
Uw wind speed at height of 10 m above the water surface
UA wind stress factor
Ue effective velocity
Um peak velocity
Uo surface current
Ur Ursell number
USACE U. S. Army Corps of Engineers
USCG U. S. Coast Guard
U, wind speed at height (z) above the water surface
V velocity component in y direction
v volume rate of flow
V volume of displacement
V specific volume
V volume
Yair volumetric flow rate of air at depth
v. velocity of advance
vb longshore current at breaker position
Ve current speed or vehicle speed
VCG,VCB vertical center of gravity, buoyancy
vf sediment grain fall velocity
V~ geostrophic current
Vo freestream velocity
V, tank rated capacity
Vt volume of chamber
VT average velocity through thruster
w velocity component in z direction
w weight of armor units
w wake fraction
w work
Waterplane horizontal planes parallel to designed load waterplane
We Weber number
W¡ cable immersed weight
WL intersection of waterplane with vessel's form
WL waterline
Wtotal total anode weight
X coordinate axis
y coordinate axis
z coordinate axis
z gas compressibility factor
Appendix B Nomenclature 429

Symbol Definition
Greek
a slope angle of armor !ayer on breakwater structure
a scale ratio
a absorption coefficient
ab angle between the breaker crest and the shoreline
13 slope angle of seabed
13 depth-to-height ratio of breaking waves in shallow water
r mixing coefficient
'Y fluid specific weight
"1 ratio of normal to tangential drag coefficients for cable
'Ya specific weight of armor unit
'Ys solid specific weight
V displacement
~ mass displacement
o friction angle between soil and pile wall
B vertical water particle displacement
B roughness
B roughness
¿ strain rate
T] water surface elevation
TJH hull efficiency
T]¡ propeller ideal efficiency
Ti o open-water efficiency
TJR relative rotative efficiency
TJT total propeller efficiency
e phase of wave ce = kx - wt)
e structure slope angle for run-up evaluation
e angle of pitch when picking up load
ee critica! angle
A wave length
¡¡., dynamic viscosity
¡¡., coefficient of friction
V kinematic viscosity
~ surf similarity parameter
~ horizontal water particle displacement
p density
CTN cavitation index
CTt sigma-t
T shear stress
<!> angle of heel
<!> angle between cable and horizontal
<!> velocity potential
¡p latitude
<1> grain size parameter
l\1 ratio of undrained shear strength to effective overburden pressure
<; surface tension
!1 Earth's angular velocity
w angular velocity
w wave angular frequency (w = 2TI/T)
APPENDIX C ANSWERS TO THE EVEN-NUMBERED
PROBLEMS

Ch Prob Answer Ch Prob Answer

1 No problems in Chapter 1 6 2 a) Wa = 227 lbs, b) 3486 lbs
2 2 L 0 = 25, 56.2, 99.84, 224.6 ft 4 FD = 144.6lb
eo = 6.24, 9.4, 12.5, 18.7 m/s 6 s = 115.4 ft, Ts = 571.2lb
4 u = 0.13 ft/s, w = O, ax = O, az = -0.85 ft/s 2 TA = 331lb, X= 80.8 ft
6 Hb = 0.73 ft 8 Vol. = 312.5 ft 3
8 Ps.t.o = 1019.4 kg/m 3 JO s = 231.4 ft, Ts = 926lb
a, = 19.4 kg/m 3 TA = 386.2 lb, X = 137.4 ft
JO L = 328.9, 327.8, 296.6, 175.8 ft 12 Gz = 1.27 m, M= 9.97 X 106 N-m
12 H = 2.29m J4 D = 9.08 ft
3 2 F = 2.53 X 107 kips J6 W = 150.8kN
4 FD = 46 lb, Frn = 73.9 lb J8 T = 20.35 S
6 'Y = 1064.6 N/m 3 7 2 N= 10 tanks
8 H = 25.24 ft 4 Va= 11.4 ft 3/min@ depth
JO Frn = 23.4 kN Va= 32.1 SLM
12 Fw = 84.87 kN 6 a) 20.8 psia, b) 231 ft
J4 FD = 7488.8 lb 8 24.95 SeFM
J6 Fxw = -811 kN, Fyw = 2,548 kN, Mxyw = -104,281 kN-m JO tw = 0.79 in
Fxe = 899 kN, Fye = 11,533 kN, Mxye = 181,785 kN-m 12 P = 0.127 atm
4 2 H = 35.6 ft J4 S, = 38,658 psi
4 a) H, = 13.75 ft, T, = 8.25 s J6 N= 12 tanks
b) H, = 11 ft, T, = 7.25 S J8 0.5% eÜ2, 5.8-40% 02
e) Fz = 1050 mi, D = 42 Hrs 8 2 I = 6.7 w/m 2
6 Hb = 3ft, V = 1.39, 2.62, 3.52, 4.01, 4.01 ft/s 4 TL = 122 dB
Hb = 6ft, V = 1.97, 3.70, 4.98, 5.67, 5.67 ft/s 6 SL = 212 dB
8 vf = 14.3 em/s 8 e = 1531.2 m/s
JO e, = 0.34, H, = 0.85 n JO e = 1503 m/s, 4930 ft/s
12 e, = o.3o, H, = 1.o5 n 12 SL = 153 dB
J4 R = 1.96 ft J4 SL = 101 dB
J6 V= 1.34 ft/s J6 SL = 232.5 dB
J8 w = 83.6lb J8 r = 9750 yds
20 vf = 11.75 em/s 20 a) -6.62°, b) 13.79 s, e) -84.97°
22 T¡ = 1.65 hr 22 S= 21.4 o/oo
24 m = 1/1.5, Wq = 2549.6lb, W, = 611.9 lb 9 No problems in ehapter 9
wD = 192.4lb, w,p = 764.9Ib 10 4 Vm= 1.90 m/s, Drn/Dp = 1.57 X 10- 6
m = 113, Wq = 1274.8 lb, W, = 305.9 lb Prn/Pp = 2.49 X 10-6
w D = 96.2 lb, W,p = 382.4 lb 6 rpm = 8791, Pp = 507 hp
26 ab = 8.6° JO rpm = 9494, Pp = 1033 hp
28 Hb = 1.08 ft 12 Vm= 1.41 m/s, Dm/DP = 7.9 X 10- 6
30 vf = 17.5 em/s Pm/Pp = 1.12 X 10-6
32 Up = 9.63 ft, Umax = 3.78 ft/s, Ubmax = 20.46 ft/s J4 Lmodel = 19.25 ft, Dmodel = 4.375 ft
5 6 N= 32 11 No problems in ehapter 11
8 N= 85 12 No solutions for ehapter 12

