II B.

tech II semester
Lecture notes on

ADVANCED DATA STRUCTURES

Prepared by
Mr P Venkateswarlu
Assistant professor
Department of information technology

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 Data Structure
• A data structure is a specialized format for
organizing, processing, retrieving and
storing data.
• While there are several basic and advanced
structure types, any data structure is designed
to arrange data to suit a specific purpose so
that it can be accessed and worked with in
appropriate ways.

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 Data Structure
• In computer programming, a data structure
may be selected or designed to store data for
the purpose of working on it with
various algorithms.
• Each data structure contains information about
the data values, relationships between the data
and functions that can be applied to the data.

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 Data Structure
• The data structure is basically a technique of
organizing and storing of different types of data
items in computer memory.
• It is considered as not only the storing of
data elements but also the maintaining of the
logical relationship existing between individual
data elements.
• The Data structure can also be defined as a
mathematical or logical model, which relates to a
particular organization of different data elements.
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 Data Structure
• Data:
– Data is the basic entity of fact that is used in calculations
or manipulation process.
– The way of organizing of the data & performing the
operations is called as data structure.
Data structure=organized data+ operations
– Operations
• Insertion
• Deletions
• Searching
• Traversing

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 Data Structure
• The organization must be convenient for users.
• Data structures are implemented in the real time
in the following situations:
– Car park
– File storage
– Machinery
– Shortest path
– Sorting
– Networking
– Evaluation of expressions
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 Data Structure
• Specification of data structure :
– Data structures are considered as the main building
blocks of a computer program.
• Organization of data
• Accessing methods
• Degree of associativity
• Processing alternatives for information

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 Data Structure
• at the time of selection of data structure we
should follow these two things so that our
selection is efficient enough to solve our
problem.
– The data structure must be powerful enough to
handle the different relationship existing between
the data.
– The structure of data also to be simple, so that we
can efficiently process data when required.
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Characteristics of data structures
• Linear or non-linear: This characteristic
describes whether the data items are arranged
in chronological sequence,
such as with an array,
or in an unordered sequence,
such as with a graph.

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Characteristics of data structures
• Homogeneous or non-homogeneous: This
characteristic describes whether all data items
in a given repository are of the same type or of
various types.

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Characteristics of data structures
• Static or dynamic: This characteristic
describes how the data structures are compiled.
Static data structures have fixed sizes,
structures and memory locations at compile
time.
• Dynamic data structures have sizes, structures
and memory locations that can shrink or
expand depending on the use.

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 Types of data structures

These data structures are directly

operated upon by the machine
instructions.

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 Types of data structures
• Primitive data structure :
– The primitive data structures are known as
basic data structures.
– These data structures are directly operated
upon by the machine instructions.
– The primitive data structures have different
representation on different computers.

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 Types of data structures
• Non-Primitive data structure :
– The non-primitive data structures are highly
developed complex data structures.
– Basically these are developed from the
primitive data structure.
– The non-primitive data structure is
responsible for organizing the group of
homogeneous and heterogeneous data
elements.
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 Types of data structures
• Data structure types are determined by what
types of operations are required or what kinds
of algorithms are going to be applied.
• Arrays-
– An array stores a collection of items at adjoining
memory locations.
– Items that are the same type get stored together so
that the position of each element can be calculated
or retrieved easily.
– Arrays can be fixed or flexible in length.
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 Types of data structures
• Arrays-

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 Types of data structures
• Stacks-

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 Types of data structures
• Queues-
– A queue stores a collection of items similar to a
stack; however the operation order can only be
first in first out.

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 Types of data structures
• Linked lists-
– A linked list stores a collection of items in a linear
order. Each element or node in a linked list
contains a data item as well as a reference or link
to the next item in the list.

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 Types of data structures
• Trees-
– A tree stores a collection of items in an abstract hierarchical
way.
– Each node is linked to other nodes and can have multiple sub-
values also known as children.

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 Types of data structures
• A Tree has the following characteristics :
– The top item in a hierarchy of a tree is referred as
the root of the tree.
– The remaining data elements are partitioned into a
number of mutually exclusive subsets and they
itself a tree and are known as the subtree.
– Unlike natural trees trees in the data structure
always grow in length towards the bottom.

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 Types of data structures
• Graphs-
– A graph stores a collection of items in a non-linear fashion.
– Graphs are made up of a finite set of nodes also known as
vertices and lines that connect them also known as edges.
– These are useful for representing real-life systems such as
computer networks.

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 Types of data structures
• The different types of Graphs are :
– Directed Graph
– Non-directed Graph
– Connected Graph
– Non-connected Graph
– Simple Graph
– Multi-Graph

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 Types of data structures
• Tries-
– A trie or keyword tree, is a data structure that
stores strings as data items that can be organized in
a visual graph.

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 Types of data structures
• Hash tables-
– A hash table or a hash map stores a collection of
items in an associative array that plots keys to
values.
– A hash table uses a hash function to convert an
index into an array of buckets that contain the
desired data item.
– Overcoming the drawbacks of linear data
structures hashing is introduced.

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 Types of data structures
• Files :
– Files contain data or information, stored
permanently in the secondary storage device such
as Hard Disk and Floppy Disk.
– It is useful when we have to store and process a
large amount of data.
– A file stored in a storage device is always
identified using a file name
like HELLO.DAT or TEXTNAME.TXT and so
on.
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 Types of data structures
• Files :
– A file name normally contains a primary and a
secondary name which is separated by a dot(.).

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Fundamentals of data structures:
• Fundamental Data Structures
– The following four data structures are used ubiquitously in
the description of algorithms and serve as basic building
blocks for realizing more complex data structures.
• Sequences (also called as lists)
• Dictionaries
• Priority Queues
• Graphs
– Dictionaries and priority queues can be classified under a
broader category called dynamic sets.
– binary and general trees are very popular building blocks
for implementing dictionaries and priority queues.

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 Fundamentals of data structures:
Dictionaries
• A dictionary is a general-purpose data
structure for storing a group of objects.
• A dictionary has a set of keys and each key has
a single associated value.
• When presented with a key the dictionary will
return the associated value.
• A dictionary is also called a hash, a map,
a hashmap in different programming
languages.
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 Fundamentals of data structures:
Dictionaries
• For example the results of a classroom test could be represented as a
dictionary with pupil's names as keys and their scores as the values
• results = { 'Detra' : 17,
'Nova' : 84,
'Charlie' : 22,
'Henry' : 75,
'Roxanne' : 92,
'Elsa' : 29 }
• Instead of using the numerical index of the data we can use the
dictionary names to return values
• >>> results['Nova']
84
• >>> results['Elsa'] preparedy by p venkateswarlu dept of IT
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 Fundamentals of data structures:
Dictionaries
• The keys in a dictionary must be simple types (such
as integers or strings) while the values can be of any
type.
• Different languages enforce different type restrictions
on keys and values in a dictionary.
• Dictionaries are often implemented as hash tables.
• Keys in a dictionary must be unique an attempt to
create a duplicate key will typically overwrite the
existing value for that key.

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 Fundamentals of data structures:
Dictionaries
• Dictionary is an abstract data structure that supports
the following operations:
– search(K key) (returns the value associated with the given
key)
– insert(K key, V value)
– delete(K key)
• Each element stored in a dictionary is identified by a
key of type K.
• Dictionary represents a mapping from keys to values.

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 Fundamentals of data structures:
Dictionaries
• Dictionaries have numerous applications.
– contact book
• key: name of person; value:
– telephone number table of program variable identiers
• key: identier; value: address in memory
– property-value collection
• key: property name; value: associated value
– natural language dictionary
• key: word in language X; value: word in language Y
– etc

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 Fundamentals of data structures:
operations on dictionaries
• Dictionaries typically support several operations:
– retrieve a value (depending on language, attempting to
retrieve a missing key may give a default value or throw an
exception)
– insert or update a value (typically, if the key does not
exist in the dictionary, the key-value pair is inserted; if the
key already exists, its corresponding value is overwritten
with the new one)
– remove a key-value pair
– test for existence of a key
• Note that items in a dictionary are unordered, so loops
over dictionaries will return items in an arbitrary order. 34
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 Fundamentals of data structures:
Implementations on dictionaries
• simple implementations: sorted or unsorted
sequences, direct addressing
• hash tables
• binary search trees (BST)
• AVL trees
• self-organising BST
• red-black trees
• (a,b)-trees (in particular: 2-3-trees)
• B-trees and other
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 Fundamentals of data structures:
The Dictionary ADT
• The abstract data type that corresponds to the
dictionary metaphor is known by several names.
• Other terms for keyed containers include the
names map, table, search table, associative array,
or hash.
• Whatever it is called, the idea is a data structure
optimized for a very specific type of search.
• Elements are placed into the dictionary in
key/value pairs.
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 Fundamentals of data structures:
The Dictionary ADT
• To do a retrieval, the user supplies a key, and the
container returns the associated value.
• Each key identifies one entry; that is, each key is
unique.
• data is removed from a dictionary by specifying the
key for the data value to be deleted

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 Fundamentals of data structures:
Dictionary Implementation with
Hash-Table
• Hash Table is a data structure which store data in
associative manner.
• In hash table, data is stored in array format where each
data values has its own unique index value.
• Access of data becomes very fast if we know the index of
desired data.
• a data structure in which insertion and search operations
are very fast irrespective of size of data.
• Hash Table uses array as a storage medium and uses hash
technique to generate index where an element is to be
inserted or to be located from.
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 Fundamentals of data structures:
Dictionary Implementation with
Hash-Table
• Hashing is a technique to convert a range of key
values into a range of indexes of an array.
• We're going to use modulo operator to get a range of
key values.
• Consider an example of hashtable of size 20, and
following items are to be stored.
• Item are in key, value format.

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Fundamentals of data structures:
Dictionary Implementation with
Hash-Table

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 Fundamentals of data structures:
Dictionary Implementation with
Hash-Table
• Linear Probing
• the hashing technique used create already used index
of the array.
• In such case, we can search the next empty location in
the array by looking into the next cell until we found
an empty cell.
• This technique is called linear probing

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Fundamentals of data structures:
Dictionary Implementation with
Hash-Table

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 Fundamentals of data structures:
Dictionary Implementation with
Hash-Table
• Following are basic primary operations of a hashtable
which are following.
– Search − search an element in a hashtable.
– Insert − insert an element in a hashtable.
– delete − delete an element from a hashtable
• DataItem Define a data item having some data, and
key based on which search is to be conducted in
hashtable.
struct DataItem {
int data;
int key;
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 Fundamentals of data structures:
Dictionary Implementation with
Hash-Table
 Hash Method Define a hashing method to compute
the hash code of the key of the data item.
int hashCode(int key)
{
return key % SIZE;
}

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 Fundamentals of data structures:
Dictionary Implementation with
Hash-Table
• Insert Operation
• Whenever an element is to be inserted.
• Compute the hash code of the key passed and locate
the index using that hashcode as index in the array.
• Use linear probing for empty location if an element is
found at computed hash code.

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 Fundamentals of data structures:
Dictionary Implementation with
Hash-Table
• Insert Operation

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 Fundamentals of data structures:
Dictionary Implementation with
Hash-Table
• Delete Operation Whenever an element is to be
deleted.
• Compute the hash code of the key passed and locate
the index using that hashcode as index in the array.
• Use linear probing to get element ahead if an element
is not found at computed hash code.
• When found, store a dummy item there to keep
performance of hashtable intact

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Fundamentals of data structures:
Dictionary Implementation with
Hash-Table

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 Fundamentals of data structures:
Dictionary Implementation with
Hash-Table
• Search Operation Whenever an element is to be
searched.
• Compute the hash code of the key passed and locate
the element using that hashcode as index in the array.
• Use linear probing to get element ahead if element
not found at computed hash code.

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 Fundamentals of data structures:
Dictionary Implementation with
Hash-Table
• Search Operation

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Fundamentals of data structures:
• SET:- A set is a collection of well defined elements.
The members of a set are all different. A set is a group
of “objects”.
– People in a class: { Alice, Bob, Chris }
– Classes offered by a department: { CS 101, CS 202, … }
– Colors of a rainbow: { red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple }
– States of matter { solid, liquid, gas, plasma }
– States in the US: { Alabama, Alaska, Virginia, … }
– Sets can contain non-related elements: { 3, a, red, Virginia }
• Although a set can contain anything, we will most
often use sets of numbers
– All positive numbers less than or equal to 5: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
– A few selected real numbers: { 2.1, π, 0, -6.32, e }
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Fundamentals of data structures:
• Properties of set :
– The set is defined by the capital letters
– All the elements in the set are enclosed within { }
– Every elements is separated by comma.
– Eg: A={a,b,c,d}
• Representation of sets:
• There are 3 types of representation sets
– Tabular form/ Listing methods
– Descriptive form / describe method
– Set builder form/ recursive method

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Fundamentals of data structures:
• Tabular Form:
• Listing all the elements of a set and separated by commas and
enclosed within curly brackets {}.

