2.

Fault Calculation

Fault calculation is the analysis of the electrical behavior in

the power system under fault condition. The currents and voltages at
different parts of the networks for different types of faults, different
positions of the fault and different configuration of the network are
calculated.
The fault calculations are one of the most important tools
when considering the following:
- Choice of suitable transmission system configuration.
- Load and short circuit ratings for the high voltage
equipment.
- Breaking capacity of CB’s
- Application and design of of control and protection
equipment
- Service conditions of the system
- Investigation of unsatisfactory performances of the
equipment.

It is a well known fact that the effects of a fault, changes with

the time that has passed since the fault occurred. The physical
for this transient process is that electromagnetic energy is
stored in the inductance of the circuits. This energy can not be
altered in a indefinite time. Therefore some time will pass
while the new electrical field is created. These time intervals
are known as the subtransient and transient conditions. The
duration of the transient interval is counted in ms. In this case,
the fault calculations are intended to be used for application
and design of relay equipment. The fault calculations are
made for conditions when the first transient sub-transient
conditions have come to an end i.e., the transient reactance of
the generators are used.

Faults can be divided in to two groups, symmetrical

(balanced) and unsymmetrical (unbalanced) faults. The
2. FAULT CALCULATION

symmetrical faults are only concerning three phase faults, all

other faults are seen as unsymmetrical.
Using Thevenin’s theorem which states easiest does the short
circuit calculations:
Any network containing driving voltages, as viewed from
any two terminals, can be replaced by a single driving
voltage acting in series with single impedance. The value of
this driving voltage is equal to the open circuit voltage
between the two terminals before the fault occurs, and the
series impedance of the network as viewed from the two
terminals with all the driving voltages short-circuited.
The two terminals mentioned in the theorem are located at the
fault. Thi8s way of calculating will give the change in voltage
and current caused by the short circuit. To get the correct
result the currents and voltages that existed in the system
before the fault must be superimposed geometrically to the
calculated changes.
The two following simplifications are to be normally made:
-The same voltage is used in the whole network (voltage drops
from load currents are neglected)
- All currents are considered to be zero before the fault occurs,
which means that no load currents are considered.
The analysis of three phase balanced fault conditions consists
Of three stages. They are
a) representation of the given power system with its
fault conditions by equivalent positive sequence network.
b) the solution of the network in terms of its common base
of voltage, current and impedance.
c) conversion of the resulting common base values to actual
values.
The system positive sequence network is the equivalent
single-phase representation of the complete power system. In this
network each component items of plant is represented by its equivalent
positive sequence circuit using per-unit values to a common MVA
base.
Over head lines and cables: Over head lines and cables are represented
by nominal  circuit. The shunt arm impedance is usually large in

2
2. FAULT CALCULATION

comparison with the series arm impedance, and representation by the

series arm alone is usually sufficiently accurate for most practical
purposes.
Transformers & synchronous machines: Transformers and synchronous
machine impedance’s are predominantly reactive with high X/R ratios
in the order of 10 to 20 times. It is therefore usually sufficiently
accurate to ignore the resistive component of the impedance and to
assume all the impedance is purely reactive.
Loads: load impedance’s are large in value in comparison with series
impedance of the power system plant and they have only a small effect
on the fault current under short circuit condition. Loads are therefore
ignored in the short circuit calculation. Synchronus machines are
represented by the transient reactances. Asynchronous machines only
contributes to the fault current, the motor operates as a generator, for
about 100ms after the fault occurrence. They are therefore neglected in
short circuit calculations for protection relay applications.
Transformer tap position: For the purpose of fault calculations, it is
sufficient to ignore the actual tap position and to assume all the
transformers to be operating in nominal-ratio tap-position. The error
introduced by this assumption is negligibly small in so far as the total
fault current is concerned.
Equivalent source: The representation of a complex power system
network can usually be simplified considerably by the use of an
equivalent generator to represent the whole or parts of a given network.
Thus a complete network, as seen from any given point, may be
represented, using Thevnin`s theorem, as a single driving voltage in
series with a single impedance. This equivalent generator can be
obtained with sufficient accuracy from an estimated knowledge of the
system three phase fault level at the point in question; the pre-fault
value of the voltage at this point being assumed equal to the nominal
rated value.
Treatment of complex quantities: The impedance of positive sequence
network is all complex impedance and must, therefore be represented
by R+jX form. In many cases resistance component of the impedance
are small compared with reactance components, and in such cases it is
often sufficient to treat impedance as pure reactance, thus ensuring a
considerable simplification in computation. The use of such a pure

