PREFACE

Writing allows students to organize their thoughts and provides a means by

which students can form and extend their thinking, thus deepening understanding.
Like reading to learn,writing can be a meaning-making process. It helps develop the
mind and imagination and the creative side of a person.

It helps to improve (vocabulary and spelling) communication both written

and spoken. It plays an important part in building a good self-image. It is a function
that is necessary in today's society. To read well, a student has to decode text,
understand vocabulary, and use background knowledge to determine meaning.
Writers do each of these and many more.

To write well, a student has to consider the topic and what needs to be
written about it. Readers don’t have to do either of these things. Writers may need
to perform research. Readers generally don’t. Writers have to figure out how to start
a piece of writing and to end a piece of writing.

Readers have the beginning and ending given to them. Writers have to
formulate ideas, turn those ideas into units of meaning like phrases, sentences, and
paragraphs. Readers have only to interpret these things. The complexity of writing
compared to reading is even greater when we consider the pro-cess of putting
words to thoughts. In order for writers to communicate effectively, they have to take
a thought, often abstract, and render it in concrete form.

Writers have to shape every phrase, construct every sentence, and

sequence ideas logically while also meeting the conventions of spelling,
punctuation, usage, and grammar. Sentences have to be arranged into para-
graphs, paragraphs into sections, and sections into whole pieces or chapters. When
working in a digital medium, writers are even responsible for formatting. Even very
young writers must write legibly by hand.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to thankGod Almighty for giving me the

strength, knowledge, ability and opportunity to undertake this module and to
persevere and complete it satisfactorily. Without his blessings, this output would not
have been possible.

The success and final outcome of this module required a lot of guidance and
assistance from many people and I am extremely privileged to have got this all
along the completion of my module. All that I have done is only due to such
supervision and assistance and I would not forget to thank them.

I respect and thank Dr. Albert G. Musico, for providing me an opportunity to

do the module work in home and giving us all support and guidance which made me
complete the module duly. I am extremely thankful to him for providing such a nice
support and guidance, although he had busy schedule.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

CHPTER I IN YOUR WRITE MIND: FOLLOWING THE WRITER’S TRADE

Input

1 What is writing? 2
2 Forms of Writing 6
3 Defining Creative Writing 12
4 Sensory Experiences in Writing 17

CHAPTER II THE PROCESS OF WRITING: WHATEVER WORKS

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5 The Writing Process 28

6 Applying the Basic Conventions of Writing 34
7 Using Transitions 55

CHAPTER III READING AND WRITING POETRY: FOR BETTER OR VERSE

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8 What is Poetry? 66
9 Poetry vs. Prose 76
10 Elements of Poetry 84

CHAPTER IV GENRES OF POETRY: BREATH IN EXPERIENCE

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11 Genres of Poetry 116

12 Poetic Forms 126

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CHAPTER V READING AND WRITING FICTION: FINDING THE
SHAKESPEARE IN YOU

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13 What is Fiction? 134

14 Forerunners of the Modern Short Stories 151

CHAPTER VI TYPES OF MODERN SHORT STORIES: LITERATURE OF

THE NOMAD
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15 Types of Modern Short Stories 166

16 The Formal Elements of Fiction 172

CHAPTER VII MODERNISM VS POSTMODERNISM: POST-MODERNISM IS

MODERNISM WITH THE OPTIMISM TAKEN OUT
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17 Modernism vs. Postmodernism 184

18 Postmodern Literary Techniques 189

CHAPTER VIII READING AND WRITING DRAMA:READ TO ESCAPE REALITY,

WRITE TO EMBRACE IT

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19 What is Drama? 195

20 Elements of Drama 204

REFERENCES 220

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 INTRODUCTION
Creative writing is considered to be any writing, fiction, poetry, or non-fiction,
that goes outside the bounds of normal professional, journalistic, academic, and
technical forms of literature. Works which fall into this category include novels,
epics, short stories, and poems. Writing for the screen and stage, screenwriting and
playwriting respectively, typically have their own programs of study, but fit under the
creative writing category as well.

HOW TO IMPROVE CREATIVE WRITING SKILLS?

Learn from the best—but don’t copy them. It’s important to read renowned
authors as a demonstration of what great writing and great writers can do.
Depending on your writing style, seek out highlights of the genre.  If you’re looking
to write young adult literature, consult some YA touchstones like the Harry
Potter series by J.K. Rowling, the Goosebumps universe of R.L. Stine, or the
poignant coming of age novels by Judy Blume. If you’re looking to write science
fiction, study the work of Isaac Asimov or Neil Gaiman. If you aim to write fantasy
novels, consult The Lord of the Rings trilogy by J.R.R. Tolkien. If horror is your
thing, try H.P. Lovecraft and Stephen King. But don’t confuse the voices of these
authors for your own voice. Use your favorite books as jumping-off points. To be
truly creative, you must hone in on ideas, styles, and a point of view that are all
unique to you. Create a character based on someone you know. Filmmakers Joel
and Ethan Coen have said that they came up with the story idea for The Big
Lebowski by creating a hardboiled detective thriller that featured their real-life friend
as the detective. Many authors have mined the traits of a best friend, family
member, or co-worker as part of a great book idea. Use the snowflake method to
brainstorm. The snowflake method, created by author and writing instructor Randy
Ingermanson, is a technique for crafting a novel from scratch by starting with a
basic story summary, then layering in additional elements. It works well for all sorts
of creative writing. Find an environment that encourages creative flow. When it
comes to creative flow, the real-life existence of a writer often follows a cycle of
boom and bust. Once you’ve hit upon a “boom” period, let the ideas flow and don’t
let up. Writing workshops or even writer’s retreats often engender such creative
bursts. Try free-writing. This creative writing technique is the practice of writing
without a prescribed structure, which means no outlines, cards, notes, or editorial
oversight. In free-writing, the writer follows the impulses of their own mind, allowing

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thoughts and inspiration to appear to them without premeditation. Allow your stream
of consciousness to inspire the words on the page. The first time you attempt to
free-write, you may end up with mostly unusable material. But with writing practice,
you can use your free-writing practice to refine your technique and ultimately
unleash your creativity

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 CHAPTER i

IN YOUR WRITE MIND: FOLLOWING THE WRITER’S TRADE

Specific Learning Objectives

At the end of this Chapter, the student will be able to:

1. Identify creative writing.

2. Explain what is writing.
3. Differentiate between creative writing and technical writing.
4. Use figures of speech in a sentence.
5. Compare denotation and connotation.
6. Criticize the use of language in writing.
7. Value the importance of sensory experience in writing.
8. Discover the use of language.
9. Create creative ideas from experiences.
10. Use specific experiences in writing.
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Input 1 What is Writing

What is Writing?

"Writing" is the process of using symbols (letters of the alphabet, punctuation

and spaces) to communicate thoughts and ideas in a readable form.

1. Forms of Writing

▪ Expository – Writing in which author’s purpose is to inform or explain the

subject to the reader.

▪ Persuasive – Writing that states the opinion of the writer and attempts to
influence the reader.

▪ Narrative – Writing in which the author tells a story. The story could be fact or
fiction.

▪ Descriptive – A type of expository writing that uses the five senses to paint a
picture for the reader. This writing incorporates imagery and specific details.

2. Defining Creative Writing

The true definition of creative writing is "writing that expresses ideas and thoughts in
an imaginative way." It's the "art of making things up" or putting a creative splash on
history, as in creative nonfiction.

The word creative is defined in various ways. The following are just some of the
definitions:
“The ability to create”
“Imaginative”
“Productive and imaginative”
“Characterized by expressiveness and originality”

Creative writing is often defined as the writing of fiction, where the author creates
events, scenes and characters, sometimes even a world. In reality, aside from
instinctive utterances like the yelp of an injured child or a delighted ‘Oh!’, all
expressions are creative.

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Learning Exercise 1.1

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

What is Writing

A Day in My Life: Living Under the COVID-19 Pandemic.( Essay)

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Learning Exercise 1.2

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Forms of Writing

Identify which type of writing is being described.

1. ______________ Astory about the time you got lost at Disneyland.

2. ______________ A web page telling how to create a web page.
3. ______________ The Harry Potter books.
4. ______________ A letter to the governor explaining why the tax increase is a
bad idea.
5. ______________ Writing in which you record details of a trip taken.
6. ______________ An essay discussing a theme from Romeo and Juliet.
7. ______________ An article attempting to convince readers to boycott a store
chain.
8. ______________ A poem about the sights and sounds of rainfall.
9. ______________ A paper about the horrible treatment of the people in Darfur.
10. ______________ The cover story in the morning newspaper.

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Learning Exercise 1.3

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Defining Creative Writing

Picture Interpretation.

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Input 2 Forms of Writing

Some Quotes about Creative Writing

“You don't write a novel out of sheer pity any more than you
blow a safe out of a vague longing to be rich. A certain
ruthlessness and a sense of alienation from society is as
essential to creative writing as it is to armed robbery.”
― Nelson Algren

“At one time I thought the most important thing was talent. I
think now that — the young man or the young woman must
possess or teach himself, train himself, in infinite patience,
which is to try and to try and to try until it comes right. He
must train himself in ruthless intolerance. That is, to throw
away anything that is false no matter how much he might
love that page or that paragraph. The most important thing
is insight, that is ... curiosity to wonder, to mull, and to
muse why it is that man does what he does. And if you
have that, then I don't think the talent makes much
difference, whether you've got that or not.
― William Faulkner

“Time passes, as the novelist says. The single most useful

trick of fiction for our repair and refreshment: the defeat of
time. A century of family saga and a ride up an escalator can
take the same number of pages. Fiction sets any conversion
rate, then changes it in a syllable. The narrator’s mother
carries her child up the stairs and the reader follows, for
days. But World War I passes in a paragraph. I needed 125
pages to get from Labor Day to Christmas vacation. In six
more words, here’s spring.”
― Richard Powers

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“Destroy your life; then put it back together. You'll get great
material, meet some fascinating characters and – side
benefit – the skills you develop will give you greater
compassion, insight and range with the people you create
on the page – or run into off of it.”
― Jerry Stahl

“Creativity is the brain's invisible muscle -- that when used and

exercised routinely -- becomes better and stronger.”
― Ashley Ormo

3. Creative Writing vs. Technical Writing

Creative writing vs. Technical writing

Creative writing’s main purpose is to entertain and educate the author’s readers. It

has many genres and sub-genres. Such examples range from poems to short
stories and even in novels and trilogies. We don’t have to read them and we surely
won’t be informed of various things from reading them, but we still do because they
entertain us. Also, skills and talent are essential in creative writing since these two
are needed to write an effective creative piece.

Technical writing, on the other hand, is not done to entertain its reader. It is wholly
written to inform someone. Some technical articles are sometimes written to trigger
its reader to making an action beneficial to the one of the writer.

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 4. Creative Writing vs. Journalism

One of the key differences is that creative writing is usually understood to

mean the writing of fictional novels. By contrast, journalism is centered on
reportage – reporting on actual people and events. There are such things
as creative nonfiction, narrative journalism, and indeed feature journalism

Creative Writing- writing that expresses ideas and thoughts in an

imaginative way." It's the "art of making things up" or putting
a creative splash on history, as in creative nonfiction.

Journalism- a form of writing that tells people about things that really
happened, but that they might not have known about already. People who
write journalism are called "journalists." They might work at newspapers,
magazines,websites or for TV or radio stations.

Learning Exercise 2.1

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Some Quotes about Creative Writing

Make your own quote with your own picture.

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Learning Exercise 2.1

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Creative Writing vs. Technical Writing

Further differentiate creative writing from technical writing. Use the

Venn diagram provided below to tell apart these two forms of writing.

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Learning Exercise 2.3

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Creative Writing vs. Journalism

Creative Writing Challenge: Watch News

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 Watch news and observe: Write a new report about what you see
answering the questions what, where, when, how, why. And then write
an essay creatively describing the scenes and events.

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Input 3 Defining Creative Writing

5. Creative Writing vs. Academic Writing

Academic writing will earn you A's; creative writing may get you

published. Academic writing must be taught, but rarely is; creative writing is
optional, but is almost always the focus of writing curricula. Creative writing focuses
on story-telling and recounting personal experiences.

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Academic writing is to teach and/or inform. It can be for a targeted readership or
general public knowledge: for example, medical journals, DIY, math, biology,
religions, thesis, investigative reports.

Creative writing is mostly for entertainment. It falls under fictional and non-fictional.
Sometimes authors use this means to promote an agenda or create public
awareness. For example, many good fiction authors will incorporate social issues
and mores into their stories.

6. Creative Writing vs. Scientific Writing

Creative writing could be done purely from one's imagination, besides some

basic knowledge of the subject being written about; scientific writing involves
thorough research and pure facts. The same difference as between fiction and
facts.

Characteristics of good scientific writing

● clear - it avoids unnecessary detail;

● simple - it uses direct language, avoiding vague or complicated sentences.
Technical terms and jargon are used only when they are necessary for
accuracy;
● impartial - it avoids making assumptions (Everyone knows that ...) and
unproven statements (It can never be proved that ...). It presents how and
where data were collected and supports its conclusions with evidence;
● structured logically - ideas and processes are expressed in a logical order.
The text is divided into sections with clear headings;
● accurate - it avoids vague and ambiguous language such as about,
approximately, almost;
● objective - statements and ideas are supported by appropriate evidence that
demonstrates how conclusions have been drawn as well as acknowledging
the work of others.

7. Types of Creative Writing

1. Songs
You may think of writing a song as a purely musical form of creative expression, but
if your song has lyrics, you'll also be doing some creative writing. 

2. Poetry
From haiku to sonnets, there are dozens of different poetic forms to try. In general,
the key to writing poetry is to create evocative images and make every word count.

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3. Vignettes
Vignettes are a short form of fiction or creative non-fiction that sets up a scene for
the reader. There may not be a central conflict to drive the story forward, and there
may not even be characters.

4. Short Fiction
Short fiction offers more of a "story" than a vignette. It includes short stories and
even modern fan fiction. Writing a short story is a great way to learn about how
fiction is structured, including plot, characters, conflict, and setting.

5. Novellas
Longer than a short story but not quite as long as a novel, a novella goes into great
detail about all the elements of the story. It may or may not have chapters.

6. Novels
Novels are perhaps the best known form of fiction, and you'll see them in many
genres, including romance, thrillers, and science fiction. In this long form of fiction,
you have time to explore the plot, characters, and other elements more fully.

7. Scripts
Scripts, for everything from TV commercials to radio programs and even movies,
are another form of creative writing. The length can vary significantly, but the key is
that the words you write will be recited by actors and recorded.

8. Plays
Like a script in that the dialogue you write will be recited by actors, plays are
designed to be performed in front of an audience. They are usually divided into
several acts, although short, one-act plays are also popular. 

9. Personal Essays
Not all creative writing is made up. In fact, creative non-fiction comes in several
important forms. One of these is the personal essay in which the writer explores his
or her own life experiences or opinions. 

10. Journals and Diaries

More than just a therapeutic exercise or a way to record the day's events, journals
can also be a type of creative writing. This is especially true if you infuse your
entries with your emotions and personal experiences.

11. Memoirs
A longer form of the personal essay or journal, a memoir is a type of creative
nonfiction that explores a person's life or experiences. You can focus on a single
period or your entire life. This is different from an autobiography in that it includes
feelings and thoughts - not just the facts of what happened.

12. Letters

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Because they contain more than a basic reporting of the facts, letters can also be a
type of creative writing. This is especially true if they discuss emotion or opinion.
Even love letters can be creative.

Learning Exercise 3.1

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Creative Writing vs. Academic Writing

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Distinguish any other differences between these two types of writing. Use
the spaces provided below to differentiate creative writing and academic
writing.

Creative Writing Academic Writing

Learning Exercise 3.2

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Creative Writing vs. Scientific Writing

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 Write some similarities between creative writing and scientific
writing.

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2. ______________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________________

Learning Exercise 3.3

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Types of Creative Writing

Creative Writing Challenge: Types of Creative Writing

Which of these types of creative writing have you tried? Are there any forms
of writing on this list that you’d like to experiment with? Can you think of
any types of creative writing to add to this list?

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Input 4 Sensory Experience in Writing

Sensory Experience in Writing

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 Sensory details include sight, sound, touch, smell, and taste. Writers employ
the five senses to engage a reader's interest. If you want your writing to jump
off the page, then bring your reader into the world you are creating.
Sensory details appeal to the five senses: sight, sound, smell , touch,
taste. When writing a personal narrative, your objective is to get the reader to
feel like they are there with you. Adding sensory details will help you achieve
this goal.

Sight (this is used most often, but trying using all of them!)

● Dark green of rolling pastures

● the streets glistened like shiny ornaments after the rain
● the slivered moon sat in the sky like an old fingernail clipping
● the flashing blue lights from the police cruiser lit up our dark house

Sound

● The walls shook and vibrated like the tail of a rattle snake
● Ice crackled and pinged against the family room window like a baseball
striking a bat
● Wind swirled around our beach house whistling loudly to a terrible tune
● The television buzzed as it shut off, and the furnace sighed one last time
before the house fell silent.
● The cracking of wood splitting punctuated each burst of fire like an
exclamation point.
● the sounds of emergency sirens awakened the still roads wailing like a
newborn baby

Smell

● the baking cake filled the kitchen with aroma of vanilla

● cinnamon-scented candle reminded of the Big Red gum my father chewed
● the beach air smelled of seaweed and salt
● the warm summer air smelled of freshly cut grass

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Touch
● The heavy quilt felt like an x-ray vest draped across our legs
● The prickly feathers of the boa stuck my neck
● The puppy’s nose was dry like sandpaper
● The sand was hot and grainy like my morning grits.

Taste

● Sweet, juicy strawberries

● Sour lemonade
● salty chips
● juicy tartness of orange
● rancid butter

The Use of the Language in Writing

Multiple uses of language exist to communicate, direct, and express

ideas, feelings, and information. Directive, expressive, and
informative uses of writing are used in written and oral forms of
communication. Directive use of language is used to get another person or
group to perform an action.

The 7 functions of language according to Halliday

Instrumental
It used to express people's needs or to get things done.

Regulatory
This language is used to tell others what to do.

Interactional
Language is used to make contact with others and form relationship.

Personal
The use of language is used to express feelings, opinion, and individual
identity.

Heuristic
This is when language is used to gain knowledge about the environment.

Imaginative
Language is used to tell stories and jokes, and to create an imaginary
environment.

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Representational
The use of language to convey facts and information.

A. Imagery - imagery means to use figurative language to represent

objects, actions, and ideas in such a way that it appeals to our physical
senses.
Usually it is thought that imagery makes use of particular words that create visual
representation of ideas in our minds. The word “imagery” is associated with mental
pictures. However, this idea is but partially correct. Imagery, to be realistic, turns out
to be more complex than just a picture. Read the following examples of imagery
carefully:

● It was dark and dim in the forest.

The words “dark” and “dim” are visual images.
● The children were screaming and shouting in the fields.
“Screaming” and “shouting” appeal to our sense of hearing, or auditory
sense.
● He whiffed the aroma of brewed coffee.
“Whiff” and “aroma” evoke our sense of smell, or olfactory sense.
● The girl ran her hands on a soft satin fabric.
The idea of “soft” in this example appeals to our sense of touch, or tactile
sense.
● The fresh and juicy orange is very cold and sweet.
“Juicy” and “sweet” – when associated with oranges – have an effect on our
sense of taste, or gustatory sense.

Imagery needs the aid of figures of speech like simile, metaphor, personification,

and onomatopoeia, in order to appeal to the bodily senses. Let us analyze
how famous poets and writers use imagery in literature.
Short Examples of Imagery

1. The old man took the handful of dust, and sifted it through his fingers.
2. The starry night sky looked so beautiful that it begged him to linger, but he
reluctantly left for home.
3. The fragrance of spring flowers made her joyful.
4. The sound of a drum in the distance attracted him.
5. The people traveled long distances to watch the sunset in the north.
6. The stone fell with a splash in the lake.
7. The sound of bat hitting the ball was pleasing to his ear.
8. The chirping of birds heralded spring.
9. There lay refuse heaps on their path that were so smelly that it maddened
them.
10. The silence in the room was unnerving.
11. The blind man touched the tree to learn if its skin was smooth or rough.
12. When he was on the way to work, he heard the muffled cry of a woman.

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13. The beacons of moonlight bathed the room in ethereal light.
14. The wild gusts of cold wind pierced her body.
15. The burger, aromatic with spices, made his mouth water in anticipation of the
first bite.

A. Figures of Speech- a figure of speech is a word or phrase using

figurative language—language that has other meaning than its normal
definition. In other words, figures of speeches rely on implied or
suggested meaning, rather than a dictionary definition.  We express
and develop them through hundreds of different rhetorical techniques,
from specific types like metaphors and similes, to more general forms
like sarcasm and slang.