• For example:
(i) Let N denote the set of first five natural numbers.
– Therefore, N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} → Roster Form
(ii) The set of all vowels of the English alphabet.
– Therefore, V = {a, e, i, o, u} → Roster Form
(iii) The set of all odd numbers less than 9.
– Therefore, X = {1, 3, 5, 7} → Roster Form

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Fundamentals of data structures:
• Descriptive Form:
• State in words the elements of a set. That is, the property of
elements in the set defend as the set

(i) The set of odd numbers less than 7 is written as: {odd
numbers less than 7}.
(ii) A set of football players with ages between 22 years to 30
years.
(iii) A set of numbers greater than 30 and smaller than 55.
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Fundamentals of data structures:
• Set Builder Form:
• Writing in symbolic form the common characteristic shared by
all the elements of the sets.

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 Complexity of Algorithms
• It is very convenient to classify algorithms based
on the relative amount of time or relative amount
of space they require and specify the growth of
time /space requirements as a function of the
input size.
• Time Complexity: Running time of the program
as a function of the size of input.
• Space Complexity: Amount of computer memory
required during the program execution, as a
function of the input size.
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 Algorithm Analysis
• What is an algorithm?
• Algorithm is a set of steps to complete a task. For
example,
• Task: to make a cup of tea.
• Algorithm:
– add water and milk to the kettle,
– Boil it,
– add tea leaves,
– Add sugar,
– and then serve it in cup

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 Algorithm Analysis
• What is Computer algorithm?
• a set of steps to accomplish or complete a task
that is described precisely enough that a
computer can run it.

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 Algorithm Analysis
• Characteristics of an algorithm:-
– Must take an input.
– Must give some output(yes/no, value etc.)
– Definiteness– each instruction is clear and
unambiguous.
– Finiteness– algorithm terminates after a finite
number of steps.
– Effectiveness– every instruction must be basic i.e.
simple instruction.
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 Algorithm Analysis
• An Algorithm is a sequence of steps to solve a
problem.
• The Analysis of Algorithm is very important
for designing algorithm to solve different types
of problems in the branch of computer science
and information technology.

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 Algorithm Analysis
• In the analysis of algorithms, it is common to
estimate their complexity in the asymptotic
sense.
• to estimate the complexity function for
arbitrarily large input.

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 Algorithm Analysis
• Expectation from an algorithm
– Correctness:-
• Correct: Algorithms must produce correct result.
Produce an incorrect answer: Even if it fails to give
correct results all the time still there is a control on how
often it gives wrong result.
• Approximation algorithm: Exact solution is not found,
but near optimal solution can be found out.
– Less resource usage:
• Algorithms should use less resources (time and space).

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 Algorithm Analysis
• The topic “Analysis of Algorithms” is
concerned primarily with determining the
memory (space) and time requirements
(complexity) of an algorithm.
• The time complexity (or simply, complexity)
of an algorithm is measured as a function of
the problem size.

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 Algorithm Analysis
• Expectation from an algorithm
– Resource usage:
• The time is considered to be the primary measure of
efficiency.
• We are also concerned with how much the respective
algorithm involves the computer memory.
• But mostly time is the resource that is dealt with.
• And the actual running time depends on a variety of
backgrounds: like the speed of the Computer, the language in
which the algorithm is implemented, the compiler/interpreter,
skill of the programmers etc.
• mainly the resource usage can be divided into:
1.Memory (space)
2.Time

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 Algorithm Analysis
• Time taken by an algorithm?
– performance measurement or Apostoriori
Analysis:
• Implementing the algorithm in a machine and then
calculating the time taken by the system to execute the
program successfully.
– Performance Evaluation or Apriori Analysis.
• Before implementing the algorithm in a system. This is
done as follows

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 Algorithm Analysis
• Time taken by an algorithm?
– How long the algorithm takes :-
• will be represented as a function of the size of the input.
• f(n)→how long it takes if ‘n’ is the size of input.
– How fast the function that characterizes the
running time grows with the input size.
• “Rate of growth of running time”.
• The algorithm with less rate of growth of running time
is considered better.

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 Algorithm Analysis
• Some examples are given below.
1. The complexity of an algorithm to sort n
elements may be given as a function of n.
2. The complexity of an algorithm to multiply an
m×n matrix and an n×p matrix may be given as a
function of m, n, and p.
3. The complexity of an algorithm to determine
whether x is a prime number may be given as a
function of the number, n, of bits in x. Note that n
= log2(x+ 1).
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 Algorithm Analysis
• We partition our discussion of algorithm
analysis into the following sections.
1. Operation counts.
2. Step counts.
3. Counting cache misses.
4. Asymptotic complexity.
5. Recurrence equations.
6. Amortized complexity.
7. Practical complexities.

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 Algorithm Analysis
• Operation counts:
– One way to estimate the time complexity of a
program or method is to select one or more
operations, such as add, multiply, and compare,
and to determine how many of each is done.
– The success of this method depends on our ability
to identify the operations that contribute most to
the time complexity.

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 Algorithm Analysis
• Operation counts:
– Finding the position of the largest element in
a[0:n-1].
int max(int a[],int n)
{
if(n<1) return -1;
int positionof current max=0;
for (int i=1;i<n;i++)
if(a[positionofcurrent max]<a[i])
positionofcurrentmax=I;
return positionofcurrentmax;
}

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 Algorithm Analysis
• Operation counts:
– an algorithm that returns the position of the largest
element in the array a[0:n-1].
– When n > 0, the time complexity of this algorithm
can be estimated by determining the number of
comparisons made between elements of the array a.
– When n ≤ 1, the for loop is not entered.
– So no comparisons between elements of a are made.
– When n > 1, each iteration of the for loop makes one
comparison between two elements of a, and the total
number of element comparisons is n-1.
– The number of element comparisons is max{n-1, 0}
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 Algorithm Analysis
• Operation counts:
• Sequential search.
int sequentialSearch(int [] a, int n, int x)
{
// search a[0:n-1] for x
int i;
for (i = 0; i < n && x != a[i]; i++);
if (i == n) return -1; // not found
else return i;
}

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 Algorithm Analysis
• Operation counts:
• Sequential search.
– an algorithm that searches a[0:n-1] for the first occurrence of x.
– The number of comparisons between x and the elements of a
isn’t uniquely determined by the problem size n.
– For example, if n = 100 and x = a[0], then only 1 comparison is
made.
– However, if x isn’t equal to any of the a[i]s, then 100
comparisons are made.
– A search is successful when x is one of the a[i]s. All other
searches are unsuccessful.
– Whenever we have an unsuccessful search, the number of
comparisons is n.
– For successful searches the best comparison count is 1, and the
worst is n.
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 Algorithm Analysis
• Step Counts:
– In the step-count method, we attempt to account
for the time spent in all parts of the algorithm.
– A step is any computation unit that is independent
of the problem size.
– Thus 10 additions can be one step;
– 100 multiplications can also be one step;
– but n additions, where n is the problem size,
cannot be one step.
– The amount of computing represented by one step
may be different from that represented by another
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 Algorithm Analysis
• Step Counts:
– return a+b+b*c+(a+b-c)/(a+b)+4;
– can be regarded as a single step if its execution
time is independent of the problem size.
– We may also count a statement such as
– x = y;
– as a single step

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 Algorithm Analysis
• Step Counts:
– To determine the step count of an algorithm, we
first determine the number of steps per execution
(s/e) of each statement and the total number of
times (i.e., frequency) each statement is executed.
– Combining these two quantities gives us the total
contribution of each statement to the total step
count.
– We then add the contributions of all statements to
obtain the step count for the entire algorithm.
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 Algorithm Analysis
• Step Counts: Best-case step count
Statement Step per Frequency Total steps
execution
int sequentialSearch(int [] a, int n, int x) 0 0 0
{ 0 0 0
int i; 1 1 1
for(i = 0; i < n && x != a[i]; i++); 1 1 1
if(i == n) return -1; // not found 1 1 1
else return i; 1 1 1
} 0 0 0

Total 4

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 Algorithm Analysis
• Step Counts: Worst-case step count
Statement Step per Frequency Total steps
execution
int sequentialSearch(int [] a, int n, int x) 0 0 0
{ 0 0 0
int i; 1 1 1
for(i = 0; i < n && x != a[i]; i++); 1 n+1 n+1
if(i == n) return -1; // not found 1 1 1
else return i; 1 0 0
} 0 0 0

Total n+3

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 Algorithm Analysis
• Asymptotic Notations are languages that allow us to
analyze an algorithm’s running time by identifying its
behavior as the input size for the algorithm increases.
• This is also known as an algorithm’s growth rate.
• The word Asymptotic means approaching a value or
curve arbitrarily closely (i.e., as some sort of limit is
taken).

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 Asymptotic Notations
• Asymptotic Notations are the expressions that
are used to represent the complexity of an
algorithm.
• When it comes to analysing the complexity of any
algorithm in terms of time and space, we can
never provide an exact number to define the time
required and the space required by the algorithm,
instead we express it using some standard
notations, also known as Asymptotic Notations.
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 Asymptotic Notations
• When we analyse any algorithm, we generally get a
formula to represent the amount of time required for
execution or the time required by the computer to run
the lines of code of the algorithm, number of memory
accesses, number of comparisons, temporary
variables occupying memory space etc.

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 Asymptotic Notations
• If some algorithm has a time complexity of T(n) =
(n2 + 3n + 4), which is a quadratic equation.
• For large values of n, the 3n + 4 part will become
insignificant compared to the n2 part.

For n = 1000, n2 will be 1000000 while 3n + 4 will be 3004.

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 Asymptotic Notations
• When we compare the execution times of two
algorithms the constant coefficients of higher order
terms are also neglected.
• An algorithm that takes a time of 200n2 will be faster
than some other algorithm that takes n3 time, for any
value of n larger than 200

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 Asymptotic Notations
• there are three types of analysis that we perform on a
particular algorithm.
• Best Case: In which we analyse the performance of an
algorithm for the input, for which the algorithm takes
less time or space.
• Worst Case: In which we analyse the performance of
an algorithm for the input, for which the algorithm
takes long time or space.
• Average Case: In which we analyse the performance of
an algorithm for the input, for which the algorithm
takes time or space that lies between best and worst
case.

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Types of Data Structure Asymptotic
Notation
1. Big-O Notation (Ο) – Big O notation specifically
describes worst case scenario.
2. Omega Notation (Ω) – Omega(Ω) notation
specifically describes best case scenario.
3. Theta Notation (θ) – This notation represents the
average complexity of an algorithm.

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 Big-O Notation (Ο)
• Big O notation specifically describes worst case
scenario.
• It represents the upper bound running time
complexity of an algorithm.
• the longest amount of time an algorithm can possibly
take to complete.. It provides us with an asymptotic
upper bound for the growth rate of run-time of an
algorithm.
• Lets take few examples to understand how we
represent the time and space complexity using Big O
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 Big-O Notation (Ο)
• O(1)
– Big O notation O(1) represents the complexity of an
algorithm that always execute in same time or space
regardless of the input data.
– example
The following step will always execute in same time(or
space) regardless of the size of input data.
• Accessing array index(int num = arr[5])
•.

This function runs in O(1) time (or "constant time") relative to its input. The input array
could be 1 item or 1,000 items, but this function would still just require one step.
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 Big-O Notation (Ο)
• O(n)
– Big O notation O(N) represents the complexity of an
algorithm, whose performance will grow linearly (in direct
proportion) to the size of the input data.
– O(n)example

– This function runs in O(n) time (or "linear time"), where n is the
number of items in the array. If the array has 10 items, we have to print
10 times. If it has 1000 items, we have to print 1000 times.

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 Big-O Notation (Ο)
• O(n^2)
– Big O notation O(n^2) represents the complexity
of an algorithm, whose performance is directly
proportional to the square of the size of the input
data.
– O(n^2) example
• Traversing a 2D array

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 Big-O Notation (Ο)
• O(n^2)
– Here we're nesting two loops. If our array has n items,
our outer loop runs n times and our inner loop
runs n times for each iteration of the outer loop, giving
us n2 total prints. Thus this function runs in O(n2) time
(or "quadratic time"). If the array has 10 items, we
have to print 100 times. If it has 1000 items, we have
to print 1000000 times.

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Big-O Notation (Ο)

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 Big-O Notation (Ο)
• It provides us with an asymptotic upper bound for
the growth rate of runtime of an algorithm.
• Say f(n) is your algorithm runtime, and g(n) is an
arbitrary time complexity you are trying to relate to
your algorithm.
• A function f(n) can be represented is the order
of g(n) that is O(g(n)).
• f(n) is O(g(n)), if for some real constants c (c > 0) and
n0, f(n) <= c g(n) for every input size n (n > n0).

