CIVIL ENGINEERING

GEOTECHNICAL
Definitions
c = cohesion qult = ultimate bearing capacity
qu = unconfined compressive strength = 2c = cNc + γDf Nq + 0.5γBNγ
Dr = relative density (%) Nc, Nq, and Nγ = bearing capacity factors
= [(emax – e)/(emax – emin)] ×100 B = width of strip footing
= [(1/γmin – 1/γ) /(1/γmin – 1/γmax)] × 100 Df = depth of footing below surface of ground
emax = maximum void ratio
emin = minimum void ratio
γmax = maximum dry unit weight k = coefficient of permeability = hydraulic conductivity
γmin = minimum dry unit weight = Q/(iA) (from Darcy's equation)
τ = general shear strength = c + σtan φ Q = discharge flow rate
φ = angle of internal friction i = hydraulic gradient = dH/dx
σ = normal stress = P/A A = cross-sectional area
P = force Q = kH(Nf/Nd) (for flow nets, Q per unit width)
A = area H = total hydraulic head (potential)
σ′ = effective stress = σ – u Nf = number of flow channels
σ = total normal stress Nd = number of potential drops
u = pore water pressure
Cc = compression index = ∆e/∆log p
Cc = coefficient of curvature of gradation = (e1 – e2)/(log p2 – log p1)
= (D30)2/[(D60)(D10)] = 0.009 (LL – 10) for normally consolidated clay
D10, D30, D60 = particle diameters corresponding to 10% e1 and e2 = void ratios
30%, and 60% finer on grain-size curve p1 and p2 = pressures
Cu = uniformity coefficient = D60 /D10 ∆H = settlement = H [Cc /(1 + e0)] log [(σ0 + ∆p)/σ0]
e = void ratio = Vv/Vs = H∆e/(1 + e0)
Vv = volume of voids H = thickness of soil layer
Vs = volume of solids ∆e, ∆p = change in void ratio, change in pressure
w = water content (%) = (Ww/Ws) ×100 e0, σ0 = initial void ratio, initial pressure
Ww = weight of water cv = coefficient of consolidation = THdr2/t
Ws = weight of solids T = time factor
Wt = total weight t = consolidation time
Gs = specific gravity of solids = Ws /(Vsγw) Hdr = length of drainage path
γw = unit weight of water (62.4 lb/ft3 or 1,000 kg/m3)
PI = plasticity index = LL – PL Ka = Rankine active lateral pressure coefficient
LL = liquid limit = tan2(45 – φ/2)
PL = plastic limit Kp = Rankine passive lateral pressure coefficient
S = degree of saturation (%) = (Vw/Vv) × 100 = tan2(45 + φ/2)
Vw = volume of water Pa = active resultant force = 0.5γH 2Ka
Vv = volume of voids H = height of wall
Vt = total volume
γt = total unit weight of soil = Wt/Vt
γd = dry unit weight of soil = Ws/Vt FS = factor of safety against sliding (slope stability)
= Gsγw/(1 + e) = γ /(1 + w) cL + Wcosα tanφ
=
Gsw = Se W sinα
γs = unit weight of solids = Ws / Vs L = length of slip plane
n = porosity = Vv/Vt = e/(1 + e) α = slope of slip plane with horizontal
φ = angle of internal friction
W = total weight of soil above slip plane

111
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM (ASTM DESIGNATION D-2487)

SOIL CLASSIFICATION CHART
Soil Classification
Criteria for Assigning Group Symbols and Group Names Using Laboratory TestsA Group
Symbol Group NameB
Cu ≥ 4 and 1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3E GW Well-graded gravelF
COARSE- Gravels Cleans Gravels
GRAINED SOILS More than 50% of Less than 5% finesc Cu < 4 and/or Cc > 3E GP Poorly graded gravelF
More than 50% coarse fraction Gravels with Fines Fines classify as ML or MH GM Silty gravelF,G,H
retained on No. retained on No. 4 More than 12% finesc Fines classify as CL or CH GC Clayey gravelF,G,H
200 sieve sieve
Cleans Sands Cu ≥ 6 and 1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3E SW Well-graded sand I
Sands
50% or more of Less than 5% finesD Cu < 6 and/or 1 > Cc > 3E SP Poorly graded sand I
coarse fraction Sands with Fines Fines classify as ML or MH SM Silty sand G,H,I
passes No. 4 sieve More than 12% finesD Fines classify as CL or CH SC Clayey sand G,H,I
inorganic PI > 7 and plots on or above "A" CL Lean clay K,L,M
FINE-GRAINED Silts and Clays line J
SOILS Liquid limit less
50% or more than 50 PI < 4 or plots below "A" line J ML Silt K,L,M
pass the No. organic Liquid Limit - oven dried OL Organic clay K,L,M,N
< 0.75
200 sieve Liquid Limit - not dried Organic silt K,L,M,O
inorganic PI plots on or above "A" line CH Fat clay K,L,M
Silts and Clays
Liquid limit 50 or PI plots below "A" line MH Elastic silt K,L,M
more organic Liquid Limit - oven dried OH Organic clay K,L,M,P
< 0.75
Liquid Limit - not dried Organic silt K,L,M,Q
HIGHLY ORGANIC SOILS Primarily organic matter, dark in color, and organic odor PT Peat

A
Based on the material passing the 3-in. (75- SP-SM poorly graded sand with silt K
If soil contains 15 to 29% plus No. 200, add
mm) sieve. SP-SC poorly graded sand with clay "with sand" or "with gravel, "whichever is
B
If field sample contained cobbles or boulders, E
( D 30 ) 2 predominant.
C U = D 60 / D 10 CC =
or both, add "with cobbles or boulders, or D 10 X D 60 L
If soil contains ≥ 30% plus No. 200,
both" to group name. F
If soil contains ≥ 15% sand, add "with sand" predominantly sand, add "sandy" to group
C
Gravels with 5 to 12% fines require dual to group name. name.
symbols: G
If fines classify as CL-ML, use dual symbol
M
If soil contains ≥ 30% plus No. 200,
GW-GM well-graded gravel with silt GC-GM, or SC-SM. predominantly gravel, add "gravelly" to
GW-GC well-graded gravel with clay H group name.
If fines are organic, add "with organic fines"
GP-GM poorly graded gravel with silt
to group name.
N
PI ≥ 4 and plots on or above "A" line.
GP-GC poorly graded gravel with clay O
PI < 4 or plots below "A" line.
D
I
If soil contains ≥ 15% gravel, add "with
Sands with 5 to 12% fines require dual P PI plots on or above "A" line.
gravel" to group name.
symbols: J Q
SW-SM well-graded sand with silt If Atterberg limits plot in hatched area, soil is PI plots below "A" line.
SW-SC well-graded sand with clay a CL-ML, silty clay.

60
E E
50 " LIN "L
IN
"U H "A
o rO
Plasticity index, PI

40 CH

30

Notes: OL
20 or MH or OH
(1) The A-Line separates clay CL
classifications and silt 10
classifications. 7 CL - ML ML or OL
(2) The U-Line represents an 4
approximate upper limit of LL 0
0 10 16 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
and PL combinations for natural
soils (empirically determined). Liquid limit, LL

112
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

GROUP SYMBOL GROUP NAME

Cu ≥ 4 and 1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3 GW <15% SAND WELL-GRADED GRAVEL
<5% FINES ≥15% SAND WELL-GRADED GRAVEL WITH SAND
Cu < 4 and/or 1 > Cc > 3 GP <15% SAND POORLY-GRADED GRAVEL
≥15% SAND POORLY-GRADED GRAVEL WITH SAND
FINES = ML or MH GW-GM <15% SAND WELL-GRADED GRAVEL WITH SILT
Cu ≥ 4 and 1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3 ≥15% SAND WELL-GRADED GRAVEL WITH SILT AND SAND
FINES = CL, CH, GW-GC <15% SAND WELL-GRADED GRAVEL WITH CLAY (OR SILTY CLAY)
GRAVEL (or CL-ML) ≥15% SAND WELL-GRADED GRAVEL WITH CLAY AND SAND
% GRAVEL > 5-12% FINES (OR SILTY CLAY AND SAND)
% SAND
FINES = ML or MH GP-GM <15% SAND POORLY-GRADED GRAVEL WITH SILT
Cu < 4 and/or 1 > Cc > 3 ≥15% SAND POORLY-GRADED GRAVEL WITH SILT AND SAND
FINES = CL, CH, GP-GC <15% SAND POORLY-GRADED GRAVEL WITH CLAY (OR SILTY CLAY)
(or CL-ML) ≥15% SAND POORLY-GRADED GRAVEL WITH CLAY AND SAND
(OR SILTY CLAY AND SAND)
FINES =ML or MH GM <15% SAND SILTY GRAVEL
≥15% SAND SILTY GRAVEL WITH SAND
>12% FINES FINES = CL or CH GC <15% SAND CLAYEY GRAVEL
≥15% SAND CLAYEY GRAVEL WITH SAND
FINES = CL-ML GC-GM <15% SAND SILTY, CLAYEY GRAVEL
≥15% SAND SILTY, CLAYEY GRAVEL WITH SAND
Cu ≥ 6 and 1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3 SW <15% GRAVEL WELL-GRADED SAND
<5% FINES ≥15% GRAVEL WELL-GRADED SAND WITH GRAVEL
Cu < 6 and/or 1 > Cc > 3 SP <15% GRAVEL POORLY-GRADED SAND
≥15% GRAVEL POORLY-GRADED SAND WITH GRAVEL
FINES = ML or MH SW-SM <15% GRAVEL WELL-GRADED SAND WITH SILT
Cu ≥ 6 and 1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3 ≥15% GRAVEL WELL-GRADED SAND WITH SILT AND GRAVEL
FINES = CL, CH, SW-SC <15% GRAVEL WELL-GRADED SAND WITH CLAY (OR SILTY CLAY)
SAND (or CL-ML) ≥15% GRAVEL WELL-GRADED SAND WITH CLAY AND GRAVEL
% SAND ≥ 5-12% FINES (OR SILTY CLAY AND GRAVEL)
% GRAVEL
FINES = ML or MH SP-SM <15% GRAVEL POORLY-GRADED SAND WITH SILT
Cu < 6 and/or 1 > Cc > 3 ≥15% GRAVEL POORLY-GRADED SAND WITH SILT AND GRAVEL
FINES = CL, CH, SP-SC <15% GRAVEL POORLY-GRADED SAND WITH CLAY (OR SILTY CLAY)
(or CL-ML) ≥15% GRAVEL POORLY-GRADED SAND WITH CLAY AND GRAVEL
(OR SILTY CLAY AND GRAVEL)
FINES = ML or MH SM <15% GRAVEL SILTY SAND
≥15% GRAVEL SILTY SAND WITH GRAVEL
>12% FINES FINES = CL or CH SC <15% GRAVEL CLAYEY SAND
≥15% GRAVEL SLAYEY SAND WITH GRAVEL
FINES = CL-ML SC-SM <15% GRAVEL SILTY, CLAYEY SAND
≥15% GRAVEL SILTY, CLAYEY SAND WITH GRAVEL