3
2. FAULT CALCULATION

reactance form of representation, it should be noted, results in a short-

circuit current slightly greater than the true value.
Plant impedance values: The impedance values employed in any
particular fault calculation should, where ever possible, be the known
values appropriate to the particular item of the plant concerned. Where
precise actual values are not known, however, it may be permissible to
use typical values appropriate to similar plant of similar load and
voltage.
Neutral earthing: Neutral earthing arrangements have no effect on
balanced three-phase load condition or short-circuit condition, and
therefore disregarded in the derivation of the system positive sequence
network.
Per- unit notation of impedance:
on perusal of a power system, it can be seen that there are
several voltage level in a system. The common practice is to refer plant
MVA in terms of per-unit or percentage values and the transmission
line and cable constants in ohm/km. Before any system fault level
calculation, the system parameters must be referred to common base
quantities, and represented as a unified system of impedances in either
ohmic, percentage or per-unit values.
The base quantities are power and voltage. Normally they are
given in terms of three phase power in MVA and line voltage in KV.
The base impedance resulting from these base quantities is :

(KVbase)2
Zba =  ohm
2.1
MVAbase
The per-unit value of any impedance in a system is the ratio of the
actual impedance to base impedance. So,
Z ohm
Z p= 
2.2
Zbase
substituting eqn. 2.1 in eqn 2.2
MVAbase
Zpu= Zohm  
2.3
(KV base )2

4
2. FAULT CALCULATION

Having chosen the base quantities of suitable magnitude, all

system impedance may be converted to the base quantities by the
equation given below:
New base MVA
Zpu( New baseMVA) = Zpu(Given base MVA)   2.4
Given base MVA

The fault MVA of the system is

Fault MVA = 3  KV  KA(fault)
= 3  (KV/3)  KA(fault)
KV KV
= 3    
3 3  ZF.(ohm)
(KV) 2
= 
2.5
Z F.(ohm)
Substituting the value of fault impedance in ohms in terms of base
quantities and per-unit values
(KV) 2  MVAbase
Fault MVA = 
Z F.pu  (KV)2
MVA base
= 
Z F.pu
The source impedance is merely a value which represents the
impedance between the system under consideration and the source.
This is determined from the fault level at the incoming bus bar.
MVA base
The source impedance Zs = 
2.6
MVA fault

The elements of the power system are usually specified as follows:

a) generator and transformer - percentage impedance on
rating.
b) feeders and interconnectors - actual impedance per
phase.
c) reactors - voltage drop at rated current.

To convert these per - unit values on a common base the equations 2.3
and 2.4 can be written as

5
2. FAULT CALCULATION

Z% MVAbase
Zpu =   
2.7
100 MVArating
MVAbase
Zpu = Zohm  
2.8
2
(KVrated)
VR MVAbase
Zpu =   
2.9
2
IR (KVrated)

Plant parameters :
Synchronous reactance Xd :It is a measure of the steady state stability
of the machine; the smaller its value the more stable is the machine.
The value 1/Xd approximate to the short circuit ratio (SCR). The only
difference is the SCR takes saturation into account whereas X d is
derived from the air-gap line.
Transient reactance Xd` : The transient reactance covers the behavior
of a machine during the 0.1 to 3 seconds after disturbance. This
generally corresponds to the speed of change in a system, and is
usually employed in studies of transient stability.
Sub transient reactance Xd`` : The sub transient reactance determines
the initial current peaks following a disturbance and in the case of
sudden fault is of importance for selecting the rupturing capacity of the
associated circuit breakers.
Two winding transformers : A transformer may be replaced in a power
system by an equivalent T network in which the cross member is the
short circuit impedance, and the column the excitation impedance. As
the excitation impedance is many times higher than the short circuit
impedance it is neglected in fault studies. The per-unit impedance of a
transformer is the same regardless of whether it is determined ohmic
values referred to the HT or LT side of the transformer. The per-unit
impedance of transformers are usually marked on the name plate on
the base determined by the ratings. For three single phase transformers
connected as a three phase unit, the three phase rating are determined
from the single phase rating of each individual transformer. The per-