431
 INDEX
A terms, 222
ABET. See Accreditation Bureau for Engineering and vertically loaded embedment, 223
Technology Aneroid element, 329,330
ABS. See American Bureau of Shipping Angle of declination, 220, 409-41 O
Absolute pressure, 241-242 Anti-Submarine Division Investigation Committee
Absorption, 295-298 (ASDIC), 282
Absorption coefficient, 296-297, 297 API. See American Petroleum Institute
Academic institutions Application areas, ocean engineering, 8-9, 9
ocean engineering, 1, 2-4 Aqualung, 7
physical modeling facilities, 358-361, 359-360, Aquarius habitat, 7, 270-271,271, 272
362, 363 Armor unit, 107-109, 108, 128-130, 129, 398-401
Accidents, 373 Articulated tower, 61, 61
offshore, 376, 376, 377 ASCE. Se e American Society of Civil Engineers
Accreditation Bureau for Engineering and Technology ASDIC. See Anti-Submarine Division Investigation
(ABET), 12 Committee
Acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP), 321-322, ASME. Se e American Society of Mechanical Engineers
335,336 Atlantic Undersea Test and Evaluation Center
Acoustic Doppler velocimeter (ADV), 198, 321-322, (AUTEC), 314
322,337,337 Atmospheric diving suit (ADS), 7, 264, 264-266,265
Acoustic position reference system, 320, 320 Attenuation, 295, 333
Acoustic release systems, 346, 346 Auger cutter, 141, 141
Acoustic wave array, 340 Auger tension leg platform, 6
Active sonar equation, 288-289 Australian Marine Safety Agency (AMSA), 371
ADCP. See Acoustic Doppler current profiler AUTEC. See Atlantic Undersea Test and
Added mass, 214, 227-228 Evaluation Center
ADS. See Atmospheric diving suit Automated Coastal Engineering System (ACES), 37
ADV. See Acoustic Doppler velocimeter Autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV), 261-262,
Aegir habitat, 7 262,263
Airy, 25,35 Average deep water ambient noise spectra, 310
Aluminum, ocean applications, 155, 156 Ave!age one minute wind speed, 76-77
Alvin (submarine), 247 Average radiated noise levels, 316-317
Ambient noise, 287, 288, 309-310,309-310
American Bureau of Shipping (ABS), 368, 369, 373 B
American Petroleum Institute (API) Backhoe bucket, 142
floating offshore structures, 76 Ballistic missile submarine, 249
industry standards, 372 Basket cutter, 139, 140
offshore mooring systems, 208 Bathythermograph, 327-328, 328
regulatory bodies, 368, 369 Beach restoration, 4-5, 5, 109-110, 112, 113
wave force guidelines, 67 Beam of ship, 76-84
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), 383 Beam pattems, underwater sound, 289-292,290, 291
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), Beaufort Sea, 38, 40
368, 370, 383 Beneficia! uses of dredged materials, 146-147
AMSA. See Australian Marine Safety Agency Bemoulli theorem, 190
Anchor rig release, 346, 346 Blowout preventer (BOP), 53
Anchors Board of Registration for Professional Engineers, 12
classifications, 222 Break load for chains, 420-422
components, 222 Breakwater, design process
holding capacity, 222-224, 224, 225 construction methods, 399
Stevpris Mark 5, 223 design considerations, 399
suction pile, 223 design criteria, 398, 398

433
 434 lndex

Breakwater, design process (continued) Chrun stopper,

design results, 401 Chernomor 1 and 11, 7
material selection, 401 Chukchi, 38
need, 398, 398 . CIRP. See Coastal Inlets Research Program
problem statement, 398 Clamshell, 130--132, 132, 142, 142
structure geometry, 399, 399, 400 Classification, 367-368, 372-373
summary, 401, 401 Classification societies, 367-368, 374
Breakwaters, 104, 105, 106 industry standards, 373
Broce anchor, 223 regulatory enforcers, 371
Bucket-ladder dredge, 132, 133 Clean Water Act (CWA), 379
Bucket wheel cutter, 139-141, 141 Cnoidal wave theory, 37,37
Bucket wheel dredge, 136, 137 Coastal and Hydraulic Laboratory, 102, 118
Buckets, dredges, 142, 142 Coastal Engineering Manual (USACE), 122
Buckingham Pi theorem, 350--353,351 Coastal Engineering Research Center (CERC), 5
Bulkheads, 108-109,111 Coastal Inlets Research Program (CIRP), 5
Buoy systems Coastal processes
hull forms, 197, 197 littoral transport, 126-128, 127, 128
moored subsurface buoy, 200, 200 sediment transport, 124, 124-126, 125, 126
mooring techniques, 197 wave diffraction, 118, 119
neutrally buoyant cables, 202-205, 204 wave prediction, 121-124, 123
static analysis, 198-199, 199 wave reftection, 118-120, 120
static cable analysis, 200--202, 201, 202 wave refraction, 113-118, 117
static mooring line analysis, 205, 205-207, 207 wave run-up, 120, 120--121
types of, 195-198, 196 Coastal protection
Buoyancy calculations, 406-407,408 history, 4-5
Buoyancy can, 229,230 methods, 104
Buoyancy materials, 160, 160 USACE, 1, 5
Bureau Veritas, 368 WES,5
Coastal structures
e beach restoration, 109-11 O, 112, 113
Cable burial ROV, 256-257 breakwaters, 104, 105, 106
California draghead, 142 bulkheads, 109,111
CALM. See Catenary anchor leg mooring coastal protection methods, 104
Canons, 383 groiñs, 107, 109
Canyon Station subsea tieback, 277, 277 hart>Ors, 113, 116
Capacitance wave gauge, 340--341, 341 jetties, 107, 107, 108, 109
Catenary anchor leg mooring (CALM), 209,210 marinas, 113, 115
Catenary mooring system, 209,209 ports, 113, 116
Cathodic protection, 168, 169 revetment, 109, 112
Cell spar, 63 rubble mound structures, 128-129, 129
Cement, ocean applications, 159, 159 sand bypassing, 110--113, 114
Centerofbuoyancy, 175,177,179,182-183,185-186, seawalls, 108-109, 111
407 Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA), 380
Center of gravity, 175, 182-184, 184, 186, 187, 259, Code of ethics, 383
394,395 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), 368, 374
CERC. See Coastal Engineering Research Center Coefficients of form, 177-178, 179
CERCLA. See Comprehensive Environmental Cohesive sediments, 96, 143
Response, Compensation, and Liability Act Common unit prefixes, 417
(Superfund) Compliant tower, 57, 59
Certification, 368, 372-373 Composites, ocean applications, 158, 158-159
CFR. See Code of Federal Regulations Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensa-
Chrun, 195,202,204,208-209,220--222,402-403 tion, and Liability Act (Superfund) (CERCLA),
Chrun jacks, 221 379-380
Chrun mooring 1ine, 220, 402 Concentration by vo1ume, 144
 lndex 435