FLOW CHART FOR CLASSIFYING COARSE-GRAINED SOILS (MORE THAN 50 PERCENT RETAINED ON NO. 200 SIEVE)

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 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Influence Lines α = coefficient of thermal expansion
An influence diagram shows the variation of a function L = member length
(reaction, shear, bending moment) as a single unit load Fp = member force due to external load
moves across the structure. An influence line is used to (1)
determine the position of load where a maximum quantity A = cross-sectional area of member
will occur and (2) determine the maximum value of the E = modulus of elasticity
quantity. ∆T = T–TO; T = final temperature, and TO = initial
Deflection of Trusses temperature
Principle of virtual work as applied to trusses
∆ = ΣfQδL Deflection of Frames
∆ = deflection at point of interest The principle of virtual work as applied to frames:

fQ = member force due to virtual unit load applied at ⎧ mM ⎫

∆ = ∑ ⎨∫OL dx ⎬
the point of interest ⎩ EI ⎭
δL = change in member length m = bending moment as a function of x due to virtual
unit load applied at the point of interest
= αL(∆T) for temperature
M = bending moment as a function of x due to external
= FpL/AE for external load
loads

BEAM FIXED-END MOMENT FORMULAS

Pab 2 Pa 2 b
FEM AB = FEM BA =
L2 L2

w o L2 w o L2
FEM AB = FEM BA =
12 12

w o L2 w o L2
FEM AB = FEM BA =
30 20

Live Load Reduction

The live load applied to a structure member can be reduced as the loaded area supported by the member is increased. A typical
reduction model (as used in ASCE 7 and in building codes) for a column supporting two or more floors is:

⎛ 15 ⎞
Lreduced = Lnominal ⎜ 0.25 + ⎟ ≥ 0.4 L Columns: kLL = 4
⎜ k LL AT ⎟ nominal
⎝ ⎠
Beams: kLL = 2

where Lnominal is the nominal live load (as given in a load standard or building code), AT is the cumulative floor tributary area
supported by the member, and kLL is the ratio of the area of influence to the tributary area.

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 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ACI 318-02

US Customary units ASTM STANDARD REINFORCING BARS

Definitions BAR SIZE DIAMETER, IN AREA, IN2 WEIGHT, LB/FT

a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block, in
#3 0.375 0.11 0.376
Ag = gross area of column, in2
#4 0.500 0.20 0.668
As = area of tension reinforcement, in2 #5 0.625 0.31 1.043
As' = area of compression reinforcement, in2 #6 0.750 0.44 1.502
Ast = total area of longitudinal reinforcement, in2 #7 0.875 0.60 2.044
#8 1.000 0.79 2.670
Av = area of shear reinforcement within a distance s, in
#9 1.128 1.00 3.400
b = width of compression face of member, in #10 1.270 1.27 4.303
be = effective compression flange width, in #11 1.410 1.56 5.313
bw = web width, in #14 1.693 2.25 7.650
#18 2.257 4.00 13.60
β1 = ratio of depth of rectangular stress block, a, to depth
to neutral axis, c
⎛ f c ' − 4,000 ⎞ LOAD FACTORS FOR REQUIRED STRENGTH
= 0.85 ≥ 0.85 – 0.05 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ≥ 0.65
⎝ 1,000 ⎠
U = 1.4 D
c = distance from extreme compression fiber to neutral U = 1.2 D + 1.6 L
axis, in
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid
SELECTED ACI MOMENT COEFFICIENTS
of nonprestressed tension reinforcement, in
Approximate moments in continuous beams of three or
dt = distance from extreme tension fiber to extreme
more spans, provided:
tension steel, in
1. Span lengths approximately equal (length of
Ec = modulus of elasticity = 33 wc1.5 f c ' , psi longer adjacent span within 20% of shorter)
εt = net tensile strain in extreme tension steel at nominal 2. Uniformly distributed load
strength 3. Live load not more than three times dead load
fc' = compressive strength of concrete, psi Mu = coefficient * wu * Ln2
fy = yield strength of steel reinforcement, psi wu = factored load per unit beam length
hf = T-beam flange thickness, in Ln = clear span for positive moment; average
Mc = factored column moment, including slenderness adjacent clear spans for negative moment
effect, in-lb
Mn = nominal moment strength at section, in-lb Column 1 1
+ +
φMn = design moment strength at section, in-lb 14 16
Mu = factored moment at section, in-lb
1 1 1 1
Pn = nominal axial load strength at given eccentricity, lb − − − −
16 10 11 11
φPn = design axial load strength at given
eccentricity, lb Ln
Pu = factored axial force at section, lb
ρg = ratio of total reinforcement area to cross-sectional Spandrel
1 1
area of column = Ast/Ag beam + +
14 16
s = spacing of shear ties measured along longitudinal
axis of member, in 1 1 1 1
− − − −
Vc = nominal shear strength provided by concrete, lb 24 10 11 11
Vn = nominal shear strength at section, lb
φVn = design shear strength at section, lb 1 1
Unrestrained + +
Vs = nominal shear strength provided by reinforcement, 11 16
lb end
Vu = factored shear force at section, lb 1 1 1
− − −
10 11 11
End span Interior span

115
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

UNIFIED DESIGN PROVISIONS BEAMS − FLEXURE: φMn ≥ Mu

Internal Forces and Strains For all beams

d' Comp.strain Net tensile strain: a = β1 c
0.003 ( dt − c ) 0.003 ( β1 dt − a )
Mu ε's εt = =
A's Cc Cs' c c a
Pu d Design moment strength: φMn
dt
As where: φ = 0.9 [εt ≥ 0.005]
Ts
φ = 0.48 + 83εt [0.004 ≤ εt < 0.005]
Net tensile strain: εt Reinforcement limits:
AS, max εt = 0.004 @ Mn
Strain Conditions ⎧ ′
⎪ 3 f c bw d 200b d
w
0.003 0.003 0.003 AS ,min = larger ⎨ or
f f
⎪ y y
⎩
c c As,min limits need not be applied if
A's c
dt As (provided ≥ 1.33 As (required)
As
Singly-reinforced beams
0.85 fc ' β1 b ⎛ 3 dt ⎞
As,max = ⎜⎝ 7 ⎟⎠
εt ≥ 0.005 0.005> εt >0.002 εt ≤ 0.002 fy
Tension- Transition Compression- As f y
controlled section controlled a=
section: section: 0.85 f c′ b
c ≤ 0.375 dt a a
c ≥ 0.6 dt
Mn = 0.85 fc' a b (d −
) = As fy (d − )
2 2
Doubly-reinforced beams
Balanced Strain: εt = εy Compression steel yields if:
0.003
0.85 β1 f c′d' b ⎛ 87, 000 ⎞
A's As − As' ≥ ⎜ 87, 000 − f ⎟
fy ⎝ y ⎠
dt
If compression steel yields:
As 0.85 f c′β1 b ⎛ 3 d t ⎞
fy As,max = ⎜⎝ ⎟ + As′
εt = εy = fy 7 ⎠
Es
( As − As′ ) f y
a =
0.85 f c ' b
⎡ ⎛ a⎞ ⎤
RESISTANCE FACTORS, φ Mn = fy ⎢ ( As − As′ ) ⎜ d − ⎟ + As′ ( d − d ' ) ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎦
Tension-controlled sections ( εt ≥ 0.005 ): φ = 0.9 If compression steel does not yield (four steps):
Compression-controlled sections ( εt ≤ 0.002 ): 1. Solve for c:
Members with spiral reinforcement φ = 0.70 ⎛ (87,000 − 0.85 f c ' ) As ' − As f y ⎞
Members with tied reinforcement φ = 0.65 c2 + ⎜⎜ ⎟c
⎟
⎝ 0.85 f c ' β1 b ⎠
Transition sections ( 0.002 < εt < 0.005 ):
Members w/ spiral reinforcement φ = 0.57 + 67εt 87,000 As ' d '
− =0
Members w/ tied reinforcement φ = 0.48 + 83εt 0.85 fc ' β1 b
Shear and torsion φ = 0.75
Bearing on concrete φ = 0.65