Types of Figure of Speech

1. Alliteration: The repetition of an initial consonant sound. Example: She

sells seashells by the seashore.

2. Anaphora: The repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of

successive clauses or verses. Example: Unfortunately, I was in the wrong
place at the wrong time on the wrong day.

3. Antithesis: The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in balanced phrases.

Example: As Abraham Lincoln said, "Folks who have no vices have very few
virtues."

4. Apostrophe: Directly addressing a nonexistent person or an inanimate

object as though it were a living being. Example: "Oh, you  car, you never
work when I need you to," Bert sighed.

5. Assonance: Identity or similarity in sound between internal vowels in

neighboring words. Example: How now, brown cow?

6. Chiasmus: A verbal pattern in which the second half of an expression is

balanced against the first but with the parts reversed. Example: The famous
chef said people should live to eat, not eat to live.

7. Euphemism: The substitution of an inoffensive term for one considered

offensively explicit. Example: "We're teaching our toddler how to go potty,"
Bob said.

8. Hyperbole: An extravagant statement; the use of exaggerated terms for

the purpose of emphasis or heightened effect. Example: I have a ton of
things to do when I get home.

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9. Irony: The use of words to convey the opposite of their literal
meaning .Also a statement or situation where the meaning is contradicted by
the appearance or presentation of the idea. Example: "Oh, I love spending
big bucks," said my dad, a notorious penny pincher.

10. Litotes: A figure of speech consisting of an understatement in which an

affirmative is expressed by negating its opposite. Example: A million dollars
is no small chunk of change.

11. Metaphor: An implied comparison between two dissimilar things that

have something in common. Example: "All the world's a stage."

12. Metonymy: A figure of speech in which a word or phrase is substituted

for another with which it is closely associated; also, the rhetorical strategy of
describing something indirectly by referring to things around it. Example:
"That stuffed suit with the briefcase is a poor excuse for a salesman," the
manager said angrily.

13. Onomatopoeia: The use of words that imitate the sounds associated
with the objects or actions they refer to. Example: The clap of thunder went
bang and scared my poor dog.

14. Oxymoron: A figure of speech in which incongruous or contradictory

terms appear side by side. Example: "He popped the jumbo shrimp in his
mouth."

15. Paradox: A statement that appears to contradict itself. Example: "This is

the beginning of the end," said Eeyore, always the pessimist.

16. Personification: A figure of speech in which an inanimate object or

abstraction is endowed with human qualities or abilities. Example: That
kitchen knife will take a bite out of your hand if you don't handle it safely.

17. Pun: A play on words, sometimes on different senses of the same word
and sometimes on the similar sense or sound of different words. Example:
Jessie looked up from her breakfast and said, "A boiled egg every morning is
hard to beat."

18. Simile: A stated comparison (usually formed with "like" or "as") between
two fundamentally dissimilar things that have certain qualities in common.
Example: Roberto was white as a sheet after he walked out of the horror
movie.

19. Synecdoche: A figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the

whole. Example: Tina is learning her ABC's in preschool.

19
 20. Understatement: A figure of speech in which a writer or speaker
deliberately makes a situation seem less important or serious than it is.
Example: "You could say Babe Ruth was a decent ballplayer," the reporter
said with a wink.

B. Parallelism and Repetition

Repetition & Parallelism: What Are They?

When you repeat similar ideas or themes in your speech, you are using repetition
as a stylistic choice. Similarly, parallelism is a structured use of repetition by using
identical or equivalent constructions in corresponding clauses to express the same
sentiment.
Why Use Them?
Parallelism is an especially effective technique to provide structure, order, and
balance in your speech, in addition to clarifying your argument. Repetition also
helps emphasize your point to your directly to your audience. The audience is more
likely to remember something that has been repeated. Parallelism works the same
way but without rote repetition of words or ideas and instead constructs them from
similar examples.
How to Use Repetition and Parallelism
Repetition is fine in small doses, but you don't want to sound like a broken record.
Consider using repetition of the same phrase or words only for those statements
that you would like to be the most memorable and influential and weave them
throughout your speech. You can also use them in close proximity for an especially
dramatic effect. For example:
"Even though large tracts of Europe and many old and famous States have fallen or
may fall into the grip of the Gestapo and all the odious apparatus of Nazi rule, we
shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end,we shall fight in France, we shall
fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing
strength in the air, we shall defend our Island, whatever the cost may be, we shall
fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the
fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender." -
Winston Churchill
Parallelism is a very effective way to break up your use of repetition by laying out
many different ways of expressing the same thought or idea. See below how
parallelism was used in these two speakers:
"Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price,
bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure
the survival and the success of liberty." - John F. Kennedy

20
"Today's students can put dope in their veins or hope in their brains. If they can
conceive it and believe it, they can achieve it. They must know it is not their aptitude
but their attitude that will determine their altitude." - Reverend Jesse Jackson
C. Style-language style is defined as the choice of words used by a
specific group of people when they speak.

D. Diction-Diction can be defined as style of speaking or writing,

determined by the choice of words by a speaker or a writer. Diction, or
choice of words, often separates good writing from bad writing. It
depends on a number of factors. Firstly, the word has to be right and
accurate. Secondly, words should be appropriate to the context in
which they are used. Lastly, the choice of words should be such that
the listener or reader understands easily.
Types of Diction
Individuals vary their diction depending on different contexts and settings.
Therefore, we come across various types of diction.

● Formal diction – formal words are used in formal situations, such as press
conferences and presentations.
● Informal diction – uses informal words and conversation, such as writing or
talking to friends.
● Colloquial diction – uses words common in everyday speech, which may
be different in different regions or communities.
● Slang diction – is the use of words that are newly coined, or even impolite.

E. Denotation and Connotation

Conciseness-is the extent to which a piece of writing communicates clear

information in as few words as possible. One good way to think
about conciseness is to think about what, in auto mechanics, is called the 'power-to-
weight' ratio.

21
 F. Voice-voice (or vocalization) is the sound produced by humans and
other vertebrates using the lungs and the vocal folds in the larynx, or
voice box. Voice is not always produced as speech, however. Infants
babble and coo; animals bark, moo, whinny, growl, and meow; and
adult humans laugh, sing, and cry. Voice is generated by airflow from
the lungs as the vocal folds are brought close together. When air is
pushed past the vocal folds with sufficient pressure, the vocal folds
vibrate. If the vocal folds in the larynx did not vibrate normally, speech
could only be produced as a whisper. Your voice is as unique as your
fingerprint. It helps define your personality, mood, and health.

Learning Exercise 4.1

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

22
 Figures of Speech

Identify the figure of speech used in each sentence below.

1. The righteous shall flourish as the palm tree.

2.  Life is as tedious as a twice-told tale.

3. The camel is the ship of the desert.

4. Variety is the spice of life.

6. Pride goeth forth on horseback, grand and gay.

7. O Solitude! Where are the charms that sages have seen in thy face?

8. Why, man, if the river were dry, I am able to fill it with tears.

9. O Hamlet! Thou hast cleft my heart in twain.

10.Man proposes, God disposes.

Learning Exercise 4.2

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

23
 Diction

What makes this poem so effective?

From what ”work” or “writing” does this passage come from?

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

What are the “Outstanding Qualities” of this passage? Please describe and write
below.

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Learning Exercise 4.3

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

24
 Denotation and Connotation

Write the Denotative and Connotative meaning of each picture below.

Denotation
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Connotation
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Denotation
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Connotation
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

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 Denotation
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Connotation
__________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________

Denotation
__________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________

Connotation
__________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________

CHAPTER II

26
 THE PROCESS OF WRITING: WHATEVER WORKS

Specific Learning Objectives

At the end of this Chapter, the student will be able:

1. Labelthe basic conventions of writing.

2. Interpret the writing process.
3. Use transitions correctly and effectively.
4. Examine language to evoke emotion and intellectual response from readers.
5. Interpret the difference between denotation and connotation.
6. Determine the process of writing.
7. Use imagery, diction, figures of speech, and specific experiences.
8. Discover the type of writing.
9. Citethe punctuation rules.
10. Use the usage rules.

Input 5 The Writing Process

27
 Writing is a process that involves at least four distinct steps: prewriting,
drafting, revising, and editing. It is known as a recursive process. While you are
revising, you might have to return to the prewriting step to develop and expand your
ideas.

A. Prewriting

1. Prewriting is anything you do before you write a draft of your document. It

includes thinking, taking notes, talking to others, brainstorming, outlining, and
gathering information (e.g., interviewing people, researching in the library,
assessing data).

2. Although prewriting is the first activity you engage in, generating ideas is an
activity that occurs throughout the writing process.

Four Key Elements of Prewriting

1. Topic- As a writer, you need to determine the topic and narrow it

depending on the purpose and target audience. Freewriting,
brainstorming and clustering are the most common ways to generate
ideas in writing. Freewriting helps you arrive at more focused ideas
about your topic

2. Author’s Purpose-An author’s purpose is his reason for or intent in

writing.

An author’s purpose may be to amuse the reader, to persuade the

reader, to inform the reader, or to satirize a condition. An author writes
with one of four general purposes in mind:

1. To relate a story or to recount events, an author uses narrative

writing.

2. To tell what something looks like, sounds like, or feels like, the
author uses descriptive writing

3. To convince a reader to believe an idea or to take a course of

action, the author uses persuasive writing.

4. To inform or teach the reader, the author uses expository writing.

An author’s purpose is reflected in the way he writes about a topic. For
instance, if his purpose is to amuse, he will use jokes or anecdotes in
his writing.

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B. Drafting

1. Drafting occurs when you put your ideas into sentences and paragraphs. Here
you concentrate upon explaining and supporting your ideas fully. Here you also
begin to connect your ideas. Regardless of how much thinking and planning you do,
the process of putting your ideas in words changes them; often the very words you
select evoke additional ideas or implications.

2. Don’t pay attention to such things as spelling at this stage.

3. This draft tends to be writer-centered: it is you telling yourself what you know and
think about the topic.

C. Revising

1. Revision is the key to effective documents. Here you think more deeply about
your readers’ needs and expectations. The document becomes reader-centered.
How much support will each idea need to convince your readers? Which terms
should be defined for these particular readers? Is your organization effective? Do
readers need to know X before they can understand Y?

2. At this stage you also refine your prose, making each sentence as concise and
accurate as possible. Make connections between ideas explicit and clear.

Revision Checklist

1. Does the essay have a clear and concise main idea? Is this idea
made clear to the reader in a thesis statement early in the essay
(usually in the introduction)?

2. Does the essay have a specific purpose (such as to inform, entertain,

evaluate, or persuade)? Have you made this purpose clear to the
reader?

3. Does the introduction create interest in the topic and make

your audience want to read on?

4. Is there a clear plan and sense of organization to the essay? Does

each paragraph develop logically from the previous one?

5. Is each paragraph clearly related to the main idea of the essay? Is

there enough information in the essay to support the main idea?

6. Is the main point of each paragraph clear? Is each point adequately

and clearly defined in a topic sentence and supported with
specific details?

29
 7. Are there clear transitions from one paragraph to the next? Have key
words and ideas been given proper emphasis in the sentences and
paragraphs?

8. Are the sentences clear and direct? Can they be understood on the
first reading? Are the sentences varied in length and structure? Could
any sentences be improved by combining or restructuring them?

9. Are the words in the essay clear and precise? Does the essay
maintain a consistent tone?

10. Does the essay have an effective conclusion--one that emphasizes

the main idea and provides a sense of completeness?

Once you have finished revising your essay, you can turn your attention to the finer
details of editing and proofreading your work.

D. Editing

1. Check for such things as grammar, mechanics, and spelling. The last thing you
should do before printing your document is to spell check it.

2. Don’t edit your writing until the other steps in the writing process are complete.

E. Publishing

1. Publishing is the last stage where writers submit their work to the publisher. Make
sure your written document should be completed before giving to the publisher.
However, each writer’s goal is to publish his work and reach to the readers.

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Learning Exercise 5.1

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Prewriting

Describe the hidden meaning in the picture.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

31
Learning Exercise 5.2

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:
Revising
Use the checklist for revising the poem below.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

32
Learning Exercise 5.3

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Publishing
1. Prewriting
2. Drafting
3. Revising
4. Editing

Write one sentence for each idea, telling how you will use it to improve your
writing.

1. Prewriting
____________________________________________________________.

2. Drafting
____________________________________________________________.

3. Revising
____________________________________________________________.

4. Editing
____________________________________________________________.

33
 Input 6 Applying the Basic Conventions of Writing

Applying the Basic Conventions of Writing

We can define conventions as a set of generally accepted standards for written
English. We use conventions to make our writing more readable. In other words, we
do things in a certain way so the reader can figure out what we’re trying to
say.Conventions include punctuation, usage, mechanics, and sentence rules. The
following pages outline the most important conventions of English.

A. Punctuation Rules

There are 14 punctuation marks that are commonly used in English grammar. They
are the period, question mark, exclamation point, comma, semicolon, colon, dash,
hyphen, parentheses, brackets, braces, apostrophe, quotation marks, and ellipsis.
Following their correct usage will make your writing easier to read and more
appealing.

Sentence Endings

Three of the fourteen punctuation marks are appropriate for use as sentence
endings. They are the period, question mark, and exclamation point.

The period (.) is placed at the end of declarative sentences, statements thought to

be complete and after many abbreviations.
● As a sentence ender: Jane and Jack went to the market.
● After an abbreviation: Her son, John Jones Jr., was born on Dec. 6, 2008.
Use a question mark (?) to indicate a direct question when placed at the end of a
sentence.
● When did Jane leave for the market?
The exclamation point (!) is used when a person wants to express a sudden outcry
or add emphasis.
● Within dialogue: "Holy cow!" screamed Jane.
● To emphasize a point: My mother-in-law's rants make me furious!

Comma, Semicolon, and Colon

The comma, semicolon, and colon are often misused because they all can indicate
a pause in a series.

34
 The comma is used to show a separation of ideas or elements within the structure
of a sentence. Additionally, it is used in numbers, dates, and letter writing after the
salutation and closing.
● Direct address: Thanks for all your help, John.
● Separation of two complete sentences: We went to the movies, and then we went
out to lunch.
● Separating lists or elements within sentences: Suzi wanted the black, green, and
blue dress.

Whether to add a final comma before the conjunction in a list is a matter of debate.
This final comma, known as an Oxford or serial comma, is useful in a complex
series of elements or phrases but is often considered unnecessary in a simple
series such as in the example above. It usually comes down to a style choice by the
writer.

The semicolon (;) is used to connect independent clauses. It shows a closer

relationship between the clauses than a period would show.
● John was hurt; he knew she only said it to upset him.
A colon (:) has three main uses. The first is after a word introducing a quotation, an
explanation, an example, or a series.
● He was planning to study four subjects: politics, philosophy, sociology, and
economics.

The second is between independent clauses when the second explains the first,
similar to a semicolon:

● I didn't have time to get changed: I was already late.

The third use of a colon is for emphasis:

● There was one thing she loved more than any other: her dog.

A colon also has non-grammatical uses in time, ratio, business correspondence and
references.

Dash and the Hyphen

Two other common punctuation marks are the dash and hyphen. These marks are
often confused with each other due to their appearance but they are very different.

A dash is used to separate words into statements. There are two common types of
dashes: en dash and em dash.

35
● En dash: Twice as long as a hyphen, the en dash is a symbol (--) that is used in
writing or printing to indicate a range, connections or differentiations, such as 1880-
1945 or Princeton-New York trains.
● Em dash: Longer than the en dash, the em dash can be used in place of a comma,
parenthesis, or colon to enhance readability or emphasize the conclusion of a
sentence. For example, She gave him her answer --- No!
Whether you put spaces around the em dash or not is a style choice. Just be
consistent.
A hyphen is used to join two or more words together into a compound term and is
not separated by spaces. For example, part-time, back-to-back, well-known.

Brackets, Braces, and Parentheses

Brackets, braces, and parentheses are symbols used to contain words that are a
further explanation or are considered a group.
Brackets are the squared off notations ([]) used for technical explanations or to
clarify meaning. If you remove the information in the brackets, the sentence will still
make sense.
● He [Mr. Jones] was the last person seen at the house.
Braces ({}) are used to contain two or more lines of text or listed items to show that
they are considered as a unit. They are not commonplace in most writing but can be
seen in computer programming to show what should be contained within the same
lines. They can also be used in mathematical expressions. For example, 2{1+[23-
3]}=x.
Parenthesis ( () ) are curved notations used to contain further thoughts or qualifying
remarks. However, parentheses can be replaced by commas without changing the
meaning in most cases.
● John and Jane (who were actually half brother and sister) both have red hair.

Apostrophe, Quotation Marks and Ellipsis

The final three punctuation forms in English grammar are the apostrophe, quotation
marks, and ellipsis. Unlike previously mentioned grammatical marks, they are not
related to one another in any form.
An apostrophe (') is used to indicate the omission of a letter or letters from a word,
the possessive case, or the plurals of lowercase letters. Examples of the
apostrophe in use include:
● Omission of letters from a word: I've seen that movie several times. She wasn't the
only one who knew the answer.
● Possessive case: Sara's dog bit the neighbor.
● Plural for lowercase letters: Six people were told to mind their p's and q's.

36
 It should be noted that, according to Purdue University, some teachers and editors
enlarge the scope of the use of apostrophes, and prefer their use on symbols (&'s),
numbers (7's) and capitalized letters (Q&A's), even though they are not necessary.

Quotations marks (" ") are a pair of punctuation marks used primarily to mark the
beginning and end of a passage attributed to another and repeated word for word.
They are also used to indicate meanings and to indicate the unusual or dubious
status of a word.
● "Don't go outside," she said.

Single quotation marks (' ') are used most frequently for quotes within quotes.

● Marie told the teacher, "I saw Marc at the playground, and he said to me 'Bill started
the fight,' and I believed him."
The ellipsis is most commonly represented by three periods (. . . ) although it is
occasionally demonstrated with three asterisks (***). The ellipsis is used in writing or
printing to indicate an omission, especially of letters or words. Ellipses are
frequently used within quotations to jump from one phrase to another, omitting
unnecessary words that do not interfere with the meaning. Students writing
research papers or newspapers quoting parts of speeches will often employ ellipsis
to avoid copying lengthy text that is not needed.
● Omission of words: She began to count, "One, two, three, four…" until she got to
10, then went to find him.
● Within a quotation: When Newton stated, "An object at rest stays at rest and an
object in motion stays in motion..." he developed the law of motion.

British vs. American English

There are a few differences between punctuation in British and American English.
The following charts details some of those differences:

British English American English

The " . " symbol is called A full stop a period
The " ! " symbol is called an exclamation mark an exclamation point
The " ( ) " symbols are called brackets parentheses
The " [ ] " symbols are called square brackets brackets
The position of quotation Joy means Joy means
marks "happiness". "happiness."
The punctuation for Dr, Mr, Mrs, St, Rd, Dr., Mr., Mrs., St., Rd.,
abbreviations Ct Ct.

B. Usage Rules

37
 Accept and except
To accept is to receive, and except is to exclude, usually. Both are busy little
words skipping around to different meanings, but they never run into each other.

Affect and effect
Are easy to mix up. Here's the short version of how to
use affect vs. effect. Affect is usually a verb, and it means to impact or
change. Effect is usually a noun, an effect is the result of a change.

Among and between

Between is used when naming distinct, individual items (can be 2, 3, or
more) Among is used when the items are part of a group, or are not specifically
named (MUST be 3 or more)

Amount and number

Although number and amount have similar meanings, number is used for things
that can be counted, while amount is used for things that cannot be counted.
Knowing when to use each one is a matter of looking at the noun being
described.

Bad and badly

he word bad is an adjective and should be used to modify nouns and pronouns.
Badly, like most words ending in -ly, is an adverb and is used to modify verbs.
The thing that trips most people up is that linking verbs such as to be and to feel
take adjectives rather than adverbs.

Choose and chose

Both words are different forms of the same verb: to choose, which means
'decide on a course of action' or 'pick up something as being the best or most
appropriate of two or more alternatives'. The only difference
between chose vs choose is their tense.

Farther and further

People use both further and farther to mean “more distant.” However, American
English speakers favor farther for physical distances and further for figurative
distances.

Fewer and less

Generally, fewer is used when the number of things is counted (fewer problems)
whereas less is used when the number is measured (less trouble or less time).
Good and will
The rule of thumb is that good is an adjective and well is an adverb. Good
modifies a noun; something can be or seem good. Well modifies a verb; an

38
action can be done well. However, when you’re talking about health, well can be
used as an adjective.

Hole and whole

The noun hole refers to an opening, a hollow place, a defect, or a dingy place.
The adjective whole means entire, complete, or unbroken. As a
noun, whole means an entire amount or a thing complete in itself.

Imply and infer

Imply means to suggest or to say something in an indirect way. Infer means to
suppose or come to a conclusion, especially based on an indirect suggestion.