Concentration by weight, 144-145 Cylindrical bow shape, 86-87, 90

Concrete, ocean applications, 159, 159 CZMA. Se e Coastal Zone Management Act
Condeep concrete gravity structure, 59, 59
Conductivity, temperature, depth (CTD), 332, 333, 338 D
Conferences Dalia subsea production system, 67, 67
coastal engineering, 101 Damping, 214, 217
ocean engineering, 12 Damping factor, 214
Confined disposal facility, 145 Danish Maritime Institute, 359
Conshelf I, II, and III, 7 David Taylor Research Center, 362
Contaminated sediments, 132, 142 Davidson Laboratory, 359-360
Conventional bow shape, 86, 89, 90 Deep scattering layer, 311
Conventional tree, 277, 278 Deepstar, 374, 375
Core tube sampler, 342, 343 Delft Hydraulics Laboratory, 358, 360
Coriolis force, 20 Density of common alloys, 417
Corrosion, marine Density of common liquids, 418
crevice, pitting, 164-165 Density of other common material, 418
electrochemical reactions, 161, 161 Depth, ocean, 17
erosion, 165 aneroid element, 329, 330
galvanic, 164 determination of, 328-330, 329
galvanic series, metals, 161, 162 land elevations and, 17
hydrogen embrittlement, 165 multibeam echo sounder, 328, 329
intergranular, 164 single beam echo sounder, 328, 329
pipes, tubes, 163 Depth (echo) sounder, 282, 328, 329
prevention, 165, 165-168, 167, 169 Design wave concept, 68, 69
pumps, hydrofoils, 163, 164 Det Norske Veritas (DNV), 368, 369
quiescent seawater and, 163, 163 Detection threshold (DT), 315-318, 318
stress corrosion cracking, 165 Diffraction, wave, 118, 119
uniform, 161 Diffraction theory, 95
Corrosion fatigue, 165 Dimensional analysis, 350
Cousteau, J. Y., 7 Dimensionless parameters, 353, 354
Crevice corrosion, 164-165 Dimensions, units, 349, 350
Critica! velocity, 144, 144 Dipper dredge, 131-132
Cross curves, stability, 186, 186, 187 Disconnectable turret, 65, 210, 210
CRREL. See United States Army Cold Regions Diss.olved oxygen, 19, 331-333, 332
Research and Engineering Laboratory Distorted modeling, 358
Current forces, offshore structures and, 74-76, 75 Diver breathing equipment, 242-243
Current forces, tanker-shaped vessels and, 84-85, 85 Diving, life support and
bow configurations, 86, 86, 87, 88, 89 air supply calculations, 241-242
crude carrier dimensions, 89 carbon dioxide, effects, 238
third order polynomial curve fits, 86, 90 diver breathing equipment, 242-243
Current load calculations, 80-81, 81 equation of state, 240, 240-241, 241
Current yaw moment coefficient, 88 oxygen consumption, 239
Currents, ocean oxygen partial pressure, 238
Ekman, 23 physiology, 235-239, 236, 237
geostrophic, 21-22,22 pressure, 239
tides,23-25,24,25 temperature, 240
Curriculum, ocean engineering, 13, 13-14 underwater chamber environment, 243
Curves ofform, 178-179, 179, 180 ventilation, large chambers, 242
Cutterhead dredge, 135-136, 136, 137 DNV. See Det Norske Veritas
Cutters DOER Program. See Dredging Operations and
auger, 141, 141 Environmental Research (DOER) Program
basket, 139, 140 Drag embedment anchor, 208, 209, 222, 223
bucket wheel, 139-141, 141 Dragheads, 141-142,142
CWA. See Clean Water Act Dredge pumps, 139, 139

-~-~----- ··--- --------~--~------

436 lndex

Dredged material, pipeline transport Engineering design, 385

critical velocity, 144 breakwaters, 398-401,399, 400, 401
production estimation, 145 buoyancy blocks, 408
slurry transport, 142-144, 143 chain mooring, meteorological buoy, 402,
Dredged material, placement 402-404,403
beneficia! uses, 146-147, 147 design process, 385-387, 386, 387
confined placement facilities, 145-146, 146 drag calculations, ROV, 409, 41 O
open water placement area, 145 ROV, 393, 393-398,395, 396-397
Dredges ROV, observational, 404, 404-410,405, 406, 407
bucket wheel, 136, 137 simple offshore platform, 388, 388-392,
buckets, 142, 142 389-391, 392
classification, 132 stability calculations, ROV, 408, 408
cutterhead, 135-136, 136, 137 Engineering in Training (EIT), 12
cutters, 139-141, 140, 141 Engineering Research and Development Center
dragheads, 141-142,142 (ERDC), 102, 129, 360-361, 362
dustpan, 137, 138 Environmental assessment (EA), 379
hopper, 133-135, 134 Environmental dredges, 142
hydraulic, 133 Environmental impact statement (EIS), 382, 382
mechanical, 131-132, 132, 133 Environmentallaws, 378, 378-381
sidecasting, 135, 135 Environmental Protection Agency, 53, 368, 386
small hydraulic, 138, 138 Environmental regulations, 367
Dredging EIS, 382, 382
definition, 129-131 enforcers, 371
dredged material placement, 145-147, 146, 147 offshore regulations, 370
history, 130-131, 131 performance-based regulations, 371
pipeline transport, 142-145, 143, 144 prescriptive regulations, 371
Dredging Operations and Environmental Research Equation of state, 240, 240-241
(DOER) Program, 5 Equilibrium tide theory, 24-25, 25
Drift devices, 335, 335 Erosion control, history, 4-5
Drilling, offshore Erosion corrosion, 165
drillship, 55-56, 56 Ethics,383, 383-384,384
jack-up drilling rig, 54-55, 55 Eulerian current measurement, 335, 335, 336
oil, gas production, 53-54, 54 External turrets, 64, 64, 210, 211
semisubmersible drilling rig, 55, 56 Extreme wave statistics, 43-45
Drilling risers, 208, 208, 231 probability distributions, 45-49, 46, 47, 48-49
Drillship, 55-56, 56 wave data collection, 45
Dry tree, 229
DT. See Detection threshold F
Dynamic positioning system, 320, 320 Fairlead,206-207,212,219-221,221
Dynamic similarity, 355-357,356, 357 FE. See Fundamentals in Engineering
Federal Water Pollution Control Act and Amendments,
E 1972,379
EA. See Environmental assessment Finding of no significant impact (FONSI), 379
Educational institutions, ocean engineering, 1, 2-4 Fire safety, 376
Effective horsepower (EHP), 193, 193 Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, 1958, 381
EHP. See Effective horsepower Fixed jacketed structure, 58, 58
EIS. See Environmental impact statement Fixed-bed modeling, 358
EIT. See Engineering in Training Flexible risers, offshore, 227, 228, 229
Ekman current, 23 Floating body hydrodynamics
Ekman grab, 343 anchors,222, 222-224,223
Electrochemical reactions, corrosion, 161, 161 ap.chors-holding capacity, 222-224, 224, 225
Electromagnetic current meter, 334, 334 buoy systems, static analysis, 198-200, 199
Endangered Species Act, 1988, 381 buoy types, 195-198, 196, 197, 198
Energy systems, underwater applications, 274, 274 CALM, 209, 210
 lndex 437