116
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

BEAMS − FLEXURE: φMn ≥ Mu (CONTINUED) BEAMS − SHEAR: φVn ≥ Vu

Doubly-reinforced beams (continued) Beam width used in shear equations:

Compression steel does not yield (continued)
b (rectangular beams )
⎛ c − d' ⎞ bw =
2. fs'=87,000 ⎜ ⎟ bw (T−beams)
⎝ c ⎠
Nominal shear strength:
0.85 f c ' β1 b ⎛ 3 d t ⎞ ⎛ f '⎞
3. As,max= ⎜ ⎟ − As' ⎜ s ⎟ Vn = Vc + Vs
fy ⎝ 7 ⎠ ⎜ fy ⎟
⎝ ⎠ Vc = 2 bw d f c '
( As f y − As ' f s ' )
4. a = Av f y d
0.85 f c ' b Vs = [may not exceed 8 bw d f c ' ]
s
⎡ ⎛ As f y ⎞⎛ a⎞ ⎤ Required and maximum-permitted stirrup spacing, s
Mn = fs' ⎢ ⎜⎜ − As ' ⎟⎟ ⎜ d − ⎟ + As ' ( d − d ' ) ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ f s ' ⎠⎝ 2⎠ ⎦⎥ φVc
Vu ≤ : No stirrups required
2
T-beams − tension reinforcement in stem φVc
Vu > : Use the following table ( Av given ):
2
Effective flange width:

1/4 • span length

be = bw + 16 • hf φVc
< Vu ≤ φVc Vu > φVc
2
smallest beam centerline spacing
Design moment strength: Smaller of:
As f y Av f y Vu
a= s= Vs = − Vc
0.85 f c ' be 50bw φ
Required
If a ≤ hf : Av f y Av f y d
spacing s=
0.85 f c ' β1 be ⎛ 3 dt ⎞ 0.75 bw fc '
s=
As,max = ⎜⎝ 7 ⎟⎠ Vs
fy
a
Mn = 0.85 fc' a be (d- )
2
Vs ≤ 4 bw d fc '
Smaller of:
If a > hf :
Smaller of: d
0.85 f c ' β1 be ⎛ 3 dt ⎞ 0.85 f c ' (be − bw ) h f s= OR
As,max = ⎜ ⎟+ Maximum d 2
fy ⎝ 7 ⎠ fy permitted
s=
2 s =24"
hf spacing
Mn = 0.85 fc' [hf (be − bw) (d − ) OR
2 Vs > 4 bw d fc '
s =24"
a
+ a bw (d − )] Smaller of:
2 d
s=
4
s =12"

117
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

SHORT COLUMNS
Limits for main reinforcements:
A Concentrically-loaded short columns: φPn ≥ Pu
ρ g = st M1 = M2 = 0
Ag
KL
≤ 22
0.01 ≤ ρg ≤ 0.08 r
Design column strength, spiral columns: φ = 0.70
Definition of a short column: φPn = 0.85φ [ 0.85 fc' ( Ag − Ast ) + Ast fy ]
KL 12 M 1
≤ 34 −
r M2 Design column strength, tied columns: φ = 0.65
where: KL = Lcol clear height of column φPn = 0.80φ [ 0.85 fc' ( Ag − Ast ) + Ast fy ]
[assume K = 1.0]
Short columns with end moments:
r = 0.288h rectangular column, h is side length Mu = M2 or Mu = Pu e
perpendicular to buckling axis ( i.e., Use Load-moment strength interaction diagram to:
side length in the plane of buckling ) 1. Obtain φPn at applied moment Mu
r = 0.25h circular column, h = diameter 2. Obtain φPn at eccentricity e
3. Select As for Pu , Mu
M1 = smaller end moment
M2 = larger end moment
M1 positive if M1, M2 cause single curvature
M2 negative if M1, M2 cause reverse curvature

LONG COLUMNS − Braced (non-sway) frames

Definition of a long column: Long columns with end moments:
KL 12 M 1 M1 = smaller end moment
> 34 −
r M2 M2 = larger end moment
M1
Critical load: positive if M1 , M2 produce single curvature
M2
π2 EI π2 E I
Pc = = 0.4 M 1
( KL ) 2 ( Lcol ) 2 C m = 0.6 + ≥ 0.4
M2
where: EI = 0.25 Ec Ig
Cm M 2
Mc = ≥ M2
Pu
Concentrically-loaded long columns: 1−
0.75 Pc
emin = (0.6 + 0.03h) minimum eccentricity
Use Load-moment strength interaction diagram
M1 = M2 = Pu emin (positive curvature)
to design/analyze column for Pu , Mu
KL
> 22
r
M2
Mc =
Pu
1−
0.75 Pc
Use Load-moment strength interaction diagram
to design/analyze column for Pu , Mu

118
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

GRAPH A.11
Column strength interaction diagram for rectangular section with bars on end faces and γ = 0.80
(for instructional use only).

Design of Concrete Structures, 13th ed., Nilson, Darwin, Dolan,

McGraw-Hill ISBN 0-07-248305-9 GRAPH A.11, Page 762

119
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

GRAPH A.15
Column strength interaction diagram for circular section γ = 0.80 (for instructional use only).

Design of Concrete Structures, 13th Edition (2004), Nilson, Darwin, Dolan

McGraw-Hill ISBN 0-07-248305-9 GRAPH A.15, Page 766

120
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

STEEL STRUCTURES References: AISC LRFD Manual, 3rd Edition

AISC ASD Manual, 9th Edition
LOAD COMBINATIONS (LRFD)
Floor systems: 1.4D Roof systems: 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + 0.8W
1.2D + 1.6L 1.2D + 0.5(Lr or S or R) + 1.3W
0.9D ± 1.3W
where: D = dead load due to the weight of the structure and permanent features
L = live load due to occupancy and moveable equipment
L r = roof live load
S = snow load
R = load due to initial rainwater (excluding ponding) or ice
W = wind load
TENSION MEMBERS: flat plates, angles (bolted or welded)
Gross area: Ag = bg t (use tabulated value for angles)
s2
Net area: An = (bg − ΣDh + ) t across critical chain of holes
4g
where: bg = gross width
t = thickness
s = longitudinal center-to-center spacing (pitch) of two consecutive holes
g = transverse center-to-center spacing (gage) between fastener gage lines
Dh = bolt-hole diameter

Effective area (bolted members): Effective area (welded members):

U = 1.0 (flat bars) U = 1.0 (flat bars, L ≥ 2w)
Ae = UAn U = 0.85 (angles with ≥ 3 bolts in line) Ae = UAg U = 0.87 (flat bars, 2w > L ≥ 1.5w)
U = 0.75 (angles with 2 bolts in line) U = 0.75 (flat bars, 1.5w > L ≥ w)
U = 0.85 (angles)
LRFD

Yielding: φTn = φy Ag Fy = 0.9 Ag Fy ASD

Fracture: φTn = φf Ae Fu = 0.75 Ae Fu Yielding: Ta = Ag Ft = Ag (0.6 Fy)

Block shear rupture (bolted tension members): Fracture: Ta = Ae Ft = Ae (0.5 Fu)
Agt =gross tension area
Agv =gross shear area Block shear rupture (bolted tension members):
Ant =net tension area Ta = (0.30 Fu) Anv + (0.5 Fu) Ant
Anv=net shear area
Ant = net tension area
When FuAnt ≥ 0.6 FuAnv:
Anv = net shear area
0.75 [0.6 Fy Agv + Fu Ant]
φRn =
smaller 0.75 [0.6 Fu Anv + Fu Ant]
When FuAnt < 0.6 FuAnv:
0.75 [0.6 Fu Anv + Fy Agt]
φRn =
smaller 0.75 [0.6 Fu Anv + Fu Ant] 0

121
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

BEAMS: homogeneous beams, flexure about x-axis

Flexure – local buckling:
bf 65 h 640
No local buckling if section is compact: ≤ and ≤
2t f Fy tw Fy

bf h
where: For rolled sections, use tabulated values of and
2t f tw
For built-up sections, h is clear distance between flanges
For Fy ≤ 50 ksi, all rolled shapes except W6 × 19 are compact.