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 Big-O Notation (Ο)
• It tells us that a certain function will never exceed a
specified time for any value of input n.
• Consider Linear Search algorithm, in which we
traverse an array elements, one by one to search a
given number.
• starting from the front of the array, we find the
element or number we are searching for at the end,
which will lead to a time complexity of n,
where n represents the number of total elements.

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 Big-O Notation (Ο)
• But it can happen, that the element that we are
searching for is the first element of the array, in which
case the time complexity will be 1.
• when we use the big-O notation, we mean to say that
the time complexity is O(n), which means that the
time complexity will never exceed n, defining the
upper bound, hence saying that it can be less than or
equal to n, which is the correct representation.

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 Big-O Notation (Ο)
• For example
f(n)=3n+2 g(n)=n
f(n)=o(g(n)) means that f(n) is smaller than g(n)
f(n)<=c*g(n)
3n+2<=c*n where c=4
3n+2<=4*n
n>=2
3*2+2<=4*2
8<=8

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 Omega Notation (Ω)
• Omega notation specifically describes best case
scenario.
• It represents the lower bound running time
complexity of an algorithm.
• So if we represent a complexity of an algorithm in
Omega notation, it means that the algorithm
cannot be completed in less time than this.
• It provides us with an asymptotic lower bound for
the growth rate of runtime of an algorithm.
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 Omega Notation (Ω)
• This always indicates the minimum time
required for any algorithm for all input values,
therefore the best case of any algorithm.
• In simple words, when we represent a time
complexity for any algorithm in the form of
big-Ω, we mean that the algorithm will take
atleast this much time to complete it's
execution.

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 Omega Notation (Ω)
• The actual time complexity of the function which
is determined by the time for an algorithm is
increased
• Now you want to give a lower bound to that
function i.e g(n) in such a way that c*g(n) is less
then f(n) after some value of n i.e no.
Which means that f(n)>=c*g(n)
After some value of n i.e n>=no
Where c is a constant if c>0 &no is an input i.e
no>=1

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 Omega Notation (Ω)
• f(n)=3n+2 g(n)=n
Can the function f(n) be bounded by g(n) which means f(n) has lower
bound as g(n)

f(n)=Ω g(n)
f(n) >=c*g(n)
3n+2 >=c*n where c=1,no>=1
3*1+2 >=1* 1
3n+2 >= Ω (n)

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 Omega Notation (Ω)
• f(n)=3n+2 g(n)= n^2
• Can we check
f(n)=Ω g(n)
where
f(n) >=c*g(n) c=1,
3n+2 >=c* n^2 no>=4
3*4+2 >=1* 4^2
3n+2 >= Ω (n)
• Can the f(n) is lower bounded by g(n)?
• the f(n) can never be lower bounded by g(n)
• f(n)=Ω g(n) then any thing less then n can
be lower bounded as Log n ,log log n…..

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 Theta Notation (θ)
• This notation describes both upper bound and
lower bound of an algorithm so we can say
that it defines exact asymptotic behaviour.
• In the real case scenario the algorithm not
always run on best and worst cases, the
average running time lies between best and
worst and can be represented by the theta
notation.

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 Theta Notation (θ)
• Theta commonly written as Θ is an
Asymptotic Notation to denote
the asymptotically tight bound on the growth
rate of runtime of an algorithm.

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 Theta Notation (θ)
• If we have a function f(n) then we should find
the upper and lower bound by a function just
by the value of some constant.
• If f(n) is bounded by c1*g(n) and c2*g(n) then
we can say that f(n) is θ (g(n)).
• So the constants c1 &c2 could be different and
moreover after a value we could taken any
value
• Which means that after the value of no both of
them are c1*g(n) less then f(n) and c2*g(n)
greater then f(n)

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 Theta Notation (θ)
• F(n)= g(n) if f(n) is bounded by g(n) both in
the lower and upper
• C1*g(n)<=f(n)<=c2g(n) where c1,c2>0 n>=no no>=1
f(n)=o(g(n)) means that f(n) is
smaller than g(n) i.e upper bound
f(n)<=c*g(n)
3n+2<=c*n
3n+2<=4*n
n>=2
3*2+2<=4*2
8<=8

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 Theta Notation (θ)
• F(n)= g(n) if f(n) is bounded by g(n) both in
the lower and upper
• C1*g(n)<=f(n)<=c2g(n) where c1,c2>0 n>=no no>=1
f(n)=Ω g(n)
f(n) >=c*g(n)
3n+2 >=c*n where c=1,no>=1
3*1+2 >=1* 1
3n+2 >= Ω (n)

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 Theta Notation (θ)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aGjL7YXI
31Q

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 Amortized Analysis
• In computer science, amortized analysis is a
method for analyzing a given
algorithm's complexity, or how much of a
resource, especially time or memory, it takes
to execute.
• Amortized analysis is a method of analyzing the
costs associated with a data structure that
averages the worst operations out over time.
• a data structure has one particularly costly
operation, but it doesn't get performed very often.
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 Amortized Analysis
• In the Hash-table the most of the time the
searching time complexity is O(1) but
sometimes it executes O(n) operations.
• When we want to search or insert an element
in a hash table for most of the cases it is
constant time taking the task but when a
collision occurs it needs O(n) times operations
for collision resolution.

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 Amortized Analysis
• Cake-making is pretty complex but it's essentially
two main steps:
– Mix batter (fast).
– Bake in an oven (slow, and you can only fit one cake
in at a time).
• Mixing the batter takes relatively little time when
compared with baking. Afterwards, you reflect on
the cake-making process.
• When deciding if it is slow, medium, or fast, you
choose medium because you average the two
operations—slow and fast—to get medium.
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 Amortized Analysis
• There are three main types of amortized
analysis:
– aggregate analysis
– the accounting method and
– the potential method.

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 What is Hashing
• Hashing is an algorithm (via a hash function) that
maps large data sets of variable length, called
keys, to smaller data sets of a fixed length
• A hash table (or hash map) is a data structure that
uses a hash function to efficiently map keys to
values, for efficient search and retrieval
• Map large integers to smaller integers
• Map non-integer keys to integers

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 What is Hashing
• Widely used in many kinds of computer
software, particularly for associative arrays,
database indexing, caches, and sets

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 Hash Functions
• simple/fast to compute,
• Avoid collisions
• have keys distributed evenly among cells
• Each uses a hash table for average complexity
to insert , erase, and find in O(1)
• hash function is a one-to-one mapping between
keys and hash values. So no collision occurs

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 characteristics of a good hash
function
• The characteristics of a good hash function are
as follows.
– It avoids collisions.
– It tends to spread keys evenly in the array.
– It is easy to compute (i.e., computational time of a
hash function should be O(1)).

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 Collision Resolution
• Collision: when two keys map to the same
location in the hash table.
• Collisions occur when two keys, k1 and k2, are
not equal, but h(k1) = h(k2).
• Two ways to resolve collisions:
– Separate Chaining (open hashing)
– Open Addressing (linear probing, quadratic
probing, double hashing) (closed hashing )

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Several approaches for dealing with
collisions are
• Example: K = {0, 1, ..., 199}, M = 10, for each
key k in K, f(k) = k % M

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 Pigeon Hole Principle
• The pigeonhole principle states that if n items
are put into m containers, with n>m, then at
least one container must contain more than one
item.

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 Pigeon Hole Principle
• Pigeons in holes.
Here there are n =
10 pigeons in m =
9 holes. Since 10 is
greater than 9, the
pigeonhole principle
says that at least one
hole has more than
one pigeon

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 Pigeon Hole Principle
• Recall for hash tables we let…
– n = # of entries (i.e. keys)
– m = size of the hash table
• If n > m, is every entry in the table used?
– No. Some may be blank?
• Is it possible we haven't had a collision?
– No. Some entries have hashed to the same location
• Pigeon Hole Principle says given n items to be slotted
into m holes and n > m there is at least one hole with
more than 1 item
• So if n > m, we know we've had a collision
• We can only avoid a collision when n < m
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Collision Resolution

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 Collusion Resolution Methods
• Three methods in open addressing are linear
probing, quadratic probing, and double
hashing.
• These methods are of the division hashing
method because the hash function is f( k) = k
% M.
• Some other hashing methods are middle-
square hashing method, multiplication hashing
method, and Fibonacci hashing method, and so
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 Linear Probing Method
• The hash table in this case is implemented
using an array containing M nodes, each node
of the hash table has a field k used to contain
the key of the node.
• M can be any positive integer but M is often
chosen to be a prime number.
• When the hash table is initialized, all fields k
are assigned to -1.

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 Linear Probing Method
• When a node with the key k needs to be added
into the hash table, the hash function
f( k) = k % M
• will specify the address i = f( k) (i.e., an index
of an array) within the range [0, M - 1].

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 Linear Probing Method
• If there is no conflict, then this node is added into
the hash table at the address i.
• If a conflict takes place, then the hash function
rehashes first time f 1 to consider the next address
(i.e., i + 1).
• If conflict occurs again, then the hash function
rehashes second time f 2 to examine the next
address (i.e., i + 2).
• This process repeats until the available address
found then this node will be added at this address.
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 Linear Probing Method
• The rehash function at the time t (i.e., the collision
number t = 1, 2, ...) is presented as follows

• When searching a node, the hash function f( k) will

identify the address i (i.e., i = f( k)) falling between 0
and M - 1.

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 Linear Probing Method
• Let us consider a simple hash function as “key mod
7” and sequence of keys as 50, 700, 76, 85, 92, 73,
101.
Step-01:
Draw the hash table
For the given hash function, the possible range of hash values is [0, 6].
So, draw an empty hash table consisting of 7 buckets as

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 Linear Probing Method
• Let us consider a simple hash function as “key mod 7”
and sequence of keys as 50, 700, 76, 85, 92, 73, 101.
Step-02:
Insert the given keys in the hash table one by one.
The first key to be inserted in the hash table = 50.
Bucket of the hash table to which key 50 maps = 50 mod 7 = 1.
So, key 50 will be inserted in bucket-1 of the hash table as

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 Linear Probing Method
• Let us consider a simple hash function as “key mod 7”
and sequence of keys as 50, 700, 76, 85, 92, 73, 101.
Step-03:
The next key to be inserted in the hash table = 700.
Bucket of the hash table to which key 700 maps = 700 mod 7 = 0.
So, key 700 will be inserted in bucket-0 of the hash table as-

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 Linear Probing Method
• Let us consider a simple hash function as “key mod 7”
and sequence of keys as 50, 700, 76, 85, 92, 73, 101.
Step-04:
The next key to be inserted in the hash table = 76.
Bucket of the hash table to which key 76 maps = 76 mod 7 = 6.
So, key 76 will be inserted in bucket-6 of the hash table as-

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 Linear Probing Method
Step-05: The next key to be inserted in the hash table = 85.
Bucket of the hash table to which key 85 maps = 85 mod 7 = 1.
Since bucket-1 is already occupied, so collision occurs.
To handle the collision, linear probing technique keeps probing
linearly until an empty bucket is found.
The first empty bucket is bucket-2.
So, key 85 will be inserted in bucket-2 of the hash table as-

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 Linear Probing Method
Step-06: The next key to be inserted in the hash table = 92.
Bucket of the hash table to which key 92 maps = 92 mod 7 = 1.
Since bucket-1 is already occupied, so collision occurs.
To handle the collision, linear probing technique keeps probing
linearly until an empty bucket is found.
The first empty bucket is bucket-3.
So, key 92 will be inserted in bucket-3 of the hash table as

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 Linear Probing Method
Step-07: The next key to be inserted in the hash table = 73.
Bucket of the hash table to which key 73 maps = 73 mod 7 = 3.
Since bucket-3 is already occupied, so collision occurs.
To handle the collision, linear probing technique keeps probing
linearly until an empty bucket is found.
The first empty bucket is bucket-4.
So, key 73 will be inserted in bucket-4 of the hash table as-

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 Linear Probing Method
Step-08: The next key to be inserted in the hash table = 101.
Bucket of the hash table to which key 101 maps = 101 mod 7 = 3.
Since bucket-3 is already occupied, so collision occurs.
To handle the collision, linear probing technique keeps probing
linearly until an empty bucket is found.
The first empty bucket is bucket-5.
So, key 101 will be inserted in bucket-5 of the hash table as

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 Linear Probing Method
• Example: insert keys 32, 53, 22, 92, 17, 34, 24, 37,
and 56 into a hash table of size M = 10
1. insert keys 32 into a hash table of size M = 10