It’s and its

It's is a contraction of “it is” or “it has.” Its is a possessive determiner we use to
say that something belongs to or refers to something.

Lay and lie

Lay is a verb that commonly means “to put or set (something) down.” Lie is a
verb that commonly means “to be in or to assume a horizontal position” (or “to
make an untrue statement,” but we'll focus on the first definition). In other
words, lay takes a direct object, and lie does not.

Plain and plane

Plane usually means an airplane, a flat surface or a tool for shaving
wood. Plain usually means simple or an expanse of lowland. The
words plane and plain have several meanings. Unfortunately, both have a
meaning relating to flatness, and this is often the source of confusion.

Principal and principle

A principle is a rule, a law, a guideline, or a fact. A principal is the headmaster of
a school or a person who's in charge of certain things in a company. Principal is
also an adjective that means original, first, or most important.

Than and then

These two words are very close in their appearance, but than vs. then have very
different uses. Then is commonly used to express a sense of time or what
comes next or used to be. Than is used to form comparisons between two
things.

Who’s and whose

 Who's. Who's is a contraction linking the words who is or who has,

and whose is the possessive form of who. They may sound the same, but
spelling them correctly can be tricky.

39
 You’re and your
Your is the second person possessive adjective, used to describe something as
belonging to you. Your is always followed by a noun or gerund. You're is the
contraction of "you are" and is often followed by the present participle (verb form
ending in -ing).

C. Mechanic rules

1. Capitalize proper nouns

A proper noun names a specific person, place, or thing, while a proper

adjective modifies a specific person, place, or thing. Proper nouns and proper
adjectives are capitalized. These include the following:

● The names and titles of people, entities, or groups (“President Washington,”

“George Washington,” “Mr. Washington,” “the Supreme Court,” “the New York
Chamber of Commerce”)
● The names of specific mountains, mountain ranges, bodies of water, and
geographical landmarks (“Mount Everest,” “the Andes Mountains,” “the Atlantic
Ocean”)
● The names of buildings and monuments (“the Statue of Liberty,” “the Golden Gate
Bridge”)
● Street names (“Fifth Avenue”)

2. In a title, capitalize first, last, and important middle words

Capitalize the First and Last Word

In all three styles, always capitalize the first and last word of any title. These
examples will help:

● How to Land Your Dream Job

● Of Mice and Men
● The Cat in the Hat

Capitalize Nouns and Pronouns

You should capitalize nouns and pronouns in titles in all three styles. This
includes proper nouns. You can see this rule in action in these examples:

40
● Visiting Beautiful Ruins (noun)
● As She Ran Away (pronoun)
● Little House on the Prairie (nouns)
● For Whom the Bell Tolls (pronoun)

Capitalize Verbs and Helping Verbs

No matter which style you are using, you'll also need to capitalize verbs. This
includes helping verbs and variations on the verb "to be." These examples will help:

● To Kill a Mockingbird (verb)

● The Sun Also Rises (verb)
● Their Eyes Were Watching God (helping verb and verb)
● Tender Is the Night (verb)

Capitalize Adjectives and Adverbs

You should also capitalize adjectives and adverbs in all three styles. You can see
this rule in action here:
● All Quiet on the Western Front (adjectives)
● The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle (adjective)
● She Quietly Waits (adverb)
● The Poky Little Puppy (adjectives)

Capitalize Only the First Word in Sentence Case

In sentence case, only the first word has a capital letter. Consider these examples:

● Budget wedding invitations

● Best technology blogs
● Why you should be drinking more water

Capitalize Proper Nouns in Sentence Case

Ordinary nouns and pronouns are not capitalized in sentence case.

However, proper nouns within the title are still capitalized:
● Top 10 things to do in Paris
● Hiking at the Grand Canyon
● Where Tom Cruise spent his summer vacation

41
 3. Forms plurals correctly

There are many plural noun rules, and because we use nouns so frequently when
writing, it’s important to know all of them! The correct spelling of plurals usually
depends on what letter the singular noun ends in.

Make regular nouns plural, add -s to the end.

cat – cats
house – houses
 If the singular noun ends in -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, or -z, add -es to the end to
make it plural.

truss – trusses
bus – buses
marsh – marshes
lunch – lunches
tax – taxes
blitz – blitzes
In some cases, singular nouns ending in -s or -z, require that you double the -
s or -z prior to adding the -es for pluralization.

fez – fezzes
gas –gasses
 If the noun ends with -f or -fe, the f is often changed to -ve before adding the -
s to form the plural version.

wife – wives
wolf – wolves
Exceptions:

roof – roofs
belief – beliefs
chef – chefs
chief – chiefs
 If a singular noun ends in -y and the letter before the -y is a consonant,
change the ending to -ies to make the noun plural.

city – cities
puppy – puppies
6If the singular noun ends in -y and the letter before the -y is a vowel, simply
add an -s to make it plural.

ray – rays

42
boy – boys
 If the singular noun ends in -o, add -es to make it plural.

potato – potatoes
tomato – tomatoes
Exceptions:

photo – photos
piano – pianos
halo – halos
With the unique word volcano, you can apply the standard pluralization for words
that end in -o or not. It’s your choice! Both of the following are correct:

volcanoes
volcanos
 If the singular noun ends in -us, the plural ending is frequently -i.

cactus – cacti
focus – foci
 If the singular noun ends in -is, the plural ending is -es.

analysis – analyses
ellipsis – ellipses
 If the singular noun ends in -on, the plural ending is -a.

phenomenon – phenomena
criterion – criteria

Some nouns don’t change at all when they’re pluralized.

sheep – sheep
series – series
species – species
deer –deer

Plural Noun Rules for Irregular Nouns

Irregular nouns follow no specific rules, so it’s best to memorize these or look up the
proper pluralization in the dictionary.

child – children
goose – geese
man – men
woman – women
tooth – teeth
foot – feet
mouse – mice
person – people 

43
 4. Use words for numbers under 10

Use numerals for numbers from zero to nine that are followed by a precise unit
of measurement.

Examples:
Seventy-two thousand ink cartridges are sold every day.
Nineteenth-century novels often feature complicated plot lines.
But: 2008 saw record olive crops throughout the Mediterranean.Use words for
common fractions and set expressions.

Examples:

According to the survey, two thirds of the employees are dissatisfied.

Understanding the Five Pillars of Islam is a critical first step.

The Fourth of July is traditionally marked by a firework display.Writing

percentages
With percentages, the standard is to use numerals and “%” (not “percent”).

Example:
According to the report, 45% of the workforce is employed in the service sector.
Only 6% currently work in agriculture.The main exception is if you are using a
percentage to begin a sentence. In this case, use words to express the entire
percentage.

Example:

Thirteen percent of the patients reported that their symptoms

improved after taking the experimental drug.

1. Apply the silent e rule

Silent E makes the vowel say its name.” And if you look at the following word
pairs, that rule does appear to be true. In each example, Silent E changes the short
vowel into a long vowel (in other words, the vowel says its name).

44
 D. Agreement Rules

20 Rules of Subject-Verb Agreement

Subjects and verbs must agree with each other in number for a sentence to make
sense. Even though grammar can be a bit quirky from time to time, there are 20
rules of subject-verb agreement that sum up the topic quite concisely. Most of the
concepts of subject-verb agreement are straightforward, but exceptions to the rules
can make it more complicated.

For example, would you say, "They are fun" or "They is fun"? Since "they" is plural,
you'd opt for the plural form of the verb, "are". Ready to dive into a world where
subjects and verbs live in harmony?

What Are the Rules of Subject-Verb Agreement?

Twenty may seem like a lot of rules for one subject, but you'll quickly notice one ties
into the next. In the end, it'll all make sense. (In the following examples, the
agreeing subject is in bold and the verb is in italics.)

1. Subjects and verbs must agree in number. This is the cornerstone rule that forms

the background of the concept.

45
The dog growls when he is angry.
The dogs growl when they are angry.

2. Subordinate clauses that come between the subject and verb don't affect their
agreement.
The dog, who is chewing on my jeans, is usually very good.

3. Prepositional phrases between the subject and verb usually do not affect

agreement.
The colors of the rainbow are beautiful.

4. When sentences start with "there" or "here," the subject will always be placed
after the verb. Some care needs to be taken to identify each part correctly.

There is a problem with the balance sheet.

Here are the papers you requested.

5. Subjects don't always come before verbs in questions. Make sure you accurately
identify the subject before deciding on the proper verb form to use.
Where are the pieces of this puzzle?

6. If two subjects are joined by "and," they typically require a plural verb form.

The cow and the pig are jumping over the moon.

7. The verb is singular if the two subjects separated by "and" refer to the same
person or thing as a whole.

Red beans and rice is my mom's favorite dish.

8. If one of the words "each," "every," or "no" comes before the subject, the verb is
singular.

No smoking or drinking is allowed.
Every man and woman is required to check in.

9. If the subjects are both singular and are connected by the words "or," "nor,"
"neither/nor," "either/or," or "not only/but also," the verb is singular.

Either Jessica or Christian is to blame for the accident.

10. The only time the object of the preposition decides plural or singular verb forms
is when noun and pronoun subjects like "some," "half," "none," "more," or "all" are
followed by a prepositional phrase. Then the object of the preposition determines
the form of the verb.

46
All of the chicken is gone.
All of the chickens are gone.

11. The singular verb form is usually reserved for units of measurement or time.

Four quarts of oil was required to get the car running.

12. If the subjects are both plural and are connected by the words "or," "nor,"
"neither/nor," "either/or," or "not only/but also," the verb is plural.

Not only dogs but also cats are available at the animal shelter.

13. If one subject is singular and the other is plural, and the words are connected by
the words "or," "nor," "neither/nor," "either/or," or "not only/but also," use the verb
form of the subject that is nearest the verb.

Either the bears or the lion has escaped from the zoo.

Neither the lion nor the bears have escaped from the zoo.

14. Indefinite pronouns typically take singular verbs (with some exceptions).

Everybody wants to be loved.

15. The exceptions to the above rule include the pronouns "few," "many," "several,"
"both," "all," and "some." These always take the plural form.
Few were left alive after the flood.

16. If two infinitives are separated by "and," they take the plural form of the verb.
To walk and to chew gum require great skill.

17. When gerunds are used as the subject of a sentence, they take the singular
form of the verb. However, when they are linked by "and," they take the plural form.
Standing in the water was a bad idea.
Swimming in the ocean and playing drums are my hobbies.

18. A collective noun, such as "team" or "staff," can be either singular or plural
depending upon the rest of the sentence. Typically, they take the singular form, as
the collective noun is treated as a cohesive single unit.
The herd is stampeding.

19. Titles of books, movies, novels, and other similar works are treated as singular
and take a singular verb.

The Burbs is a movie starring Tom Hanks.

20. Final rule: Remember, only the subject affects the verb! Nothing else matters.

47
Jacob, who owns sixteen houses, is on his way to becoming a billionaire.

E. Sentence Rules

Here are 20 simple rules and tips to help you avoid mistakes in English
grammar. 

1. A sentence starts with a capital letter and ends with a period/full stop, a
question mark or an exclamation mark. 
● The fat cat sat on the mat.
● Where do you live?
● My dog is very clever!
2. The order of a basic positive sentence is Subject-Verb-Object. (Negative
and question sentences may have a different order.)
● John loves Mary.
● They were driving their car to Bangkok.
3. Every sentence must have a subject and a verb. An object is optional. Note
that an imperative sentence may have a verb only, but the subject is
understood.
● John teaches.
● John teaches English.
● Stop! (You stop!)

4. The subject and verb must agree in number, that is a singular subject

needs a singular verb and a plural subject needs a plural verb.
● John works in London.
● That monk eats once a day.
● John and Mary work in London.
● Most people eat three meals a day.
5. When two singular subjects are connected by or, use a singular verb. The
same is true for either/or and neither/nor.
● John or Mary is coming tonight.
● Either coffee or tea is fine.
● Neither John nor Mary was late.
6. Adjectives usually come before a noun (except when a verb separates the
adjective from the noun).

48
 ● I have a big dog.
● She married a handsome Italian man.
● (Her husband is rich.)
7. When using two or more adjectives together, the usual order is opinion-
adjective + fact-adjective + noun. (There are some additional rules for the
order of fact adjectives.)
● I saw a nice French table.
● That was an interesting Shakespearian play.
8. Treat collective nouns (committee, company, board of directors) as
singular OR plural. In BrE a collective noun is usually treated as plural,
needing a plural verb and pronoun. In AmE a collective noun is often treated
as singular, needing a singular verb and pronoun.
● The committee are having sandwiches for lunch. Then they will go to
London. (typically BrE)
● The BBC have changed their logo. (typically BrE)
● My family likes going to the zoo. (typically AmE)
● CNN has changed its logo. (typically AmE)

9. The words its and it's are two different words with different meanings.

● The dog has hurt its leg.
● He says it's two o'clock.
10. The words your and you're are two different words with different
meanings.
● Here is your coffee.
● You're looking good.
11. The words there, their and they're are three different words with different
meanings.
● There was nobody at the party.
● I saw their new car.
● Do you think they're happy?
12. The contraction he's can mean he is OR he has. Similarly, she's can
mean she is OR she has, and it's can mean it is OR it has, and John's can
mean John is OR John has.
● He is working
● He has finished.
49
 ● She is here.
● She has left.
● John is married.
● John has divorced his wife.
13. The contraction he'd can mean he had OR he would. Similarly, they'd can
mean they had OR they would.
● He had eaten when I arrived.
● He would eat more if possible.
● They had already finished.
● They would come if they could.
14. Spell a proper noun with an initial capital letter. A proper noun is a "name"
of something, for example Josef, Mary, Russia, China, British Broadcasting
Corporation, English.
● We have written to Mary.
● Is China in Asia?
● Do you speak English?
15. Spell proper adjectives with an initial capital letter. Proper adjectives are made
from proper nouns, for example Germany → German, Orwell → Orwellian,
Machiavelli → Machiavellian.
● London is an English town.
● Who is the Canadian prime minister?
● Which is your favorite Shakespearian play?
16. Use the indefinite article a/an for countable nouns in general. Use
the definite article the for specific countable nouns and all uncountable
nouns.
● I saw a bird and a balloon in the sky. The bird was blue and the
balloon was yellow.
● He always saves some of the money that he earns.
17. Use the indefinite article a with words beginning with a consonant sound.
Use the indefinite article an with words beginning with a vowel sound. a cat, a
game of golf, a human endeavor, a Frenchman, a university (you-ni-ver-si-ty)
● an apple, an easy job, an interesting story, an old man, an umbella, an
honorable man (on-o-ra-ble)
18. Use many or few with countable nouns. Use much/a lot or little for
uncountable nouns. 
● How many dollars do you have?

50
 ● How much money do you have?
● There are a few cars outside.
● There is little traffic on the roads.
19. To show possession (who is the owner of something) use an apostrophe
+ s for singular owners, and s + apostrophe for plural owners.
● The boy's dog. (one boy)
● The boys' dog. (two or more boys)

20. In general, use the active voice (Cats eat fish) in preference to the passive
voice (Fish are eaten by cats).
● We use active in preference to passive.
● Active is used in preference to passive.

Learning Exercise 6.1

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:
Punctuation Rules
Test Yourself/ Punctuate the Sentences

Punctuate the following sentences.

1. My friend priya speaks german and she is teaching me some words

2. He was honest sincere hard working

3. Tanya said to Ila Rahul is a nice guy

4. Akbar the greatest of the mughal emperors ruled wisely

5. We went through the smoky mountains, near shimla on our way to leh

6. There's no room for error said the engineer so we have to double

check every calculation

51
 7. The automobile dealer handled three makes of cars Volkswagens
Porsches and Mercedes Benz

8. Yes Jim said I'll be home by ten

9. Whoever thoughtsaid Helenthat Jack would be elected class president

10. .Darwin's On the Origin of Species  caused a great controversy when

it appeared

Learning Exercise 6.2

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Agreement Rules Exercise

Choose the correct form of the verb that agrees with the subject.

1. Annie and her brothers (is, are) at school.

2. Either my mother or my father (is, are) coming to the meeting.

3. The dog or the cats (is, are) outside.

4. Either my shoes or your coat (is, are) always on the floor.

5. George and Tamara (doesn't, don't) want to see that movie.

6. Benito (doesn't, don't) know the answer.

52
7. One of my sisters (is, are) going on a trip to France.

8. The man with all the birds (live, lives) on my street.

9. The movie, including all the previews, (take, takes) about two hours to watch.

10. The players, as well as the captain, (want, wants) to win.

Learning Exercise 6.3

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Sentence Rules
Do the words in red function as a subject or as a predicate?

1. The beautiful woman was wearing a red dress.    

2. Next month, my daughter is getting married in London.    
3. My father and my uncle are discussing how to set up a new business
together.    
4. My students always do their homework.    
5. The teacher and the administration are fed up with the behavior of a
difficult student.    
6. He has a huge beautiful house.    

53
 7. The soup tastes good.    
8. They are watching a horror film.    
9. Every weekend, my wife goes jogging.    
10. A rich pretty woman was walking home at night along a dark

road.    

Input 7 Using Transitions

Using Transitions

One of your primary goals as a writer is to present ideas in a clear and

understandable way. To help readers move through your complex ideas, you want
to be intentional about how you structure your paper as a whole as well as how you
form the individual paragraphs that comprise it. 

Here are some effective transitions to use in your writing.

Causation–Connecting instigator(s) to consequence(s).

accordingly
as a result
and so
because

54
 consequently
for that reason
hence
on account of
since
therefore
thus

Chronology–Connecting what issues in regard to when they occur.

after
afterwards
always
at length
during
earlier
following
immediately
in the meantime
later
never
next
now
once
simultaneously
so far
sometimes
soon
subsequently
then
this time
until now
when
whenever
while

Combinations
Lists–Connecting numerous events.
Part/Whole–Connecting numerous elements that make up something bigger.

additionally
again
also
55
 and, or, not
as a result
besides
even more
finally
first, firstly
further
furthermore
in addition
in the first place
in the second place
last, lastly
moreover
next
second, secondly, etc.
too

Contrast–Connecting two things by focusing on their differences.

after all
although
and yet
at the same time
but
despite
however
in contrast
nevertheless
nonetheless
notwithstanding
on the contrary
on the other hand
otherwise
though
yet

Example–Connecting a general idea to a particular instance of this idea.

as an illustration
e.g., (from a Latin abbreviation for “for example”)
for example
for instance

56
 specifically
that is
to demonstrate
to illustrate

Importance–Connecting what is critical to what is more inconsequential.

chiefly
critically
foundationally
most importantly
of less importance
primarily

Location–Connecting elements according to where they are placed in relationship

to each other.

above
adjacent to
below
beyond
centrally
here
nearby
neighboring on
opposite to
peripherally
there
wherever

Similarity–Connecting to things by suggesting that they are in some way alike.

by the same token

in like manner
in similar fashion
here
in the same way
likewise
wherever

57
Other kinds of transitional words and phrases
Clarification

(from a Latin abbreviation for “that is”)

in other words
that is
that is to say
to clarify
to explain
to put it another way
to rephrase it

Concession

granted
it is true
naturally
of course
to be sure

Conclusion

finally
lastly
in conclusion
in the end
to conclude

Intensification

in fact
indeed
no

58
 of course
surely
to repeat
undoubtedly
without doubt
yes

Purpose

for this purpose

in order that
so that
to that end
to this end

Summary

in brief
in sum
in summary
in short
to sum up
to summarize

59
Learning Exercise 7.1

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Causation

Construct ten sentences using transition of causation based on the picture

below.

1. _______________________________________________________________

60
2. ________________________________________________________________
3. _______________________________________________________________
4. ________________________________________________________________
5. _______________________________________________________________
6. _______________________________________________________________
7. ________________________________________________________________
8. ________________________________________________________________
9. ________________________________________________________________
10. ________________________________________________________________

Learning Exercise 7.2

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Combinations

Construct a paragraph using transition of combinations based on the

pictures below.

61
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

62
Learning Exercise 7.3

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Chronology

 Arrange the parts in the correct order to make it a meaningful sentence.

1. Jane does not only want

as a matter of fact
to go for the movie
she wants to come for the party also
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

2. As the situation has changed

since we last discussed this matter
it was best to contact you
it appeared to me
without losing time
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

63
 CHAPTER iii

READING AND WRITING POETRY: FOR BETTER OR VERSE

Specific Learning Objectives

At the end of this Chapter, the student will be able:

64
1. Label the various elements in poetry.
2. Interpret some quotes about poetry.
3. Organize ideas between poetry and prose.
4. Examine the elements of poetry.
5. Discuss the difference between shape and form.
6.Choose figure of speech and apply it in writing.
7. Value the importance of sound-effect device.
8. Name popular literary devices.
9. Formulate cliché expression.
10.Use idiom term or phrase.

Input 8 What is Poetry

What is Poetry?

Poetry, literature that evokes a concentrated imaginative awareness of experience

or a specific emotional response through language chosen and arranged for
its meaning, sound, and rhythm.