6
2. FAULT CALCULATION

unit impedance of the three phase unit is the same as that for each
individual transformer.
Three winding transformer: Both the primary and secondary winding
of a two winding transformer the same MVA rating, but all the three
windings of a three winding transformer may have different MVA
rating. The per-unit or percentage impedance of each windings are
given on the rating of its own windings. The per-unit impedance of all
the windings in the impedance diagram must be expressed on the same
MVA base.
Neglecting the excitation impedance, the equivalent circuit of
a three winding transformer may be represented by a star impedance as
shown in fig 2.1 where p,s,t are primary secondary and tertiary
windings respectively. The common star point is fictious and unrelated
to the neutral of the system.

fig 2.1
The impedance of any of these branches can be determined by
considering the short circuit impedance between pairs of windings with
the third winding open.
Thus
Zps = Zp + Zs
Zts = Zt + Zs
Zpt = Zp + Zt

from which Zp = ½(Zps + Zpt  Zst)

Zs = ½ (Zps + Zts  Zpt)

7
2. FAULT CALCULATION

Zt = ½ (Zpt + Zts  Zps)

Illustration 1:
Fig 2.2 shows a power system with all power system
components.

In order to calculate the fault level at different locations first

convert all plant impedance values to per-unit values on a common
base.
Assume a common base of 10MVA.
Z% MVAbase
Zg =   
100 MVArating
25 10
=    = 0.1 p.u
100 25
Interconnector between bus-1 and bus-2
MVA base
ZL 1-2 = Zohm  
(KVrated) 2
10
= 0.05   =0.0042 p.u
(11) 2
Transformer
8 10
ZT =    = 0.1333 p.u
100 6
Interconnector between bus-3 and bus-4
10
ZL 3-4 = 0.008  = 0.00735 p.u
(3.3) 2

VR MVAbase

8
2. FAULT CALCULATION

Zpu =   
IR (KVrated)2
43.7 10
=    = 0.05p.u
800 (3.3) 2
The per-unit values to common base are shown in fig 2.3 below.

10
Fault MVA for a fault at bus-1 =  =
100MVA
0.1
10
Fault MVA for a fault at bus-2 =  = 96MVA
0.1+ 0.0042
10
Fault MVA for a fault at bus-3 =  =
42MVA
0.1 + 0.0042 + 0.1333

10
Fault MVA for a fault at bus-4 = 
0.1+ 0.0042+ 0.1333+0.00735
= 40.84 MVA

10
Fault MVA for a fault at bus-5 = 
0.1+
0.0042+0.1333+0.00735+0.05
= 33.9MVA

The fault currents at various points for a fault at bus-5 is

calculated as follows:

9
2. FAULT CALCULATION

33.9
Fault current at bus-5 =  = 5.93 KA.
3  3.3
33.9
Fault current at 11KV interconnector =  =1.78KA.
3  11

fig 2.4

Illustration 2:

fig 2.5
Assume a common base of 10MVA
10
Source impedance Z s =  = 0.04 p.u
250
There are two interconnectors each of two 400mm 2 cable in parallel.
Assume the reactance per phase of 11KV three core cable = 80/
m.