Flexure – lateral-torsional buckling: Lb = unbraced length

LRFD–compact rolled shapes ASD–compact rolled shapes

300 ry 76 b f 20,000
Lp = Lc = or use smaller
Fy Fy (d / A f ) Fy
Zx Table
ry X 1 Cb = 1.75 + 1.05(M1 /M2) + 0.3(M1 /M2)2 ≤ 2.3
Lr = 1 + 1 + X 2 FL2
FL M1 is smaller end moment
where: FL = Fy – 10 ksi M1 /M2 is positive for reverse curvature

π EGJA
X1 = Ma = S Fb
Sx 2 W-Shapes
Dimensions Lb ≤ Lc: Fb = 0.66 Fy
C ⎛ S ⎞2
X2 = 4 w ⎜ x⎟ and Properties Lb > Lc:
I y ⎝ GJ ⎠ Table
⎡2 Fy ( Lb / rT )2 ⎤
φ = 0.90 Fb = ⎢ − ⎥ ≤ 0.6 Fy (F1-6)
φMp = φ Fy Zx ⎢⎣ 3 1,530,000 Cb ⎥
⎦
Zx Table
φMr = φ FL Sx 170 ,000 Cb
Fb = ≤ 0.6 Fy (F1-7)
Cb =
12.5 M max ( Lb / rT )2
2.5 M max + 3M A + 4M B + 3MC
12 ,000 Cb
Fb = ≤ 0.6 Fy (F1-8)
L b ≤ L p: φMn = φMp Lb d / A f
Lp < Lb ≤ Lr:
102,000 Cb L 510,000 Cb
⎡ ⎛ Lb − L p ⎞⎤ For: < b ≤ :
φMn = Cb ⎢φM p − ( φM p − φM r ) ⎜ ⎟⎥ Fy rT Fy
⎢⎣ ⎜ Lr − L p ⎟⎥
⎝ ⎠⎦
Use larger of (F1-6) and (F1-8)
= Cb [φMp − BF (Lb − Lp)] ≤ φMp
Lb 510,000 Cb
See Zx Table for BF For: > :
rT Fy

Use larger of (F1-7) and (F1-8)

Lb > Lr :

φC b S x X 1 2 X 12 X 2 See Allowable Moments in Beams curve

φM n = 1+ ≤ φMp
Lb /r y (
2 Lb /r y 2 )
See Beam Design Moments curve

122
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

Shear – unstiffened beams

LRFD – E = 29,000 ksi ASD

h 380
φ = 0.90 Aw = d tw For ≤ : Fv = 0.40 Fy
tw Fy
h 417
≤ φVn = φ (0.6 Fy) Aw Fy
tw Fy h 380
For > : Fv = (Cv ) ≤ 0.4 Fy
tw Fy 2.89
417 h 523 where for unstiffened beams:
< ≤
Fy tw Fy kv = 5.34
⎡ 417 ⎤
φVn = φ (0.6 Fy) Aw ⎢ ⎥ 190 kv 439
Cv = =
⎢ ( h/t w ) F y ⎥ h/t w Fy (h/t w ) Fy
⎣ ⎦
523 h
< ≤ 260
Fy tw

⎡ 218,000 ⎤
φVn = φ (0.6 Fy) Aw ⎢ 2
⎥
⎢⎣ ( h/t w ) F y ⎥⎦

COLUMNS
Column effective length KL:
AISC Table C-C2.1 (LRFD and ASD)− Effective Length Factors (K) for Columns
AISC Figure C-C2.2 (LRFD and ASD)− Alignment Chart for Effective Length of Columns in Frames
Column capacities
LRFD ASD
Column slenderness parameter: Column slenderness parameter:

⎛ KL ⎞ ⎛1 Fy ⎞⎟ 2 π2 E
λc = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ Cc =
⎝ r ⎠ max ⎜π E ⎟ Fy
⎝ ⎠
Nominal capacity of axially loaded columns (doubly Allowable stress for axially loaded columns (doubly
symmetric section, no local buckling): symmetric section, no local buckling):
φ = 0.85 ⎛ KL ⎞
When ⎜ ⎟ ≤ Cc
⎝ r ⎠ max
φFcr = φ ⎛⎜ 0.658 λc ⎞⎟ Fy
2
λc ≤ 1.5:
⎝ ⎠ ⎡ ( KL/r ) 2 ⎤
⎡ 0.877 ⎤ ⎢1 − ⎥ Fy
λc > 1.5: φFcr = φ ⎢ 2 ⎥ Fy ⎣⎢ 2 Cc 2 ⎦⎥
Fa =
⎢⎣ λc ⎥⎦ 5 3 ( KL/r ) (KL / r ) 3
+ −
See Table 3-50: Design Stress for Compression 3 8 Cc 8 Cc 3
Members (Fy = 50 ksi, φ = 0.85) 12 π 2 E
⎛ KL ⎞
When ⎜ ⎟ > Cc: Fa =
⎝ r ⎠ max 23 ( KL / r ) 2
See Table C-50: Allowable Stress for Compression
Members (Fy = 50 ksi)

123
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

BEAM-COLUMNS: Sidesway prevented, x-axis bending, transverse loading between supports (no moments at ends),
ends unrestrained against rotation in the plane of bending

LRFD ASD
Pu Pu 8 Mu fa fa Cm f b
≥ 0.2 : + ≤ 1.0 > 0.15 : + ≤ 1.0
φ Pn φ Pn 9 φ M n Fa Fa ⎛ fa ⎞
⎜⎜ 1 − ⎟ Fb
Pu Pu Mu ⎝ Fe′ ⎟⎠
< 0.2 : + ≤ 1 .0
φ Pn 2 φ Pn φMn fa fa f
≤ 0.15 : + b ≤ 1 .0
where: Fa Fa Fb
Mu = B1 Mnt where:
Cm Cm = 1.0 for conditions stated above
B1 = ≥ 1.0
Pu
1− 12 π 2 E
Pex Fe′ = x-axis bending
23 ( KLx /rx ) 2
Cm = 1.0 for conditions stated above
⎛ π2 E I x ⎞
Pex = ⎜ ⎟ x-axis bending
⎜ ( KL ) 2 ⎟
⎝ x ⎠

BOLTED CONNECTIONS: A325 bolts db = nominal bolt diameter Ab = nominal bolt area
s = spacing between centers of bolt holes in direction of force
Le = distance between center of bolt hole and edge of member in direction of force
t = member thickness
1
Dh = bolt hole diameter = db + /16" [standard holes]

Bolt tension and shear strengths:

LRFD ASD
Design strength (kips / bolt):
Design strength ( kips / bolt ):
Tension: φRt = φ Ft Ab
Tension: Rt = Ft Ab
Shear: φRv = φ Fv Ab
Shear: Rv = Fv Ab
Design resistance to slip at factored loads
Design resistance to slip at service loads
( kips / bolt ): φRn (kips / bolt): Rv
Bolt size Bolt size
Bolt strength Bolt strength
3/4" 7/8" 1" 3/4" 7/8" 1"

φRt 29.8 40.6 53.0 Rt 19.4 26.5 34.6

φRv ( A325-N ) 15.9 21.6 28.3 Rv ( A325-N ) 9.3 12.6 16.5
φRn (A325-SC ) 10.4 14.5 19.0 Rv ( A325-SC ) 6.63 9.02 11.8
φRv and φRn values are single shear Rv values are single shear

124
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

Bearing strength
LRFD
ASD
Design strength (kips/bolt/inch thickness): Design strength (kips/bolt/inch thickness):
φrn = φ 1.2 Lc Fu ≤ φ 2.4 db Fu
When s ≥ 3 db and Le ≥ 1.5 db
φ = 0.75
Lc = clear distance between edge of hole rb = 1.2 Fu db
and edge of adjacent hole, or edge of Le Fu
member, in direction of force When Le < 1.5 db : rb =
2
Lc = s – Dh When s < 3 db :
Dh
Lc = Le – ⎛ d ⎞
2 ⎜⎜ s − b ⎟⎟ Fu
2 ⎠
Design bearing strength (kips/bolt/inch thickness) rb = ⎝ ≤ 1.2 Fu db
for various bolt spacings, s, and end distances, Le: 2

Bearing Bolt size Design bearing strength (kips/bolt/inch

strength thickness) for various bolt spacings, s, and end
3/4" 7/8" 1" distances, Le:
φrn (k/bolt/in)
Bearing Bolt size
s = 2 2/3 db ( minimum permitted ) strength
Fu = 58 ksi 62.0 72.9 83.7 rb(k/bolt/in) 3/4" 7/8" 1"
Fu = 65 ksi 69.5 81.7 93.8
s ≥ 3 db and Le ≥ 1.5 db
s = 3" 52.2 60.9 69.6
Fu = 58 ksi
Fu = 58 ksi 78.3 91.3 101 Fu = 65 ksi 58.5 68.3 78.0
Fu = 65 ksi 87.7 102 113 s = 2 2/3 db (minimum permitted)
Le = 1 1/4" Fu = 58 ksi 47.1 55.0 62.8
Fu = 58 ksi 44.0 40.8 37.5 Fu = 65 ksi 52.8 61.6 70.4

Fu = 65 ksi 49.4 45.7 42.0 Le = 1 1/4"

Fu = 58 ksi 36.3 [all bolt sizes]
Le = 2"
Fu = 65 ksi 40.6 [all bolt sizes]
Fu = 58 ksi 78.3 79.9 76.7
Fu = 65 ksi 87.7 89.6 85.9

The bearing resistance of the connection shall be

taken as the sum of the bearing resistances of the
individual bolts.

125
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

Area Depth Web Flange Compact X1 X2 rT d/Af Axis X-X Axis Y-Y

Shape 6
A d tw bf tf section x 10 ** ** I S r Z I r
2 4 3 3 4
in. in. in. in. in. bf/2tf h/tw ksi 1/ksi in. 1/in. in. in. in. in. in. in.