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 Linear Probing Method
insert keys 32 into a hash table of size M = 10 i.e M-1=9
Hash Functions Distribute keys to locations in hash table
0
Hash function is then applied to the integer value 32
1 such that it maps to a value between 0 to M-1 where M
2 is the table size then modulo hashing is used
3
f( k) = k % M Here k=32 M=10
4
f( k) = 32 % 10=2
5
6 will specify the address i = f( k) (i.e., an index
7 of an array) within the range [0, M - 1].
Index position i =2 then insert 32 in 3 position
8
9
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 Linear Probing Method
insert keys 32 into a hash table of size M = 10 i.e M-1=9
Hash Functions Distribute keys to locations in hash table
0
Hash function is then applied to the integer value 32
1 such that it maps to a value between 0 to M-1 where M
2 32 is the table size then modulo hashing is used
3
f( k) = k % M Here k=32 M=10
4
f( k) = 32 % 10=2
5
6 will specify the address i = f( k) (i.e., an index
7 of an array) within the range [0, M - 1].
Index position i =2 then insert 32 in 3 position
8
9
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 Linear Probing Method
insert keys 53 into a hash table of size M = 10 i.e M-1=9
Hash Functions Distribute keys to locations in hash table
0
Hash function is then applied to the integer value 53
1 such that it maps to a value between 0 to M-1 where M
2 32 is the table size then modulo hashing is used
3 53
f( k) = k % M Here k=53 M=10
4
f( k) = 53 % 10=3
5
6 will specify the address i = f( k) (i.e., an index
7 of an array) within the range [0, M - 1].
Index position i =3 then insert 32 in 4 position
8
9
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 Linear Probing Method
insert keys 22 into a hash table of size M = 10 i.e M-1=9
Hash Functions Distribute keys to locations in hash table
0
Hash function is then applied to the integer value 22
1 such that it maps to a value between 0 to M-1 where M
2 32/22 is the table size then modulo hashing is used
3 53
f( k) = k % M Here k=22 M=10
4
f( k) = 22 % 10=2
5
6 will specify the address i = f( k) (i.e., an index
7 of an array) within the range [0, M - 1].
Index position i = then insert 32 in 2 position
8 If a conflict takes place, then the hash function rehashes
9 first time f 1 to consider the next address

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 Linear Probing Method
insert keys 22 into a hash table of size M = 10 i.e M-1=9
Then must be probe (move) for one time for finding empty slot
0
1
2 32/22
3 53
f( k) = k % M Here k=22 M=10
4
f( k) = 22 % 10=2
5
6 will specify the address i = f( k) (i.e., an index
7 of an array) within the range [0, M - 1].
Index position i = then insert 32 in 2 position
8 If a conflict takes place, then the hash function rehashes
9 first time f 1 to consider the next address

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 Quadratic probing
• Quadratic probing operates by taking the
original hash index and adding successive
values of an arbitrary quadratic
polynomial until an open slot is found.
• An example sequence using quadratic probing
is:

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 Quadratic probing
• it better avoids the clustering problem that can
occur with linear probing.
• Let h(k) be a hash function that maps an
element k to an integer in [0,m-1], where m is
the size of the table.
• Let the ith probe position for a value k be given
by the function

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 Quadratic probing
• When a node with the key k needs to be added
into the hash table, the hash function

• will specify the address i within the range [0,

M - 1] (i.e., i = f( k))

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 Quadratic probing
• If there is no conflict, then this node is added into
the hash table at the address i.
• If a conflict takes place, then the hash function
rehashes first time f 1 to consider the address f( k)
+
• If conflict occurs again, then the hash function
rehashes second time f 2 to examine the address f(
k) +
• This process repeats until the available address
found then this node will be added at this address.
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 Quadratic probing
• The rehash function at the time t (i.e., the
collision number t = 1, 2, ...) is presented as
follows.

• When searching a node, the hash function f( k)

will identify the address i (i.e., i = f( k)) falling
between 0 and M - 1

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 Quadratic probing
• Example: insert the keys :76,40,48,5,20
Step-01:
Draw the hash table
For the given hash function, the possible range of hash values is [0, 6].
So, draw an empty hash table consisting of 7 buckets as

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 Quadratic probing
• Example: insert the keys :76,40,48,5,20
Step-01:
Insert the given keys in the hash table one by one.
The first key to be inserted in the hash table = 76.
Bucket of the hash table to which key 76 maps = 76 mod 7 = 6.
So, key 76 will be inserted in bucket-7 of the hash table as
0
1
2 76%7=6
3
4
5
6 76
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 Quadratic probing
• Example: insert the keys :76,40,48,5,20
Step-02:
The next key to be inserted in the hash table =40
Bucket of the hash table to which key 40 maps = 40 mod 7 = 5.
So, key 40 will be inserted in bucket-6 of the hash table as

0
1
2
3 40%7=5
4
5 40
6 76
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 Quadratic probing
• Example: insert the keys :76,40,48,5,20
Step-03: The next key to be inserted in the hash table =48
Bucket of the hash table to which key 48 maps = 48 mod 7 = 6.
Since bucket-6 is already occupied, so collision occurs.
To handle the collision, quadratic probing technique keeps probing until
an empty bucket is found.

0
1
2 48+ %7=6
3
4
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 Quadratic probing
• Example: insert the keys :76,40,48,5,20
Step-04: The next key to be inserted in the hash table =48
Bucket of the hash table to which key 48 maps = 48 mod 7 = 6.
Since bucket-6 is already occupied, so collision occurs.
To handle the collision, quadratic probing technique keeps probing until
an empty bucket is found.
The first empty bucket is bucket-0.
So, key 48 will be inserted in bucket-0 of the hash table as-
0 48
1
2
48+ %7=49%7=0
3
4
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 Quadratic probing
Step-05: The next key to be inserted in the hash table = 5.
Bucket of the hash table to which key 5 maps = 5 mod 7 =5 .
Since bucket-5 is already occupied, so collision occurs.
To handle the collision, quadratic probing technique keeps probing
until an empty bucket is found
The first empty bucket is bucket-2.
So, key 5 will be inserted in bucket-2 of the hash table as-

0 48
1 5+ %7=6%7=6
2 5
5+ %7=9%7=2
3
4
5 40 5 %7=5
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 Quadratic probing
Step-05: The next key to be inserted in the hash table = 20.
Bucket of the hash table to which key 20 maps = 20 mod 7 =6 .
Since bucket-6 is already occupied, so collision occurs.
To handle the collision, quadratic probing technique keeps probing
until an empty bucket is found
The first empty bucket is bucket-3.
So, key 20 will be inserted in bucket-3 of the hash table as-

0 48
1 20+ %7=21%7=3
2 5 20+ %7=24%7=3
3 20
4
5 40 20 %7=6
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 Quadratic probing
insert the keys 10, 15, 16, 20, 30, 25, 26, and 36 into a hash table of size M = 10

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 Chaining

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 Chaining

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 Chaining

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 Chaining

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Double hashing

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Double hashing

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 Extensible hashing
• It is a technique which handles a large amount
of data.
• The data to be placed in the hash table is by
extracting certain number of bits
• Extensible hashing grow and shink similar to
B-tress
• In extensible hashing referring the size of
directory the elements are to be placed in
buckets.
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 Extensible hashing
• Extendible hashing uses a directory to access
its buckets.
• This directory is usually small enough to be
kept in main memory and has the form of an
array with 2d entries, each entry storing a
bucket address (pointer to a bucket).
• The variable d is called the global depth of the
directory

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 Extensible hashing
• Multiple directory entries may point to the
same bucket.
• Every bucket has a local depth leqd.
• The difference between local depth and global
depth affects overflow handling.

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 Extensible hashing
• Suppose that g=2 and bucket size = 3.
• Suppose that we have records with these keys
and hash function h(key) = key mod 64:

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 Extensible hashing
• Suppose that we have records with these keys
and hash function h(key) = key mod 64:

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 Extensible hashing
• Insert 1111 i.e 110111

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 Extensible hashing
• Insert 3333 i.e 000101

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 Extensible hashing
• Insert 1235 i.e 010011

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 Extensible hashing
• Insert 2378 i.e 000010

000010
1212

3333

2378

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 Extensible hashing
• Insert 1212 i.e 111100

111100
1212

3333

2378

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 Extensible hashing
• Insert 1456 i.e 110000

110000
1212 1456

3333

2378

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 Extensible hashing
• Insert 2134 i.e 010110

010110

1212 1456

3333

2378 2134

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 Extensible hashing
• Insert 2345 i.e 101001

101001

1212 1456

3333 2345

2378 2134

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 Extensible hashing
• Insert 1111 i.e 110111

110111

1212 1456

3333 2345

2378 2134

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 Extensible hashing
• Insert 8231 i.e 100111

100111

1212 1456

3333 2345

2378 2134

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 Extensible hashing
• Insert 8231 i.e 100111

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 Extensible hashing
• Insert 8231 i.e 100111

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 Extensible hashing
• Insert 8231 i.e 100111

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 Extensible hashing
• Insert 2222 i.e 101110

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 Extensible hashing
• Insert 9999 i.e 001111

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 Extensible hashing
• The bucket can hold the data of its global
depth.
• If data in bucket is more than global depth then
split the bucket and double the directory

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 Extensible hashing
• Consider we have to insert 1, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10
assume each page can hold 2 data entries (2 is
the depth)
• Step 1: insert 1, 4

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 Extensible hashing
• Consider we have to insert 1, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10
assume each page can hold 2 data entries (2 is
the depth)
• Step 2: insert 5 the bucket is full hence double
the directory.

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 Extensible hashing
• Consider we have to insert 1, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10
assume each page can hold 2 data entries (2 is
the depth)
• Step 3: insert 7 but as the depth is full we can
not insert 7 here then double the directory and
split the bucket.

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 Extensible hashing
• After insertion of 7 consider the last two bits

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 Extensible hashing
• Consider we have to insert 1, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10
assume each page can hold 2 data entries (2 is
the depth)
• Step 4: insert 8 i.e 1000

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 Extensible hashing
• Consider we have to insert 1, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10
assume each page can hold 2 data entries (2 is
the depth)
• Step 5: insert 10 i.e 1000

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 Priority Queue
• Priority Queue is more specialized data
structure than Queue. Like ordinary queue,
priority queue has same method but with a
major difference.
• In Priority queue items are ordered by key
value so that item with the lowest value of key
is at front and item with the highest value of
key is at rear or vice versa.

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 Priority Queue
• Priority Queue is an extension of queue with
following properties.
– Every item has a priority associated with it.
– An element with high priority is dequeued before
an element with low priority.
– If two elements have the same priority, they are
served according to their order in the queue.

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 Priority Queue
• A priority queue is a special type of queue in
which each element is associated with a
priority and is served according to its priority.

• If elements with the same priority occur, they

are served according to their order in the
queue.
• Generally, the value of the element itself is
considered for assigning the priority.
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 Priority Queue
• The element with the highest value is
considered as the highest priority element.
• However, in other case, we can assume the
element with the lowest value as the highest
priority element.
• In other cases, we can set priority according to
our need.

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 Priority Queue
• Priority Queue is similar to queue where we insert
an element from the back and remove an element
from front, but with a difference that the logical
order of elements in the priority queue depends on
the priority of the elements.
• The element with highest priority will be moved
to the front of the queue and one with lowest
priority will move to the back of the queue. Thus
it is possible that when you enqueue an element at
the back in the queue, it can move to front
because of its highest priority.

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 Priority Queue
• Let’s say we have an array of 5 elements :
{4, 8, 1, 7, 3} and we have to insert all the
elements in the max-priority queue.

• First as the priority queue is empty, so 4 will

be inserted initially.

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 Priority Queue
• Now when 8 will be inserted it will moved to
front as 8 is greater than 4.

• While inserting 1, as it is the current minimum

element in the priority queue, it will remain in the
back of priority queue.

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 Priority Queue
• Now 7 will be inserted between 8 and 4 as 7 is
smaller than 8.

• Now 3 will be inserted before 1 as it is the

2nd minimum element in the priority queue.

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 Priority Queue
• Now 3 will be inserted before 1 as it is the
2nd minimum element in the priority queue.

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 implement the priority queue.
• Naive Approach:
– Suppose we have N elements and we have to insert
these elements in the priority queue. We can use
list and can insert elements in O(N) time and can
sort them to maintain a priority queue
in O(NlogN) time.
• Efficient Approach:
– We can use heaps to implement the priority queue.
It will take O(logN) time to insert and delete each
element in the priority queue.

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 implement the priority queue.
• Based on heap structure, priority queue also
has two types max- priority queue and min -
priority queue.

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 How priority queue differs from a
queue?
• In a queue, the first-in-first-out rule is
implemented whereas, in a priority queue, the
values are removed on the basis of priority.
The element with the highest priority is
removed first.

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 Implementation of Priority Queue
• Priority queue can be implemented using an
array, a linked list, a heap data structure or a
binary search tree. Among these data
structures, heap data structure provides an
efficient implementation of priority queues.
• A comparative analysis of different
implementations of priority queue is

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 Priority Queue Operations
• A priority queue is an abstract data type (ADT)
supporting the following three operations:
– Add an element to the queue with an associated
priority
– Remove the element from the queue that has the
highest priority, and return it
– (optionally) peek at the element with highest
priority without removing it

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Applications of Priority Queue:
1) CPU Scheduling
2) Graph algorithms like Dijkstra’s shortest
path algorithm, Prim’s Minimum Spanning
Tree, etc
3) All queue applications where priority is
involved.