10
2. FAULT CALCULATION

The reactance of each interconnector = 0.5  800  80  10-6

= 0.032

10
ZL = 0.032   = 0.002644p.u
11 2
6 10
XT =    = 0.3p.u
10 2
The interconnecting cable to the 415volt bus is of six single core.
i.e. 2  1000mm 2
Assume the reactance /phase of 415volt cable = 100/ m.
The reactance of 415volt cable = 0.5  30  100  10-6
= 0.0015
10
Zl = 0.0015   = 0.0871p.u
(0.415) 2

fig 2.6 fig 2.7

An impedance diagram as shown in fig 2.6 can be drawn with

the above calculated values to a common base. From this diagram the
fault level at any particular point can be determined. In more
complicated arrangement it may be necessary to redraw the impedance
diagram after combining the impedance of various parts of the system

11
2. FAULT CALCULATION

to simplify the calculation. Some times it may be necessary to make

more than one redraw, before the calculation is complete.
From the simplified impedance diagram fig 2.7 the fault at
11KV substation B is

10
 = 242 MVA
0.04 + 0.00132
Fault at 415V substation C is
10
 = 42.58 MVA
0.4 + 0.001132 + 0.19355

Illustration 3:
A 110KV sub-station A with a three phase fault level of 1158
MVA feeds radially to another 110KV sub-station B, 30KM away from
sub-station A. Two 110KV / 33KV, 10MVA transformers are
connected between 110KV and 33KV bus. Calculate the fault level at
33KV bus and 110KV bus at sub-station B. The conductor used for
110KV transmission line is panther conductor.

fig 2.8
Assume base MVA = 100 MVA.
Base MVA
Source impedance of the grid SS Z s = 
Fault MVA
100
=  = 0.018635p.u

12
2. FAULT CALCULATION

1158

R&X values of panther conductor:

R = 0.1547/KM, jX = 0.3975/KM
Ignore resistive value which will make little error in overall
calculation.
X = 0.3975  30 = 11.925
MVAbase
Xp.u = Xohm  
(KV base)2
100
= 11.925   = 0.09855p.u
110 2

Z% MVAbase
ZTp.u =   
100 MVArating
10 100
=    = 1p.u
100 10
The impedance diagram is drawn as shown fig 2.9 and the simplified
diagram is shown in fig 2.10.

MVA base
Fault MVA at sub-station B 110KV bus = 
Zf

13
2. FAULT CALCULATION

100
=  =
540MVA
0.8635 + 0.09855

100
Fault MVA at sub-station B 33Kvbus = 
0.8635 + 0.09855 + 0.5
= 146MVA

Illustration 4:

fig 2.11
The part of a power system shown in fig 2.11 is a power
station with two incoming supplies and an inter bus-bar reactor which
is switched in when the generators are in operation to keep the fault
level to 260MVA which is the rupturing capacity of the switchgear.
Assume a common base of 10MVA.

14
2. FAULT CALCULATION

24 10
ZG =    = 0.32p.u
100 (6/0.8)
10.5 10
ZT =    = 0.32p.u
100 15
MVAbase 10
ZS =  =  = 0.004p.u
MVAfault 2500
VR MVAbase
ZR =   
IR (KV)2

436 10
=    = 0.045p.u
800 11 2

The impedance diagram with the per-unit impedance drawn to a

common base as shown in fig 2.12.

fig 2.12
there is no simple series or parallel combination which can be
eliminated and so delta-star conversion must be made to 0.07, 0.07,
and 0.045 impedances.
The equation for conversion is
Z 1Z2
Za = 
Z 1 + Z2 + Z3

15
2. FAULT CALCULATION

Z 2Z3
Zb = 
Z 1 + Z2 + Z3
Z 3Z 1
Zc = 
Z 1 + Z2 + Z3
0.07  0.07
Za =  = 0.0265
0.07 + 0.07 + 0.045

0.045  0.07
Z b = Zc =  = 0.017
0.7 + 0.07 + 0.045
The modified impedance diagram and the impedance diagrams for
different stages of reduction are shown in fig 2.13(a) to fig 2.13(f).

16
2. FAULT CALCULATION

fig 2.13
10
The fault level for a for a fault at bus-3 is =  = 253.47MVA
0.03945
The various stages of determining the current distribution are
elaborated in fig 2.14 (a) to fig 2.14(f) and fig 2.14(g) shows the final
current distribution for a fault in bus-3.

17
2. FAULT CALCULATION

18
2. FAULT CALCULATION

fig 2.14

Illustration 5:
Application of bus impedance matrix in fault calculation.

fig 2.15
1) Assume a common base of 200MVA.