catenary mooring systems, 209, 210 G

coefficients of form, 177-178, 179 Galvanic corrosion, 164
cross curves, stability, 186, 186, 187 Galvanic series, metals, 161, 162
curves of form, 178-179, 180 General refraction analysis, 115-118
displacement, 174-177, 177 Geometric similarity, 354
hydrostatic calculations, 179-180, 182, 183 Geostrophic current, 21-22,22
metacentric height, 185, 185-186 Germanischer Lloyd, 368
moored subsurface buoy, 200, 200 Glass and fiberglass, ocean applications, 158
mooring line components, 221, 221, 222 GMoor, 208, 217
mooring system design process, 217-219, 218 Govemment
natural periods, 225-226, 226 classification societies and, 367-368
neutrally buoyant cables, 202-205, 203, 204 ocean engineering jobs, 10
offshore mooring systems, 208, 208-210, 209, 211 publications, coastal engineering, 102
offshore production risers, 227, 227-229, 228, Grab sampler, 343, 343
229, 230 Grapple dredge, 131-132
propeller performance curves, 195 Gravity-based structure, 59, 59
propulsion, 190, 190--195, 191, 193, 194 Groins, 107, 109
RAO, 214-217,215, 216, 217 Gulf of Mexico loop current, 41-43, 44, 45
resistance, 188-190 Gumbel distribution, 45-46, 46, 47, 48-49
SALM, 209,210 Guyed tower, 60--61, 61
semitaut mooring systems, 209, 209
ship geometry, 173, 176 H
spread mooring system, 211-214, 212, 213 Habitats, underwater, 266, 267-268
static cable analysis, 200-202, 201, 202 Aquarius, 270-271, 271, 272
static mooring line analysis, 205, 205-207, 207 Hydrolab, 266-270, 269
static stability, 180-184, 184 Jules Undersea Lodge, 271,273
static stability curve, 187, 187, 188 recreational facilities, 271
taut mooring systems, 209, 209 subsea bases, 271
terminology, 173, 174, 175 Tektite, 270, 270
thrust coefficient, 191, 192 Harbors, 113, 116
truss spar mooring analysis, 219, 219-221, 220 Hardsuit, 258-268, 267
Floating liquefied natural gas (LNG) facilities, 65, Haynes Coastal Engineering Laboratory, Texas A&M
65-66,66 . University, 361, 362, 363
Floating offshore structures, environment and, 76 Height coefficients, 78-79, 79
current load calculations, 80--81, 81 Helgoland 1 and 11, 7
wave load calculations, 81-82, 82, 83, 84 Helical strakes, 229, 230
wind load calculations, 79-80, 80 Heterogeneous flow, 143
wind loads, 76-79, 77, 78, 79 Hindcasting, wave, 121
Floating production storage and offloading (FPSO) Hinsdale Laboratory, 360
offshore mooring systems, 210, 210, 211 History, ocean engineering
offshore platforms, 57, 64, 64-65, 65 coastal, 4-5
Floating production system (FPS), 62, 62, 210, 228 offshore, 6, 6
Floating production unit (FPU), 370 underwater systems, 7-8
Floating storage and regasification unit (FSRU), 65-66 Homogeneous flow, 143
Floor, ocean, 17-18, 18 Hopper dredge, 133-134, 134, 141-142
Flowlines, 277,277, 279 Horizontal tree, 67
Fluke angle, 222, 222 Hot wire anemometer probes, 337,337
FONSI. Se e Finding of no significant impact Human-powered submarines, 250, 251
Forecasting, wave, 121, 122-124, 123 Hurricanes, 41, 44
FPS. See Floating production system categories, 43
FPSO. See Floating production storage and offioading Ike, 41,43
FPU. See Floating production unit Ivan, 41
FSRU. See Floating storage and regasification unit Katrina, 41, 42
Fundamentals in Engineering (FE), 12 Hybrid risers, 229, 231, 256
mu
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438 lndex

Hydraulic dredge, 130-133 International Conferences on Port and Ocean

Hydraulics Laboratory, 118, 358, 360 Engineering under Arctic Conditions, 38
Hydrodynamic noise, 317 International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea
Hydrogen embrittlement, 165 (SOLAS), 370
Hydrolab underwater habitat, 267-270, 269 International Maritime Organization (IMO), 187, 370
Hydrolab, 7 International Standards Organization (ISO), 372-373
Hydrostatics, vessels International Submarine Races (ISRs), 250
coefficients, of form, 177-178, 179 Internet sites
cross curves, stability, 186, 186-187, 187 coastal engineering, 102
curves,ofform, 178-179,179 instrumentation, manufacturers, 346-347
displacement, 174-177 Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research, 360
hydrostatic calculations, 179-190, 182, 183 ISO. See International Standards Organization
metacentric height, 185, 185-186 ISRs. See International Submarine Races
static stability, 180--184, 184
static stability curve, 187, 187, 188 J
Hyperbaric chambers, 274 Jack-up drilling rig, 54-55, 55
Jetties, 107, 107, 108, 109
1 JIM systems, 7, 264, 264
IADC. See Intemational Association of Drilling Contractors Johnson-Sea-Link (submarine), 247
Ice,oceans,38,38 Joumals
gouge,40 coastal engineering, 101-102
properties, 39-40, 40 ocean engineering, 11
strudelscour,4~40-41 Jules Undersea Lodge, 271,273
types of, 38-39 Jumper, 277,278
Icebergs, 39, 39
ICP. See Independent competent person K
IEEE. See Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Kinematic similarity, 355
IMO. See International Maritime Organization Korea Research Institute of Ships and Ocean
Independent competent person (ICP), 373 Engineering, 360
Indicative metocean conditions, 41, 44
Indonesian Hydrodynamic Laboratory, 360 L
Industry standards, 371-373 LaChalupa habitat, 7
INHA University Towing Tank, 360 Ladde~ 132-133, 135-136
Inhibitors, corrosion prevention, 166 Lagrangian current measurement, 335
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 383 Laset.Doppler anemometer (LDA), 337,337
Institute of Marine Dynamics Towing Tank, 359 Lateral current coefficient, 88, 89
Instrumentation, ocean applications, 327 Lateral wind force coefficient, 84, 86, 89
depth,328-330,32~330 Lena guyed tower, 61
laboratory current measuring devices, 337, 337, 338 Linear wave theory, 25-32, 27, 30, 32
manufacturer web sites, 346-347 Link, E.A, 7
meteorological data, 337-339, 338 Liquefied natural gas (LNG) tankers, 57, 65,
multiparameter, 332-333, 333 65-66,66
oceanographic winches, 344-345,345 Littoral transport
salinity, 330--331, 331, 332 longshore currents, 127-128, 128
sediment samp1ers, 342-343, 343, 344 onshore-offshore currents, 127, 128
temperature, 327-328 sediment, 126-127
underwater release devices, 346, 346 Lloyd's Register of Shipping (LR), 368, 370
water current meters, 333-337, 334, 335, 336 LNG tankers. See Liquefied natural gas tankers
water samplers, 341-342,342 London Dumping Convention, 378, 378-379
wave, tide gauges, 339, 339-341, 340, 341 Longitudinal current coefficient, 87
Intergranular corrosion, 164 Longitudinal wind force coefficient, 86, 89
Interna! turrets, 64-65, 65 Los Angeles Harbor at the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
International Association of Drilling Contractors Engineering, Research, and Development Center,
(IADC), 374 361,362
International Association of Hydraulic Research, 38 LR. See Lloyd's Register of Shipping
 lndex 439