Poetry is a vast subject, as old as history and older, present wherever religion is

present, possibly—under some definitions—the primal and primary form of
languages themselves. The present article means only to describe in as general a
way as possible certain properties of poetry and of poetic thought regarded as in
some sense independent modes of the mind. Naturally, not every tradition nor every
local or individual variation can be—or need be—included, but the article illustrates
by examples of poetry ranging between nursery rhyme and epic.

Attempts to Define Poetry

Poetry is the other way of using language. Perhaps in some hypothetical beginning

of things it was the only way of using language or simply was language tout court,
prose being the derivative and younger rival. Both poetry and language are
fashionably thought to have belonged to ritual in early agricultural societies; and
poetry in particular, it has been claimed, arose at first in the form of magical spells
recited to ensure a good harvest. Whatever the truth of this hypothesis, it blurs a
useful distinction: by the time there begins to be a separate class of objects called
poems, recognizable as such, these objects are no longer much regarded for their
possible yam-growing properties, and such magic as they may be thought capable
of has retired to do its business upon the human spirit and not directly upon the
natural world outside.
The Difference between Prose and Poetry

65
 Classically, prose is defined as a form of language based on grammatical
structure and the natural flow of speech. It is normally contrasted with poetry or
verse which is said to depend on a rhythmic structure, using meter or rhyme.
Spoken dialogue, factual discourse, and a whole range of forms of writing normally
use prose: literature, journalism, history, philosophy, encyclopedias, film and law
rely upon it for the bulk of what they have to say.

The word ‘prose’ first appears in English in the 14th century and comes from
the Old French prose. This originates in the Latin expression prosaoratio, which
means literally, 'straightforward or direct speech'. Prose tends to comprise of full
grammatical sentences, building to paragraphs; poetry typically contains a metrical
scheme and often some element of rhyme.
In fact, though, observation reveals that, rather than separate entities, they are part
of a spectrum of communication using words.

At one end of the spectrum, we have a highly precise, usually much shorter
and concentrated focus not only on the choice of particular words, their meanings
and their sounds, but also upon the gaps between them. The gaps, holes, absences
or vacuums both in sound and in meaning create the pulse of attention which we
call rhythm. At the other end, we have an often imprecise, usually much longer and
less concentrated pattern of words in which meanings and sounds are looser, and
the gaps between them less significant. Rhythm plays a less important role.

As Samuel Taylor Coleridge defined the two, prose is ‘words in their best
order; poetry - the best words in their best order.’ If one requires less attention from
a reader to achieve what one has to say, one can safely use prose; if, however, one
is keen to transmit an exact and intense experience, one tends to move towards the
poetic end of the spectrum.

A good example of this is the poem ‘Where I Come From’ by Canadian poet
Elizabeth Brewster. Written in free verse, the poem does not have any rhyme
scheme. In fact, it reads almost like prose:

People are made of places. They carry with them

hints of jungles or mountains, a tropic grace
or the cool eyes of sea gazers. Atmosphere of cities
how different drops from them, like the smell of smog
or the almost-not-smell of tulips in the spring,
nature tidily plotted with a guidebook;
or the smell of work, glue factories maybe,
chromium-plated offices; smell of subways
crowded at rush hours.
Where I come from, people
carry woods in their minds, acres of pine woods;
blueberry patches in the burned-out bush;
wooden farmhouses, old, in need of paint,

66
 with yards where hens and chickens circle about,
clucking aimlessly; battered schoolhouses
behind which violets grow. Spring and winter
are the mind's chief seasons: ice and the breaking of ice.
A door in the mind blows open, and there blows
a frosty wind from fields of snow.

If prose is the better medium for conveying philosophical ideas, then the opening of
‘Where I Come From’ opens with a simple enough proposition: ‘People are made of
places. They carry with them/hints of jungles or mountains, a tropic grace/or the
cool eyes of sea gazers.’ However, there are already clear signs that this is not
simple prose: the juxtaposition of images is not something prose generally uses in
this way: ‘hints of jungles or mountains’, for example, would be said differently were
one to extract any ‘poetry’ from it. The grace is ‘tropic’; the eyes of the sea gazers
are ‘cool’. These aesthetic injections immediately differentiate this from a
commonplace statement.
The next sign that what we are reading is not prose comes in the following lines:

Atmosphere of cities
how different drops from them, like the smell of smog
or the almost-not-smell of tulips in the spring

In which prose syntax has been subtly altered: ‘how different’ doesn’t fit in there
in prose terms; the ‘almost-not-smell of tulips’ shows a more careful playing with
words than a piece of prose writing. It is precisely these differences, these
variations from an expected prose line, which create the tiny vacuums or gaps
which draw in our attention more fully than had the writer said something like ‘the
atmosphere of cities drops from them in a different fashion’ or ‘the very faint smell of
tulips clings to them’. The word ‘drops’ and the sound at the end of ‘tulips’ indicate
scrupuo engineering.
A little further down, the lines

the smell of work, glue factories maybe,

chromium-plated offices; smell of subways
crowded at rush hours

Slip toward prose. Our olfactory sense is engaged, has it has been since
‘Atmosphere’ was mentioned, but otherwise the appeal is to the well-recognized.
Here, Brewster draws on the common experiences of most of her readers, who will
know the scent of ‘chromium-plated offices’, if not of ‘glue factories’. The
universally-experienced (for the city dweller) ‘smell of subways/crowded at rush
hour’ has the effect of evoking that experience while also suggesting that it is
indeed universal.And that is the point. Brewster’s first stanza is aimed at opening up
the familiar hollowness of modern existence; her second stanza, like the sestet of a
sonnet, then fills that hollowness with the vibrancy of a different kind of life:

67
 Where I come from, people
carry woods in their minds, acres of pine woods;

The repetition of ‘woods’ and the expansion of the image to ‘acres of pine woods’
transforms the emptiness created by the first stanza into a space richly filled. Using
the poetic tools of alliteration and assonance, the poet evokes a visual scene:

blueberry patches in the burned-out bush;

wooden farmhouses, old, in need of paint,
with yards where hens and chickens circle about,
clucking aimlessly; battered schoolhouses
behind which violets grow

‘Blueberry’ and ‘violet’ splash color; the age of the farmhouses, their ‘need of
paint’ and the circling about of chickens ‘clucking aimlessly’, the ‘battered
schoolhouses’ are in subtle opposition to the ‘chromium-plated’ offices and the
tightly-controlled subway.
We are further away from prose, despite the lack of rhyme or distinct rhythm: more
care has been chosen in selecting words that have shrewd differences in meaning.
The fertility of these images, the depth of significance plumbed - even the choice of
‘violets’ as the flower often symbolizing death - indicate a move toward a more
meticulous word-choreography than a prose writer would normally utilize.

Of course, the same point that she makes - her longing for a simpler and
more natural life, orientated to the ‘Spring and winter’ of ‘the mind's chief seasons’ -
‘ice and the breaking of ice’ in the rural Canada of her youth - could be made with
prose too. A significance-heavy ‘literary’ prose could capture almost exactly the
same longing that this poem elicits, expressed most succinctly in its last lines, with
its repetition of ‘blows’ and the almost-rhyming ‘snow’:

A door in the mind blows open, and there blows

a frosty wind from fields of snow.

But poetry is more ‘glue-like’: a prose passage could transmit ideas, even
images, perhaps even the subtle beauty of the poem, but the poet wants to stick
readers to her own experience. And the way to do that is through the vacuums more
evident at the poetic end of the spectrum.

1. Some Quotes about Poetry

Edgar Allen Poe

Birthplace: Boston
Famous poem: ”The Raven”
Famous quote: ”I have great faith in fools — self-confidence my friends call it.”

William Shakespeare

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Birthplace: Stratford-upon-Avon, England
Famous poem: ”Sonnet XVIII” (Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?)
Famous quote: ”All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely
players: they have their exits and their entrances; and one man in his time plays
many parts. His acts being seven ages.”

Maya Angelou
Birthplace: St. Louis
Famous poem: ”On the Pulse of Morning”
Famous quote: ”I’ve learned that people will forget what you said, people will forget
what you did, but people will never forget how you made them feel.”

Emily Dickinson
Birthplace: Amherst, Massachusetts
Famous poem: “‘Hope’ is the thing with feathers”
Famous quote: “Hope is the thing with feathers that perches in the soul — and
sings the tunes without the words — and never stops at all.”

Shel Silverstein
Birthplace: Chicago
Famous poem: “Where the Sidewalk Ends”
Famous quote: ”What I do is good. I wouldn’t let it out if I didn’t think it was.”

Robert Frost
Birthplace: San Francisco
Famous poem: “The Road Not Taken”
Famous quote: “The woods are lovely, dark and deep. But I have promises to
keep, and miles to go before I sleep.”

Pablo Neruda
Birthplace: Parral, Chile
Famous poem: “I Do Not Love You Except Because I Love You”
Famous quote: “To feel the love of people whom we love is a fire that feeds our
life.”

E. E. Cummings
Birthplace: Cambridge, Massachusetts
Famous poem: “i carry your heart with me”
Famous quote: “It takes courage to grow up and become who you really are.”

Langston Hughes
Birthplace: Joplin, Missouri
Famous poem: “I Too Sing America”
Famous quote: “Hold fast to dreams for if dreams die, life is a broken winged bird
that cannot fly.”

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Walt Whitman
Birthplace: Long Island, New York
Famous poem: “I Hear America Singing”
Famous quote: “Either define the moment or the moment will define you.”

Thomas Hardy
Birthplace: Dorset, England
Famous poem: “Hap”
Famous quote: “The main object of religion is not to get a man into heaven, but to
get heaven into him.”

Rudyard Kipling
Birthplace: Bombay Presidency, British India
Famous poem: “Gunga Din”
Famous quote: “We have forty million reasons for failure, but not a single excuse.”

Oscar Wilde
Birthplace: Dublin, Ireland
Famous poem: “A Vision”
Famous quote: “I have the simplest tastes. I am always satisfied with the best.”

John Keats
Birthplace: London
Famous poem: “A Thing of Beauty (Endymion)”
Famous quote: “A thing of beauty is a joy forever; its loveliness increases; it will
never pass into nothingness.”

Elizabeth Barrett Browning

Birthplace: Durham, England
Famous poem: “How Do I Love Thee?”
Famous quote: “If you desire faith, then you have faith enough.”

William Blake
Birthplace: London
Famous poem: “The Tyger”
Famous quote: “The glory of Christianity is to conquer by forgiveness.”

Sylvia Plath
Birthplace: Boston
Famous poem: “Daddy”
Famous quote: “Everything in life is writable about if you have the outgoing guts to
do it and the imagination to improvise.”

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

Birthplace: Portland, Maine
Famous poem: “The Song of Hiawatha”

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Famous quote: “Give what you have. To someone, it may be better than you dare
to think.”

William Wordsworth
Birthplace: Cumberland, England
Famous poem: “The Prelude”
Famous quote: “Fill your paper with the breathings of your heart.”

Mark Twain
Birthplace: Florida, Missouri
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Famous poem: “Ode to Stephen Dowling Bots, Dec’d.”
Famous quote: “Kindness is the language which the deaf can hear and the blind
can see.”

Ralph Waldo Emerson

Birthplace: Boston
Famous poem: “Uriel”
Famous quote: “A hero is no braver than an ordinary man, but he is braver five
minutes longer.”
John Donne
Birthplace: London
Famous poem: “No Man Is An Island”
Famous quote: “Any man’s death diminishes me, because I am involved in
Mankind; And therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls; it tolls for thee.”

Lewis Carroll
Birthplace: Cheshire, England
Famous poem: “Jabberwocky”
Famous quote: “It is one of the great secrets of life that those things which are
most worth doing, we do for others.”

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Learning Exercise 8.1

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

What is Poetry

Free Verse. Write your own poem about nature.

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Learning Exercise 8.2

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

What is Poetry

Why Is Poetry Important? Give at least five reasons.

1. Poetry is important because

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2. Poetry is important because
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3. Poetry is important because
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4. Poetry is important because
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5. Poetry is important because
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Learning Exercise 8.3

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Some Quotes about Poetry

Choose your top 3 favorite quotes about poetry above and explain why.

1. ________________________________________________________________
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2. ________________________________________________________________
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3. ________________________________________________________________
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Input 9 Poetry vs. Prose

1. Poetry vs. Prose

BASIS FOR
PROSE POETRY
COMPARISON

Meaning Prose is a straight Poetry is that form of

forward form of literature in which the
literature, wherein the poet uses a unique style
author expresses his and rhythm, to express
thoughts and feelings in intense experience.
a lucid way

Language Straight Forward Expressive or Decorated

Nature Pragmatic Imaginative

Essence Message or information Experience

Purpose To provide information To delight or amuse.

or to convey a message.

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 Ideas Ideas can be found in Ideas can be found in
sentences, which are lines, which are
arranged in paragraph. arranged in stanzas.

Line break No Yes

Paraphrasing Possible Exact paraphrasing is

not possible.

Comparison Chart

Key differences between Prose and Poetry

The difference between prose and poetry can be drawn clearly on the following
grounds:

1. Prose refers to a form of literature, having ordinary language and sentence

structure. Poetry is that form of literature, which is aesthetic by nature, i.e. it
has a sound, cadence, rhyme, metre, etc., that adds to its meaning.
2. The language of prose is quite direct or straightforward. On the other hand, in
poetry, we use an expressive or creative language, which includes
comparisons, rhyme and rhythm that give it a unique cadence and feel.
3. While the prose is pragmatic, i.e. realistic, poetry is figurative.
4. Prose contains paragraphs, which includes a number of sentences, that has
an implied message or idea. As against, poetry is written in verses, which are
covered in stanzas. These verses leave a lot of unsaid things, and its
interpretation depends upon the imagination of the reader.
5. The prose is utilitarian, which conveys a hidden moral, lesson or idea.
Conversely, poetry aims to delight or amuse the reader.
6. The most important thing in prose is the message or information. In contrast,
the poet shares his/her experience or feelings with the reader, which plays a
crucial role in poetry.
7. In prose, there are no line breaks, whereas when it comes to poetry, there
are a number of line breaks, which is just to follow the beat or to stress on an
idea.

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8. When it comes to paraphrasing or summarizing, both prose and poetry can
be paraphrased, but the paraphrase of the poem is not the poem, because
the essence of the poem lies in the style of writing, i.e. the way in which the
poet has expressed his/her experience in verses and stanzas. So, this writing
pattern and cadence is the beauty of poetry, which cannot be summarized

2. Two Poems About Poetry

Lyric 17

José Garcia Villa - 1908-1997

First, a poem must be magical,
Then musical as a sea-gull.
It must be a brightness moving

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 And hold secret a bird’s flowering.
It must be slender as a bell,
And it must hold fire as well.
It must have the wisdom of bows
And it must kneel like a rose.
It must be able to hear
The luminance of dove and deer.
It must be able to hide
What it seeks, like a bride.
And over all I would like to hover
God, smiling from the poem’s cover.

ArsPoetica

BY ARCHIBALD MACLEISH
A poem should be palpable and mute
As a globed fruit,

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 Dumb
As old medallions to the thumb,

Silent as the sleeve-worn stone

Of casement ledges where the moss has grown—

A poem should be wordless

As the flight of birds.

A poem should be motionless in time

As the moon climbs,

Leaving, as the moon releases

Twig by twig the night-entangled trees,

Leaving, as the moon behind the winter leaves,

Memory by memory the mind—

A poem should be motionless in time

As the moon climbs.

A poem should be equal to:

Not true.

For all the history of grief

An empty doorway and a maple leaf.

For love
The leaning grasses and two lights above the sea—

A poem should not mean

But be.

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Learning Exercise 9.1

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Poetry vs. Prose

Distinguish any other differences between these two genres of writing.

POETRY PROSE

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Learning Exercise 9.2

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Poetry vs. Prose

Using venn diagram cite some similarities of prose and poetry.

Prose Similarities Poetry

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Learning Exercise 9.3
Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Two Poems about Poetry

Choose one from the two poems about poetry and analyze the poem.

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Input 10 Elements of Poetry

Elements of Poetry

Poetry uses poetic and literary devices that are also found to some degree in

prose. Alliteration, symbolism, personification and imagery are all devices used
in poetry. Alliteration, or the repetition of an initial consonant sound, is often used
in poetry to emphasize certain words and to make them rhyme.

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 The basic elements of poetry include the speaker, audience, content, theme,
shape and form, tone, imagery, diction, figures of speech, and sound-effect devices

A. Speaker

In writing, the speaker is the voice that speaks behind the scene. In fact, it is

the narrative voice that speaks of a writer’s feelings or situation. It is not necessary
that a poet is always the speaker, because sometimes he may be writing from a
different perspective, or may be in the voice of another race, gender, or even a
material object. It usually appears as a persona or voice in a poem. Read on to
learn more about speaker in literature.
Examples of Speaker in Literature

Example #1: The Road Not Taken (by Robert Frost)

The speaker in Frost’s poem “The Road Not Taken” is a conflicted person, who
does not tell anything about himself. However, the readers of this poem know that
he is undergoing a big decision, that he has chosen a single path according to
which he is directing his life, and this splits into two options ahead.
Falling leaves and yellow woods are metaphors for the speaker’s life, showing the
downfall of his life. At this stage of life, it is not possible to return and make a new
decision, because he knows the time is gone. The speaker is impulsive and
adventurous, the reason that he has chosen the less traveled path. He is feeling a
little regret, while his tone is also a bit sad.

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85
Example #2: Annabel Lee (by Edgar Allan Poe)
The speaker in “Annabel Lee,” by Edgar Allan Poe, is the lover of Annabel Lee.
The speaker seems to be engaging, charming, and someone whom a girl would
meet and fall in love with right away. He is someone who would tell stories. As
readers move on reading the poem, they start realizing that there is something
wrong.
The readers begin to feel the speaker will return to a particular subject, and would
rage about something bad that may have happened to him. They notice a little
sparkle in his eyes that makes readers a bit uncomfortable, because he fascinates
them, and he cannot be ignored. Also, his voice has something powerful in it that
draws the reader in.

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Function
The role of a speaker is one of the most important aspects in a written work. A
speaker allows a more active voice, and plays the role of the mouthpiece in
conveying the ideas of a writer or a poet to the audience. Just like actors, a speaker
tells, or acts out directly, an account of what exactly occurs. It is found in different
forms of writing, but is very common in poetry and novels.
B. Audience
Audience is the person for whom a writer writes, or composer composes. A
writer uses a particular style of language, tone, and content according to what he
knows about his audience. In simple words, audience refers to the spectators,
listeners, and intended readers of a writing, performance, or speech.
Can you identify the audience being addressed in these poem?

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88
C. Content
Refers to a poem's language. It, too, makes use of numerous elements, including
the poem's topic, subject matter, theme, tone, word choices, word order, figurative
language, and imagery. Poetic form refers to a poem's physical structure; basically,
what the poem looks like and how it sounds.
An example is from Wallace Stevens’ “Disillusionment of Ten O’clok”

"Disillusionment of Ten O'Clock" describes the typical bedtime scene in

houses in an atypical way. The speaker describes how the people living in the
houses wear boring, bland pajamas, which means they'll have boring, bland
dreams. Elsewhere, folks in more interesting outfits will have way more awesome
dreams.

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D. Theme
Is the lesson about life or statement about human nature that
the poem expresses. To determine theme, start by figuring out the main idea. Then
keep looking around the poem for details such as the structure, sounds, word
choice, and any poetic devices.
Here is an example of theme in poetry.

 The main idea of the poem a dream written by Edgar Allan Poe is that life is not a
fairy tale and that it is not what he had expected it be. After being told all the lies
about life, he has discovered that life is tough and not what he had expected at all.
E. Structure

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 Poetry is literature written in stanzas and lines that use rhythm to express
feelings and ideas. Lines or whole stanzas can be rearranged in order to create a
specific effect on the reader. 
Structural Elements of Poetry
1. Line 
is a unit of language into which a poem or play is divided. The use of
a line operates on principles which are distinct from and not necessarily
coincident with grammatical structures, such as the sentence or single clauses
in sentences.
2. Enjambment
Enjambment is the continuation of a sentence or clause across a line break. 

Clear Instances of Enjambment

For instance, take these lines from Romeo and Juliet, where the second and
fifth line are end-stopped, and lines one, three, and four are third are enjambed:
When he shall die,
Take him and cut him out in little stars,
And he will make the face of heaven so fine
That all the world will be in love with night
And pay no worship to the garish sun.
Here the second and fifth lines are clearly end-stopped, as they conclude
phrases or sentences. (Although the sentence continues after line 2, line 2 ends on
a concluding note for that phrase and line 3 begins a new part of the sentence).
Meanwhile, the first, third, and fifth lines are enjambed, as the flow of the
sentence continues across the line breaks.
3. End-stopped line
An end stopped line is a line in verse which ends with punctuation, either to show
the completion of a phrase or sentence. End stopped lines occur in poetry when a
syntactic unit is contained in one line and the meaning does not continue on to the
next line. This is the opposite of enjambment, which refers to lines carrying on their
meaning to the following line or lines. You can also tell that a line is end-stopped
because when reading these types of lines you’ll naturally pause before moving on
to the next line, however briefly.