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 Implementation of priority queue
using linked list
• A priority queue is a very important data
structure because it can store data in a very
practical way.
• This is a concept of storing the item with its
priority.
• This way we can prioritize our concept of a
queue.

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 Implementation of priority queue
using linked list
• Add an element to the queue with an associated
priority
void PriorityQueue::Insert(int DT)
{
struct Node *newnode;
newnode=new Node;
newnode->Data=DT;
while(ptr->Next!=NULL)
ptr=ptr->Next;
if(ptr->Next==NULL)
{
newnode->Next=ptr->Next;
ptr->Next=newnode;
}
NumOfNodes++;
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Implementation of priority queue
using linked list
– Remove the element from the queue that has the
highest priority, and return it
void PriorityQueue::Insert(int DT)
{
struct Node *newnode;
newnode=new Node;
newnode->Data=DT;
while(ptr->Next!=NULL)
ptr=ptr->Next;
if(ptr->Next==NULL)
{
newnode->Next=ptr->Next;
ptr->Next=newnode;
}
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 Max Priority Queue
• In a max priority queue, elements are inserted
in the order in which they arrive the queue and
the maximum value is always removed first
from the queue.
• For example, assume that we insert in the
order 8, 3, 2 & 5 and they are removed in the
order 8, 5, 3, 2.

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 Max Priority Queue
• The following are the operations performed in
a Max priority queue...
– isEmpty() - Check whether queue is Empty.
– insert() - Inserts a new value into the queue.
– findMax() - Find maximum value in the queue.
– remove() - Delete maximum value from the
queue.

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 Using Linked List in Increasing
Order
• In this representation, we use a single linked
list to represent max priority queue.
• In this representation, elements are inserted
according to their value in increasing order and
a node with the maximum value is deleted first
from the max priority queue.
• For example, assume that elements are inserted
in the order of 2, 3, 5 and 8. And they are
removed in the order of 8, 5, 3 and 2.
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 Using Linked List in Increasing
Order
• isEmpty() - If 'head == NULL' queue is Empty. This operation
requires O(1) time complexity which means constant time
complexity.
• insert() - New element is added at a particular position in the
increasing order of elements which requires O(n) time
complexity. This insert() operation requires O(n) time
complexity.
• findMax() - Finding the maximum element in the queue is very
simple because maximum element is at the end of the queue. This
findMax() operation requires O(1) time complexity.
• remove() - Removing an element from the queue is simple
because the largest element is last node in the queue. This
remove() operation requires O(1) time complexity.
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 Using Unordered Linked List with
reference to node with the maximum value
• In this representation, we use a single linked
list to represent max priority queue.
• We always maintain a reference (maxValue) to
the node with the maximum value in the
queue.
• In this representation, elements are inserted
according to their arrival and the node with the
maximum value is deleted first from the max
priority queue.
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 Using Unordered Linked List with
reference to node with the maximum value
• let us analyze each operation according to this representation...
• isEmpty() - If 'head == NULL' queue is Empty. This operation
requires O(1) time complexity which means constant time
complexity.
• insert() - New element is added at end of the queue which
requires O(1) time complexity. And we need to update maxValue
reference with address of largest element in the queue which
requires O(1) time complexity. This insert() operation
requires O(1) time complexity.
• findMax() - Finding the maximum element in the queue is very
simple because the address of largest element is stored at
maxValue. This findMax() operation requires O(1) time
complexity.
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 Using Unordered Linked List with
reference to node with the maximum value
• remove() - Removing an element from the queue
is deleting the node which is referenced by
maxValue which requires O(1) time complexity.
• And then we need to update maxValue reference
to new node with maximum value in the queue
which requires O(n) time complexity.
• This remove() operation requires O(n) time
complexity.

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Min Priority Queue Representations
• Min Priority Queue is similar to max priority queue
except for the removal of maximum element first. We
remove minimum element first in the min-priority
queue.

The following operations are performed in Min Priority

Queue...
• isEmpty() - Check whether queue is Empty.
• insert() - Inserts a new value into the queue.
• findMin() - Find minimum value in the queue.
• remove() - Delete minimum value from the queue.
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 Heap Data structure
• Heap data structure is a specialized binary tree-based
data structure. The heap is a binary tree, meaning at the
most, each parent has two children.
• Heap is a binary tree with special characteristics. In a
heap data structure, nodes are arranged based on their
values.
• A heap data structure some times also called as Binary
Heap.
• There are two types of heap data structures and they are
as follows...
– Max Heap
– Min Heap

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 Heap Data structure
• Heaps are based on the notion of a complete tree,
for which we gave an informal definition earlier.
• Formally:
• A binary tree is completely full if it is of
height, h, and has 2h+1-1 nodes.
• A binary tree of height, h, is complete iff
• it is empty or its left sub-tree is complete of
height h-1 and its right sub-tree is completely full
of height h-2 or its left sub-tree is completely full
of height h-1 and its right sub-tree is complete of
height h-1.
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 Heap Data structure
• Provides an efficient implementation for a
priority queue
• Every heap data structure has the following
properties...
– Property #1 (Ordering): Nodes must be arranged
in an order according to their values based on Max
heap or Min heap.
– Property #2 (Structural): All levels in a heap
must be full except the last level and all nodes
must be filled from left to right strictly.
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 Heap Data structure
• Can think of heap as a complete binary tree
that maintains the heap property:
• Heap Property: Every parent is less-than (if
min-heap) or greater-than (if max-heap) both
children, but no ordering property between
children
• Minimum/Maximum value is always the top
element

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 What is a heap
• Heap is a special case of balanced binary
tree data structure where the root-node key
is compared with its children and arranged
accordingly.
• Heap is a tree-based data structure in which
all nodes in the tree are in the specific order.

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 Max Heap
• Max heap data structure is a specialized full
binary tree data structure.
• In a max heap nodes are arranged based on
node value.
• Max heap is defined as follows...
• Max heap is a specialized full binary tree in
which every parent node contains greater or
equal value than its child nodes.
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 What is a heap?
• Heap data structure is a complete binary
tree that satisfies the heap property. It is
also called as a binary heap.
• A complete binary tree is a special binary
tree in which
• every level, except possibly the last, is filled
• all the nodes are as far left as possible

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 What is a heap?
• Heap Property is the property of a node in
which
• (for max heap) key of each node is always
greater than its child node/s and the key of
the root node is the largest among all other
nodes;

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 What is a heap?
• Heap Property is the property of a node in
which
• (for min heap) key of each node is always
smaller than the child node/s and the key of
the root node is the smallest among all other
nodes.

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 When are Heaps useful?
• Heaps are used when the highest or lowest
order/priority element needs to be removed.
• They allow quick access to this item in O(1)
time.
• One use of a heap is to implement a priority
queue.
• Binary heaps are usually implemented using
arrays, which save overhead cost of storing
pointers to child nodes.
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 Basic operations
• insert aka push, add a new node into the heap
• remove aka pop, retrieves and removes the min
or the max node of the heap
• examine aka peek, retrieves, but does not
remove, the min or the max node of the heap

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 Heaps
• The heap property of a tree is a condition that
must be true for the tree to be considered a
heap.
• Min-heap property: for min-heaps, requires
A[parent(i)] ≤ A[i] So, the root of any sub-tree
holds the least value in that sub-tree.
• Max-heap property: for max-heaps, requires
A[parent(i)] ≥ A[i] The root of any sub-tree
holds the greatest value in the sub-tree.
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 Heaps
• Binary Heap. Min-heap. Max-heap.
• Efficient implementation of heap ADT: use of array
• Basic heap algorithms: ReheapUp, ReheapDown, Insert
Heap, Delete Heap, Built Heap.
• Heap Applications:
– Select Algorithm
– Priority Queues
– Heap sort
• Advanced implementations of heaps: use of pointers
– Leftist heap
– Skew heap
– Binomial queues

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 Heaps

A heap is a
certain kind of
complete
binary tree.

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 Heaps
Root

A heap is a
certain kind of
complete
binary tree.

When a complete
binary tree is built,
its first node must be
the root.
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 Heaps
Left child
Complete of the
binary tree. root

The second node is

always the left child
of the root.

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 Heaps

Right child
Complete
of the
binary tree. root

The third node is

always the right child
of the root.

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 Heaps

Complete
binary tree.

The next nodes

always fill the next
level from left-to-right..

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 Heaps

Complete
binary tree.

The next nodes

always fill the next
level from left-to-right.

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 Heaps

Complete
binary tree.

The next nodes

always fill the next
level from left-to-right.

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 Heaps

Complete
binary tree.

The next nodes

always fill the next
level from left-to-right.

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 Heaps

Complete
binary tree.

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 Heaps
45
A heap is a
certain kind of 35 23
complete
binary tree. 27 21 22 4

19
Each node in a heap
contains a key that
can be compared to
other nodes' keys.
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 Heaps
45
A heap is a
certain kind of 35 23
complete
binary tree. 27 21 22 4

19
The "heap property"
requires that each
node's key is >= the
keys of its children
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 Adding a Node to a Heap
45
Put the new node in
the next available spot.
Push the new node 35 23
upward, swapping with
its parent until the new 27 21 22 4
node reaches an
acceptable location.
19 42

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 Adding a Node to a Heap
45
Put the new node in the
next available spot.
35 23
Push the new node
upward, swapping with
its parent until the new 42 21 22 4
node reaches an
acceptable location.
19 27

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 Adding a Node to a Heap
45
Put the new node in the
next available spot.
42 23
Push the new node
upward, swapping with
its parent until the new 35 21 22 4
node reaches an
acceptable location.
19 27

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 Adding a Node to a Heap
45
The parent has a key
that is >= new node, or
The node reaches the 42 23
root.
The process of pushing 35 21 22 4
the new node upward
is called
reheapification 19 27
upward.

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Removing the Top of a Heap
45
Move the last node onto
the root.
42 23

35 21 22 4

19 27

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Removing the Top of a Heap
27
Move the last node onto
the root.
42 23

35 21 22 4

19

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Removing the Top of a Heap
27
Move the last node onto
the root.
42 23
Push the out-of-place
node downward,
swapping with its larger 35 21 22 4
child until the new node
reaches an acceptable
19
location.

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Removing the Top of a Heap
42
Move the last node onto
the root.
27 23
Push the out-of-place
node downward,
swapping with its larger 35 21 22 4
child until the new node
reaches an acceptable
19
location.

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Removing the Top of a Heap
42
Move the last node onto
the root.
35 23
Push the out-of-place
node downward,
swapping with its larger 27 21 22 4
child until the new node
reaches an acceptable
19
location.

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Removing the Top of a Heap
42
The children all have
keys <= the out-of-place
node, or 35 23
The node reaches the
leaf.
27 21 22 4
The process of pushing
the new node
downward is called 19
reheapification
downward.

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 Implementing a Heap
42
We will store the
data from the 35 23
nodes in a
partially-filled
27 21
array.

An array of data

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 Implementing a Heap
42
• Data from the root
goes in the 35 23
first
location
27 21
of the
array.

42

An array of data

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 Implementing a Heap
42
• Data from the next
row goes in the 35 23
next two array
locations.
27 21

42 35 23

An array of data

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 Implementing a Heap
42
• Data from the next
row goes in the 35 23
next two array
locations.
27 21

42 35 23 27 21

An array of data

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 Implementing a Heap
42
• Data from the next
row goes in the 35 23
next two array
locations.
27 21

42 35 23 27 21

An array of data
We don't care what's in
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 Important Points about the
Implementation
42
• The links between the tree's
nodes are not actually stored as
pointers, or in any other way. 35 23
• The only way we "know" that
"the array is a tree" is from the 27 21
way we manipulate the data.

42 35 23 27 21

An array of data

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 Important Points about the
Implementation
42
• If you know the index of a
node, then it is easy to figure
out the indexes of that node's 35 23
parent and children. Formulas
are given in the book. 27 21

42 35 23 27 21

[1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

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 Summary

 A heap is a complete binary tree, where the entry

at each node is greater than or equal to the entries
in its children.
 To add an entry to a heap, place the new entry at
the next available spot, and perform a
reheapification upward.
 To remove the biggest entry, move the last node
onto the root, and perform a reheapification
downward.
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 Binary Heaps
• DEFINITION: A max-heap is a binary tree
structure with the following properties:
• The tree is complete or nearly complete.
• The key value of each node is greater than or
equal to the key value

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 Binary Heaps
• DEFINITION: A min-heap is a binary tree
structure with the following properties:
• The tree is complete or nearly complete.
• The key value of each node is less than or
equal to the key value in each of its
descendents.