W24 × 103 30.3 24.5 0.55 9.00 0.98 4.59 39.2 2390 5310 2.33 2.78 3000 245 9.96 280 119 1.99

W24 × 94 27.7 24.3 0.52 9.07 0.88 5.18 41.9 2180 7800 2.33 3.06 2700 222 9.87 254 109 1.98

W24 × 84 24.7 24.1 0.47 9.02 0.77 5.86 45.9 1950 12200 2.31 3.47 2370 196 9.79 224 94.4 1.95

W24 × 76 22.4 23.9 0.44 8.99 0.68 6.61 49.0 1760 18600 2.29 3.91 2100 176 9.69 200 82.5 1.92

W24 × 68 20.1 23.7 0.42 8.97 0.59 7.66 52.0 1590 29000 2.26 4.52 1830 154 9.55 177 70.4 1.87

W24 × 62 18.3 23.7 0.43 7.04 0.59 5.97 49.7 1730 23800 1.71 5.72 1560 132 9.24 154 34.5 1.37

W24 × 55 16.3 23.6 0.40 7.01 0.51 6.94 54.1 1570 36500 1.68 6.66 1360 115 9.13 135 29.1 1.34

W21 × 93 27.3 21.6 0.58 8.42 0.93 4.53 32.3 2680 3460 2.17 2.76 2070 192 8.70 221 92.9 1.84

W21 × 83 24.3 21.4 0.52 8.36 0.84 5.00 36.4 2400 5250 2.15 3.07 1830 171 8.67 196 81.4 1.83

W21 × 73 21.5 21.2 0.46 8.30 0.74 5.60 41.2 2140 8380 2.13 3.46 1600 151 8.64 172 70.6 1.81

W21 × 68 20.0 21.1 0.43 8.27 0.69 6.04 43.6 2000 10900 2.12 3.73 1480 140 8.60 160 64.7 1.80

W21 × 62 18.3 21.0 0.40 8.24 0.62 6.70 46.9 1820 15900 2.10 4.14 1330 127 8.54 144 57.5 1.77

* W21 × 55 16.2 20.8 0.38 8.22 0.52 7.87 50.0 1630 25800 --- --- 1140 110 8.40 126 48.4 1.73

* W21 × 48 14.1 20.6 0.35 8.14 0.43 9.47 53.6 1450 43600 --- --- 959 93.0 8.24 107 38.7 1.66

W21 × 57 16.7 21.1 0.41 6.56 0.65 5.04 46.3 1960 13100 1.64 4.94 1170 111 8.36 129 30.6 1.35

W21 × 50 14.7 20.8 0.38 6.53 0.54 6.10 49.4 1730 22600 1.60 5.96 984 94.5 8.18 110 24.9 1.30

W21 × 44 13.0 20.7 0.35 6.50 0.45 7.22 53.6 1550 36600 1.57 7.06 843 81.6 8.06 95.4 20.7 1.26

* LRFD Manual only ** AISC ASD Manual, 9th Edition

126
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

Table 1-1: W-Shapes Dimensions and Properties (continued)

Area Depth Web Flange Compact X1 X2 rT d/Af Axis X-X Axis Y-Y
Shape A d section 6 I S r Z I r
tw bf tf x 10 ** **
2 4 3 3 4
in. in. in. in. in. bf/2tf h/tw ksi 1/ksi in. 1/in. in. in. in. in. in. in.

W18 × 86 25.3 18.4 0.48 11.1 0.77 7.20 33.4 2460 4060 2.97 2.15 1530 166 7.77 186 175 2.63
W18 × 76 22.3 18.2 0.43 11.0 0.68 8.11 37.8 2180 6520 2.95 2.43 1330 146 7.73 163 152 2.61
W18 × 71 20.8 18.5 0.50 7.64 0.81 4.71 32.4 2690 3290 1.98 2.99 1170 127 7.50 146 60.3 1.70
W18 × 65 19.1 18.4 0.45 7.59 0.75 5.06 35.7 2470 4540 1.97 3.22 1070 117 7.49 133 54.8 1.69
W18 × 60 17.6 18.2 0.42 7.56 0.70 5.44 38.7 2290 6080 1.96 3.47 984 108 7.47 123 50.1 1.68
W18 × 55 16.2 18.1 0.39 7.53 0.63 5.98 41.1 2110 8540 1.95 3.82 890 98.3 7.41 112 44.9 1.67
W18 × 50 14.7 18.0 0.36 7.50 0.57 6.57 45.2 1920 12400 1.94 4.21 800 88.9 7.38 101 40.1 1.65
W18 × 46 13.5 18.1 0.36 6.06 0.61 5.01 44.6 2060 10100 1.54 4.93 712 78.8 7.25 90.7 22.5 1.29
W18 × 40 11.8 17.9 0.32 6.02 0.53 5.73 50.9 1810 17200 1.52 5.67 612 68.4 7.21 78.4 19.1 1.27
W18 × 35 10.3 17.7 0.30 6.00 0.43 7.06 53.5 1590 30800 1.49 6.94 510 57.6 7.04 66.5 15.3 1.22

W16 × 89 26.4 16.8 0.53 10.4 0.88 5.92 25.9 3160 1460 2.79 1.85 1310 157 7.05 177 163 2.48
W16 × 77 22.9 16.5 0.46 10.3 0.76 6.77 29.9 2770 2460 2.77 2.11 1120 136 7.00 152 138 2.46
W16 × 67 20.0 16.3 0.40 10.2 0.67 7.70 34.4 2440 4040 2.75 2.40 970 119 6.97 132 119 2.44
W16 × 57 16.8 16.4 0.43 7.12 0.72 4.98 33.0 2650 3400 1.86 3.23 758 92.2 6.72 105 43.1 1.60
W16 × 50 14.7 16.3 0.38 7.07 0.63 5.61 37.4 2340 5530 1.84 3.65 659 81.0 6.68 92.0 37.2 1.59
W16 × 45 13.3 16.1 0.35 7.04 0.57 6.23 41.1 2120 8280 1.83 4.06 586 72.7 6.65 82.3 32.8 1.57
W16 × 40 11.8 16.0 0.31 7.00 0.51 6.93 46.5 1890 12700 1.82 4.53 518 64.7 6.63 73.0 28.9 1.57
W16 × 36 10.6 15.9 0.30 6.99 0.43 8.12 48.1 1700 20400 1.79 5.28 448 56.5 6.51 64.0 24.5 1.52
W16 × 31 9.1 15.9 0.28 5.53 0.44 6.28 51.6 1740 19900 1.39 6.53 375 47.2 6.41 54.0 12.4 1.17
W16 × 26 7.7 15.7 0.25 5.50 0.35 7.97 56.8 1480 40300 1.36 8.27 301 38.4 6.26 44.2 9.59 1.12

W14 × 120 35.3 14.5 0.59 14.7 0.94 7.80 19.3 3830 601 4.04 1.05 1380 190 6.24 212 495 3.74
W14 × 109 32.0 14.3 0.53 14.6 0.86 8.49 21.7 3490 853 4.02 1.14 1240 173 6.22 192 447 3.73
W14 × 99 29.1 14.2 0.49 14.6 0.78 9.34 23.5 3190 1220 4.00 1.25 1110 157 6.17 173 402 3.71
W14 × 90 26.5 14.0 0.44 14.5 0.71 10.2 25.9 2900 1750 3.99 1.36 999 143 6.14 157 362 3.70
W14 × 82 24.0 14.3 0.51 10.1 0.86 5.92 22.4 3590 849 2.74 1.65 881 123 6.05 139 148 2.48
W14 × 74 21.8 14.2 0.45 10.1 0.79 6.41 25.4 3280 1200 2.72 1.79 795 112 6.04 126 134 2.48
W14 × 68 20.0 14.0 0.42 10.0 0.72 6.97 27.5 3020 1660 2.71 1.94 722 103 6.01 115 121 2.46
W14 × 61 17.9 13.9 0.38 9.99 0.65 7.75 30.4 2720 2470 2.70 2.15 640 92.1 5.98 102 107 2.45
W14 × 53 15.6 13.9 0.37 8.06 0.66 6.11 30.9 2830 2250 2.15 2.62 541 77.8 5.89 87.1 57.7 1.92
W14 × 48 14.1 13.8 0.34 8.03 0.60 6.75 33.6 2580 3250 2.13 2.89 484 70.2 5.85 78.4 51.4 1.91

W12 × 106 31.2 12.9 0.61 12.2 0.99 6.17 15.9 4660 285 3.36 1.07 933 145 5.47 164 301 3.11
W12 × 96 28.2 12.7 0.55 12.2 0.90 6.76 17.7 4250 407 3.34 1.16 833 131 5.44 147 270 3.09
W12 × 87 25.6 12.5 0.52 12.1 0.81 7.48 18.9 3880 586 3.32 1.28 740 118 5.38 132 241 3.07
W12 × 79 23.2 12.4 0.47 12.1 0.74 8.22 20.7 3530 839 3.31 1.39 662 107 5.34 119 216 3.05
W12 × 72 21.1 12.3 0.43 12.0 0.67 8.99 22.6 3230 1180 3.29 1.52 597 97.4 5.31 108 195 3.04
W12 × 65 19.1 12.1 0.39 12.0 0.61 9.92 24.9 2940 1720 3.28 1.67 533 87.9 5.28 96.8 174 3.02
W12 × 58 17.0 12.2 0.36 10.0 0.64 7.82 27.0 3070 1470 2.72 1.90 475 78.0 5.28 86.4 107 2.51
W12 × 53 15.6 12.1 0.35 9.99 0.58 8.69 28.1 2820 2100 2.71 2.10 425 70.6 5.23 77.9 95.8 2.48
W12 × 50 14.6 12.2 0.37 8.08 0.64 6.31 26.8 3120 1500 2.17 2.36 391 64.2 5.18 71.9 56.3 1.96
W12 × 45 13.1 12.1 0.34 8.05 0.58 7.00 29.6 2820 2210 2.15 2.61 348 57.7 5.15 64.2 50.0 1.95
W12 × 40 11.7 11.9 0.30 8.01 0.52 7.77 33.6 2530 3360 2.14 2.90 307 51.5 5.13 57.0 44.1 1.94

** AISC ASD Manual, 9th Edition

127
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

Table 5-3

Zx
Fy = 50 ksi
W-Shapes
φb = 0.9
Selection by Zx
φv = 0.9

X-X AXIS
Shape Zx Ix φbMp φbMr Lp Lr BF φvVn
in.3 in.4 kip-ft kip-ft ft ft kips kips