M Modeling,353-354,354
Machinery noise, 316,319 dynamic similarity, 355-357, 356, 357
Magazines geometric similarity, 354
coastal engineering, 1O1-102 kinematic similarity, 355
ocean engineering, 11-12 MODU. See Mobile offshore drilling unit
Man-in-the-Sea 1, 7 Moonpool, 214, 215
Manifolds, 90--91, 229-230,230, 277,278 Moored subsurface buoy, 200, 200
Marinas, 113, 115 Mooring system, design process
Marine corrosion design approach, 402, 403
corrosion fatigue, 165 design criteria, 402, 402
crevice, pitting, 164-165 need,402
electrochemical reactions, 161, 161 summary, 404
erosion, 165 Mooring systems, offshore, 208, 208-210
galvanic, 164 anchor-holding capacity, 222-224, 224, 225
galvanic series, metals, 161, 162 anchors,222, 222-224,223
hydrogen embrittlement, 165 CALM, 209,210
intergranular, 164 design process, 217-219, 218
pipes, tubes, 163 FPSO facilities, 210, 210, 211
prevention, 165, 165-168, 167, 169 line components, 221, 221
pumps, hydrofoils, 163, 164 natural periods, floating bodies, 225-226, 226
quiescent seawater and, 163, 163 production risers, 227, 227-229, 228, 229, 230
stress corrosion cracking, 165 RAO, 214-217,216, 217
uniform, 161 SALM, 61, 62, 209, 210
Marine foundations, 95-97, 96 spread system analysis, 211, 211-213,213
Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act truss spar analysis, 219, 219-221, 220
(MPRSA), 378, 378-379 turret configurations, 210, 211
Marine Safety Agency, 371 Morison Equation, 68-69
MARINTEK, 359, 360 Movable-bed modeling, 358
Maritime Research Institute Netherlands (MARIN), 359, 360 MPRSA. See Marine Protection, Research, and
Massachusetts Institute of Technology towing tank, 359 Sanctuaries Act
Materials, ocean applications Multibeam echo sounder, 328, 329
aluminum, 155, 156 Multiparameter probe, 332-333, 333
buoyancy materia1s, 160, 160 Multiple constant-gradient layers, 302-305, 303, 304,
cement, concrete, 159, 159 . 305,306
composites, 158, 158-159
glass, fiberglass, 158, 159 N
nonferrous alloys, 156, 156 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 379
properties, 153, 153-154 National Historie Preservation Act, 1966, 381
stainless steel, 155, 155 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
steel, 154, 154-155,155 (NOAA), 7, 266,271, 272
thermoplastics, 157, 157 Natural frequency, 216,217
titanium, 156, 156 Natural periods, floating bodies, 225-226, 226
wood, 159, 160 Nautical terminology, 174
Mean wave drift force, 81-82, 84 Nautilus, 251, 251
Metacentric height (GM), 185, 185-186 Navigation and Vessel Inspection Circular (NVIC), 371
Meteorological buoys, 338, 338, 402, 402, 404 NEPA. See National Environmental Policy Act
Meteorological data, 337-339, 338 Net positive suction head, 140
Methane, 65, 413, 418 Neutrally buoyant cables, 202-205, 204
Method of rays, 299, 299-302, 300, 301, 302 Newton, Isaac
Metocean conditions, 41 equilibrium tide theory, 24, 25
Migratory Bird Treaty Act, 381 sound, mathematical analysis of, 281
Military submarines, 246, 246, 247 Newton's second law of motion, 20
Mimosa, 173, 208, 217 Newtsuit, 267, 267
Minerals Management Service (MMS), 368, 371 NOAA. See National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Mobile offshore drilling unit (MODU), 370 Administration
440 lndex