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 Properties of Binary Heaps
• Structure property of heaps
– A complete or nearly complete binary tree.
– If the height is h, the number of nodes n is between
2 h-1 and (2 h -1)
– Complete tree: n = 2 h -1 when last level is full.
– Nearly complete: All nodes in the last level are on
the left.

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 Properties of Binary Heaps
• A binary heap is a complete binary tree
• Each level ( except possibly the bottom most
level ) is completely filled
• The bottom most level may be partially filled
(from left to right)
• Height of a complete binary tree with N
elements is

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Binary Heap Example

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 Properties of Binary Heaps
• Heap-order Property:
– Heap-order property (for a “MinHeap”)
– For every node X, key(parent(X)) ≤ key(X)
– Except root node, which has no parent
• Thus, minimum key always at root
– Alternatively, for a “MaxHeap”, always keep the
maximum key at the root
• Insert and deleteMin must maintain heap -
order property
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 Properties of Binary Heaps
• Heap-order Property:
– Duplicates are allowed
– No order implied for elements which do not share
ancestor share ancestor -descendant relationship
descendant relationship

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 Heap Insert
• Insert new element into the heap at the next
available slot ( next available slot ( hole )
“hole”)
• According to maintaining a complete binary
tree
• Then, “percolate” the element up the heap
while heap heap while heap-order property not
order property not satisfied

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Heap Insert

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Heap Insert

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Heap Insert

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Heap Insert

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 What are trees?
• Tree is a hierarchical data structure which
stores the information naturally in the form of
hierarchy style.
• Tree is one of the most powerful and advanced
data structures.
• It is a non-linear data structure compared to
arrays, linked lists, stack and queue.
• It represents the nodes connected by edges.
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 What are trees?

• The above figure represents structure of a tree. Tree has 2

subtrees.
• A is a parent of B and C.
• B is called a child of A and also parent of D, E, F.
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 What are trees?
Field Description
Root Root is a special node in a tree. The entire tree is referenced
through it. It does not have a parent.
Parent Node Parent node is an immediate predecessor of a node.
Child Node All immediate successors of a node are its children.
Siblings Nodes with the same parent are called Siblings.
Path Path is a number of successive edges from source node to
destination node.
Height of Node Height of a node represents the number of edges on the longest
path between that node and a leaf.
Height of Tree Height of tree represents the height of its root node.
Depth of Node Depth of a node represents the number of edges from the tree's
root node to the node.
Degree of Node Degree of a node represents a number of children of a node.
Edge Edge is a connection between one node to another. It is a line
between two nodes or a node and a leaf.
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 What are trees?
• Levels of a node: Levels of a node represents the
number of connections between the node and the
root. It represents generation of a node. If the root
node is at level 0, its next node is at level 1, its grand
child is at level 2 and so on. Levels of a node can be
shown as follows:

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 What are trees?
• Levels of a node:
– If node has no children, it is called Leaves or External Nodes.
– Nodes which are not leaves, are called Internal Nodes. Internal nodes
have at least one child.
– A tree can be empty with no nodes or a tree consists of one node called
the Root.

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 What are trees?
• Height of a Node
• height of a node is a number of edges on the longest
path between that node and a leaf. Each node has
height.
• In the above figure, A, B, C, D can have height. Leaf
cannot have height as there will be no path starting
from a leaf. Node A's height is the number of edges of
the path to K not to D. And its height is 3.

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 What are trees?
• Height of a Node:
– Height of a node defines the longest path from the node to
a leaf.
– Path can only be downward.

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 What are trees?
• Depth of a Node
• While talking about the height, it locates a node at
bottom where for depth, it is located at top which is root
level and therefore we call it depth of a node.
• In the above figure, Node G's depth is 2. In depth of a
node, we just count how many edges between the
targeting node & the root and ignoring the directions.

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 Binary Tree
• Binary tree is a special type of data structure.
In binary tree, every node can have a
maximum of 2 children, which are known
as Left child and Right Child.
• It is a method of placing and locating the
records in a database, especially when all the
data is known to be in random access memory
(RAM)

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 Binary Tree
• "A tree in which every node can have maximum of
two children is called as Binary Tree.“

• The above tree represents binary tree in which node A

has two children B and C. Each children have one
child namely D and E respectively.
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 Binary Tree
• Representation of Binary Tree using Array:
• Binary tree using array represents a node which is
numbered sequentially level by level from left to
right. Even empty nodes are numbered.

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 Binary Tree
• Representation of Binary Tree using Array:
– Array index is a value in tree nodes and array value gives
to the parent node of that particular index or node.
– Value of the root node index is always -1 as there is no
parent for root.
– When the data item of the tree is sorted in an array, the
number appearing against the node will work as indexes of
the node in an array.

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 Binary Tree
• Representation of Binary Tree using Array:
– Location number of an array is used to store the size of the
tree.
– The first index of an array that is '0', stores the total number
of nodes.
– All nodes are numbered from left to right level by level
from top to bottom.
– In a tree, each node having an index i is put into the array
as its i th element.

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 Binary Tree
• Representation of Binary Tree using Array:
– The above figure shows how a binary tree is represented as
an array.
– Value '7' is the total number of nodes. If any node does not
have any of its child, null value is stored at the
corresponding index of the array..

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Full Binary Tree or Complete Trees:
• A binary tree of height is ‘h’ and contains exactly “2h-1”
elements is called full binary tree.

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 Binary Search Tree
• "Binary Search Tree is a binary tree where
each node contains only smaller values in its
left subtree and only larger values in its right
subtree."

Note: Every binary search tree is a

binary tree, but all the binary trees
need not to be binary search trees.

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Binary Search Tree

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 Binary Search Tree
• Binary Search Tree Operations:
– Insert Operation
– Insert operation is performed with O(log n) time complexity in a binary
search tree.
– Insert operation starts from the root node. It is used whenever an
element is to be inserted.

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 Binary Search Tree
• Binary Search Tree Operations:
– Search Operation
– Search operation is performed with O(log n) time
complexity in a binary search tree.
– This operation starts from the root node. It is used
whenever an element is to be searched.

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 Binary Search Tree
• Binary Tree Traversal
– There are three techniques of traversal:
1. Preorder Traversal
2. Postorder Traversal
3. Inorder Traversal

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 Binary Search Tree
• Preorder Traversal:
• Algorithm for preorder traversal
Step 1 : Start from the Root.
Step 2 : Then, go to the Left Subtree.
Step 3 : Then, go to the Right Subtree.

A+B +D +E +F+C +G+H

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 Binary Search Tree
• Postorder Traversal
• Algorithm for postorder traversal
Step 1 : Start from the Left Subtree (Last Leaf).
Step 2 : Then, go to the Right Subtree.
Step 3 : Then, go to the Root.

E+ F + D +B + G + H+ C +A
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 Binary Search Tree
• Inorder Traversal:
• Algorithm for inorder traversal
Step 1 : Start from the Left Subtree.
Step 2 : Then, visit the Root.
Step 3 : Then, go to the Right Subtree.

B+E +D +F +A+G +C+H

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 Balanced Tree
• Balancing or self-balancing (Height balanced)
tree is a binary search tree.
• Balanced tree is any node based binary search
tree that automatically keeps its height
• (Maximum number of levels below the root)
small in the face of arbitrary item insertion and
deletion.

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 AVL trees
• AVL tree is a binary search tree in which the
difference of heights of left and right subtrees
of any node is less than or equal to one.
• The technique of balancing the height of
binary trees was developed by Adelson,
Velskii, and Landi and hence given the short
form as AVL tree or Balanced Binary Tree.

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 AVL trees
• Every AVL Tree is a binary search tree but
every Binary Search Tree need not be AVL
tree.

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 AVL trees
• Definition: An AVL tree is a binary search tree
in which the balance factor of every node,
which is defined as the difference b/w the
heights of the node’s left & right sub trees is
either 0 or +1 or -1 .

Balance factor = ht of left sub tree – ht of right sub tree.

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 AVL trees

The above tree is a binary search tree and every node is satisfying
balance factor condition. So this tree is said to be an AVL tree.
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 AVL Tree Rotations
• In AVL tree, after performing operations like
insertion and deletion we need to check
the balance factor of every node in the tree.
• If every node satisfies the balance factor
condition then we conclude the operation
otherwise we must make it balanced.
• Whenever the tree becomes imbalanced due to
any operation we use rotation operations to
make the tree balanced.
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 AVL Tree Rotations
• Rotation operations are used to make the tree
balanced.
• Rotation is the process of moving nodes either to left
or to right to make the tree balanced.

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 AVL Tree Insertion:
• Insertion in AVL tree is performed in the same
way as it is performed in a binary search tree.
• The new node is added into AVL tree as the leaf
node. However, it may lead to violation in the
AVL tree property and therefore the tree may need
balancing.
• The tree can be balanced by applying rotations.
Rotation is required only if, the balance factor of
any node is disturbed upon inserting the new
node, otherwise the rotation is not required.
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 AVL Tree
• Construct AVL Tree for the following sequence
of numbers- 50 , 20 , 60 , 10 , 8 , 15 , 32 , 46 ,
11 , 48
• Step-01: Insert 50

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 AVL Tree
• Construct AVL Tree for the following sequence
of numbers- 50 , 20 , 60 , 10 , 8 , 15 , 32 , 46 ,
11 , 48
• Step-02: Insert 20
• As 20 < 50, so insert 20 in 50’s left sub tree.

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 AVL Tree
• Construct AVL Tree for the following sequence
of numbers- 50 , 20 , 60 , 10 , 8 , 15 , 32 , 46 ,
11 , 48
• Step-03: Insert 60
• As 60 > 50, so insert 60 in 50’s right sub tree.

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 AVL Tree
• Construct AVL Tree for the following sequence
of numbers- 50 , 20 , 60 , 10 , 8 , 15 , 32 , 46 ,
11 , 48
• Step-04: Insert 10
– As 10 < 50, so insert 10 in 50’s left sub tree.
– As 10 < 20, so insert 10 in 20’s left sub tree.

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 AVL Tree
• Construct AVL Tree for the following sequence of numbers-
50 , 20 , 60 , 10 , 8 , 15 , 32 , 46 , 11 , 48
• Step-05: Insert 8
• As 8 < 50, so insert 8 in 50’s left sub tree.
• As 8 < 20, so insert 8 in 20’s left sub tree.
• As 8 < 10, so insert 8 in 10’s left sub tree.

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 AVL Tree
• To balance the tree,
• Find the first imbalanced node on the path from the newly
inserted node (node 8) to the root node.
• The first imbalanced node is node 20.
• Now, count three nodes from node 20 in the direction of leaf
node.
• Then, use AVL tree rotation to balance the tree.

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 AVL Tree
• Construct AVL Tree for the following sequence of numbers-
50 , 20 , 60 , 10 , 8 , 15 , 32 , 46 , 11 , 48
• Step-06: Insert 15
– As 15 < 50, so insert 15 in 50’s left sub tree.
– As 15 > 10, so insert 15 in 10’s right sub tree.
– As 15 < 20, so insert 15 in 20’s left sub tree.

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 AVL Tree
• To balance the tree,
• Find the first imbalanced node on the path from the newly
inserted node (node 15) to the root node.
• The first imbalanced node is node 50.
• Now, count three nodes from node 50 in the direction of leaf
node.
• Then, use AVL tree rotation to balance the tree.

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 AVL Tree
• Construct AVL Tree for the following sequence of numbers-
50 , 20 , 60 , 10 , 8 , 15 , 32 , 46 , 11 , 48
• Step-07: Insert 32
– As 32 > 20, so insert 32 in 20’s right sub tree.
– As 32 < 50, so insert 32 in 50’s left sub tree.

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 AVL Tree
• Construct AVL Tree for the following sequence of numbers-
50 , 20 , 60 , 10 , 8 , 15 , 32 , 46 , 11 , 48
• Step-08: Insert 46
– As 46 > 20, so insert 46 in 20’s right sub tree.
– As 46 < 50, so insert 46 in 50’s left sub tree.
– As 46 > 32, so insert 46 in 32’s right sub tree.

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 AVL Tree
• Construct AVL Tree for the following sequence of numbers-
50 , 20 , 60 , 10 , 8 , 15 , 32 , 46 , 11 , 48
• Step-09: Insert 11
– As 11 < 20, so insert 11 in 20’s left sub tree.
– As 11 > 10, so insert 11 in 10’s right sub tree.
– As 11 < 15, so insert 11 in 15’s left sub tree.

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 AVL Tree
• Construct AVL Tree for the following sequence of numbers-
50 , 20 , 60 , 10 , 8 , 15 , 32 , 46 , 11 , 48
• Step-10: Insert 48
– As 48 > 20, so insert 48 in 20’s right sub tree.
– As 48 < 50, so insert 48 in 50’s left sub tree.
– As 48 > 32, so insert 48 in 32’s right sub tree.
– As 48 > 46, so insert 48 in 46’s right sub tree.