W 24 × 55 135 1360 506 345 4.73 12.9 19.8 252

W 18 × 65 133 1070 499 351 5.97 17.1 13.3 224
W 12 × 87 132 740 495 354 10.8 38.4 5.13 174
W 16 × 67 131 963 491 354 8.65 23.8 9.04 174
W 10 × 100 130 623 488 336 9.36 50.8 3.66 204
W 21 × 57 129 1170 484 333 4.77 13.2 17.8 231

W 21 × 55 126 1140 473 330 6.11 16.1 14.3 211

W 14 × 74 126 796 473 336 8.76 27.9 7.12 173
W 18 × 60 123 984 461 324 5.93 16.6 12.9 204
W 12 × 79 119 662 446 321 10.8 35.7 5.03 157
W 14 × 68 115 722 431 309 8.69 26.4 6.91 157
W 10 × 88 113 534 424 296 9.29 45.1 3.58 176

W 18 × 55 112 890 420 295 5.90 16.1 12.2 191

W 21 × 50 111 989 416 285 4.59 12.5 16.5 213

W 12 × 72 108 597 405 292 10.7 33.6 4.93 143

W 21 × 48 107 959 401 279 6.09 15.4 13.2 195

W 16 × 57 105 758 394 277 5.65 16.6 10.7 190
W 14 × 61 102 640 383 277 8.65 25.0 6.50 141
W 18 × 50 101 800 379 267 5.83 15.6 11.5 173
W 10 × 77 97.6 455 366 258 9.18 39.9 3.53 152
W 12 × 65 96.8 533 363 264 11.9 31.7 5.01 127

W 21 × 44 95.8 847 359 246 4.45 12.0 15.0 196

W 16 × 50 92.0 659 345 243 5.62 15.7 10.1 167
W 18 × 46 90.7 712 340 236 4.56 12.6 12.9 176
W 14 × 53 87.1 541 327 233 6.78 20.1 7.01 139
W 12 × 58 86.4 475 324 234 8.87 27.0 4.97 119
W 10 × 68 85.3 394 320 227 9.15 36.0 3.45 132
W 16 × 45 82.3 586 309 218 5.55 15.1 9.45 150

W 18 × 40 78.4 612 294 205 4.49 12.0 11.7 152

W 14 × 48 78.4 485 294 211 6.75 19.2 6.70 127
W 12 × 53 77.9 425 292 212 8.76 25.6 4.78 113
W 10 × 60 74.6 341 280 200 9.08 32.6 3.39 116

W 16 × 40 73.0 518 274 194 5.55 14.7 8.71 132

W 12 × 50 71.9 391 270 193 6.92 21.5 5.30 122
W 14 × 43 69.6 428 261 188 6.68 18.2 6.31 113
W 10 × 54 66.6 303 250 180 9.04 30.2 3.30 101

W 18 × 35 66.5 510 249 173 4.31 11.5 10.7 143

W 12 × 45 64.2 348 241 173 6.89 20.3 5.06 109
W 16 × 36 64.0 448 240 170 5.37 14.1 8.11 127
W 14 × 38 61.1 383 229 163 5.47 14.9 7.05 118
W 10 × 49 60.4 272 227 164 8.97 28.3 3.24 91.6
W 12 × 40 57.0 307 214 155 68.5 19.2 4.79 94.8
W 10 × 45 54.9 248 206 147 7.10 24.1 3.44 95.4

W 14 × 34 54.2 337 203 145 5.40 14.3 6.58 108

128
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

129
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

Table C – C.2.1. K VALUES FOR COLUMNS

Theoretical K value 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0

Recommended design
value when ideal conditions 0.65 0.80 1.2 1.0 2.10 2.0
are approximated

Figure C – C.2.2.
ALIGNMENT CHART FOR EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF COLUMNS IN CONTINUOUS FRAMES

♦ GA K GB GA K GB
50.0 1.0 50.0 20.0
10.0 10.0 100.0 10.0 100.0
5.0 5.0 50.0 50.0
0.9 30.0 5.0 30.0
3.0 3.0
20.0 4.0 20.0
2.0 2.0

10.0 3.0 10.0

0.8 9.0 9.0
8.0 8.0
1.0 1.0 7.0 7.0
0.8 0.8 6.0 6.0
0.7 0.7 5.0 5.0
0.6 0.7 0.6 4.0 4.0
2.0
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4 3.0 3.0

0.3 0.3 2.0 2.0

0.6 1.5
0.2 0.2
1.0 1.0
0.1 0.1

0 0.5 0 0 1.0 0

SIDEWAY INHIBITED SIDEWAY UNINHIBITED

The subscripts A and B refer to the joints at the two ends of the column section being considered.
G is defined as
Σ (I c /Lc )
G=
Σ (I g /L g )

in which Σ indicates a summation of all members rigidly connected to that joint and lying on the plane in
which buckling of the column is being considered. Ic is the moment of inertia and Lc the unsupported length of
a column section, and Ig is the moment of inertia and Lg the unsupported length of a girder or other
restraining member. Ic and Ig are taken about axes perpendicular to the plane of buckling being considered.
For column ends supported by but not rigidly connected to a footing or foundation, G is theoretically infinity,
but, unless actually designed as a true friction-free pin, may be taken as "10" for practical designs. If the
column end is rigidly attached to a properly designed footing, G may be taken as 1.0. Smaller values may be
used if justified by analysis.
♦ Manual of Steel Construction: Allowable Stress Design, American Institute of Steel Construction, 9th ed., 1989.

130
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

Design Stress, φc Fcr, for Compression Members of 50 ksi

Specified Yield Stress Steel, φc = 0.85

Kl φcFcr Kl φcFcr Kl φcFcr Kl φcFcr Kl φcFcr

r ksi r ksi r ksi r ksi r ksi
1 42.50 41 37.59 81 26.31 121 14.57 161 8.23
2 42.49 42 37.36 82 26.00 122 14.33 162 8.13
3 42.47 43 37.13 83 25.68 123 14.10 163 8.03
4 42.45 44 36.89 84 25.37 124 13.88 164 7.93
5 42.42 45 36.65 85 25.06 125 13.66 165 7.84
6 42.39 46 36.41 86 24.75 126 13.44 166 7.74
7 42.35 47 36.16 87 24.44 127 13.23 167 7.65
8 42.30 48 35.91 88 24.13 128 13.02 168 7.56
9 42.25 49 35.66 89 23.82 129 12.82 169 7.47
10 42.19 50 35.40 90 23.51 130 12.62 170 7.38
11 42.13 51 35.14 91 23.20 131 12.43 171 7.30
12 42.05 52 34.88 92 22.89 132 12.25 172 7.21
13 41.98 53 34.61 93 22.58 133 12.06 173 7.13
14 41.90 54 34.34 94 22.28 134 11.88 174 7.05
15 41.81 55 34.07 95 21.97 135 11.71 175 6.97
16 41.71 56 33.79 96 21.67 136 11.54 176 6.89
17 41.61 57 33.51 97 21.36 137 11.37 177 6.81
18 41.51 58 33.23 98 21.06 138 11.20 178 6.73
19 41.39 59 32.95 99 20.76 139 11.04 179 6.66
20 41.28 60 32.67 100 20.46 140 10.89 180 6.59
21 41.15 61 32.38 101 20.16 141 10.73 181 6.51
22 41.02 62 32.09 102 19.86 142 10.58 182 6.44
23 40.89 63 31.80 103 19.57 143 10.43 183 6.37
24 40.75 64 31.50 104 19.28 144 10.29 184 6.30
25 40.60 65 31.21 105 18.98 145 10.15 185 6.23
26 40.45 66 30.91 106 18.69 146 10.01 186 6.17
27 40.29 67 30.61 107 18.40 147 9.87 187 6.10
28 40.13 68 30.31 108 18.12 148 9.74 188 6.04
29 39.97 69 30.01 109 17.83 149 9.61 189 5.97
30 39.79 70 29.70 110 17.55 150 9.48 190 5.91
31 39.62 71 29.40 111 17.27 151 9.36 191 5.85
32 39.43 72 20.09 112 16.99 152 9.23 192 5.79
33 39.25 73 28.79 113 16.71 153 9.11 193 5.73
34 39.06 74 28.48 114 16.42 154 9.00 194 5.67
35 38.86 75 28.17 115 16.13 155 8.88 195 5.61
36 38.66 76 27.86 116 15.86 156 8.77 196 5.55
37 38.45 77 27.55 117 15.59 157 8.66 197 5.50
38 38.24 78 27.24 118 15.32 158 8.55 198 5.44
39 38.03 79 26.93 119 15.07 159 8.44 199 5.39
40 37.81 80 26.62 120 14.82 160 8.33 200 5.33

131
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN SELECTION TABLE

For shapes used as beams Sx
Fy = 50 ksi Fy = 36 ksi
Sx
Lc Lu MR SHAPE Lc Lu MR
3
Ft Ft Kip-ft In. Ft Ft Kip-ft

5.0 6.3 314 114 W 24 X 55 7.0 7.5 226

9.0 18.6 308 112 W 14 x 74 10.6 25.9 222
5.9 6.7 305 111 W 21 x 57 6.9 9.4 220
6.8 9.6 297 108 W 18 x 60 8.0 13.3 214
10.8 24.0 294 107 W 12 x 79 12.8 33.3 212
9.0 17.2 283 103 W 14 x 68 10.6 23.9 204