Common Examples of End Stopped Line

The definition of end stopped line is generally only used when discussing poetry, as
it is necessary to differentiate between end stopped lines and enjambed lines.
However, it is clear that most song lyrics and popular poems also display end
stopped lines, as each line naturally completes a small unit of meaning. Here are
some popular songs and poems with examples of end stopped lines:
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Blackbird singing in the dead of night,

Take these broken wings and learn to fly.

All your life,

You were only waiting for this moment to arise.(“Blackbird” by The Beatles)

O say can you see, by the dawn’s early light,

What so proudly we hailed at the twilight’s last gleaming,

Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight,

O’er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming?

And the rockets’ red glare, the bombs bursting in air,

Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there;

O say does that star-spangled banner yet wave

O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave?(“Star Spangled Banner” by
Francis Scott Key)

This little piggy went to market,

This little piggy stayed home,

This little piggy had roast beef,

This little piggy had none,

And this little piggy went wee weewee all the way home.(“This Little Piggy,” popular
nursery rhyme)

4. Caesura

Caesura is a pause in a line of poetry that is formed by the rhythms of natural

speech rather than by metrics. A caesura will usually occur near the middle of a
poetic line but can also occur at the beginning or the end of a line. In poetry, there
are two types of caesural breaks: feminine and masculine. A caesura is usually
indicated by the symbol // but can be indicated by a single crossed line.

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Examples
A caesura will usually occur in the middle of a line of poetry. This caesura is called
a medial caesura. For example, in the children's verse, 'Sing a Song of Sixpence,'
the caesura occurs in the middle of each line:
'Sing a song of sixpence, // a pocket full of rye.
Four and twenty blackbirds, // baked in a pie.
When the pie was opened, // the birds began to sing;
Wasn't that a dainty dish, // to set before the king?'
These medial caesurae indicate where most native speakers of English would
naturally pause, and in this case, occur at the same point as the commas, which
serve to emphasize that natural pause. (Note: you just heard me use the plural for
caesura: caesurae.)

Feminine vs. Masculine Caesurae

In poetry that uses meter, each caesura is defined as "masculine" or "feminine"
depending on whether the pause comes after a stressed or unstressed syllable. A
feminine caesura follows an unstressed syllable, as in:

The woods are lovely, || dark and deep
A masculine caesura, on the other hand, is one that follows a stressed syllable, as
in:
My words fly up, || my thoughts remain below

Generally speaking, feminine caesura often are a bit shorter and feel "softer."
Masculine caesura often feel harder and more abrupt.

5. Stanza

Stanza is a grouped set of lines within a poem, usually set off from
other stanzas by a blank line or indentation. Stanzas can have regular rhyme and
metrical schemes, though stanzas are not strictly required to have either.

Examples of Stanzas
Let's start with couplets. A couplet is a two-line stanza that traditionally rhymes.
Gwendolyn Brooks' famous short poem 'We Real Cool' is written entirely in
couplets:
'We real cool. We
Left school. We

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Lurk late. We
Strike straight. We
Sing sin. We
Thin gin. We
Jazz June. We
Die soon.'
As you can see, every line except for the last one ends with the word 'We.' Starting
a sentence or phrase on one line and ending it on the next is called enjambment.
Because Brooks' sentences cross over stanza breaks as well as line breaks, this
poem also uses stanza enjambment.
F. Shape and Form
Form, in poetry, can be understood as the physical structure of the poem: the length
of the lines, their rhythms, their system of rhymes and repetition. In this sense, it is
normally reserved for the type of poem where these features have been shaped into
a pattern, especially a familiar pattern.

Shape poem is a poem that is shaped like the thing it describes.

The shape adds to the meaning of the poem. To write a shape poem, it helps to
start by writing down all the words that come to mind about the chosen topic. These
words can then be used in the poem.
Form, in poetry, can be understood as the physical structure of the poem: the
length of the lines, their rhythms, their system of rhymes and repetition. In this

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sense, it is normally reserved for the type of poem where these features have been
shaped into a pattern, especially a familiar pattern.
Here are some examples.

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96
G. Tone
The poet's attitude toward the poem's speaker, reader, and subject matter, as
interpreted by the reader. Often described as a “mood” that pervades the
experience of reading the poem, it is created by the poem's vocabulary, metrical
regularity or irregularity, syntax, use of figurative language, and rhyme.

H. Imagery
Imagery is one of the literary devices that engage the human senses; sight, hearing,
taste, and touch. Imagery is as important as metaphor and simile and can be written
without using any figurative language at all. It represents object, action, and idea
which appeal our senses. Sometimes it becomes more complex than just a picture.
There are five main types of imagery, each related to one of the human senses:

● Visual imagery (sight)

● Auditory imagery (hearing)
● Olfactory imagery (smell)
● Gustatory imagery (taste)
● Tactile imagery ( touch)

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After Apple picking- Robert Frost
I feel the ladder sway as the boughs bend.
And I keep hearing from the cellar bin
The rumbling sound
Of load on load of apples coming in.These lines have powerful imagery. We can
feel the swaying ladder, see the bending boughs and hear the rumbling sound of
apples going in the cellar bin. These lines are literal. Every word means what it
typically means. The entire poem is imagery that conveys deep feelings of
contemplation and subtle remorse for things left undone to the reader.
Romeo and Juliet –W. Shakespeare
O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright!
Her beauty hangs upon the cheek of night,
Like a rich jewel in an Ethiop’s earHere Romeo is comparing the beauty of Juliet.
He says that she looks more radiant than brightly lit torches in the hall. Further, he
says that her face glows like a precious bright jewel against the dark skin of an
African in the night. Here he uses the contrasting images of light and dark to portray
her beauty. The imagery also involves the use of figurative language; he uses the
simile to enhance the imagery.
I. Diction

Diction can be defined as style of speaking or writing, determined by the choice of

words by a speaker or a writer. Diction, or choice of words, often separates good
writing from bad writing. It depends on a number of factors. Firstly, the word has to
be right and accurate. Secondly, words should be appropriate to the context in
which they are used. Lastly, the choice of words should be such that the listener or
reader understands easily.

Proper diction, or proper choice of words, is important to get the message across.
On the other hand, the wrong choice of words can easily divert listeners or readers,
which results in misinterpretation of the message intended to be conveyed.
Types of Diction
Individuals vary their diction depending on different contexts and settings.
Therefore, we come across various types of diction.

● Formal diction – formal words are used in formal situations, such as press
conferences and presentations.

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 ● Informal diction – uses informal words and conversation, such as writing or
talking to friends.
● Colloquial diction – uses words common in everyday speech, which may
be different in different regions or communities.
● Slang diction – is the use of words that are newly coined, or even impolite.

Examples of Diction in Literature

Depending on the topics at hand, writers tend to vary their diction. Let us see some
examples of diction in literature:
Example #1: Ode on a Grecian Urn (By John Keats)
John Keats, in his Ode on a Grecian Urn, uses formal diction to achieve a certain
effect. He says:
“Heard melodies are sweet, but those unheard
Are sweeter: therefore, ye soft pipes, play on …”Notice the use of the formal “ye,”
instead of the informal “you.” The formality here is due to the respect the urn
inspires in Keats. In the same poem he says:
“Ah, happy, happy boughs!that cannot shed
Your leaves, nor ever bid the spring adieu.”It is more formal to use “adieu” than to
say “goodbye.”
Example #2: The Sun Rising (By John Donne)
In sharp contrast to Keats, John Donne uses colloquialism in his poem The Sun
Rising:
“Busy old fool, unruly Sun,
Why dost thou thus,
Through windows, and through curtains, call on us?
Must to thy motions lovers’ seasons run?
Saucy pedantic wretch, go chide. “Treating the sun as a real human being in this
excerpt, the poet speaks to the sun in an informal way, using colloquial expressions.
He rebukes the sun because it has appeared to spoil the good time he is having
with his beloved. Further, he orders the “saucy pedantic sun” to go away.
Example #3: The School (By Donald Barthelme)
Writers skillfully choose words to develop a certain tone and atmosphere in their
works. Read the following excerpt from a short story The School, by Donald
Barthelme:
“And the trees all died. They were orange trees. I don’t know why they died, they
just died. Something wrong with the soil possibly or maybe the stuff we got from the
nursery wasn’t the best. We complained about it. So we’ve got thirty kids there,

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each kid had his or her own little tree to plant and we’ve got these thirty dead trees.
All these kids looking at these little brown sticks, it was depressing.”The use of the
words “died,” “dead,” “brown sticks,” and “depressing” gives a gloomy tone to the
passage.
J. Figures of Speech
A figure of speech is a deviation from the ordinary use of words in order to
increase their effectiveness. Basically, it is a figurative language that may consist of
a single word or phrase. It may be a simile, a metaphor or personification to convey
the meaning other than the literal meaning.
Types of figures of Speech

The figures of speech list is over a hundred but some commonly used types are
given along with examples.

Top 20 Figures of Speech

Using original figures of speech in our writing is a way to convey meanings in fresh,
unexpected ways. They can help our readers understand and stay interested in
what we have to say. 

1. Alliteration: The repetition of an initial consonant sound.

Example: She sells seashells by the seashore.

2. Anaphora: The repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of

successive clauses or verses.

Example: Unfortunately, I was in the wrong place at the wrong time on the wrong
day. 

3. Antithesis: The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in balanced phrases.

Example: As Abraham Lincoln said, "Folks who have no vices have very few
virtues."

4. Apostrophe: Directly addressing a nonexistent person or an inanimate object as

though it were a living being.

Example: "Oh, you stupid car, you never work when I need you to," Bert sighed.

5. Assonance: Identity or similarity in sound between internal vowels in neighboring

words.

Example: How now, brown cow?

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6. Chiasmus: A verbal pattern in which the second half of an expression is balanced
against the first but with the parts reversed.

Example: The famous chef said people should live to eat, not eat to live.

7. Euphemism: The substitution of an inoffensive term for one considered

offensively explicit. 

Example: "We're teaching our toddler how to go potty," Bob said.

8. Hyperbole: An extravagant statement; the use of exaggerated terms for the

purpose of emphasis or heightened effect.

Example: I have a ton of things to do when I get home.

9. Irony: The use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning. Also,
a statement or situation where the meaning is contradicted by the appearance or
presentation of the idea.

Example: "Oh, I love spending big bucks," said my dad, a notorious penny pincher.

10. Litotes: A figure of speech consisting of an understatement in which an

affirmative is expressed by negating its opposite.

Example: A million dollars is no small chunk of change.

11. Metaphor: An implied comparison between two dissimilar things that have

something in common.

Example: "All the world's a stage."

12. Metonymy: A figure of speech in which a word or phrase is substituted for

another with which it is closely associated; also, the rhetorical strategy of describing
something indirectly by referring to things around it.

Example: "That stuffed suit with the briefcase is a poor excuse for a salesman," the
manager said angrily.

13. Onomatopoeia: The use of words that imitate the sounds associated with the
objects or actions they refer to.

Example: The clap of thunder went bang and scared my poor dog.

14. Oxymoron: A figure of speech in which incongruous or contradictory terms

appear side by side.

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Example: "He popped the jumbo shrimp in his mouth."

15. Paradox: A statement that appears to contradict itself.

Example: "This is the beginning of the end," said Eeyore, always the pessimist.

16. Personification: A figure of speech in which an inanimate object or abstraction is

endowed with human qualities or abilities.

Example: That kitchen knife will take a bite out of your hand if you don't handle it
safely.

17. Pun: A play on words, sometimes on different senses of the same word and
sometimes on the similar sense or sound of different words.

Example: Jessie looked up from her breakfast and said, "A boiled egg every
morning is hard to beat."

18. Simile: A stated comparison (usually formed with "like" or "as") between two
fundamentally dissimilar things that have certain qualities in common.

Example: Roberto was white as a sheet after he walked out of the horror movie.

19. Synecdoche: A figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole.

Example: Tina is learning her ABC's in preschool.

20. Understatement: A figure of speech in which a writer or speaker deliberately

makes a situation seem less important or serious than it is.

Example: "You could say Babe Ruth was a decent ballplayer," the reporter said
with a wink.

K. Sound-Effect Devices

Sound devices are special tools the poet can use to create certain effects in the
poem to convey and reinforce meaning through sound. The four most
common sound devices are repetition, rhyme, alliteration, and assonance. Subject
matter for any form of poetry writing is limitless.

SOUND DEVICES USED IN POETRY

 A List of Definitions
 
Sound devices are resources used by poets to convey and reinforce the
meaning or experience of poetry through the skillful use of sound.  After all,
poets are trying to use a concentrated blend of sound and imagery to create an

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 emotional response.  The words and their order should evoke images, and the
words themselves have sounds, which can reinforce or otherwise clarify those
images.  All in all, the poet is trying to get you, the reader, to sense a particular
thing, and the use of sound devices are some of the poet’s tools.
 
These definitions, by the way, come by way of the Glossary of Poetic Terms,
which can be found on the Internet at http://shoga.wwa.com/~rgs/glossary.html
 
ACCENT
The rhythmically significant stress in the articulation of words, giving
some syllables more relative prominence than others. In words of two or more
syllables, one syllable is almost invariably stressed more strongly than the other
syllables. Words of one syllable may be either stressed or unstressed,
depending on the context in which they are used, but connective one-syllable
words like, and, but, or, to, etc., are generally unstressed. The words in a line of
poetry are usually arranged so the accents occur at regular intervals, with
the meter defined by the placement of the accents within the foot. Accent should
not be construed as emphasis.
Sidelight: Two degrees of accent are natural to many multisyllabic
English words, designated as primary and secondary.
Sidelight: When a syllable is accented, it tends to be raised in pitch
and lengthened. Any or a combination of stress/pitch/length can be a
metrical accent.
Sidelight: When the full accent falls on a vowel, as in PO-tion, that
vowel is called a long vowel; when it falls on an articulation or
consonant, as in POR-tion, the preceding vowel is a short vowel.

ALLITERATION
Also called head rhyme or initial rhyme, the repetition of the initial sounds
(usually consonants) of stressed syllables in neighboring words or at short
intervals within a line or passage, usually at word beginnings, as in "wild and
woolly" or the line from the poem, Darkness Lost:
From somewhere far beyond, the flag of fate's caprice unfurled,
Sidelight: The sounds of alliteration produce a gratifying effect to the
ear and can also serve as a subtle connection or emphasis of key
words in the line, but should not "call attention" to themselves by
strained usage.

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ASSONANCE
The relatively close juxtaposition of the same or similar vowel sounds, but with
different end consonants in a line or passage, thus a vowel rhyme, as in the
words, date and fade.

CONSONANCE
A pleasing combination of sounds; sounds in agreement with tone. Also, the
repetition of the same end consonants of words such as boat and night within or
at the end of a line, or the words, cool and soul, as used by Emily Dickinson in
the third stanza of He Fumbles at your Spirit.

CACOPHONY (cack-AH-fun-ee)
Discordant sounds in the jarring juxtaposition of harsh letters or syllables,
sometimes inadvertent, but often deliberately used in poetry for effect, as in the
opening line of Fences:
Crawling, sprawling, breaching spokes of stone,
Sidelight: Sound devices are important to poetic effects; to create
sounds appropriate to the content, the poet may sometimes prefer to
achieve a cacophonous effect instead of the more commonly sought-
for euphony. The use of words with the consonants b, k and p, for
example, produce harsher sounds than the soft f and v or the liquid l,
m and n.
DISSONANCE
A mingling or union of harsh, inharmonious sounds that are grating to the ear.

EUPHONY (YOO-fuh-nee)
Harmony or beauty of sound that provides a pleasing effect to the ear, usually
sought-for in poetry for effect. It is achieved not only by the selection of
individual word-sounds, but also by their relationship in the repetition, proximity,
and flow of sound patterns.
Sidelight: Vowel sounds are generally more pleasing to the ear than
the consonants, so a line with a higher ratio of vowel sounds will
produce a more agreeable effect; also, the long vowels in words
like moon and fate are more melodious than the short vowels
in cat and bed.

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INTERNAL RHYME
Also called middle rhyme, a rhyme occurring within the line, as in the poem, The
Matador:
His childhood fraught with lessons taught by want and misery

METER
A measure of rhythmic quantity, the organized succession of groups
of syllables at basically regular intervals in a line of poetry, according to definite
metrical patterns. In classic Greek and Latin versification, meter depended on
the way long and short syllables were arranged to succeed one another, but in
English the distinction is between accented and unaccented syllables. The unit
of meter is the foot. Metrical lines are named for the constituent foot and for the
number of feet in the line: monometer (1), dimeter (2), trimeter (3), tetrameter
(4), pentameter (5), hexameter (6), heptameter (7) and octameter (8); thus, a
line containing five iambic feet, for example, would be called iambic pentameter.
Rarely does a metrical line exceed six feet.
Sidelight: In the composition of verse, poets sometimes make
deviations from the systematic metrical patterns. This is often
desirable because (1) variations will avoid the mechanical "te-dum, te-
dum" monotony of a too-regular rhythm and (2) changes in the
metrical pattern are an effective way to emphasize or reinforce
meaning in the content. These variations are introduced by
substituting different feet at places within a line. (Poets can also
employ a caesura, use run-on lines and vary the degrees of accent by
skillful word selection to modify the rhythmic pattern, a process
called modulation. Accents heightened by semantic emphasis also
provide diversity.) A proficient writer of poetry, therefore, is not a slave
to the dictates of metrics, but neither should the poet stray so far from
the meter as to lose the musical value or emotional potential of
rhythmical repetition. Of course, in modern free verse, meter has
become either irregular or non-existent.

MODULATION
In poetry, the harmonious use of language relative to the variations of stress and
pitch.

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 Sidelight: Modulation is a process by which the stress values
of accents can be increased or decreased within a
fixed metrical pattern.

NEAR RHYME
Also called slant rhyme, off rhyme, imperfect rhyme or half rhyme, a rhyme in
which the sounds are similar, but not exact, as
in home and come or close and lose.
Sidelight: Due to changes in pronunciation, some near rhymes in
modern English were perfect rhymes when they were originally written
in old English.

ONOMATOPOEIA (ahn-uh-mah-tuh-PEE-uh)
Strictly speaking, the formation or use of words which imitate sounds,
like whispering, clang and sizzle, but the term is generally expanded to refer to
any word whose sound is suggestive of its meaning.
Sidelight: Because sound is an important part of poetry, the use of
onomatopoeia is another subtle weapon in the poet's arsenal for the
transfer of sense impressions through imagery.
Sidelight: Though impossible to prove, some philologists (linguistic
scientists) believe that all language originated through the
onomatopoeic formation of words.

PHONETIC SYMBOLISM
Sound suggestiveness; the association of particular word-sounds with common
areas of meaning so that other words of similar sounds come to be associated
with those meanings. It is also called sound symbolism.
Sidelight: An example of word sounds in English with a common area
of meaning is a group beginning with gl, all having reference to light,
which include:gleam, glare, glitter, glimmer, glint, glisten,
glossy and glow.

RESONANCE
The quality of richness or variety of sounds in poetic texture, as in Milton's

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 . . . and the thunder . . . ceases now
To bellow through the vast and boundless Deep.

RHYME
In the specific sense, a type of echoing which utilizes a correspondence of
sound in the final accented vowels and all that follows of two or more words, but
the preceding consonant sounds must differ, as in the words, bear and care. In a
poetic sense, however, rhyme refers to a close similarity of sound as well as
an exact correspondence; it includes the agreement of vowel sounds
in assonance and the repetition of consonant sounds
in consonance and alliteration. Differences as well as identity in sound echoes
between words contribute to the euphonic effect, stimulate intellectual
appreciation, provide a powerful mnemonic device, and serve to unify a poem.
Terms like near rhyme, half rhyme, and perfect rhyme function to distinguish
between the types of rhyme without prejudicial intent and should not be
interpreted as expressions of value. Usually, but not always, rhymes occur at the
ends of lines.
Sidelight: Originally rime, the spelling was changed due to the
influence of its popular, but erroneous, association with the Latin
word, rhythmus. Many purists continue to use rime as the proper
spelling of the word.
Sidelight: Early examples of English poetry used alliterative
verse instead of rhyme. The use of rhyme in the end words
of verse originally arose to compensate for the sometimes
unsatisfactory quality of rhythm within the lines; variations in the
patterns of rhyme schemes then became functional in defining
diverse stanza forms, such as, ottava rima, rhyme royal, terzarima,
the Spenserian stanza and others. Rhyme schemes are also
significant factors in the definitions of whole poems, such
as ballade, limerick, rondeau, sonnet, triolet and villanelle.