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 AVL Tree
• To balance the tree,
• Find the first imbalanced node on the path from the newly
inserted node (node 48) to the root node.
• The first imbalanced node is node 32.
• Now, count three nodes from node 32 in the direction of leaf
node.
• Then, use AVL tree rotation to balance the tree.

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• AVL Tree Example:
• Insert 14, 17, 11, 7, 53, 4, 13 into an empty
AVL tree

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 splay tree
• A splay tree is a self-balancing binary search tree
with the additional property that recently accessed
elements are quick to access again.
• It performs basic operations such as insertion, look-
up and removal in O(log(n)) amortized time.
• splay trees perform better than other search trees,
even when the specific pattern of the sequence is
unknown.
• The splay tree was invented by Daniel Dominic
Sleator and Robert Endre Tarjan in 1985.
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 splay tree
• All normal operations on a binary search tree are
combined with one basic operation, called splaying.
• Splaying the tree for a certain element rearranges the
tree so that the element is placed at the root of the
tree.
• In splay trees, we first search the query item, say a as
in the usual binary search trees to compare the query
item with the value in the root, if less then recursively
search in the left subtree else if higher then,
recursively search in the right subtree, and if it is
equal then we are done.
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 Tournament Tree
• Tournament tree is a form of min (max) heap
which is a complete binary tree.
• Every external node represents a player and
internal node represents winner.
• In a tournament tree every internal node
contains winner and every leaf node contains
one player.

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 Tournament Tree
• Winner Trees :
– Complete binary tree with n external nodes and n -
1 internal nodes.
– External nodes represent tournament players.
– Each internal node represents a match played
between its two children; the winner of the match
is stored at the internal node.
– Root has overall winner

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 Properties of Tournament Tree
• It is rooted tree i.e. the links in the tree and directed from
parents to children and there is a unique element with no
parents.
• The key value of the parent node has less than or equal to that
node to general any comparison operators can be used as long
as the relative values of parent-child are invariant throughout
the tree. The tree is a parent ordering of the keys.
• Trees with a number of nodes not a power of 2 contain holes
which is general may be anywhere in the tree.
• Tournament tree is a proper generalization of heaps which
restrict a node to at most two children.
• The tournament tree is also called selection tree.
• The root of the tournament tree represents overall winner of
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 Types of tournament Tree
• There are mainly two type of tournament
tree,
– Winner tree
– Loser tree

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 Types of tournament Tree
• Winner tree
– The complete binary tree in which each node
represents the smaller or greater of its two children
is called a winner tree.
– The smallest or greater node in the tree is
represented by the root of the tree.
– The winner of the tournament tree is the smallest
or greatest n key in all the sequences.
– It is easy to see that the winner tree can be
computed in O(logn) time.
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 Tournament Tree
• Winner Trees :

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 Types of tournament Tree
• Winner tree
– Example: Consider some keys 3, 5, 6, 7, 20, 8, 2, 9
– We try to make minimum or maximum winner
tree

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 Types of tournament Tree
• Loser Tree
• The complete binary tree for n players in
which there are n external nodes and n-1
internal nodes then the tree is called loser tree.
• The loser of the match is stored in internal
nodes of the tree.
• But in this overall winner of the tournament is
stored at tree [0].
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 Types of tournament Tree
• Loser Tree
• The loser is an alternative representation that
stores the loser of a match at the corresponding
node.
• An advantage of the loser is that to restructure
the tree after a winner tree been output, it is
sufficient to examine node on the path from
the leaf to the root rather than the sibling of
nodes on this path.
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 Types of tournament Tree
• Loser Tree
– Example: Consider some keys 10, 2, 7, 6, 5, 9, 12,
1
– Step 1) We will first draw min winner tree for
given data.

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 Types of tournament Tree
• Loser Tree
– Example: Consider some keys 10, 2, 7, 6, 5, 9, 12,
1
– Step 2) Now we will store losers of the match in
each internal nodes.

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 Application of Tournament Tree
• It is used for finding the smallest and largest
element in the array.
• It is used for sorting purpose.
• Tournament tree may also be used in M-way
merges.
• Tournament replacement algorithm selection
sort is used to gather the initial run for external
sorting algorithms.
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 Complexity of Loser Tree Initialize
• One match at each match node One match at
each match node.
• One store of a left child winner.
• Total time is O(n).
• M il ore precisely (n).

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 Multiway Trees
• Multiway Search Trees allow nodes to store
multiple child nodes (greater then 2).
• These differ from binary search trees which
can only have a maximum of 2 nodes.

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 Multiway Trees
• Characteristics
– Nodes may carry multiple keys.
– Each node may have N number of children
– Each node maintains N-1 search keys
– The tree maintains all leaves at the same level

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 Multiway Trees
• Operations
– Search: A path is traced starting at the root. The
nodes are traversed and a pointer is positioned on
the key value being searched. If the key is not
found, it returns a search miss. If the key is found,
it returns a search hit.
– Insert: The pointer searches to make sure a key
does not exist. It then creates a link adding the key
to the appropriate node.

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 Multiway Trees
• 2-3-4 Trees
– 2-3-4 trees are a type of Multiway search tree.
Each node can hold a maximum of 3 search keys
and can hold 2, 3 or 4 child nodes.
– All leaves are maintained at the same level. 2-3-4
trees are self-balancing structures, meaning they
rearrange themselves if the structure goes off
balance after an insert or delete operation.

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 Multiway Trees
• 2-3-4 Trees Characteristics
– 2-3-4 trees can carry multiple child nodes.
– Each node maintains N child nodes where N is
equal to 2, 3 or 4 child nodes.
– Each node can carry (N-1) search keys.

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 Multiway Trees
• 2-3-4 Trees Operations
– Search: With 2-3-4 trees, searches commence at
the root and traverse each node until right node is
found.
– A sequential search is done within the node to
locate the correct key value. If the value is found,
it returns a search hit. If the value is not found, it
returns a search miss.
– For example, in Figure 3, we search for key 59 and
key 172.

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 Multiway Trees
• 2-3-4 Trees Operations

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 Multiway Trees
• 2-3-4 Trees Operations
– Insert: The tree is first searched to ensure that the key value
does not exist.
– If it doesn't, a link is created in the appropriate node and the
search key is inserted.
– Note that 2-3-4 tree characteristics must be maintained at
all times.

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 Multiway Trees
• 2-3-4 Trees Operations
– an insert is achieved because there is a search miss
on that key value.
– Key 151 does not exist and can therefore be added.
– a link is created and 151 is inserted in the
appropriate node.
– This, however, results in a violation of the 2-3-4
tree rule that a node can carry no more than N or 4
child nodes and (N-1) or 3 key values. This
violation is referred to as an overflow.

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 Multiway Trees
• 2-3-4 Trees Operations
– This violation is referred to as an overflow.

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 Multiway Trees
• 2-3-4 Trees Operations
– To resolve the problem and re-balance the tree, the
node with the overflow is split and key value 150
is sent to the parent node, which in this case, is the
root.
– The original node is no longer in overflow as it has
been split, but the root node is now in overflow
because the key 150 has been inserted

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 Multiway Trees
• 2-3-4 Trees Operations

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 Multiway Trees
• 2-3-4 Trees Operations
– To fix this, the root node needs to have a single
key with all other nodes emanating from it.
– key 150 is used to create a new root node and the
tree is corrected.

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 B-Trees
• A B-tree is a tree data structure that keeps data
sorted and allows searches, insertions, and
deletions in logarithmic amortized time. B-
Tree is a self-balancing search tree. In most of
the other self-balancing search trees
(like AVL and Red-Black Trees), it is assumed
that everything is in main memory.

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 B-Trees
• A B-tree of order m is an m-way tree (i.e., a tree where
each node may have up to m children) in which:
– the number of keys in each non-leaf node is one less than
the number of its children and these keys partition the keys
in the children in the fashion of a search tree
– all leaves are on the same level
– all non-leaf nodes except the root have at least [m /
2]children
– the root is either a leaf node, or it has from two to m
children
– a leaf node contains no more than m – 1 keys
• The number m should always be odd

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 B-Trees
• The number m should always be odd

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 B-Trees
• Properties of B-Tree
1) All leaves are at same level.
2) A B-Tree is defined by the term minimum degree ‘t’. The value of t
depends upon disk block size.
3) Every node except root must contain at least t-1 keys. Root may
contain minimum 1 key.
4) All nodes (including root) may contain at most 2t – 1 keys.
5) Number of children of a node is equal to the number of keys in it
plus 1.
6) All keys of a node are sorted in increasing order. The child between
two keys k1 and k2 contains all keys in the range from k1 and k2.
7) B-Tree grows and shrinks from the root which is unlike Binary
Search Tree. Binary Search Trees grow downward and also shrink from
downward.
8) Like other balanced Binary Search Trees, time complexity to search,
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 B-Trees
• Constructing a B-tree
– Suppose we start with an empty B-tree and keys arrive in
the following order:1 12 8 2 25 6 14 28 17 7 52 16 48 68 3
26 29 53 55 45
– We want to construct a B-tree of order 5
– The first four items go into the root:

– To put the fifth item in the root would violate condition 5

– • Therefore, when 25 arrives, pick the middle key to make a
new root
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 B-Trees
• Constructing a B-tree
Add 25 to the tree

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 The Advantages of B-Trees
• Advantages:
– Lack of redundant storage (but only marginally
different).
– Some searches are faster (key may be in non-leaf node).
• Disadvantages:
– Leaf and non-leaf nodes are of different size
(complicates storage)
– Deletion may occur in a non-leaf node (more
complicated)
• Generally, the structural simplicity of B -tree is preferred.

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 B+ Tree
• The drawback of B-tree used for indexing,
however is that it stores the data pointer
corresponding to a particular key value, along
with that key value in the node of a B-tree.

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 B+ Tree
• A B+ tree is an N-ary tree with a variable but often large
number of children per node.
• A B+ tree consists of a root, internal nodes and leaves.
• The root may be either a leaf or a node with two or more
children.

• A B+ tree can be viewed as a B-tree in which each node

contains only keys (not key–value pairs), and to which an
additional level is added at the bottom with linked leaves.
• The B+-Tree consists of two types of nodes:
– internal nodes
– leaf nodes

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 B+ Tree
• Properties:
• Internal nodes point to other nodes in the tree.
• Leaf nodes point to data in the database using data
pointers. Leaf nodes also contain an additional pointer,
called the sibling pointer, which is used to improve the
efficiency of certain types of search.
• All the nodes in a B+-Tree must be at least half full
except the root node which may contain a minimum of
two entries. The algorithms that allow data to be
inserted into and deleted from a B+-Tree guarantee that
each node in the tree will be at least half full.
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 B+ Tree
• Properties:
• Searching for a value in the B+-Tree always starts at
the root node and moves downwards until it reaches a
leaf node.
• Both internal and leaf nodes contain key values that are
used to guide the search for entries in the index.
• The B+ Tree is called a balanced tree because every
path from the root node to a leaf node is the same
length. A balanced tree means that all searches for
individual values require the same number of nodes to
be read from the disc.
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 B+ Tree

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 B+ Tree
• Basic operations associated with B+ Tree:
– Searching a node in a B+ Tree
• Perform a binary search on the records in the current
node.
• If a record with the search key is found, then return that
record.
• If the current node is a leaf node and the key is not
found, then report an unsuccessful search.
• Otherwise, follow the proper branch and repeat the
process.

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 B+ Tree
• Insertion of node in a B+ Tree:
– Allocate new leaf and move half the buckets elements
to the new bucket.
– Insert the new leaf's smallest key and address into the
parent.
– If the parent is full, split it too.
– Add the middle key to the parent node.
– Repeat until a parent is found that need not split.
– If the root splits, create a new root which has one key
and two pointers. (That is, the value that gets pushed to
the new root gets removed from the original node)

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 B+ Tree
• Insertion of node in a B+ Tree:

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 B+ Tree
• Insertion of node in a B+ Tree:

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 B+ Tree
• Insertion of node in a B+ Tree:

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 B+ Tree
• Deletion of a node in a B+ Tree:
– Descend to the leaf where the key exists.
– Remove the required key and associated reference
from the node.
– If the node still has enough keys and references to
satisfy the invariants, stop.
– If the node has too few keys to satisfy the invariants,
but its next oldest or next youngest sibling at the same
level has more than necessary, distribute the keys
between this node and the neighbor. Repair the keys in
the level above to represent that these nodes now have
a different “split point” between them; this involves
simply changing a key in the levels above, without
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 B+ Tree
• Deletion of a node in a B+ Tree:
– If the node has too few keys to satisfy the invariant,
and the next oldest or next youngest sibling is at the
minimum for the invariant, then merge the node with
its sibling; if the node is a non-leaf, we will need to
incorporate the “split key” from the parent into our
merging.
– In either case, we will need to repeat the removal
algorithm on the parent node to remove the “split key”
that previously separated these merged nodes — unless
the parent is the root and we are removing the final key
from the root, in which case the merged node becomes
the new root (and the tree has become one level shorter
than before).
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 External Sorting
• All the internal sorting algorithms require that
the input fit into main memory.
• There are, however, applications where the
input is much too large to fit into memory.
• For those external sorting algorithms, which
are designed to handle very large inputs.