19
2. FAULT CALCULATION

2) Convert all the impedances to a common base.

18.2 200
ZG =    = 0.164p.u
100 222
14 200
ZT1 =    = 0.1333p.u
100 210

15 200
ZT2 =    = 0.25p.u
100 120
200
ZL = 24.8   = 0.0656p.u
2752

3) Draw the impedance diagram.

fig 2.16
4) Draw the admittance diagram.

20
2. FAULT CALCULATION

fig 2.17

5) Form the admittance matrix (Y bus).

5) Invert the admittance matrix to get the bus impedance matrix

(Zbus).

21
2. FAULT CALCULATION

The fault current for a three phase fault on bus-k is

Vf
If = 
Z kk
The fault current for a three phase fault on bus-5 is
Vf 1.0
If =  =  = 2.918p.u
Z55 0.455
Bus voltage at bus-n for a for a bus fault at bus-k is
Z nk
Vn = Vf   Vf
Z kk
= Vf  Znk If (since If = Vf/Zkk)
Bus voltages at bus 3 & 4 are
V3 = Vf  Z35  If = 1.0  0.33  2.198 = 0.2747p.u
V4 = Vf  Z45  If = 1.0  0.33  2.198 = 0.2747p.u
V2 = Vf  Z25  If = 1.0  0.297  2.198 = 0.3473p.u
V1 = Vf  Z15  If = 1.0  0..164  2.198 = 0.6395p.u

Currents to faults are

from bus-n = Vn Ynk
from bus-3 = 0.2747  4 = 1.099p.u
from bus-4 = 0.2747  4 = 1.099p.u
from bus-1 to bus-2 = ( V1  V2 ) Y12
= (0.6395  3473)  7.5 = 2.198p.u
So the fault MVA at bus-1 = 200  2.198 = 4396MVA
439.6
Fault current =  = 0.9229KA
3  275
Similarly the fault MVA supplied from bus-1 tobus-2 is
= 200  2.198 = 439.6MVA

22
2. FAULT CALCULATION

439.6
Fault current =  = 15.38KA
3  16.5
The current flow through other branches can be calculated a similar
way and are shown in fig 2.18

fig 2.18
From the same short circuit matrix i.e. Z-bus, similar information can
be found for faults on any of the other buses.

Illustration 6:

The three phase rating of a three winding transformers are:

Primary Y - connected 66KV, 30MVA
secondary Y - connected 13.2KV, 20MVA
Tertiary  - connected 2.3KV, 10MVA

Neglecting resistance the leakage impedance are:

Zps = 7% on 30MVA 66KV base.
Zpt = 9% on 30MVA 66KV base.
Zst = 8% on 20MVA 13.2KV base.
Find the per-unit impedance of the star connected equivalent circuit for
a base 30MVA, 66KV in the primary circuit.

Zps and Zpt were measured in the primary circuit and are
already expressed on the proper base for the equivalent circuit. No
change of voltage required for Zst. The required change in MVA base
is made as follows.
30

23
2. FAULT CALCULATION

Zst = 8 %  = 12 %
20
So
Zp = ½ (j0.07 + j0.09 - j0.12) = j 0.02p.u
Zs = ½ (j0.07 + j0.12 - j0.09) = j 0.05p.u
Zt = ½ (j0.09 + j0.12 - j0.07) = j 0.07p.u
fig 2.19 shows the star connected equivalent circuit.

fig 2.19

UNBALANCED FAULT CALCULATION:

Unbalanced faults means single faults or two phase faults with or

without earth connection.
In reality there always is a resistance at the fault. The resistance at two
phase faults consist mainly of the arc resistance. In some cases the
resistance at the fault can be higher than usual. To get a correct
calculation of two phase faults symmetrical components are normally
used.
For earth faults the earthing principle is the most important for the
fault current. In an effectively earthed system, the fault current is of
the same size as the three phase fault current. To make correct
calculations of this current symmetrical components are used.
The method of symmetrical components provides a practical
technology for making fault calculations of unsymmetrical faults, both
single and two phase faults.
The method is a mathematical tool which is used to describe and
calculate the phenomena in a three phase system at unsymmetrical load
or when an unsymmetrical fault occurs. For the three phase system