RHYTHM
An essential of all poetry, the regular or progressive pattern of
recurrent accents in the flow of a poem as determined by
the arses and theses of the metrical feet, i.e., the rise and fall of stress. The
measure of rhythmic quantity is the meter.
Sidelight: A rhythmic pattern in which the stress falls on the
final syllable of each foot, as in the iamb or anapest, is called
a rising or ascending rhythm; a rhythmic pattern with the stress
occurring on the first syllable of each foot, as in the dactyl or trochee,
is a falling or descending rhythm.

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 Sidelight: From an easy lilt to the rough cadence of a primitive chant,
rhythm is the organization of sound patterns the poet has created for
pleasurable reading.

L. Other Popular Literary Devices

  This lesson studies some of the more common literary devices found in
literature. Devices studied include allusion, diction, epigraph, euphemism,
foreshadowing, imagery, metaphor/simile, personification, point-of-view and
structure.

Definition
When an author sits to write a story, she doesn't simply write what happened.
Instead, she uses what are called literary devices which are narrative techniques
that add texture, energy, and excitement to the narrative, grip the reader's
imagination, and convey information.
While there are literally hundreds of literary devices at an author's disposal, what
follows are a handful of the most common.

Allusion
An allusion is when an author refers to the events or characters from another
story in her own story with the hopes that those events will add context or depth to
the story she's trying to tell.
While allusions are common, they are also risky because the author has no certain
way of knowing her readers are familiar with the other story. To limit that risk,
allusions are often to very famous works such as the Bible or Shakespearean plays.
So, for example, one of the most alluded to texts in literature is the Bible, and
specifically the New Testament. Here is an allusion that a writer might make to the
Biblical story of Lazarus, who famously rose from the dead. Notice how using the
allusion helps intensify the character's recovery:
Night after night our hero lay in bed with the flu, hacking mucus and blood and
seeing behind his eyelids the angels or devils come to collect him. But one morning,
like Lazarus, he was whole again…
It should also be noted that an allusion doesn't have to specifically name the
character or event it's referring to.

Diction
Diction refers to an author's choice of words. When describing the events of her
story, an author never has just one word at her disposal.

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Rather, she must choose from many words that have similar denotative meanings
(the definition you'd find in a dictionary), but different connotative meanings (the
associations, positive or negative with a given word).
The decisions she makes with those words are what we call her diction.
For example, imagine that a child in a story comes home from school and tells his
parents about his day.
Here are four separate ways he could describe his behavior at recess. Notice how
selecting one italicized word over another, shifting the diction, totally changes the
meaning of the sentence:

● 'Tommy made fun of me, so I nicked his eye with a stick.'

● 'Tommy made fun of me, so I poked his eye with a stick.'
● 'Tommy made fun of me, so I stabbed his eye with a stick.'
● 'Tommy made fun of me, so I gouged his eye with a stick.'

The words nicked, poked, stabbed and gouged all have similar denotative

meanings, but notice how an author's choosing one or the other would drastically
affect how we understand how well Tommy fared.

Epigraph
Reading literature, you may have come across a work where the author under
the title has included a quotation from some other work; often the quotation is in
italics.
When an author does this, she is using what's called an epigraph. Like an allusion,
an epigraph is a reference to another work that an author hopes will help readers
understand her own work. Unlike an allusion, an epigraph stands apart from the text
itself rather than being included in it.
Let's take a look at an epigraph from T.S. Eliot's famous poem 'The Love Song of J.
Alfred Prufrock.' The epigraph is from Dante's Inferno, and is meant to help Eliot's
reader understand that the poem that follows is a kind of confession.
If I but thought that my response were made
to one perhaps returning to the world,
this tongue of flame would cease to flicker.
But since, up from these depths, no one has yet
returned alive, if what I hear is true,
I answer without fear of being shamed.

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Euphemism
Often in literature, whether for humor or just for taste, a writer wishes to
describe some graphic or offensive event using milder imagery or phrasing. When
an author does this, it's called a euphemism.
While this example isn't from literature, it underscores the meaning of euphemism.
Imagine that a sports broadcaster calling the action in a baseball game has to say
into the microphone that a player has just been struck in the genitalia with a line
drive. Obviously in the interests of taste, he doesn't wish to say 'genitalia' on the air,
and so instead he says:
'…it's a line drive up the middle and, oh my goodness, ladies and gentlemen, he
seems to have taken one below the belt…'
Notice how below the belt communicates where the ball hit the player but avoids
using the more explicit term.

Foreshadowing
In order to create suspense for her readers, an author often wishes to hint
where the story is going. At the same time, she doesn't wish to give away the
ending.
When an author hints at the ending of or at an upcoming event in her story without
fully divulging it, she is using what's called foreshadowing.
At the end of Ernest Hemingway's famous novel A Farewell to Arms, a key
character dies while it's raining.
To hint at that death, Hemingway earlier in the book includes a scene where the
character admits that she is afraid of the rain because sometimes she sees herself
dead in it.
While this is just an irrational vision, it also gives the reader an ominous detail and
hints at an event that might be to come.

Imagery
Just as when an author chooses words for their connotative associations (see
the above discussion of 'diction'), she chooses sensory details for the associations
or tones they evoke. This is the author's selection of imagery.
In Theodore Roethke's famous poem, 'My Papa's Waltz,' we see a young boy
dance with his drunken father. It's a happy memory for the boy, but also the poem
hints at the father's dangerous condition. One of the ways Roethke achieves this is
through his selection of imagery.
Consider the first stanza:

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The whiskey on your breath
Could make a small boy dizzy;
But I hung on like death:
Such waltzing was not easy.
While there are several examples of imagery here, think specifically about
Roethke's choice of 'whiskey' as the alcohol the father is drinking.
Just as choosing one word over another offers different connotations so does
choosing one image over another affect the work's tone.
What if the father had been drinking a wine cooler or a gin fizzy, for instance? How
would that change how we understand the father's character?

Metaphor
When attempting to describe an image or event, an author often will find it
useful to compare what she's describing to another image or event. This is
called metaphor, and it gives the reader a fresh, sometimes startling way of
imagining what's going on.
In Andrew Marvell's famous poem, 'To His Coy Mistress,' the speaker uses the
following metaphor to describe his fear of pending death.
But at my back I always hear
time's winged chariot hurrying near...
By comparing death to a 'winged chariot,' the speaker is able to communicate the
strength and horror with which he imagines his own demise instead of just trying to
describe directly how thinking about death feels.

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Learning Exercise 10.1

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Tone
Tone has a significant place in literature as it manifests writers’ attitudes
toward different subjects. Explain the tone used in each sentences.
1. Holden Caulfield, in J. D. Salinger’s Catcher in the Rye, unfolds his personality
through the tone he adopts throughout the novel. Let us have a look at some of
his remarks:

• “All morons hate it when you call them a moron.”

• “If a girl looks swell when she meets you, who gives a damn if she’s late?
Nobody.”

• “Goddamn money. It always ends up making you blue as hell.”

• “Catholics are always trying to find out if you’re Catholic.”Holden’s tone is

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2. The Tell-Tale Heart (By Edgar Allen Poe)

This short story by Poe contains the tones of
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Learning Exercise 10.2

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:
Theme
Find the major theme in poetry from William Ernest Henley.

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Learning Exercise 10.3

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Figures Of Speech
Identify the figure of speech used in the following sentences.
_________________1. Let him be rich and weary.

_________________2.So innocent arch, so cunningly simple.

_________________3. All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little
hand.

_________________4.All the world is a stage.

_________________5. The mountains sing together, the hills rejoice and clap
hands.

_________________6. Many are called, but few are chosen.

_________________7. Men may come and men may go, but I go on forever.

_________________8. The child is the father of man.

_________________9. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread.

_________________10. I desired my dust to be mingled with yours.

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 CHAPTER iv

GENRES OF POETRY: breath in experience

Specific Learning Objectives

At the end of this Chapter, the student will be able:

1. Classified the three genres of poetry.

2. Interpret the examples of narrative poems.
3. Use one of the examples of lyric poems.
4. Contrast dramatic monologue from soliloquy.
5. Criticize the poetic forms.
6.Compose couplet poetry.
7. Label the generic forms.
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8. Make spoken word poetry.
9. Identify complex whole-poem forms.
10 Composed short whole-poem forms.

Input 11 Genres of Poetry

Genres of Poetry

Poetry can be classified into three genres:

A. Narrative Poetry
B. Lyric Poetry
C. Dramatic Poetry

A. Narrative Poetry

Is a form of poetry that tells a story, often making the voices of a narrator and
characters as well; the entire story is usually written in metered verse.
 Narrative poem in literature is a poem which tells a story. It has a full storyline with
all the elements of a traditional story. These elements include
characters, plot, conflict and resolution, setting and action. Although a narrative
poem does not need a rhyming pattern, it is a metered poem with clear objectives to
reach a specific audience.
Examples of narrative poems include:
1. Epic
The word epic is derived from the Ancient Greek adjective, “epikos”, which means a
poetic story. In literature, an epic is a long narrative poem, which is usually related
to heroic deeds of a person of an unusual courage and unparalleled bravery. In
order to depict this bravery and courage, the epic uses grandiose style.
Epic poetry–or heroic poetry, as some of the medieval poets have called it–follows a
certain time-tested formula to portray such grand representations of heroes and
their followers. Here are a few recurring patterns to keep in mind when considering
these texts:

● The invocation of a muse. These poets plea to the gods at the very beginning
to grant them the power to tell these stories with a certain forcefulness,
though some admittedly pretend to do so to claim they are divinely
empowered.
● Many of these begin in medias res, in the middle of the story, and may
digress into the past later on in the poem.
● There are many journeys into the underworld.

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 ● There are grand battle-scenes punctuated by extended similes, ambitious
analogies that stretch the imagination but strive for literary glory.
● Many will feature the might of armies in long digressions featuring weaponry
and war games.

Here are some of the greatest Epic poems in the tradition:

1. The Epic of Gilgamesh (~2000 BCE)

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It is not surprising that even the oldest known work of literature in the world is an
epic poem written on the grandest of scales. Based on the actual Assyrian king,
Gilgamesh confronts many of the themes that Homer will tackle in his epic poetry:
the human/deity divide, mortality, seduction, legacy. As a young god-king in the
poem, Gilgamesh’s arrogant practices trouble the populace until Enkidu, a wildman
created by a goddess, challenges the monarch’s power. Although it was written
about 4000 years ago, critics have argued that it is a particularly humanistic work,
as the demi-gods’ desire adventure and pleasure over ruthless.

2.The Homeric Poems – The Iliad (~800 BCE)

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 Few details are known about who Homer actually was, but the poet’s (or poets’)
identity is surely peripheral compared to the impact these two texts have had on
Western Civilization. Sparked by the taking of Helen from Sparta, the Greeks, lead
by Achilles, advance towards Troy to destroy their adversary. While there is some
involvement from the gods, it is again the human factor that is much more
significant, as the leader’s fateful spar with Hector is both a celebration of military
heroism and a mournful ode to the losses of battle. Many common phrases have
their origin in this poem, including the hero’s vulnerable “Achilles’ Heel”, as well as
the famous symbol of deception, “the trojan horse”, the receptacle used to bring the
soldiers into the Trojan stronghold.

2. Metrical Romance

A metrical romance poem is a type of prose poem that was especially popular
during the Renaissance. These poems do not rhyme and deal with themes such as
love, rites of passage, chivalry, adventure and interpersonal relationships. Knights,
fair maidens and epic journeys appear frequently in metrical romance poems.

Metrical romance poems were the dominant poetic form among royalty, nobility and
wealthy landowners during the Renaissance. These poems tell tales and almost
always have a happy ending. Despite their name, metrical romance poems do not
always include a love story. The defining feature of a metrical romance poem is the
hero character, a courageous man with excellent moral character. Most heroes are
knights. Prose poems that lack a hero but have the other characteristics of a
metrical romance are called metrical tales. The most famous example of a metrical
tale is "The Canterbury Tales" by Geoffrey Chaucer. Spenser's "Fairie Queen,"
however, has a hero and is therefore a metrical romance.

3. Metrical Tale

A Metrical tale is a type of poem which follows a narrative format; featuring

characters, a plot, setting and a theme. This kind of compositions conveys practical,
apparent and straightforward storylines of either real or fictional event. The topics
vary from romance, the quest for adventure, love, and various phases of life.
Metrical tales rarely conform to rhythm, although they feature a systematic
combination of words in the form of verses. Additionally, Metrical tales often vary in
length – they can either be a brief story, or span to the expanse of a novel and
anything in between.
A metrical tale typically comprises of a series of connected events, which usually
end up with a happy ending especially in romance themes; where tales are told of

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brave Knights facing hardships and trials in their quests for adventure. A romantic
end would often suffice as a reward for their valiant accomplishments.
Most metrical tales convey the story in the first person.
Note that the majority of hip-hop lyrics adhere to the metrical tale style, also referred
to as "meter."
"The Lady of the Lake" by Sir Walter Scott is an excellent example of a Metrical
Tale. 
A metrical tale is a simple and straightforward long story consisting usually of a
single series of connective events, and usually, do not form a plot. Examples of
these are simple idylls or home tales, love tales, tales of the supernatural or tales
written for a strong moral purpose in verse form and can be the length of a short
story or of a complete novel.
4. Ballad
A ballad is a form of verse, often a narrative set to music. Ballads derive
from the medieval French chanson balladée or ballade, which were originally
"dance songs". Ballads were particularly characteristic of the popular poetry and
song of Britain and Ireland from the later medieval period until the 19th century.
They were widely used across Europe, and later in Australia, North Africa, North
America and South America. Ballads are often 13 lines with an ABABBCBC form,
consisting of couplets (two lines) of rhymed verse, each of 14 syllables. Another
common form is ABAB or ABCB repeated, in alternating 8 and 6 syllable lines.
Many ballads were written and sold as single sheet broadsides. The form
was often used by poets and composers from the 18th century onwards to produce
lyrical ballads. In the later 19th century, the term took on the meaning of a slow form
of popular love song and is often used for any love song, particularly
the sentimental ballad of pop or rock music, although the term is also associated
with the concept of a stylized storytelling song or poem, particularly when used as a
title for other media such as a film.

B. Lyric Poetry
A lyric poem or lyrical poem in literature is a poem in which the poet either
expresses his feelings and emotions. The poet also presents a character in the first
person to express his emotions. It is a combination of lyric and poetry where a piece
of poetry is written as a lyric. Lyric has been derived from lyre, a musical stringed
instrument used during the Grecian period to accompany the poetry sung during
different festivities.

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Types of Lyric

There are several types of lyric used in poems such as given below:

Elegy

An elegy is a mournful, sad, or melancholic poem or a song that expresses sorrow

for someone who has bee lost, or died. Originally, it followed a structure using
a meter alternating six foot and five foot lines. However, modern elegies do not
follow such a pattern, though the mood of the poem remains the same.

Ode

An ode is a lyric poem that expresses intense feelings, such as love, respect, or

praise for someone or something. Like an elegy, an ode does not follow any strict
format or structure, though it uses refrains or repeated lines. It is usually longer than
other lyrical forms, and focuses on positive moods of life.

Sonnet

A sonnet uses fourteen lines, and follows iambic pentameter with five pairs of

accented and unaccented syllables. The structure of a sonnet, with predetermined
syllables and rhyme scheme, makes it flow off the tongues of readers in way similar
way to a on song on the radio.

Song

Song poems are songs with lyrics by usually non-professional writers that have

been set to music by commercial companies for a fee. This practice, which has long
been disparaged in the established music industry, was also known as song
sharking and was conducted by several businesses throughout the 20th century
in North America.

Simple Lyric

These Lyric Simple poems are examples of Simple poems about Lyric. These are
the best examples of Simple Lyric poems written by international poets.

 Ruled By A Clock

When I was born, who would have thought

I’d grow up to be ruled by a clock.
Clocks mock dreams while hours gawk -
clicking off our...

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 C. Dramatic Poetry

Also known as a dramatic poem, this is an emotional piece of literature which

includes a story which is recited or sung. It refers to the dramatic genre of poetry.
Till the nineteenth century dramas were written in the form of verses. The definition
of this piece of literature can be quoted as, ‘a form of poetry where a story is
narrated in the form of a lyrical ballad.’
This kind of poetry has come from Sanskrit dramas and Greek tragedies. The
method adopted in this form is that the story is usually narrated in the form of a
recital or song. Soliloquy and dramatic monologues are the main instruments of this
form of poetry. There are also many examples of dramatic poetry for children. They
are written in such a manner that they can be easily understood, and enacted.
Examples of dramatic poetry include:
Dramatic Monologue

A dramatic monologue has theatrical quality, which means that the poem portrays a
solitary speaker communing with the audience, without any dialogue coming from
other characters. Usually, the speaker talks to a specific person in the poem.

Soliloquy

A soliloquy is a popular literary device often used in drama to reveal the innermost
thoughts of a character. It is a great technique used to convey the progress of
action of the play, by means of expressing a character’s thoughts about a certain
character or past, present, or upcoming event, while talking to himself without
acknowledging the presence of any other person.

Soliloquy vs. Monologue
Soliloquy and monologue cover very similar ground, but there are some important
differences between the two words. Soliloquy (from the Latin solus “alone”
and loqui “to speak”) at its most basic level refers to the act of talking to oneself,
and more specifically denotes the solo utterance of an actor in a drama. It tends to
be used of formal or literary expressions, such as
Hamlet’s soliloquies. Monologue (from Greek monos "alone" and legein "to speak")
may also refer to a dramatic scene in which an actor soliloquizes, but it has other
meanings as well. To a stand-up comedian, monologue denotes a comic routine. To
a bored listener, it signifies a long speech uttered by someone who has too much to
say.

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Learning Exercise 11.1

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:
Narrative Poems
Use this chart to define the different types of narrative poems.

Type of Narrative Poem Meaning Famous Examples

1. Epic

2.Metrical Romance

3.Metrical Tale

4. Ballad

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Learning Exercise 11.2

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Lyric Poems
Use this chart to define the different types of lyric poems.

Type of Lyric Poem Meaning Famous Examples

1.Ode

2. Elegy

3.Sonnet

4.Song

5.Simple Lyric

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Learning Exercise 11.3

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Dramatic Poems
Use this chart to define the different types of dramatic poems.

Type of Dramatic Poem Meaning Famous Examples

1.Dramatic Monologue

2.Soliloquy

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Input 12 Poetic Forms

Poetic Forms

Here is a classification of poetic forms:

A. Genetic Forms
B. Complex Whole-Poem Forms
C. Short Whole-Poem Forms
D. Free Verse

A. Genetic Forms
Coupletis a literary device that can be defined as having two successive rhyming
lines in a verse, and has the same meter to form a complete thought. It is marked
by a usual rhythm, rhyme scheme, and incorporation of specific utterances.
Tripletis a rather rare stanza form in poetry and is basically three lines that rhyme.
It is a type of tercet, or three-lined stanza or poem. However, the triplet is more
specifically bound by rhyme scheme and sometimes meter than the tercet.

Quatrain is a stanza in a poem that has exactly four lines. Some quatrains
comprise entire poems, while others are part of a larger structure. Quatrains usually
use some form of rhyme scheme, especially the following forms: AAAA, AABB,
ABAB, and ABBA. Lines in quatrain can be any length and with any meter, but there
is usually a regular rhythm to the lines as well. There are examples of quatrains in
many eras and cultures, from Ancient Greece and China to Renaissance England
and Iran to contemporary literature.
Refrain is a verse or phrase that is repeated at intervals throughout a song
or poem, usually after the chorus or stanza.
Ballad is a narrative poem that originally was set to music. Ballads were first created
in medieval France, and the word ballad comes from the French term chanson
balladée, which means “dancing song.” Ballads then became popular in Great
Britain, and remained so until the nineteenth century. The meaning has changed
somewhat in the present day to refer to any slow love song.
Blank verse is a literary device defined as un-rhyming verse written in
iambic pentameter. In poetry and prose, it has a consistent meter with 10 syllables
in each line (pentameter); where, unstressed syllables are followed by stressed
ones, five of which are stressed but do not rhyme. It is also known as “un-
rhymed iambic pentameter.”

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Dropped line is a line which is broken into two lines, but where the second part
is indented to the horizontal position it would have had an unbroken line. For
example, in the poem "The Other Side of the River" by Charles Wright, the first and
second lines form a dropped line, as do the fourth and fifth lines.
Tetractys or tetractys of the decad is a triangular figure consisting of ten points
arranged in four rows: one, two, three, and four points in each row, which is the
geometrical representation of the fourth triangular number. As a mystical symbol, it
was very important to the secret worship of Pythagoreanism. There were four
seasons, and the number was also associated with planetary motions and music.
Stichomythia is a technique in drama or poetry, in which alternating lines, or half-
lines, are given to alternating characters, voices, or entities. The term originated in
the literature of Ancient Greece, and is often applied to the dramas of Sophocles.
Etymologically it derives from the Greek stichos ("rows") + mythos ("speech").