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 Why We Need New Algorithms
• Most of the internal sorting algorithms take advantage of
the fact that memory is directly addressable.
• Shell sort compares elements a[i] and a[i - hk] in one time
unit.
• Heap sort compares elements a[i] and a[i * 2] in one time
unit.
• Quicksort, with median-of-three partitioning, requires
comparing a[left], a[center], and a[right] in a constant
number of time units.
• If the input is on a tape, then all these operations lose
their efficiency, since elements on a tape can only be
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 Why We Need New Algorithms
• Even if the data is on a disk, there is still a
practical loss of efficiency because of the
delay required to spin the disk and move the
disk head.
• The time it takes to sort the input is certain to
be insignificant compared to the time to read
the input, even though sorting is an O(n log n)
operation and reading the input is only O(n).

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 Model for External Sorting
• The wide variety of mass storage devices makes
external sorting much more device dependent
than internal sorting.
• The algorithms that we will consider work on
tapes, which are probably the most restrictive
storage medium.
• Since access to an element on tape is done by
winding the tape to the correct location, tapes can
be efficiently accessed only in sequential order
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 External Sorting
• Used when the data to be sorted is so large that
we cannot use the computer’s internal storage
(main memory) to store it
• We use secondary storage devices to store the
data
• The secondary storage devices we discuss here
are tape drives. Any other storage device such
as disk arrays, etc. can be used

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 External Sorting
• Sorting large amount of data requires external or
secondary memory.
• This process uses external memory such as HDD,
to store the data which is not fir into the main
memory.
• So, primary memory holds the currently being
sorted data only.
• All external sorts are based on process of
merging.
• Different parts of data are sorted separately and
merged together.
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 External Sorting
• External Sorting is sorting the lists that are so
large that the whole list cannot be contained in
the internal memory of a computer.
• Assume that the list(or file) to be sorted resides
on a disk. The term block refers to the unit of
data that is read form or written to a disk at
one time.
• External sorting typically uses a hybrid sort-
merge strategy.
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 External Sorting
• In the sorting phase, chunks of data small
enough to fit in main memory are read, sorted,
and written out to a temporary file.
• In the merge phase, the sorted sub-files are
combined into a single larger file.
• One example of external sorting is the external
merge sort algorithm, which sorts chunks that
each fit in RAM, then merges the sorted
chunks together.
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 External Sorting
• A block generally consists of several records. For
a disk, there are three factors contributing to
read/write time:
(i) Seek time: time taken to position the read/write
heads to the correct cylinder. This will depend on
the number of cylinders across which the heads
have to move.
(ii) Latency time: time until the right sector of the
track is under the read/write head.
(iii) Transmission time: time to transmit the block
of data to/from the disk.
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 2-Way Merge Sort
• The k–way merge sort where k=2 is a 2–way
merge sort.
• In 2–way merge sort 2 runs are merged at a
time to generate a single run twice as long.
• The merging process is repeated until a single
run is generated.

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 2-Way Merge Sort
• consider that there are 6000 records to be sorted and the
internal memory capacity is 500 records.

• Let Ri j represent the jth run in the ith pass.

• The generated runs in the first pass are R1 1 to R1 12.
• In the first pass, R1 1 and R1 2 are merged resulting in run
R2 1 which consists of the sorted list of first 1000 records.

• The next two runs R1 3 and R1 4 are merged resulting in R2 2. Likewise,

four other runs will be merged in the second pass resulting in runs R2 1 to
R2 6.
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 2-Way Merge Sort

• Similarly, in the third pass, R2 1 and R2 2 are merged to form R3

1.
• Likewise, two other runs are generated resulting in runs R3 1 to
R3 3.
• In the fourth pass, R3 1 and R3 2 are merged to form run R4 1.
• The last run R3 3 will be taken as it is to R4 2.
• In fifth pass, R4 1 and R4 2 runs are merged to form run R5 1,
the final sorted file
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2-Way Merge Sort

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 3–Way Merge Sort
• The k–way merge sort where k=3 is a 3–way
merge sort.
• In 3–way merge sort, 3 runs are merged at a
time to generate a single run thrice as long.
• The merging process is repeated until a single
run is generated.

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 3–Way Merge Sort
• Consider 6000 records are available on a disk
which are to be sorted. In the internal memory
of the computer, only 500 records can be
resided. The block size of the disk is 100
records. Sort the file using 3–way merge sort

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 3–Way Merge Sort
• In the first pass, R1 1 to R1 3 are merged
resulting in run R2 1, which consists of the
sorted list of first 1500 records.

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 3–Way Merge Sort
• The next three runs R1 4, R1 5, R1 6 are
merged resulting in R2 2.
• Likewise, four runs will be emerging in the
second pass, i.e., R2 1 to R2 4.
• Similarly, in the third pass, R2 1 to R2 3 are
merged to form R3 1.
• The last run R2 4 will be taken as it is to R3 2

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 3–Way Merge Sort
• In fourth pass, R3 1 and R3 2 runs are merged
to form run R4 1, the sorted output.

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 3–Way Merge Sort
• In fourth pass, R3 1 and R3 2 runs are merged
to form run R4 1, the sorted output.

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 3–Way Merge Sort
• Implement the 3-way merge sort technique to
consider 3 runs with 4 records each .

• Consider the smallest record of each run and add

it to the smallest set: {3, 2, 1}.
• Take the smallest record of the smallest set, 1, add
it to the output run and delete it from the original
run. At this point, the output run is {1}. The step-
by- step process of merging the three runs
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 3–Way Merge Sort
• Step 1: The three records in the smallest set are
{3, 2, 1}.
• Remove the smallest record1, from the third
run and put it in the output run: {1}.
• Move 6 to the smallest set.

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 3–Way Merge Sort
• Step 2: The three records in smallest set are {3,
2, 6}.
• Remove 2 from the second run and append it
to the output run: {1, 2}.
• Move 4 to the smallest set.
3 5 12 15 2 4 10 17 6 8 18

1 2

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 3–Way Merge Sort
• Step 3: The three records in smallest set are {3,
4, 6}.
• Remove 3 from the first run and append it to
the output run: {1, 2, 3}.
• Move 5 to the smallest set.
3 5 12 15 4 10 17 6 8 18

1 2 3

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 3–Way Merge Sort
• Step 4: The three records in smallest set are {5,
4, 6}.
• Remove 4 from the second run and append it
to the output run: {1, 2, 3, 4}.
• Move 10 to the smallest set.
5 12 15 4 10 17 6 8 18

1 2 3 4

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 3–Way Merge Sort
• Step 5: The three records in smallest set are {5,
10, 6}.
• Remove 5 from the first run and append it to
the output run: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
• Move 12 to the smallest set.
5 12 15 10 17 6 8 18

1 2 3 4 5

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 3–Way Merge Sort
• Step 6: The three records in smallest set are
{12, 10, 6}.
• Remove 6 from the third run and append it to
the output run: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6}.
• Move 8 to the smallest set.
12 15 10 17 6 8 18

1 2 3 4 5 6

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 3–Way Merge Sort
• Step 7: The three records in smallest set are
{12, 10, 8}.
• Remove 8 from the third run and append it to
the output run: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8}.
• Move 18 to the smallest set.
12 15 10 17 8 18

1 2 3 4 5 6 8

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 3–Way Merge Sort
• Step 8: The three records in smallest set are
{12, 10, 18}.
• Remove 10 from the second run and append it
to the output run: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10}.
• Move 17 to the smallest set.
12 15 10 17 18

1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10

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 3–Way Merge Sort
• Step 9: The three records in smallest set are
{12, 17, 18}.
• Remove 12 from the first run and append it to
the output run: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12}.
• Move 15 to the smallest set.
12 15 17 18

1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12

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 3–Way Merge Sort
• Step 10: The three records in smallest set are
{15, 17, 18}.
• Remove 15 from the first run and append it to
the output run: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15}.
• The first run is now empty, the merge follows
as a 2-way merge instead of a 3-way merge.
15 17 18

1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 15
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 3–Way Merge Sort
• Step 11: The two top records are {17, 18}.
• Remove 17 from the second run and append it
to the output run: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15,
17}.
• Now, the second run is also empty, only the
third run remains non-empty.
17 18

1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 15 17
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 3–Way Merge Sort
• Step 12: The records of the last run are {18}
and are appended to the output run and the
final run is obtained {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12,
15, 17, 18}.

18

1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 15 17

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 k-way merge sort
• A merge sort that sorts a data stream using
repeated merges.
• It distributes the input into k streams by
repeatedly reading a block of input that fits in
memory, called a run, sorting it, then writing it to
the next stream.
• It merges runs from the k streams into an output
stream. It then repeatedly distributes the runs in
the output stream to the k streams and merges
them until there is a single sorted output.
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 k-way merge sort
• k-way merge:
• Definition: Combine k sorted data streams into
a single sorted stream.

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 k-way merge sort
• External merge sort is performed in two phases.
• The first phase involves the run generation and
the second phase involves the merging of runs to
form a larger run.
• This run generation is repeated and merging is
continued till a single run is generated with the
sorted file as its outcome.
• If k runs are merged at a time, the external merge
sort is known as a k–way merge sort.
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k-way merge sort

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k-way merge sort

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 Run Generation Phase
• One of the most commonly approaches to
external sorting is external merge sort, which
consists of two phases, the run generation
phase and the merge phase.
• The first phase generates several sorted lists of
records, called runs, and the second phase
merges the runs into the final sorted list of
records.

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 Run Generation Phase
• In the run generation phase, data is read from the
input to generate subsets of ordered records.
• These subsets are called runs.
• Runs are generated using main (internal) memory,
and written to external memory (disk).
• After all input records are distributed in runs, the
run generation phase ends and the merge phase
starts.

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 Run Generation Phase
• There are several methods used to generate the
runs, most of them being based on internal sorting
algorithms.
• For example, the main memory can be filled with
records from the input and then sorted using any
internal sorting algorithm (merge sort, quicksort,
etc.) Using this method, called Load-Sort-Store,
the run length is always equal to the size of the
main memory, except for maybe the last run
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 Run Generation Phase
• Another more advanced algorithm is
replacement selection.
• Using replacement selection, the run length is
nearly equal to twice the size of the main
memory (internal) when the input data is
randomly distributed.

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 Tries
• All the search trees are used to store the collection of
numerical values but they are not suitable for storing the
collection of words or strings.
• Trie is a data structure which is used to store the collection
of strings and makes searching of a pattern in words more
easy.
• The term trie came from the word retrieval. Trie data
structure makes retrieval of a string from the collection of
strings more easily.
• Trie is also called as Prefix Tree and some times Digital
Tree.
• In computer science, a trie, also called digital tree and
sometimes radix tree or prefix tree.

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 Tries
• Trie is a tree like data structure used to store
collection of strings.
• Trie is an efficient information storage and
retrieval data structure.
• The trie data structure provides fast pattern
matching for string data values.
• Using trie, we bring the search complexity of a
string to the optimal limit.
• A trie searches a string in O(m) time complexity,
where m is the length of the string.

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 Properties of a tries
• A multi-way tree.
• Each node has from 1 to n children.
• Each edge of the tree is labeled with a
character.
• Each leaf nodes corresponds to the stored
string, which is a concatenation of characters
on a path from the root to this node.

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 Tries

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 Different Types of Tries
• Standard Tries
• Compressed/Compact Tries
• Suffix Tries

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 Standard Tries
• Standard Tries
– The standard trie for a set of strings S is an ordered
tree such that:
– each node but the root is labeled with a character
– the children of a node are alphabetically ordered
– the paths from the external nodes to the root yield
the strings of S

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 Standard Tries
• Standard Tries

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 Standard Tries
• Applications of Standard Tries:
– word matching: find the first occurrence of word X
in the text
– prefix matching: find the first occurrence of the
longest prefix of word X in the text

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 Standard Tries
• Applications of Standard Tries:
– word matching: find the first occurrence of word X
in the text
– prefix matching: find the first occurrence of the
longest prefix of word X in the text

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 Binary Trie
• A Binary Trie encodes a set of bit integers in a
binary tree.
• All leaves in the tree have depth and each
integer is encoded as a root-to-leaf path.
• The path for the integer turns left at level i if
the ith most significant bit of x is a 0 and turns
right if it is a 1.

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 Binary Trie
• an example for the case , in which the trie
stores the integers 3(0011), 9(1001), 12(1100),
and 13(1101).

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