Nomenclature, 423-429 ocean waves, 25-38, 26

Nominal values, target strength, 316 seawater, 18-19
Noncohesive sediments, 96, 143 sinusoidal progressive waveform, 26-27, 27
Nonferrous alloys, ocean applications, 156, 156 tides,23-25,24,25
Norwegian Hydrodynamic Laboratory, 359 wave breaking, 34-35, 35
Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (NPD), 371 wave energy and power, 32-34,33
NPD. See Norwegian Petroleum Directorate wave energy spectrum, 25, 26
Nuclear submarine, 248, 249 wave group velocity, 34
NVIC. See Navigation and Vessel Inspection Circular Ocean wave characteristics, 121
Ocean waves, 25, 26
o advanced wave theories, 35-38, 36, 37
Oblique force, 79-81, 80 linear wave theory, 25-32, 27, 30, 32
Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA), 380 wave breaking, 34-35, 35
Ocean currents wave energy and power, 32-34, 33
Ekman,23 wave group velocity, 34
geostrophic, 21-22, 22 Oceanographic winches, 344-345, 345
tides,23-25,24,25 Oceans, majar, 17
Ocean Dumping Act, 378, 378-379 OCIMF. See Oil Companies Intemational Marine Forum
Ocean engineering Offshore drilling
application areas, 8-9 drillship, 55-56, 56
background, 1 jack-up drilling rig, 54-55, 55
coastal, 4-5, 5 oil, gas production, 53-54, 54
conferences, 12 semisubmersible drilling rig, 55, 56
curriculum, 13-14, 13-14 Offshore exploration, 6, 6
educational institutions, 1, 2-4 Offshore mooring systems, 208, 208-210
government, 1O anchor-holding capacity, 222-224, 224, 225
history, 4-8 anchors,222, 222-224,223
joumals, 11 CALM, 209, 210
magazines, 11-12 design process, 217-219,218
offshore, 6, 6 FPSO facilities, 210, 210, 211
private industry, 1O line components, 221, 221, 222
professional organizations, 10-11 natural periods, fioating bodies, 225-226, 226
professional registration, 13-14 production risers, 227, 227-229, 228, 229, 230
underwater systems, 7-8, 8 RAO, 214-217,216, 217
Ocean engineering design, 385 S~M,61,62, 209,210
breakwater, 398, 398-401,399, 400, 401 spread system analysis, 211, 211-213, 213
buoyancy blocks, 408 truss spar analysis, 219, 219-221, 220
chain mooring, meteorological buoy, 402, 402-404, 403 turret configurations, 210, 211
design process, 385-387, 386, 387 Offshore pipelines, 90-91, 91
drag calculations, ROV, 409, 41 O frictional resistance, 93, 94
ROV, 393, 393-398, 395, 396-397 practica! design, 93, 93
ROV, observational, 404, 404-41 O, 405, 406, 407 Reynolds number, 93
simple offshore platform, 388, 388-392,389-391, 392 wave, current forces, 91-94, 92
stability calculations, ROV, 408, 408 Offshore platform, design process
Ocean environment, 17, 17 design computations, 389-391, 389-391, 391
advanced wave theories, 35-38, 36, 37 design criteria, 388, 389
Ekman current, 23, 23 need,388,388
extreme wave statistics, 43-49, 46, 47, 48-49 problem statement, 388
geostrophic current, 21-22, 22 summary, 392, 392
hurricanes,41-43,42,43 Offshore platforms, 57, 57
ice, 38, 38, 39, 40 articulated tower, 61, 61
linear wave theory, 25-32, 27, 30, 32 compliant structures, 59, 60
ocean currents, 19-21 fixed jacketed structure, 58, 58
ocean fioor, 17-18,18 FPS,62,62
 lndex 441

FPSO, 57, 64, 64-65,65 kinematic similarity, 355

FSRU, 65-66, 66 movable-bed, 358
gravity-based structure, 59, 59 Physical properties, 40, 413
guyed tower, 60-61, 61 Pile foundations, 95-97, 96
LNG, 65,66 Pipelines, offshore, 90-91, 91
SALM, 61, 62, 209, 210 dredges, 145
spar platform, 62-63, 63 end terrnination, 277, 278
TLP, 59-60, 60 frictional resistance, 93, 94
Offshore regulations, 370 practica! design, 93, 93
Offshore structures Reynolds number, 93
current load calculations, 81 wave, current forces, 91-94, 92
design wave concept, 68, 69 Piston corer, 343, 344
diffraction theory, 95 Pitting corrosion, 165
drilling, 53-54, 54 PIV. See Particle image velocimeter
drilling systems, 54-56, 55, 56 Polyester mooring line, 207, 221,221,419
horizontal cylinders, 71-74, 74 Polyester rope, 206, 209, 221-222,418
marine foundations, 95 Polyethylene rope, 419
Morison Equation, 68-69 Ports, 113, 116
pile foundations, 95-97, 96 Prescriptive regulations, 371
subsea tieback facilities, 67, 67 Pressure vessels, 244, 244-245, 245
vertical cylinder, 69, 69-71, 71, 73, 74 Prívate industry, ocean engineering, 10
wave forces, 67-68, 68 Probability of detection, 317, 319
wave load calculations, 81-82, 82, 83, 84 Probability offalse alarm, 317, 319,320
wind and current forces, 74-76, 75 Production risers, offshore, 227, 227, 228
wind load calculations, 79-80, 80 flexible risers, 229, 229
wind loads, 76-79, 77, 78, 79 helical strakes, 229, 230
Offshore Technology Research Center, 360-361, 361 Professional Engineer Exam (PE), 12
Oil and Gas Producers (OGP), 374 Professional organizations, ocean engineering, 10-11
Oil Companies Intemational Marine Forum (OCIMF), 84 Professional registration, ocean engineering, 12-13
Oil Pollution Control Act, 1990 (OPA-90), 380 Professional society rules, guidelines, 367
Omni-max, 223 certification, 368
100 year retum period, 41, 44 classification, 367-368
One-atmosphere diving systems, 264, 264-266, 265 verification, 368
One-hour average wind velocity, 77 Professionalism, 383, 383-384, 384
Open water placement, 145 Propane, 65, 418
Orcaftex,217,219,220 Propeller noise, 316, 319
OS HA. Se e Occupational Safety and Health Act Properties of sinusoidal waves, 416
Propulsion, vessels, 190, 190-192, 191, 192
p hull efficiency, 193, 194
Particle image velocimeter (PIV), 337, 337 overall propeller efficiency, 192, 193
PE. See Professional Engineer Exam propellermodel tests, 193-195,195
Performance-based regulations, 371 propeller power relationships, 193, 193
Peterson grab, 343 Publications
Phleger corer, 342, 343 coastal engineering, 1O1-102
Physical modeling, 349 ocean engineering, 11-12
Buckingham Pi theorem, 350-353, 351 Pump characteristics curves, 139, 140
dimensional analysis, 350 Pyrometers, 327-328
dimensionless parameters, 353, 354
dimensions, units, 349, 350 R
distorted, 358 Radiated noise, 314-315,315, 316
dynamic sirnilarity, 355-357, 356, 357 RAO. See Response amplitude operator
facilities, 358-361, 359-360, 361, 362, 363 Ray diagrams, 299-307
fixed-bed, 358 Rayleigh, John William Strutt, 281
geometric similarity, 354 RCRA. See Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
442 lndex