24
2. FAULT CALCULATION

three distinct sets of components are introduced for voltages and

currents: positive, negative and zero sequence components.
Positive sequence: The positive sequence components consist of the
balanced three phase currents and lines to neutral voltages supplied by
the system generators. They are always equal in magnitude though the
phases are displaced 120. The positive system is rotating
counterclockwise at the system frequency. To document the angle
displacement it is convenient to introduce an unit phasor with an angle
displacement of 120, called “a” . We get the following relations:

a = 1/120 = -0.5+j0.866
a² = 1/240º = -0.5 – j0.866
a³ = 1/360º = 1.0+j0

The phase components are designated as “a”, “b”, and “c”. Positive
sequence components are designated “1”, negative “2” and zero
sequence components”0”. For example “Ia1” means the positive
sequence component of the phase current in phase “a”.
The positive sequence set of symmetrical components can be
designated:
Ia1 = I1
Ib1 = a² Ia1 = a²I1 = I1/240º
Ic1 = aIa1 = aI1 = I1/120º

Va1 = V1
Vb1 = a²Va1 = a²V1 = V1/ 240º
Vc1 = aVa1 = aV1 = V1/ 120º

Negative sequence: This is also a balanced set of quantities with

120º phase displacement . The difference from the positive sequence
components is that the system is rotating clockwise at power
frequency.
The negative sequence set can be designated:

Ia² = I2
Ib2 = a Ia2 = aI2 = I2/120º
Ic2 = a²Ia2 = a²I2 = I2/240

25
2. FAULT CALCULATION

Va2 = V2
Vb2 = aVa2 = aV2 = V2/ 120º
Vc2 = a²Va2 = a²V2 = V2/ 240º

ZERO SEQUENCE SET: The zero sequence components are always

equal in magnitude and phase in all phases.

We get the following equations:

Ia0 = Ib0 = Ico = I0

Va0 = Vb0 = Vc0 = V0

All conditions in the network can be described using the above

defined symmetrical components. Three groups of equations are used:

Basic equations : These equations are valid during all conditions in

the network and is a description of how the system of symmetrical
components built.

Va =V0+V1+V2 (1)
Vb = V0+ a²V1 +aV2 (2)
Vc =V0+aV1 +a²V2 (3)
Ia =I0+I1+I2 (4)
Ib = I0 +a² I1 +aI2 (5)
Ic = I0+aI1 +a²I2 (6)

General equations: These equations are valid for all conditions of

the network . The electro motoric forces only exists when the positive
sequence components in a network are balanced before the fault
occurs. The network does not produce any negative sequence electro
motoric forces. The network can only consume negative sequence
components, which then transformed in to positive sequence
components.
According to the super position theorem the following statement is
valid:

26
2. FAULT CALCULATION

A network can be replaced by a simple circuit, where the electro

motric force equals the open circuit voltage of the network and the
internal impedance equals the impedance of the network measured
from the external side, if the sources in the network are short
circuited. The currents are defined positive out from the network.
This gives the following equations:
E1 = V1 +I1Z1 (7)
0 = V2 +I2Z2 (8)
0 = V0+I0Z0 (9)
Where Z1 , Z2 and Z0 are the positive, negative and zero sequence
impedance of the network. The actual values of these network
impedance are depending on the network and are used and reduced in
the same way as when calculating symmetrical faults.

Special Equations: These equations varies from fault to fault and can
shortly be explained.
Ia = 0 (10)
Ib+Ic = 0 (11)
Vb – Vc = IaZa (12)

Impedance between two phases

When the impedance “Zbc” is inserted, an unsymmetrical current is
drawn from the network . The following equations are achieved
according to the general, special and basic equations showed above.