6.7 8.7 270 98.3 W 18 X 55 7.9 12.1 195

10.8 21.9 268 97.4 W 12 x 72 12.7 30.5 193

5.6 6.0 260 94.5 W 21 X 50 6.9 7.8 187

6.4 10.3 254 92.2 W 16 x 57 7.5 14.3 183
9.0 15.5 254 92.2 W 14 x 61 10.6 21.5 183

6.7 7.9 244 88.9 W 18 X 50 7.9 11.0 176

10.7 20.0 238 87.9 W 12 x 65 12.7 27.7 174

4.7 5.9 224 81.6 W 21 X 44 6.6 7.0 162

6.3 9.1 223 81.0 W 16 x 50 7.5 12.7 160
5.4 6.8 217 78.8 W 18 x 46 6.4 9.4 156
9.0 17.5 215 78.0 W 12 x 58 10.6 24.4 154
7.2 12.7 214 77.8 W 14 x 53 8.5 17.7 154
6.3 8.2 200 72.7 W 16 x 45 7.4 11.4 144
9.0 15.9 194 70.6 W 12 x 53 10.6 22.0 140
7.2 11.5 193 70.3 W 14 x 48 8.5 16.0 139

5.4 5.9 188 68.4 W 18 X 40 6.3 8.2 135

9.0 22.4 183 66.7 W 10 x 60 10.6 31.1 132

6.3 7.4 178 64.7 W 16 X 40 7.4 10.2 128

7.2 14.1 178 64.7 W 12 x 50 8.5 19.6 128
7.2 10.4 172 62.7 W 14 x 43 8.4 14.4 124
9.0 20.3 165 60.0 W 10 x 54 10.6 28.2 119
7.2 12.8 160 58.1 W 12 x 45 8.5 17.7 115

4.8 5.6 158 57.6 W 18 X 35 6.3 6.7 114

6.3 6.7 115 56.5 W 16 x 36 7.4 8.8 112
6.1 8.3 150 54.6 W 14 x 38 7.1 11.5 108
9.0 18.7 150 54.6 W 10 x 49 10.6 26.0 108
7.2 11.5 143 51.9 W 12 x 40 8.4 16.0 103
7.2 16.4 135 49.1 W 10 x 45 8.5 22.8 97

6.0 7.3 134 48.6 W 14 X 34 7.1 10.2 96

4.9 5.2 130 47.2 W 16 X 31 5.8 7.1 93

5.9 9.1 125 45.6 W 12 x 35 6.9 12.6 90
7.2 14.2 116 42.1 W 10 x 39 8.4 19.8 83

6.0 6.5 116 42.0 W 14 X 30 7.1 8.7 83

5.8 7.8 106 38.6 W 12 X 30 6.9 10.8 76

4.0 5.1 106 38.4 W 16 x 26 5.6 6.0 76

132
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

133
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

ASD Table C–50. Allowable Stress

for Compression Members of 50-ksi Specified Yield Stress Steela,b
Kl Fa Kl Fa Kl Fa Kl Fa Kl Fa
r (ksi) r (ksi) r (ksi) r (ksi) r (ksi)
1 29.94 41 25.69 81 18.81 121 10.20 161 5.76
2 29.87 42 25.55 82 18.61 122 10.03 162 5.69
3 29.80 43 25.40 83 18.41 123 9.87 163 5.62
4 29.73 44 25.26 84 18.20 124 9.71 164 5.55
5 29.66 45 25.11 85 17.99 125 9.56 165 5.49
6 29.58 46 24.96 86 17.79 126 9.41 166 5.42
7 29.50 47 24.81 87 17.58 127 9.26 167 5.35
8 29.42 48 24.66 88 17.37 128 9.11 168 5.29
9 29.34 49 24.51 89 17.15 129 8.97 169 5.23
10 29.26 50 24.35 90 16.94 130 8.84 170 5.17
11 29.17 51 24.19 91 16.72 131 8.70 171 5.11
12 29.08 52 24.04 92 16.50 132 8.57 172 5.05
13 28.99 53 23.88 93 16.29 133 8.44 173 4.99
14 28.90 54 23.72 94 16.06 134 8.32 174 4.93
15 28.80 55 23.55 95 15.84 135 8.19 175 4.88
16 28.71 56 23.39 96 15.62 136 8.07 176 4.82
17 28.61 57 23.22 97 15.39 137 7.96 177 4.77
18 28.51 58 23.06 98 15.17 138 7.84 178 4.71
19 28.40 59 22.89 99 14.94 139 7.73 179 4.66
20 28.30 60 22.72 100 14.71 140 7.62 180 4.61
21 28.19 61 22.55 101 14.47 141 7.51 181 4.56
22 28.08 62 22.37 102 14.24 142 7.41 182 4.51
23 27.97 63 22.20 103 14.00 143 7.30 183 4.46
24 27.86 64 22.02 104 13.77 144 7.20 184 4.41
25 27.75 65 21.85 105 13.53 145 7.10 185 4.36
26 27.63 66 21.67 106 13.29 146 7.01 186 4.32
27 27.52 67 21.49 107 13.04 147 6.91 187 4.27
28 27.40 68 21.31 108 12.80 148 6.82 188 4.23
29 27.28 69 21.12 109 12.57 149 6.73 189 4.18
30 27.15 70 20.94 110 12.34 150 6.64 190 4.14
31 27.03 71 20.75 111 12.12 151 6.55 191 4.09
32 26.90 72 20.56 112 11.90 152 6.46 192 4.05
33 26.77 73 20.38 113 11.69 153 6.38 193 4.01
34 26.64 74 20.10 114 11.49 154 6.30 194 3.97
35 26.51 75 19.99 115 11.29 155 6.22 195 3.93
36 26.38 76 19.80 116 11.10 156 6.14 196 3.89
37 26.25 77 19.61 117 10.91 157 6.06 197 3.85
38 26.11 78 19.41 118 10.72 158 5.98 198 3.81
39 25.97 79 19.21 119 10.55 159 5.91 199 3.77
40 25.83 80 19.01 120 10.37 160 5.83 200 3.73
a
When element width-to-thickness ratio exceeds noncompact section limits of Sect. B5.1,
see Appendix B5.
b
Values also applicable for steel of any yield stress ≥ 39 ksi.
Note: Cc = 107.0

134
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING DARCY'S LAW

For information about environmental engineering refer Q = –KA(dh/dx), where
to the ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING section. Q = Discharge rate (ft3/s or m3/s),
HYDROLOGY K = Hydraulic conductivity (ft/s or m/s),
NRCS (SCS) Rainfall-Runoff h = Hydraulic head (ft or m), and
Q=
(P − 0.2S )2 , A = Cross-sectional area of flow (ft2 or m2).
P + 0.8S q = –K(dh/dx)
1,000
S= − 10, q = specific discharge or Darcy velocity
CN
v = q/n = –K/n(dh/dx)
1,000
CN = , v = average seepage velocity
S + 10
n = effective porosity
P = precipitation (inches),
S = maximum basin retention (inches),
Unit hydrograph: The direct runoff hydrograph that would
Q = runoff (inches), and
result from one unit of effective rainfall
CN = curve number. occurring uniformly in space and time
over a unit period of time.
Rational Formula
Q = CIA, where Transmissivity, T, is the product of hydraulic conductivity
A = watershed area (acres), and thickness, b, of the aquifer (L2T –1).
C = runoff coefficient,
I = rainfall intensity (in/hr), and Storativity or storage
coefficient, S, of an aquifer is the volume of water
Q = peak discharge (cfs). taken into or released from storage per
unit surface area per unit change in
potentiometric (piezometric) head.

SEWAGE FLOW RATIO CURVES

P 0.2
Curve A2:
5

14
Curve B : +1
4+ P

18 + P
CurveG:
4+ P

Population in Thousands (P)

135
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

HYDRAULIC-ELEMENTS GRAPH FOR CIRCULAR SEWERS

Open-Channel Flow For rectangular channels

Specific Energy 13
⎛ q2 ⎞
V2 αQ 2 yc = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ , where
E =α + y= + y , where ⎝ g ⎠
2g 2 gA 2
yc = critical depth,
E = specific energy,
q = unit discharge = Q/B,
Q = discharge,
B = channel width, and
V = velocity,
g = acceleration due to gravity.
y = depth of flow,
Froude Number = ratio of inertial forces to gravity forces
A = cross-sectional area of flow, and
V
α = kinetic energy correction factor, usually 1.0. F= , where
gy h
Critical Depth = that depth in a channel at minimum
specific energy V = velocity, and
Q 2
A 3 yh = hydraulic depth = A/T
=
g T
where Q and A are as defined above,
g = acceleration due to gravity, and
T = width of the water surface.