Receiving directivity index, 289, 289 submerged body hydrodynamics, 188-190

Record of decision (ROD), 379 vessels, 188-190
Recreational submarines, 249, 249, 250 Resistance wave gauge, 340, 341
Reduced oxygen potential, 332 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), 379
Reflection,wave, 118-120,120 Response amplitude operator (RAO), 214-217,215,
Refraction, wave, 113-118, 117 216, 217
Regulations,367,370,375 Response spectral density function, 214
accidents, role of, 373 Restoring force, 215
certification,368,372-373 Reverberation level (RL)
classification, 367-368, 372-373 back scattering and, 312
classification societies, 371, 374 DSL, 309-310
EIS,382,382 scattering and, 309, 309-310, 310
enforcers, 371 seabottom scattering and, 312
industry associations, 373-374 surface scattering and, 311
industry standards, 371-373 Revetments, 109, 112
offshore, types of, 370 Reynolds' stresses, 21
offshore accidents, 376, 376, 377 Riser, 229-232
performance-based, 371 River and Harbors Act, 1899, 381
prescriptive, 371 RL. See Reverberation level
regulators, 374 ROD. See Record of decision
regulatory bodies, 368-370, 369-370 Rosette sampler, 342
safety, 374-376 ROV. See Remotely operated vehicle
verification, 368, 372-373 Rubble mound structures, 128-129, 129
Regulators, 374
Regulatory bodies, 368-370, 369-370 S
Regulatory enforcers, 371 Sacrificial anode cathodic protection, 166-168, 169
Release devices, underwater, 346, 346 Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), 380
Remotely operated vehicle (ROV), 8 Safety regulations, 367, 374-376, 375
application, 254 accidents, role of, 373
classification, 254, 254-255, 255 certification, 368, 372-373
history, 252-254, 253 classification, 367-368, 372-373
tether, umbilical specifications, 259-260 classification societies, 371, 374
thrust calculations, 257-261, 261 enforcers, 371
TMS,255,257 industry associations, 373-374
vehicle velocity, 257-260 industry standards, 371-373, 373
weight distribution, 257-261, 258 offshore, types of, 370
work-class, 254-255, 256, 257 offshore accidents, 376, 376, 377
Remotely operated vehicle (ROV), design process performance-based, 371
buoyancy,394,395,406-408,40~408 prescriptive, 371
center of gravity, 394, 395 regulators, 374
component CG dimensions, 406, 406 regulatory bodies, 368-370, 369-370
design approach, 404, 405 . verification, 368, 372-373
design criteria, 393, 393-394, 404, 404 Safety of Life at sea (SOLAS), 370, 374
drag force, 394, 396-397, 397 Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale, 41, 43
need,393,393,404 Salinity, seawater, 330--331, 331, 332
object retrieval thrust, 409-410,410 SALM. See Single anchor leg mooring
problem statement, 393, 393 Sand bypassing, 110--113, 114
stability calculation, 408, 408 SARA. See Superfund Amendments and Reauthoriza-
still-water velocity thrust, 409, 409 tionAct
summary, 394-398 se binaural air tube, 281, 281
, thrust, 394, 396-397 Scatter strength parameter, 311-312
Research submarines, 247,248, 249 SCR. See Steel catenary riser
Resistance SCUBA. See Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus
floating body hydrodynamics, 188-190 SDWA. See Safe Drinking Water Act
frictional, offshore pipelines, 93 SeaLab 1, II, and III, 7
 lndex 443

Seawalls, 108-109, 111 Snell's law, 297-299, 298

Seawater sound velocity variation, 296-297, 297
properties, 18-19 spreading, absorption loss and, 294-295, 295, 296
salinity,330-331,331, 332 spreading laws, 293, 293
Sediment Sound velocimeter, 299
characteristics, 124, 124-126 Sound velocity variation, 296-297, 297
fall velocity, 124-125, 125 Spar platform, 62-63, 63
littoral transport, 127, 128 Spread mooring system, 211, 211-214
terminal velocity, 126 Specific gravity, 143-144, 157, 158, 160
Sediment samplers, 342-343, 343, 344 Spectral density function, 214
Seismic exploration, 319,319 Spider, 266, 267, 267-268
Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCU- Spiral strand wire rope, 220,221,221,419
BA), 7 Spud carriage, 141
Self-noise, 315, 317 Stainless steel, ocean applications, 155, 155
Semisubmersible drilling rig, 55, 56 S tate board of registration for professional engineers, 12
offshore accidents, 376, 376, 377 State of Texas Law and Rules Conceming the
wave load calculations, 82, 82, 83, 84 Practice of Engineering and Professional
Semitaut mooring system, 209,209 Engineering Registration, 384, 384
Settling velocity, 143 Static stability
Shackle, 221 curves of, 187, 187, 188
Shadow zone, 304, 305 submerged, floating vessels, 180-184, 184
Shaft horsepower (SHP), 193, 193 Steel, ocean applications, 154, 154-155, 155
Shank,222 Steel catenary riser (SCR), 227, 229
Shape coefficients, 79 Stevpris anchor, 223, 224
Sheave,344 Stokes wave theory, 35-36, 37
Ship geometry, 173, 176 Strakes, 231, 232
Shore Protection Manual (USACE), 122 Stream function theory, 37
SHP. See Shaft horsepower Stress corrosion cracking, 165
Shuttle tanker, 61, 64, 64, 209-210, 211, 229, 230 Strudel scour, 40, 40--41
Side-scan sonar system, 321, 321 Studless chain, 220, 221
Significant wave response, 217 Studlink chain, 221
Silicon semiconductor strain gauge, 339 Subbottom sonar systero, 321, 321
Single anchor leg mooring (SALM), 61, 62, 209, 210 Subroarines, 7
Single beam echo sounder, 328, 329 huroan-powered, 250,251
Single line catenary solver, 205 military, 246, 246, 247
Sinusoidal progressive waveform, 26-27, 27 recreational, tourist, 249, 249, 250
Slurry, 133, 138-139, 142-143 research and work, 247,248, 249
Slurry transport, pipes, 142-143, 143 Subroerged body hydrodynaroics
Snell's law, 297-299, 298 actuator disk, 191
Society of N aval Architects and Marine Engineers anchors,222, 222-224,223
(SNAME), 383, 383 anchors-holding capacity, 222-224, 224, 225
SOLAS. See Intemational Convention for the Safety of buoy systeros, static analysis, 198-200, 199
Life at Sea buoy types, 195-198, 196, 197, 198
Sonar equations, 285-287, 286 coefficients of forro, 177-178, 179
Sound, underwater cross curves, stability, 186, 186, 187
fundamentals, 283-285 curves of forro, 178-179, 179, 180
generation, 292 displaceroent, 174-177, 177
Sound channel, 306 hydrostatic calculations, 179-180, 182, 183
Sound channel axis, 304, 306 roetacentric height, 185, 185-186
Sound navigation and ranging (SONAR), 282 rooored subsurface buoy, 200, 200
Sound propagation, underwater, 293 roooring line coroponents, 221, 221, 222
absorption, 293-294, 295 roooring systero design process, 217-219, 218
method ofrays, 299, 299-302,300, 301, 302 neutrally buoyant cables, 202-205, 203, 204
multiple constant-gradient layers, 302-305, 303, 304, offshore roooring systeros, 208, 208-210, 209
305, 306 offshore production risers, 227, 227-229, 228, 229, 230
 444 lndex