Light poetry or light verse is poetry that attempts to be humorous. Light

poems are usually brief, can be on a frivolous or serious subject, and often feature
word play including puns, adventurous rhyme, and heavy alliteration.

Spoken word poetry is a poetic performance art that is word-based. It is an oral art
that focuses on the aesthetics of word play such as intonation and voice inflection. It
is a "catchall" term that includes any kind of poetry recited aloud, including poetry
readings, poetry slams, jazz poetry, and hip hop, and can include comedy routines
and prose monologues.[1] Although spoken word can include any kind of poetry read
aloud, it is different from written poetry in that how it sounds is often one of the main
components. Unlike written poetry, it has less to do with physical, on the page
aesthetics and more to do with phonaesthetics, or the aesthetics of sound.

B.Complex Whole-Poem Forms

Here are the complex whole-poem forms

Sonneta poem of fourteen lines using any of a number of formal rhyme schemes, in
English typically having ten syllables per line.

Villanelle a nineteen-line poem with two rhymes throughout, consisting of five

tercets and a quatrain, with the first and third lines of the opening tercet recurring
alternately at the end of the other tercets and with both repeated at the close of the
concluding quatrain.

Sestinaa poem with six stanzas of six lines and a final triplet, all stanzas having the
same six words at the line-ends in six different sequences that follow a fixed
pattern, and with all six words appearing in the closing three-line envoi.

Ghazal is a poem that is made up like an odd numbered chain of couplets, where
each couplet is an independent poem. It should be natural to put a comma at the

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end of the first line. The Ghazal has a refrain of one to three words that repeat, and
an inline rhyme that preceedes the refrain.

Pantoum is a form of poetry similar to a villanelle in that there are repeating lines
throughout the poem. It is composed of a series of quatrains; the second and fourth
lines of each stanza are repeated as the first and third lines of the next stanza.

Rondeau a thirteen-line poem, divided into three stanzas of 5, 3, and 5 lines, with
only two rhymes throughout and with the opening words of the first line used as a
refrain at the end of the second and third stanzas.

C .Short Whole-Poem Forms

Clerihew is a whimsical, four-line biographical poem invented by Edmund Clerihew

Bentley. The first line is the name of the poem's subject, usually a famous person
put in an absurd light, or revealing something unknown or spurious about them. The
rhyme scheme is AABB, and the rhymes are often forced. The line length and meter
are irregular. Bentley invented the clerihew in school and then popularized it in
books. 

Haikuis traditionally a Japanese poem consisting of three short lines that do not
rhyme. The origins of haiku poems can be traced back as far as the 9th century.

Tanka is a thirty-one-syllable poem, traditionally written in a single unbroken line. A

form of waka, Japanese song or verse, tanka translates as "short song," and is
better known in its five-line, 5/7/5/7/7 syllable count form.

Ambahan is a literary product and poetic expression of the Southern Mangyans of

Mindoro, Philippines. Although there are about seven different ethnic groups living
in Mindoro, collectively called the Mangyans, these groups are quite distinct from
each other as to language, customs, and way of living.

Tanaga is an indigenous type of Filipino poem, that is used traditionally in the

Tagalog language. The modern tanaga is used in a variety of Philippine languages
and English due to popularity in the 20th century.

Textula is a blend of the English word "text" and the Filipino word "tula! ' Meaning
text poem, it is a poem written in the form of a text message. Usually consisting of
one or two stanzas, it is sent as a direct communication to a person close to the
sender.

Dalit meaning "broken/scattered" in Sanskrit and Hindi, is a term mostly used for
the lower caste members in India. The term is used for those who have been
subjected to untouchability.

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Limerick  is a form of verse, usually humorous and frequently rude, in five-line,
predominantly anapestic meter with a strict rhyme scheme of AABBA, in which the
first, second and fifth line rhyme, while the third and fourth lines are shorter and
share a different rhyme.

D. Free Verse

Free verse is a literary device that can be defined as poetry that is free from
limitations of regular meter or rhythm, and does not rhyme with fixed forms. Such
poems are without rhythm and rhyme schemes, do not follow regular rhyme
scheme rules, yet still provide artistic expression. In this way, the poet can give his
own shape to a poem however he or she desires. However, it still allows poets to
use alliteration, rhyme, cadences, and rhythms to get the effects that they consider
are suitable for the piece. Function of Free Verse
Free verse is commonly used in contemporary poetry. Some poets have taken
this technique as a freedom from rhythm and rhyme, because it changes people’s
minds whimsically. Therefore, free verse is also called verslibre.
The best thing about free verse is that poets can imagine the forms of any
sound through intonations instead of meters. Free verse gives a greater freedom for
choosing words, and conveying their meanings to the audience. Since it depends
upon patterned elements like sounds, phrases, sentences, and words, it is free of
artificiality of a typical poetic expression.
Examples of Free Verse
A Noiseless Patient Spider (By Walt Whitman)
“A noiseless patient spider,
I mark’d where on a little promontory it stood isolated,
Mark’d how to explore the vacant vast surrounding,
It launch’d forth filament, filament, filament, out of itself,
Ever unreeling them, ever tirelessly speeding them.
And you O my soul where you stand,
Surrounded, detached, in measureless oceans of space…
Till the bridge you will need be form’d, till the ductile anchor hold,
Till the gossamer thread you fling catch somewhere, O my soul.”

Learning Exercise 12.1

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 Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Generic Forms
Create a spoken poetry about your dream in life.

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Learning Exercise 12.2

Name: Rating:

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 Teacher: Time:
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Complex Whole-Poem Forms

Construct a villanelle poem form.

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Learning Exercise 12.3

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:

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 Date: Section:

Short Whole-Poem Forms

Construct a dalit poem form.

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CHAPTER v

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 Reading and writing drama: Finding the Shakespeare in you

Specific Learning Objectives

At the end of this Chapter, the student will be able:

1. Identifyfiction.
2. Explainwhat is novel.
3. Differentiate between detective novel and allegorical novel.
4. Create own dime novel.
5. Compare dystopian novel and mystery novel.
6. Criticizeerotic novel.
7. Value the importance of horror novel.
8. Discover the famous examples of fables.
9. Createown fairy tale story.
10. Use fiction in writing.
Input 13 What is Fiction

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1. What is Fiction?

Fiction, literature created from the imagination, not presented as fact, though it may

be based on a true story or situation. Types of literature in the fiction genre include
the novel, short story, and novella. The word is from the Latin fictiō, “the act of
making, fashioning, or molding.”
Fiction may be based on stories of actual historical events. Although fictitious
characters are presented in a fictitious setting in stories and novels, they may have
some resemblance to real life events and characters. Writers alter their characters
very skillfully when they take them from actual life.
Example of Fiction in Literature
Example: Alice in Wonderland (By Lewis Carrol)
Alice in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll is a good example of fiction. The story
narrates various adventures of the main character, Alice, in a fictitious land full of
incredible creatures and events. Alice has to go through certain magical
experiences in the wonderland. According to the story, one day, while reading book,
Alice grows bored, and notices a white rabbit. She follows the rabbit when it goes
into a hole in the ground.
When peeping through the hole, Alice loses her balance and falls in. She floats
down slowly into the hole, and observes everything around her. Then Alice enters
Wonderland, where she witnesses a number of weird things.  This entire magical
tale is fabricated and imaginary, which makes it a good fiction to enjoy.
2. Some quotes about fiction

“Literature is a luxury; fiction is a necessity.”

― G.K. Chesterton

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“That's what fiction is for. It's for getting at the truth when the truth isn't sufficient for
the truth.”
― Tim O'Brien

“Fiction is the lie through which we tell the truth.”

― Albert Camus

“Artists use lies to tell the truth. Yes, I created a lie. But because you believed it,
you found something true about yourself.”
― Alan Moore, V for Vendetta

“Fiction reveals truth that reality obscures.”

― Jessamyn West

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“I have claimed that Escape is one of the main functions of fairy-stories, and since I
do not disapprove of them, it is plain that I do not accept the tone of scorn or pity
with which 'Escape' is now so often used. Why should a man be scorned if, finding
himself in prison, he tries to get out and go home? Or if he cannot do so, he thinks
and talks about other topics than jailers and prison-walls?”
― J.R.R. Tolkien

“Fiction is art and art is the triumph over chaos… to celebrate a world that lies
spread out around us like a bewildering and stupendous dream.”
― John Cheever

“Fiction is one of the few experiences where loneliness can be both confronted and
relieved. Drugs, movies where stuff blows up, loud parties -- all these chase away
loneliness by making me forget my name's Dave and I live in a one-by-one box of
bone no other party can penetrate or know. Fiction, poetry, music, really deep
serious sex, and, in various ways, religion -- these are the places (for me) where
loneliness is countenanced, stared down, transfigured, treated.”
― David Foster Wallace

“One always has a better book in one's mind than one can manage to get onto
paper.”
― Michael Cunningham

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“The good ended happily, and the bad unhappily. That is what Fiction means.”
― Oscar Wilde, The Importance of Being Earnest

“But wishes are only granted in fairy tales.”

― Simone Elkeles, Perfect Chemistry

“There is no doubt fiction makes a better job of the truth.”

― Doris May Lessing, Under My Skin: Volume One of My Autobiography, to
1949

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“Life is infinitely stranger than anything which the mind of man could invent. We
would not dare to conceive the things which are really mere commonplaces of
existence. If we could fly out of that window hand in hand, hover over this great city,
gently remove the roofs, and and peep in at the queer things which are going on,
the strange coincidences, the plannings, the cross-purposes, the wonderful chains
of events, working through generations, and leading to the most outre results, it
would make all fiction with its conventionalities and foreseen conclusions most stale
and unprofitable.”
― Arthur Conan Doyle, The Complete Adventures of Sherlock Holmes

“You should never read just for "enjoyment." Read to make yourself smarter! Less
judgmental.More apt to understand your friends' insane behavior, or better yet, your
own. Pick "hard books." Ones you have to concentrate on while reading. And for
god's sake, don't let me ever hear you say, "I can't read fiction. I only have time for
the truth." Fiction is the truth, fool! Ever hear of "literature"? That means fiction, too,
stupid.”
― John Waters, Role Models

“Men are more interesting in books than they are in real life.”
― Mary Ann Shaffer, The Guernsey Literary and Potato Peel Pie Society

3. Types of Prose Fiction

Fiction is a general term used to describe an imaginative work of prose, either a
novel, short story, or novella. Recently, this definition has been modified to include
both nonfiction works that contain imaginative elements, like Midnight in the Garden
Of Good and Evil by John Berendt (Random House, 1994) and Dutch by Edmund
Morris (Random House, 1999), and novels consisting largely of factual reporting
with a patina of fictionalization, such as Memoirs of a Geisha by Arthur Golden
(Knopf, 1997). However, in the truest sense, a work of fiction is a creation of the
writer’s imagination

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The two main types of fiction are literary and commercial.
Commercial fiction attracts a broad audience and may also fall into
any subgenre, like mystery, romance, legal thriller, western, science fiction, and so
on. For example, The Bridges of Madison County by Robert James Waller (Warner,
1992) was a hugely successful commercial novel because the book described the
fulfillment of a romantic fantasy that is dear to the heart of millions of readers.
Written in a short, easy-to-read style, the book was as mesmerizing to 15-year-olds
as it was to 100-year-olds. Other blockbuster commercial fiction authors include
John Grisham, Sidney Sheldon, Danielle Steele, and Jackie Collins.
Literary fiction tends to appeal to a smaller, more intellectually adventurous
audience. A work of literary fiction can fall into any of the subgenres described in
the following sections. What sets literary fiction apart, however, is the notable
qualities it contains — excellent writing, originality of thought, and style — that raise
it above the level of ordinary written works. A recent work of literary fiction that
enjoyed wide popularity was Cold Mountain by Charles Frazier (Atlantic Monthly
Press, 1997). Other popular authors of literary fiction include Toni Morrision,
Barbara Kingsolver, John LeCarre, and Saul Bellow.
What are the major differences between a short story, novelette, novella, and a
novel?
Novellas and novelettes might not be very common, but we often see short stories
and novels. Knowing the differences, however, is still important. Although they are
all works of fiction, each type has its own purpose. In this article, I will try to put light
on some of the major differences between flash fiction, short story, novelette,
novella, novel.
Beginners will find this very helpful in their writing journey. Apart from some of the
basic differences in terms of word count, you will also learn a few technical points
that differentiate these works of fiction.
Flash Fiction: 53 - 1,000 words
Short Stories: 3,500 - 7,500
Novellettes: 7,500 - 17,000
Novellas: 17,000 - 40,000
Novels: 40,000 + words
A. Novel

Novel, an invented prose narrative of considerable length and a certain complexity

that deals imaginatively with human experience, usually through a connected
sequence of events involving a group of persons in a specific setting. Within its
broad framework, the genre of the novel has encompassed an extensive range of
types and styles: picaresque, epistolary, Gothic, romantic, realist, historical—to
name only some of the more important ones.

Different Types of Novel

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● Realistic Novel:
                                A fictional attempt to give the effect of realism. This sort of
novel is sometimes called a novel of manner. A realistic novel can
be characterized by its complex characters with mixed  motives that are rooted in
social class and operate according to highly developed social structure. The
characters in realistic novel interact with other characters and undergo plausible
and everyday experiences.

Examples: Thirteen Reasons Why by Jay Asher, Looking for Alaska by John

Green.

● Picaresque Novel:
                                A picaresque novel  relates the adventures of an eccentric or
disreputable hero in episodic form. The genre gets its name from the Spanish
word picaro, or "rogue."

Examples: Rudyard Kipling's Kim (1901), Henry Fielding’s The History of Tom

Jones, a Foundling (1749),

● Historical Novel:
                                A Historical novel is a novel set in a period earlier than that of
the writing.

Examples: Thackeray's Vanity Fair, Charles Dickens's A Tale of Two Cities,

George Eliot's Romola and Charles Kingsley's Westward Ho!

● Epistolary Novel:
                                Epistolary fiction is a popular genre where the narrative is told
via a series of documents. The word epistolary comes from Latin where ‘epistola’
means a letter. Letters are the most common basis for epistolary novels but diary
entries are also popular

Examples: Samuel Richardson’s  Pamela and Clarissa, Bram Stoker’s Dracula,

Alice Walker’s The Color Purple and Bridget Jones’ Diary.

● Bildungsroman:
                                German terms that indicates a growth. This fictional
autobiography concerned with the development of the protagonist’s mind, spirit, and
characters from childhood to adulthood.

Examples: Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte, David Copperfield  by Charles

Dickens, The Magic Mountain by Thomas Mann etc.

● Gothic Novel:

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                                Gothic novel includes terror, mystery, horror, thriller,
supernatural, doom, death, decay, old haunted buildings with ghosts and so on.

Examples: Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, John William Polidori’s The Vampyre,

Bram Stoker’s Dracula, The Castle of Otranto by Horace Walpole,

● Autobiographical Novel:
                                An autobiographical novel is a novel based on the life of the
author.

Examples: Charles Dickens’ David Coppefield, Great Expectations, D. H.

Lawrence’s Sons and Lovers, Sylvia Plath’s The Bell Jar, Ralph Ellison
‘s Invisible Man, Maya Angelou’ s I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , Virginia
Wolfe’s The Light House etc.

● Satirical Novel:
                                Satire is loosely defined as art that ridicules a specific topic in
order to provoke readers into changing their opinion of it. By attacking what they
see as human folly, satirists usually imply their own opinions on how the thing being
attacked can be improved.

Examples: George Orwell’s Animal Farm, Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s

Travel, Joseph Heller’s Catch 22, Mark Twin’s The Adventure of Huckleberry
Finn,

● Allegorical Novel:
                                An allegory is a story with two levels of meaning- surface
meaning and symbolic meaning. The symbolic meaning of an allegory can be
political or religious, historical or philosophical.

Examples: John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress , William Golding's The Lord of the

Flies, Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene etc.

● Regional Novel:
                                A religious novel is a novel that is set against the
background of a particular area.

Examples: Novels of Charles Dickens George Eliot etc.

● Novella:
                                A novella is a short, narrative, prose fiction. As a literary
genre, the novella’s origin lay in the early Renaissance literary work of the Italians
and the French. As the etymology suggests, novellas originally were news of town
and country life worth repeating for amusement and edification.

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Examples: Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness,

● Detective Fiction:
                                Detective fiction is a subgenre of crime fiction and
mystery fiction in which an investigator or a detective—either professional or
amateur—investigates a crime, often murder.

Examples: Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’ A Study in Scarlet ( Sherlock Holmes), Satyajit
Roy’s Sonar Kella (Feluda), G. K. Chesterton’s The Blue Cross (Father Brown),
Dr. NiharRanjan Gupta’s KaloBhramar (Kiriti)

● The Intellectual Novel:

                                These sort of novelists attempted to explore the intellectual
responses of the intelligentia to the world. Characteristically, their novel displays the
clash of ideas and intellectual verification of knowledge., value and response, a
diminishing faith on the cosmic significance of existence,  argument and counter
argument in discussion, separation of concept of love and sex, conversation without
communication, and a dehumanizing effect of disillusionment in the 20th century.

Examples:  Graham Greene’s The Power and the Glory, The Heart of the Matter,

Elizabeth Bowen’s The Hotel, The House in Paris.

● Stream of Consciousness Novel or Psychological Novel:

                                Psychological novels are works of fiction that treat the internal
life of the protagonist (or several or all characters) as much as (if not more than) the
external forces that make up the plot. The phrase “Stream of Consciousness” was
coined by William James in his Principles of Psychology (1890), to describe the flow
of thought of the waking mind.

Examples: Virginia Wolfe’s To the Lighthouse, Mrs. Dolloway, James

Joyce’s Ulysses, D. H. Lawrence’s Sons and Lovers, The Rainbow.
● Roman á these/ Social Fiction/ Political Novel:
                                The genre focussed on possible development of societies, very
often dominated by totalitarian governments. This type of novels must have social
and political message. The term generally refers to fiction in Europe and the Soviet
Union reacting to Communist rule.

Examples: George Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four, Huxley’s Brave New

World etc.

● Prose Romance:

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                                This is a novel that is often set in the historical past with a plot
that emphasizes adventure and an atmosphere removed from reality. The
characters in a prose romance are either sharply drawn as villains or heroes,
masters or victims; while the protagonist is isolated from the society.

Examples: The Story of the Pillow by Shen Jiji, and The Governor of the

Southern Tributary State by LiGongzuo.

● Novel of Incident:
                                In a novel of incident the narrative focuses on what the
protagonist will do next and how the story will turn out.
Examples: The Wizard of Oz, Star Wars etc.

● Novel of Character:
                                A novel of character focuses on the protagonist’s
motives for what he/she does and how he/she turns out.

Examples: Jane Austen’s Emma.

● Roman á clef:
                                French term for a novel with a key, imaginary events with
real people disguised as fictional characters.

Examples: The Bell Jar by Sylvia Plath, Animal Farm by George Orwell, On the
Road by Jack Kerouac etc.

● Dime Novel:
                                Dime novels were short works of fiction, usually focused
on the dramatic exploits of a single heroic character. As evidenced by their name,
dime novels were sold for a dime (sometimes a nickel), and featured colourful cover
illustrations. They were bound in paper, making them light, portable, and somewhat
ephemeral.

Example: Dime novels are, at least in spirit, the antecedent of today's mass market
paperbacks, comic books, and even television shows and movies based on the
dime novel genres. Buffalo Ball.

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● Hypertext Novel:
                                Hypertext fiction is a genre of electronic literature,
characterized by the use of hypertext links which provide a new context for non-
linearity in literature and reader interaction. The reader typically chooses links to
move from one node of text to the next, and in this fashion arranges a story from a
deeper pool of potential stories. Its spirit can also be seen in interactive fiction.

Examples: James Joyce's Ulysses (1922), Mark Z. Danielewski's House of

Leaves (2000), Enrique JardielPoncela's La Tournée de Dios (1932), Jorge Luis
Borges' The Garden of Forking Paths (1941), Vladimir Nabokov's Pale
Fire (1962) and Julio Cortázar's Rayuela (1963; translated as Hopscotch) etc.

● Sentimental Novel:
                                The sentimental novel or the novel of sensibility is an 18th-
century literary genre which celebrates the emotional and intellectual concepts
of sentiment, sentimentalism, and sensibility.

Examples: Samuel Richardson's Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740),

Oliver Goldsmith's  Vicar of Wakefield (1766), Laurence
Sterne's TristramShandy (1759–67), Sentimental Journey (1768), Henry
Brooke's The Fool of Quality (1765–70), Henry Mackenzie's The Man of
Feeling (1771). Continental example is  Jean-Jacques Rousseau's novel Julie.
● Utopian Novel:   
                                A utopia is a community or society possessing highly desirable
or perfect qualities. It is a common literary theme, especially in speculative fiction
and science fiction.