136
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

Specific Energy Diagram Values of Hazen-Williams Coefficient C

Pipe Material C
y Concrete (regardless of age) 130
Cast iron:
1
1 New 130
5 yr old 120
20 yr old 100
αV 2 Welded steel, new 120
E= +y
2g Wood stave (regardless of age) 120
Alternate depths: depths with the same specific energy. Vitrified clay 110
Uniform flow: a flow condition where depth and velocity Riveted steel, new 110
do not change along a channel. Brick sewers 100
Manning's Equation Asbestos-cement 140
K Plastic 150
Q = AR 2 3 S 1 2 For additional fluids information, see the FLUID
n
MECHANICS section.
Q = discharge (m3/s or ft3/s),
K = 1.486 for USCS units, 1.0 for SI units, TRANSPORTATION
A = cross-sectional area of flow (m2 or ft2), U.S. Customary Units
R = hydraulic radius = A/P (m or ft), a = deceleration rate (ft/sec2)
P = wetted perimeter (m or ft), A = algebraic difference in grades (%)
S = slope of hydraulic surface (m/m or ft/ft), and
C = vertical clearance for overhead structure (overpass)
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient.
located within 200 feet of the midpoint of the curve
Normal depth (uniform flow depth)
Qn e = superelevation (%)
AR 2 3 =
KS 1 2 f = side friction factor
Weir Formulas ± G = percent grade divided by 100 (uphill grade"+")
Fully submerged with no side restrictions h1 = height of driver's eyes above the roadway surface (ft)
Q = CLH3/2 h2 = height of object above the roadway surface (ft)
V-Notch L = length of curve (ft)
Q = CH5/2, where
Ls = spiral transition length (ft)
Q = discharge (cfs or m3/s),
R = radius of curve (ft)
C = 3.33 for submerged rectangular weir (USCS units),
C = 1.84 for submerged rectangular weir (SI units), S = stopping sight distance (ft)
C = 2.54 for 90° V-notch weir (USCS units), t = driver reaction time (sec)
C = 1.40 for 90° V-notch weir (SI units), V = design speed (mph)
L = weir length (ft or m), and
H = head (depth of discharge over weir) ft or m. Stopping Sight Distance
Hazen-Williams Equation
V2
V = k1CR0.63S0.54, where S = + 1.47Vt
⎛⎛ a ⎞ ⎞
C = roughness coefficient, 30 ⎜ ⎜ ± G⎟
⎝ ⎝ 32.2 ⎟⎠ ⎠
k1 = 0.849 for SI units, and
k1 = 1.318 for USCS units,
R = hydraulic radius (ft or m),
S = slope of energy grade line,
= hf /L (ft/ft or m/m), and
V = velocity (ft/s or m/s).

137
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

Transportation Models
See INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING for optimization models and methods, including queueing theory.
Traffic Flow Relationships (q = kv)

VOLUME q (veh/hr)

SPEED v (mph)
CAPACITY
SPEED v (mph)

CAPACITY
DENSITY k (veh/mi) DENSITY k (veh/mi) VOLUME q (veh/hr)

Vertical Curves: Sight Distance Related to Curve Length

S ≤ L S > L
Crest Vertical Curve AS2
( )
2
L = 200 h1 + h2
General equation: 100 ( 2h1 + 2h2 ) 2 L = 2S −
A

AS2 2,158
For h1 = 3.50 ft and h2 = 2.0 ft : L = L = 2S −
2,158 A

Sag Vertical Curve AS2 ⎛ 400 + 3.5 S ⎞

L = L = 2S − ⎜ ⎟⎠
(based on standard headlight 400 + 3.5 S ⎝ A
criteria)
Sag Vertical Curve AV 2
L =
(based on riding comfort) 46.5
Sag Vertical Curve AS2 800 ⎛ h +h ⎞
L = L = 2S − ⎜ C − 1 2⎟
(based on adequate sight distance ⎛ h +h ⎞ A ⎝ 2 ⎠
under an overhead structure to see an 800 ⎜ C − 1 2 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
object beyond a sag vertical curve)
C = vertical clearance for overhead structure (overpass) located within 200
feet of the midpoint of the curve

Horizontal Curves

V2
0.01e + f =
Side friction factor (based on superelevation) 15R

3.15V 3
Ls =
Spiral Transition Length RC
C = rate of increase of lateral acceleration
[use 1 ft/sec3 unless otherwise stated]
⎡ ⎛ 28.65 S ⎞ ⎤
HSO = R ⎢1 − cos ⎜
Sight Distance (to see around obstruction) ⎣ ⎝ R ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
HSO = Horizontal sight line offset

138
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

HORIZONTAL CURVE FORMULAS

D = Degree of Curve, Arc Definition

P.C. = Point of Curve (also called B.C.)
P.T. = Point of Tangent (also called E.C.)
P.I. = Point of Intersection
I = Intersection Angle (also called ∆)
Angle between two tangents
L = Length of Curve,
from P.C. to P.T.
T = Tangent Distance
E = External Distance
R = Radius
L.C. = Length of Long Chord
M = Length of Middle Ordinate
c = Length of Sub-Chord
d = Angle of Sub-Chord

5729.58
R=
D
LATITUDES AND DEPARTURES
L.C.
R=
2 sin ( I/2) + Latitude

L.C.
T = R tan ( I/2) =
2 cos ( I/2)

π I
L = RI = 100 - Departure + Departure
180 D

M = R [1 − cos (I/ 2 )]

R
= cos ( I/ 2)
E+R
R−M
= cos ( I/ 2) - Latitude
R

c = 2 R sin ( d/ 2)

⎡ 1 ⎤
E=R⎢ − 1⎥
⎣ cos( I/2) ⎦

Deflection angle per 100 feet of arc length equals D

2

139
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

VERTICAL CURVE FORMULAS

L = Length of Curve (horizontal) g2 = Grade of Forward Tangent

PVC = Point of Vertical Curvature a = Parabola Constant
PVI = Point of Vertical Intersection y = Tangent Offset
PVT = Point of Vertical Tangency E = Tangent Offset at PVI
g1 = Grade of Back Tangent r = Rate of Change of Grade
x = Horizontal Distance from PVC
to Point on Curve
g1 g1 L
xm = Horizontal Distance to Min/Max Elevation on Curve = − =
2a g1 − g 2
Tangent Elevation = YPVC + g1x and = YPVI + g2 (x – L/2)
Curve Elevation = YPVC + g1x + ax = YPVC + g1x + [(g2 – g1)/(2L)]x2
2

2
g 2 − g1 ⎛ L⎞ g 2 _ g1
y = ax 2 a= E=a ⎜ ⎟ r=
2L ⎝ 2⎠ L

CONSTRUCTION
Construction project scheduling and analysis questions may be based on either activity-on-node method or on activity-on-arrow
method.

CPM PRECEDENCE RELATIONSHIPS (ACTIVITY ON NODE)

A A

A B
B B

Start-to-start: start of B Finish-to-finish: finish of B Finish-to-start: start of B

depends on the start of A depends on the finish of A depends on the finish of A

140
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

HIGHWAY PAVEMENT DESIGN

AASHTO Structural Number Equation
SN = a1D1 + a2D2 +…+ anDn, where
SN = structural number for the pavement
ai = layer coefficient and Di = thickness of layer (inches).

Load Equivalency Load Equivalency

Gross Axle Load Gross Axle Load
Factors Factors
Single Tandem Single Tandem
kN lb kN lb
Axles Axles Axles Axles
4.45 1,000 0.00002 187.0 42,000 25.64 2.51
8.9 2,000 0.00018 195.7 44,000 31.00 3.00
17.8 4,000 0.00209 200.0 45,000 34.00 3.27
22.25 5,000 0.00500 204.5 46,000 37.24 3.55
26.7 6,000 0.01043 213.5 48,000 44.50 4.17
35.6 8,000 0.0343 222.4 50,000 52.88 4.86
44.5 10,000 0.0877 0.00688 231.3 52,000 5.63
53.4 12,000 0.189 0.0144 240.2 54,000 6.47
62.3 14,000 0.360 0.0270 244.6 55,000 6.93
66.7 15,000 0.478 0.0360 249.0 56,000 7.41
71.2 16,000 0.623 0.0472 258.0 58,000 8.45
80.0 18,000 1.000 0.0773 267.0 60,000 9.59
89.0 20,000 1.51 0.1206 275.8 62,000 10.84
97.8 22,000 2.18 0.180 284.5 64,000 12.22
106.8 24,000 3.03 0.260 289.0 65,000 12.96
111.2 25,000 3.53 0.308 293.5 66,000 13.73
115.6 26,000 4.09 0.364 302.5 68,000 15.38
124.5 28,000 5.39 0.495 311.5 70,000 17.19
133.5 30,000 6.97 0.658 320.0 72,000 19.16
142.3 32,000 8.88 0.857 329.0 74,000 21.32
151.2 34,000 11.18 1.095 333.5 75,000 22.47
155.7 35,000 12.50 1.23 338.0 76,000 23.66
160.0 36,000 13.93 1.38 347.0 78,000 26.22
169.0 38,000 17.20 1.70 356.0 80,000 28.99
178.0 40,000 21.08 2.08
Note: kN converted to lb are within 0.1 percent of lb shown.

141
 CIVIL ENGINEERING (continued)

EARTHWORK FORMULAS
Average End Area Formula, V = L(A1 + A2)/2
Prismoidal Formula, V = L (A1 + 4Am + A2)/6, where Am = area of mid-section
Pyramid or Cone, V = h (Area of Base)/3
where L = distance between A1 and A2

AREA FORMULAS
Area by Coordinates: Area = [XA (YB – YN) + XB (YC – YA) + XC (YD – YB) + ... + XN (YA – YN–1)] / 2

⎛ h + hn ⎞
Trapezoidal Rule: Area = w ⎜ 1 + h2 + h3 + h4 + … + hn −1 ⎟ w = common interval
⎝ 2 ⎠

⎡ ⎛ n − 2 ⎞ ⎛ n −1 ⎞ ⎤
Simpson's 1/3 Rule: Area = w ⎢h1 + 2⎜ ∑ hk ⎟ + 4⎜ ∑ hk ⎟ + hn ⎥ 3 n must be odd number of measurements
⎣ ⎝ k =3,5 ,… ⎠ ⎝ k = 2 ,4 ,… ⎠ ⎦
w = common interval

142