According to equation(10)
I0+I1+I2 =0
E1
Z1 a
E2=0 Z2
b
E0 = 0 Z0
c
0 Ib
zZbc Ic

27
2. FAULT CALCULATION

According to equation (11)

2I0 + (a+a²)I1 + (a² + a)I2 =0
equals:
I0 = 0 (13)
I1 +I2 = 0 (14)

According to equation (12)

(a² – a ) (V1 – V2 ) = Zbc (a² – a )I1
V1 – V 2 = Zbc I1 (15)
Equation 7&8 together gives
E1 = V1 – V2 + I1Z1 – I2Z2 (16)
Insert 13&15 into 16

E1
I1 = = - I2 (17)
Z1 + Z2 +Zbc

Equations 13 to 17 gives for a two phase fault the following block

Diagram

Zbc I1 =I2
+ +
Z0
Z1
V1 V2

E1 - -

28
2. FAULT CALCULATION

Insert 13,17 into 7,8 &9 and you will get

V1 = E1 1- Z1 (18)
Z 1 + Z2 +Zbc

V1 = E1 Z2
(19)
Z 1 + Z2 +Zbc
And V0 = 0 (20)

The unknown phase currents and voltages can be calculated by

inserting 11,13 and 14 in to 17 in to the basic equation
E1
Ib = -Ic = ( a² - a) (21)
Z1 + Z2 +Zbc
Before fault occurred there were only positive sequence voltage

Ea = E1
Eb = a² E1
Ec = aE1 Ea = Eb = Ec are the voltages , when the system is in
balanced condition

This gives:
E b - Ec
Ib = - Ic = (22)
Z 1 + Z2 +Zbc
And

Z1- Z2
Va = Ea 1- (23)

29
2. FAULT CALCULATION

Z1 + Z2 +Zbc
And:

Eb Z1 - E cZ 2
Vb = E b - (24)
Z1 + Z2 +Zbc

E cZ 1 - Eb Z2
Vc = Ec - (25)
Z 1 + Z2 +Zbc
In reality, we have Z1 = Z2 = Z the following net work is
achieved:
Z
Vc

Vb
Va Ic
Ib
E c Eb Ea Zbc

Eb - E c
Ib = - Ic = ------------------- (26)
2Z + Zbc
Va = E a (27)
Vb = E b - Z I b (28)
Vc = E c - Z I c (29)

For a two phase fault without fault resistance Zab is set to 0.

E1
IMPEDANCE BETWEEN PHASE AND EARTH
Z1

E2 Z2

E3 Z0
30
2. FAULT CALCULATION

Vc

Vb

Va

Ia
Za

The basic and the general equations will still be the same as in
“impedance between two phases” but the following special equations
are achieved:
The special equations:
Ib = 0 (30)
Ib = 0 (31)
Va = I a Z a (32)

Transformation of the equations 30,31,5,6 as in “impedance between

phases” gives the following result

I0 = I1 = I2 (33)

E1
I0 = I1 = I2 = 3 Za + Z0+Z1 + Z2 (34)

E 1 Z1
V1 = E1 - (35)
3 Za + Z0+Z1 + Z2

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2. FAULT CALCULATION

E 1 Z2
V2 = (36)
3 Za + Z0+Z1 + Z2
E 1 Z0
V0 = (37)
3 Za + Z0+Z1 + Z2
This gives the following figure:

Z0 V0 I0 = I1 = I2
-

+
Z2 V2 3 Za
-

+
Z1 V1

3 Ea
E1 Ia =
(38)
2Z + Z0 +3Za

Ib = Ic = 0 (39)

2Z+ Z0
Va = Ea 1- (40)
2Z + Z0 +3Za

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2. FAULT CALCULATION

Z0- Z
Vb = Eb - Ea (41)
2Z + Z0 +3Za
Z0- Z
Vc = Ec - Ea (42)
2Z + Z0 +3Za

This simple network is achieved

Ec Z
Vc

Eb Z
Vb
Ea Z
Va

1/3(3Z 0-Z) Za
0

EXAMPLE:
Generator:Xg = 24.2/ph, (X1- X2)
Transformers: Xk1 = 12.1/ph, Xk2 = 10/ph (zero and positive
sequence impedances equal)
Network: Xn = 8.3 /ph Line: X1 = 40 /ph, X0 = 120 /ph