Submerged body hydrodynamics (continued) u

propeller performance curves, 195 U-boats, 7
propulsion, 190, 190-195, 193, 194 UK HSE. See United Kingdom Health, Safety and
RAO, 214-217,215, 216,217 Environment
resistance, 188-190 UK Offshore Operator's Association (UKOOA), 374
ship geometry, 173, 176 Umbilicals, 7, 8, 261,261,277,278
spread mooring system, 211, 211-214 Underwater acoustics, 281, 281-283,283
static cable analysis, 200-202, 201, 202 ambient noise level, ocean, 307, 307, 308
static mooring line analysis, 205, 205-207, 207 applications, 319, 319-322,320, 321, 322
static stability, 180-184, 184 beam pattem, 289-292, 290, 291
static stability curve, 187, 187, 188 DSL, 309
thrust coefficient, 191, 192 DT, 315-318,318
truss spar mooring analysis, 219, 219-221, 220 radiated noise, 314-315, 315, 316
Subsea systems, 275, 275-277, 276, 277 receiving directivity index, 289, 289
Subsea tieback facilities, 67, 67 RL,30~ 309-310,310
Suction pile, 208, 209, 222, 223 scattering, 309-310, 311, 312
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act self-noise, 315,317
(SARA), 379-380 sonar equations, 285-287, 286, 287
Surface reverberation, 311-312 sound fundamentals, 283-285
Surge, 59, 81, 84 sound generation, 292
Sverdrup-Munk-Bretschneider method, 122 sound propagation, 293
Sway, 59, 81, 84 transducers, 288, 288-289
Swivel, 208, 210 TS,310-314,31~314
Underwater release devices, 346, 346
T Underwater sound propagation, 293
Target strength (TS), 310-314, 313, 314 absorption, 293-294, 295
Taut mooring system, 209,209 method ofrays, 299, 299-302,300, 301, 302
Tektite habitat, 7, 270, 270 multiple constant-gradient layers, 302-305, 303, 304,
Temperature, water, 327-328, 328 305,306
Tendons,208,228 Snell's law, 297-299, 298
Tension leg platform (TLP), 59-60, 60 sound velocity variation, 296-297, 297
Tensioner, 229 spreading, absorption loss and, 294-295,
Tether management system (TMS), 255 295,296
The Theory ofSound (Rayleigh), 281 spreading laws, 293, 293
Thermistors, 328 Underwater systems, 235. See also Remotely operated
Thermoplastics, ocean applications, 157, 157 vehicle (ROV); Submarines
Thrust, 190-194,260-263,394,396,409-410 air supply calculations, 241-242
Tide gauge, 339, 339-341,340, 341 Aquarius habitat, 271, 272
Tides, 23-25,24, 25 AUV, 261-262,262, 263
Titanium, ocean applications, 156, 156 carbon dioxide, effects, 238
TLP. See Tension leg platform chamber environment, 243
TMS. See Tether management system diver breathing equipment, 242-243
Top tension riser (TTR), 227, 227, 228 energy systems, 274,274
Touristsubmarines,249,24~250 equation of state, 240, 240-241, 241
Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), 380 habitats, 266-271, 267-278
Trailing suction hopper dredge, 133, 141 history, ocean engineering, 7-8
Transducers, underwater acoustic, 288-289, 289 human physiology and, 235-239, 236
Transmission loss, 287, 288 human respiratory system, 237
Trieste (submarine), 247 hyperbaric chambers, 274
Truss spar, mooring analysis, 219, 219-221, 220 Jules Undersea Lodge, 273
TS. See Target strength one-atmosphere diving systems, 264, 264-266, 265
TSCA. See Toxic Substances Control Act oxygen consumption, 238, 239
TTR. See Top tension riser oxygen partial pressure, 236, 238
Turret, 64-65, 210, 211 pressure, 239, 239
Typhoon,41,44 pressure vessels, 244, 244-245, 245
 lndex 445

subsea systems, 275, 275-277, 276, 277 Wave energy spectrum, 25, 26
Tektite habitat, 270 Wave forces, offshore structures and, 67-68
temperature, 239 calculation procedures, 68
ventilation, large chambers, 242 design wave concept, 68, 69
United Kingdom Health, Safety and Environment (UK horizontal cylinder, 71-74, 74
HSE), 371 Morison Equation, 68-69
United States Army Cold Regions Research and Engi- vertical cylinder, 69, 69-71, 73, 74
neering Laboratory (CRREL), 38 Wave gauge, 339, 339-341, 340, 341
United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) Wave group velocity, 34
ACES, 37, 121 Wave load calculations
coastal protection, 1, 5 floating offshore structures, 81-82, 82
Los Angeles Harbar, 361, 362 semisubmersible, 82, 82, 83, 84
regulatory bodies, 368 Wave prediction
United States Coast Guard (USCG) forecasting, 121
regulatory enforcers, 371 hindcasting, 121
safety, 374 ocean wave characteristics, 121
Units, dimensions, 349, 350 simplified method, 122-124, 123
Universities, ocean engineering, 1, 2-4 Wave reflection, 118-120, 120
USACE. Se e United States Army Corps of Engineers Wave refraction, 113-118, 117
USCG. See United States Coast Guard Wave resistance gauge, 340, 341
USS Grenadier (submarine), 246,246 Wave run-up, 120, 120--121
USS Nautilus (submarine), 7 Waves, ocean, 25, 26
advanced wave theories, 35-38, 36, 37
V breaking, 34-35, 35
Verification, 368, 372-373 energy and power, 32-34, 33
Vertex velocity, 301-302,307 group velocity, 34
Vertical cylinder, 69, 69-71, 71, 73, 74 linear wave theory, 25-32, 27, 30, 32
Vertically loaded anchor, 222, 223 Weathervaning, 21 O
Very large crude carrier, 84, 85, 86, 89, 89 Weibull distribution, 45, 46, 48, 49
Vessel offset, 173,209,209,218,219 Wellhead,229,230,231,277,279
Virtual mass, 214 WES. See Waterways Experiment Station
Volume reverberation, 287,288, 289, 311-312 Wet tree, 229, 277,278
Vortex induced vibrations, 42, 231,232 Wheeler, 142
Vryhof, 222, 223 Winch, 221, 222, 344-345, 345
Wind forces, offshore structures and, 74-76, 75
w Wind forces, tanker-shaped vessels and,
Wartsila Icebreaking Model Basin, 360 84-85,85
WASP, 266-268, 268 bow configurations, 86, 86, 87, 88, 89
Water current meters crude carrier dimensions, 89
ADCP, 321-322, 335,336 third arder polynomial curve fits, 86, 90
drift devices, 335, 335 Wind loads, floating offshore structures and, 76-77, 77
electromagnetic current meter, 334, 334 calculations, 79-80, 80
Eulerian method, 335, 335, 336 height coefficients, 78, 78, 79
indirect methods, 334 shape coefficients, 79, 79
laboratory measuring devices, 337, 337 surface areas, 77-78, 78
Lagrangian method, 335 Wind yaw moment coefficient, 87
Water Resources Development Act, 1986, 381 Wire rape, 221-222,221,224, 227,419
Water samplers, 341-342,342 Wood, ocean applications, 159, 160
Waterways Experiment Station (WES), 5 Work submarines, 247,248, 249
Wave breaking, 34-35, 35
Wave capacitance gauge, 340--341,341 y
Wave diffraction, 118, 119 Yaw,84-85,8~88,89