20MVA
G 11/55kv 20MVA 20Mva, 50/132kv Network:
Ssc
=250Mva

ek = 8% ek =8% ek = 8%

33
2. FAULT CALCULATION

Calculate the fault current for:

a)Two phase fault with zero fault resistance
b)Single phase solid earth fault

a) Two phase short circuit:

Vc

Vb
Va
Ic Ib

Ec E b E a Zbc
This scheme is valid when Z1 =Z2 = Z
In this case Zbc is set to zero
The value of Z is calculated:
(Xg +Xk1) (XL +Xk2 +Xn)
Z =
Xg+ Xk1 + XL + Xk2 + Xn

Then Z = 22.4/ph and Ib =1.23kA/ph

Single phase solid earth fault

The scheme is also valid when Z1 = Z2 = Z and Z = 22.4/ph

Ec Z
Vc

Eb Z
Vb

34
2. FAULT CALCULATION

Ea Z
Va

1/3(3Z 0-Z) Za
0

3Ea Xk1(XoL+Xk2)
Ia = X0tot =
2Z + Z0 +3Za Xk1 + XoL +Xk2

This gives X0tot = 11.1/ph and

55x3
Ia = =1.71kA
3 (11.1 +2x22.4)
It should be noted that the current at single phase fault is higher than
the fault at three phase fault.

EXAMPLE2
Transformer:20MVA, 16/77kV, Xk = 8%, Yd11
Generator: 20MVA, 16kV, X(transient) = 25%, X2 = X1

Delta 220km

Xg 16/77kV Sold earth

Fault
The line is considered unloaded before the fault and all resistance and
capacitance is neglected. The voltage at the fault position is 75kV
before the fault.
Calculate the fault current through the the earth connection of the
transformer, the phase currents on both sides of the transformer and the
voltages (to earth) in the HV terminals of the transformer.
Calculation of the 77 kV impedances.
Generator:

35
2. FAULT CALCULATION

X1 = X2 = 0.25 x (16²/20) x (77/16)² = 74/ph

Transformer:

X1 = X2 = 0.08x 77²/20 = 23.7/ph

Line:

X1 = X2 = 84/ph, X0 = 300/ph

The following block diagram is aceived:

74 23.7 dU1 84

- netw 43.3
74 23.7 dU2 84 I1 = I2 = I0

0 netw
23.7 dU0 300

X1 = X2 = 181.7 /ph

X0 = 323.7 /ph

75
I1 = I2 = = 0.063 kA/ph
3(2 x 181.7 + 323.7)

The current through the earth connection of the transformer.

Ig = 3 x I0 = 0.189 kA

The component voltages at the HV side:

36
2. FAULT CALCULATION

U1 = E1 +dU1 = 43.3 – (j97.7) (-j0.063) = 37.15kV

U2 = dU2 = -j97.7(-j0.063) = -6.15 kV
U0 = dU0 = -j27.7(-j0.063) = -1.49 kV

Phase voltages:
Ua = U0 +U1 + U2 = 29.5/0º kV
Ub = U0 + a U1+aU2 = 41.3/- 114.4º kV
Uc = U0 + aU1 +a U2 = 41.3/114.4º kV

Phase currents:
Ia = I0+I1+I2 = 3 x 0.063 = 0.19kA
Ib = I0+a I1 +aI2 = 0.063(1+a +a) = 0kA
Ic = I0+aI1+a I2 = 0.063(1+a +a) = 0 kA
Phase currents on the LV side:
Connection:Yd11

Pos.angle
30
d Y

The positive sequence current is turned +30º, while the negative

sequence current is turned-30º.
At t6he 16kV side there is no zero sequence current as the transformer
is Yd connected I0 = 0
The phase currents at the 16kV side:
Ia = 77/16 ( 0+ 0.063e + 0.063e ) =
= 77/16( 3 x 0.063) = 0.052kA

Ib = 77/16(0 + 0.0634e a ² +0.063e ¯j³º a)

= 77/16( 0.063ej³º ej¹²º +0.063e e ) =0kA

Ic = 77/16(0+ 0.063e a+ 0.063e a² )

=77/16(0.063e e + 0.063e e )= 77/163 x 0.063 = 0.052ka

37