Examples: Utopia by Thomas Moore, Laws (360 BC) by Plato, New

Atlantis (1627) by Sir Francis Bacon, Robinson Crusoe (1719) by Daniel
Defoe,  Gulliver's Travels (1726) by Jonathan Swift.
● Graphic Novel:
                                Graphic novels are, simply defined, book-length comics.
Sometimes they tell a single, continuous narrative from first page to last; sometimes
they are collections of shorter stories or individual comic strips. Comics are
sequential visual art, usually with text, that are often told in a series of rectangular
panels.1 Despite the name, not all comics are funny. Many comics and graphic
novels emphasize drama, adventure, character development, striking visuals,
politics, or romance over laugh-out-loud comedy.

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Examples: Frank Miller’s Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, The Fantastic
Four and X-Men etc.

● Science Fiction (Sci-Fi):

                                Science fiction is a genre of speculative fiction dealing
with imaginative concepts such as futuristic settings, futuristic science and
technology, space travel, time travel, faster than light travel, parallel universes and
extraterrestrial life. Science fiction often explores the potential consequences of
scientific and other innovations.

Examples: The War of the Worlds by H.G. Wells, The Time Machine.

● Cult or Coterie Novel:

                                Cult novels often come from the fringes, they often represent
counter-cultural perspectives, they often experiment with form.

Examples: Speedboat  by Renata Adler, Sddhartha by Herman Hesse,

● Pulp Fiction:
                                Term originated from the magazines of the first half of the 20th
century which were printed on cheap "pulp" paper and published fantastic, escapist
fiction for the general entertainment of the mass audiences. The pulp fiction era
provided a breeding ground for creative talent which would influence all forms of
entertainment for decades to come. The hardboiled detective and science fiction
genres were created by the freedom that the pulp fiction magazines provided.
Examples: The Spider, Doc Savage, Blood N Thunder etc.

● Erotic Novel:
                                Erotic romance novels have romance as the main focus of the
plot line, and they are characterized by strong, often explicit, sexual content.[2] The
books can contain elements of any of the other romance subgenres, such as
paranormal elements, chick lit, hen lit, historical fiction, etc. Erotic romance is
classed as pornography .

Examples:    His To Possess by Opal Carew, On Dublin Street by Samantha

Young.

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● Roman fleuve:
                                A novel sequence is a set or series of novels which share
common themes, characters, or settings, but where each novel has its own title and
free-standing storyline, and can thus be read independently or out of sequence.

Examples: Honoré de Balzac’s Comédiehumaine and Émile Zola’s Rougon-

Macquart,

● Anti-Novel:
                                An antinovel is any experimental work of fiction that avoids the
familiar conventions of the novel, and instead establishes its own conventions.

Examples:  Laurence Sterne's TristramShandy.

● Interactive Novel:
                                The interactive novel is a form of interactive web fiction. In an
interactive novel, the reader chooses where to go next in the novel by clicking on a
piece of hyperlinked text, such as a page number, a character, or a direction.

Examples: J. K. Rowling’s Harry Potter  Series.

● Fantasy Novel:
                                Stories involving paranormal magic and terrible monsters have
existed in spoken forms before the advent of printed literature.

Examples: J. R. R. Tolkien’s The Hobbit, C. S. Lewis’ The Chronicles of Narnia.

● Adventure Novel:
                                Adventure fiction is a genre of fiction in which an adventure,
an exciting undertaking involving risk and physical danger, forms the main storyline.

Examples:  Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe.

● Children’s Novel:
                                Children's novels are narrative fiction books written for children,
distinct from collections of stories and picture books.

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Examples: The Christmas Mystery, Charlotte's Web by E.B. White, James and
the Giant Peach by Roald Dahl.
● Dystopian Novel:
                                A dystopia is an unpleasant (typically repressive) society, often
propagandized as being utopian.

Examples: Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury, The Giver by Lois Lowry etc.

● Mystery Novel:
                                The mystery genre is a type of fiction in which a detective, or
other professional, solves a crime or series of crimes. It can take the form of
a novel or short story. This genre may also be called detective or crime novels.

Examples: Dan Brown’s The Da Vinci Code.

B. Novella
Novella, short and well-structured narrative, often realistic and satiric in tone, that
influenced the development of the short story and the novel throughout Europe.
Originating in Italy during the Middle Ages, the novella was based on local events
that were humorous, political, or amorous in nature; the individual tales often were
gathered into collections along with anecdotes, legends, and romantic tales. Writers
such as Giovanni Boccaccio, Franco Sacchetti, and Matteo Bandello later
developed the novella into a psychologically subtle and highly structured short tale,
often using a frame story to unify the tales around a common theme.
Geoffrey Chaucer introduced the novella to England with The Canterbury
Tales. During the Elizabethan period, William Shakespeare and other playwrights
extracted dramatic plots from the Italian novella. The realistic content and form of
these tales influenced the development of the English novel in the 18th century and
the short story in the 19th century.
The novella flourished in Germany, where it is known as the Novelle, in the 18th,
19th, and early 20th centuries in the works of writers such as Heinrich von
Kleist, Gerhart Hauptmann, J.W. von Goethe, Thomas Mann, and Franz Kafka. As
in Boccaccio’s Decameron, the prototype of the form, German Novellen are
often encompassed within a frame story based on a catastrophic event (such as
plague, war, or flood), either real or imaginary. The individual tales are related by
various reporter-narrators to divert the audience from the misfortune they are
experiencing. Characterized by brevity, self-contained plots that end on a note
of irony, a literate and facile style, restraint of emotion, and objective rather than
subjective presentation, these tales were a major stimulant to the development of
the modern short story in Germany. The Novelle also survived as a unique form,
although unity of mood and style often replaced the traditional unity of action; the

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importance of the frame was diminished, as was the necessity for maintaining
absolute objectivity.
B. Short Story

Short story, brief fictional prose narrative that is shorter than a novel and that
usually deals with only a few characters.

The short story is usually concerned with a single effect conveyed in only one or a
few significant episodes or scenes. The form encourages economy of setting,
concise narrative, and the omission of a complex plot; character is disclosed in
action and dramatic encounter but is seldom fully developed. Despite its relatively
limited scope, though, a short story is often judged by its ability to provide a
“complete” or satisfying treatment of its characters and subject.
Before the 19th century the short story was not generally regarded as a
distinct literary form. But although in this sense it may seem to be a uniquely
modern genre, the fact is that short prose fiction is nearly as old as language itself.
Throughout history humankind has enjoyed various types of brief narratives:
jests, anecdotes, studied digressions, short allegorical romances, moralizing fairy
tales, short myths, and abbreviated historical legends. None of these constitutes a
short story as it has been defined since the 19th century, but they do make up a
large part of the milieu from which the modern short story emerged.

Learning Exercise 13.1

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

What is Friction

How to write a great fiction story?

1. ___________________________________________________________

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 2. ___________________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________________
4. ___________________________________________________________
5. ___________________________________________________________

Learning Exercise 13.2

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Write at least three own quotes about fiction.

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

Learning Exercise 13.3

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Types of Prose Fiction

Write the correct type of novel in the blank.

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 1. It is usually presents the life of a quick-witted rogue and his
adventures in an episode style. __________
2. Combines a desolate setting and mysterious events to create an
atmosphere of terror. __________

3. Depicts the problems and injustices of society, making moral

judgments and offering resolution. __________

4. Pessimistically portrays sordidness, squalor, and violence through

characters who have no control over their destinies. __________

5. Portrays life objectively without idealization, reveals unpleasantness.

__________

6.  Is a subgenre of crime fiction and mystery fiction in which

an investigator or a detective—either professional, amateur or retired
—investigates a crime, often murder. __________

7. Typically told the dramatic adventure stories of a single hero or

heroine who often found himself or herself in the midst of a moral
dilemma. __________

8.  Is a broad genre of fiction that often involves speculations based on

current or future science or technology. __________

Input 14 Forerunners of the Modern Short Stories

What is a short story?

A short story is a work of prose fiction that can be read in one sitting—usually
between 20 minutes to an hour. There is no maximum length, but the average short
story is 1,000 to 7,500 words, with some outliers reaching 10,000 or 15,000 words.
At around 10 to 25 pages, that makes short stories much shorter than novels, with
only a few approaching novella length. A piece of fiction shorter than 1,000 words is

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considered a “short short story” or “flash fiction,” and anything less than 300 words
is rightfully called “microfiction.”

What are the key elements of a short story?

The setting of a short story is often simplified (one time and place), and one or
two main characters may be introduced without full backstories. In this concise,
concentrated format, every word and story detail has to work extra hard!
Short stories typically focus on a single plot instead of multiple subplots, like you
might see in novels. Some stories follow a traditional narrative arc, with exposition
(description) at the beginning, rising action, a climax (peak moment of conflict or
action), and a resolution at the end. However, contemporary short fiction is more
likely to begin in the middle of the action (in medias res), drawing readers right into
a dramatic scene.
While short stories of the past often revolved around a central theme or moral
lesson, today it is common to find stories with ambiguous endings. This type of
unresolved story invites open-ended readings and suggests a more complex
understanding of reality and human behavior.
The short story genre is well suited to experimentation in prose writing style and
form, but most short story authors still work to create a distinct mood using
classic literary devices (point of view, imagery, foreshadowing, metaphor,
diction/word choice, tone, and sentence structure).

What is the history of the short story?

Short-form storytelling can be traced back to ancient times in legends,
mythology, folklore, and fables found in communities all over the world. Some of
these stories existed in written form, but many were passed down to generations
through oral traditions. Early examples of short stories ranged from the Middle
Eastern folk tales of One Thousand and One Nights (collected by multiple authors
between the 8th and 14th centuries, later known in English as Arabian Nights) to the
English collection of Canterbury Tales (written by Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th
century).
It wasn’t until the early 19th century that short story collections by individual authors
appeared more regularly in print. The Brothers Grimm published their volume of
fairy tales in 1812. Edgar Allen Poe revealed his tales of mystery and Gothic fiction
between 1832 and 1849, declaring the short story as superior to the novel because
it could be read in “a single sitting.” Many literary critics also credit Russian author
and playwright Anton Chekhov as a founder of the modern short story, based on his
esteemed writing in the late 1800s.

Short stories gained popularity in the second half of the 19th century, with the
growth of print magazines and journals. Newspaper and magazine editors began
publishing stories as commercial entertainment, creating a demand for short, plot-
driven narratives with mass appeal. By the late 1800s and early 1900s, well-known
periodicals, like The Atlantic Monthly, The New Yorker, and Harper’s
Magazine, were paying good money for short stories that showed more literary

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technique and artistry. Higher standards and higher pay meant aspiring writers
could actually earn a living while elevating their craft.
That golden era of publishing gave rise to the short story as we know it today—a
real literary art form. The decades after World War II (post-1945) saw a surge of
literary short stories being written and circulated, but contemporary authors never
saw the same level of profits from publishing individual stories. Today, some literary
magazines pay a small rate, but most short stories are printed without
compensating authors.

What are the different types of short stories?

As with novels, short stories come in all kinds of categories: action, adventure,
biography, comedy, crime, detective, drama, dystopia, fable, fantasy, history, horror,
mystery, philosophy, politics, romance, satire, science fiction, supernatural, thriller,
tragedy, and Western.

Here are some literary styles/movements, with examples of authors and the
years in which they wrote:

Gothic fiction: Stories that explore human psychology, fear, death, and

imagination by incorporating mystery, horror, suspense, or supernatural elements
(Edgar Allen Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne, 1830s–1850s)

Realism: Representing subject matter in a detailed way that feels true to life,

without artistic conventions (Kate Chopin, O. Henry, Anton Chekhov, 1850 to early
1900s)

Modernism: Experimenting with narrative form, style, and chronology (inner

monologues, stream of consciousness) to capture the experience of the individual
(James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, Katherine Mansfield, 1910–1920s)

Science fiction: Presenting imagined futures or dystopian worlds in which humans

face profound technological, social, or environmental changes (Ray Bradbury,
1940s–1950s)

Magical realism: Combining realistic narrative or setting with elements of

surrealism, dreams, or fantasy (Gabriel GarcíaMárquez, 1960s–1970s)

Postmodernism: Using fragmentation, paradox, or unreliable narrators to explore

the relationship between the author, reader, and text (Donald Barthelme, Jorge Luis
Borges, Julio Cortázar, 1950s–1970s)

Minimalism: Writing characterized by brevity, straightforward language, and a lack

of plot resolutions (Raymond Carver, Ann Beattie, Amy Hempel, 1980s–1990s)

A. Myths

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Myth is a folklore genre consisting of narratives or stories that play a fundamental
role in a society, such as foundational tales or origin myths. The main characters in
myths are usually gods, demigods, or supernatural humans.  Stories of everyday
human beings, although often of leaders of some type, are usually contained
in legends, as opposed to myths.
Myths are often endorsed by rulers and priests or priestesses and are closely linked
to religion or spirituality. Many societies group their myths, legends, and history
together, considering myths and legends to be true accounts of their remote past. In
particular, creation myths take place in a primordial age when the world had not
achieved its later form. Other myths explain how a society's customs, institutions,
and taboos were established and sanctified. There is a complex relationship
between recital of myths and the enactment of rituals.

Famous examples of myths found in Greek mythology:

Myth of Ares

Ares is the God of War, representing the violence and aggression of battle. He was
hated and feared because of the death and destruction he caused with his sons,
Phobos (Fear) and Deimos (Terror). Not even his own parents, Zeus and Hera,
approved of him.

Myth of Creation

The universe was initially chaos and, from that chaos, Gaia (Earth), Nyx (Night),
and Hemera (Day) were born. Uranus, the sky, was the first god who had 12
powerful children called Titans with Gaia. One of them, Kronos, eventually
overthrew Uranus to become ruler.

Myth of Hercules

Hercules (known in Greek as Herakles) was a demi-god, a son of Zeus. He is

known for his many adventures completing the 12 labors set by Eurystheus, such
as his defeat of the nine-headed Hydra, capturing the Erymanthian Boar, bringing
back Cerberus from the underworld, and stealing cattle from the fearsome monster
Geryon.

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Myth of Jason and the Argonauts

Jason was a hero and a charming man who was handy with a sword. In an effort to
regain his rightful throne he assembled a heroic crew, the Argonauts, and sailed off
on a long, dangerous quest to the far-away land of Colchis to bring back the Golden
Fleece.

Myth of Narcissus

There are several versions of this tale, but all agree that Narcissus was an
exceedingly handsome young man who fell in love with his own image. One version
claims he spurned the nymph, Echo, and as punishment, Narcissus would only ever
love himself. Another says that while hunting he comes across his reflection in a
pool and cannot look away.

Myth of Odysseus

Made famous by Homer's epic poems, Odysseus was the king of Ithaca, a
persuasive and cunning man who helped the Greeks win the Trojan War by coming
up with the idea for the Trojan horse. After the war, it took him 10 years to make his
way back to his homeland. The journey was difficult and included clashes with
monsters like the mighty cyclops Polyphemus and the cyclops' father Poseidon.

Myth of Pan

Pan was the god of the wild, who had the legs and horns of a goat. He was laughed
at by the other gods, so he chose to live alone in the forest where, according to the
myth, he played the flute and sang in a loud, beautiful voice and chased after
nymphs.

Myth of Pandora's Box

The first human woman, Pandora was Zeus's punishment to mankind because
Prometheus stole fire from him to give to man. Pandora was given a box as a gift by
the gods but was told not to open it. When she disobeyed, all the bad things the
gods had put in the box - war, poverty, disease, and more - were released into the
world. Pandora is the reason evil exists in the world.

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Myth of Prometheus

Prometheus, a Titan and powerful deity, was the benefactor of mankind. He wanted
to give humans the gift of fire, and when Zeus refused to let him have it he stole it.
Zeus punished him, creating Pandora to bring misfortune to humans and sentencing
Prometheus to be tortured for the rest of eternity. After many years, he was rescued
by Hercules.

Myth of Theseus

Theseus was said to be the founder of Athens, the capital city of Greece. When
children from Athens were being sacrificed to a beast called a Minotaur, Theseus
offered to go into the beast's lair (known as the Labyrinth) to slay the Minotaur and
rescue the children.

Myth of Zeus

Zeus was saved from being eaten by his father Kronos. When he was older Zeus
rescued his brothers and sisters, fought his father and the other Titans and
banished them. He and his brothers then drew lots to divide rule of the world. Zeus
became the god of the sky, Poseidon, the god of the sea, and Hades, the god of the
underworld. Zeus was also known as the father of the gods on Mount Olympus and
men.

B. Fables

Fable is a literary genre: a succinct fictional story, in prose or verse, that

features animals, legendary creatures, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature
that are anthropomorphized, and that illustrates or leads to a particular moral lesson
(a "moral"), which may at the end be added explicitly as a pithy maxim or saying.
A fable differs from a parable in that the latter excludes animals, plants,
inanimate objects, and forces of nature as actors that assume speech or other
powers of humankind.

4 Examples of Famous Fables

Some of the most famous fables include:

1. The fox and the grapes. This fable is the origin of the phrase “sour grapes.”
A fox spies a bunch of grapes high up on a branch and wants them badly. He
takes a running jump to reach them but misses. He tries several more times,

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 but to no avail. Finally, he gives up and walks away scornfully. The moral of
the tale is: “There are many who pretend to despise and belittle that which is
beyond their reach.”
2. The lion and the mouse. A lion catches a mouse, who begs to be let go.
The mouse promises to repay the lion in exchange for his life. The lion
agrees and lets the mouse go. A few days later, the mouse comes upon the
lion trapped in a hunter’s net, and, remembering the lion’s mercy, gnaws on
the rope until the lion is free. The moral of the story is: “A kindness is never
wasted.”
3. The tortoise and the hare. The tortoise and the hare enter a footrace. The
hare jeers at the tortoise, remarking how naturally he is so much faster than
the slow tortoise. During the race, the hare takes several long breaks and
wastes time relaxing between quick sprints. Meanwhile, the tortoise chugs
steadily along. In the end, the tortoise wins. The moral of the story is: “Slow
and steady wins the race.”
4. The fox and the crow. A hungry fox comes upon a crow up in a tree with a
bit of cheese in its mouth. The fox begins to talk to the crow, telling her she is
so beautiful and must have a beautiful voice to match. At first, the crow stays
silent, holding on to her cheese. But at last, after much flattery, she opens
her mouth to crow. The cheese falls into the fox’s mouth. The moral of the
story is: “The flatterer lives at the expense of those who will listen to him.”

C. Parables

 Parable is a type of metaphorical analogy. Some scholars of the canonical gospels and
the New Testament apply the term "parable" only to the parables of Jesus, though that
is not a common restriction of the term.

Common Examples of Parable

There are many examples of parables that have entered common knowledge,
several of which are from the Bible. The first two parable examples below are from
the Bible, and the third is from Aesop’s fables.
▪ The Good Samaritan: A man traveling along the road is beaten and left for
dead. A priest and Levite pass him, doing nothing, but then a Samaritan comes
and helps the man. Samaritans and Jews were generally enemies at the time,
and thus this parable is meant to illustrate the importance of showing
compassion to everyone, even a sworn enemy.

▪ The Prodigal Son: A father has two sons, the younger of which asks for his
inheritance before the father dies and ends up wasting all of his money. He
returns home, and when he returns the father is so glad he holds a large feast
as a celebration. The older brother is upset, but the father explains that what
was lost is now found and should be celebrated, no matter what has happened
in between.

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 ▪ The Boy Who Cried Wolf: Aesop tells the story of a bored shepherd boy who
calls out “wolf” to get the attention of his fellow villagers. He does so several
times, always annoying them when they realize he is lying. One day he sees a
real wolf which scatters the sheep, but no one comes to help him when he calls
out.

D.Allegories

An allegory (AL-eh-goh-ree) is a story within a story. It has a “surface story” and

another story hidden underneath. For example, the surface story might be about
two neighbors throwing rocks at each other’s homes, but the hidden story would be
about war between countries. Some allegories are very subtle, while others (like the
rock-throwing example) can be more obvious.

Allegory Examples
Allegory is one of the oldest literary forms, with writers long relying on allegory's
ability to convey a moral or political message efficiently and discreetly.

Allegory in George Orwell's Animal Farm

Animal Farm is a political allegory. It tells the story of the animals on a farm owned
by an abusive farmer. One night, a boar named Old Major gathers all the animals of
the farm together. Knowing that he will soon die, Old Major gives a speech in which
he reveals to the animals that men cause all the misery that animals endure. Old
Major says that all animals are equal and urges them to join together to rebel. Old
Major dies shortly thereafter, but the farm animals develop his ideas into the
philosophy of Animalism, and they defeat the abusive farmer in an uprising,
renaming the farm "Animal Farm." What follows is a long story of political turmoil
among the animals, with the pigs rising to power and becoming oppressive rulers
themselves, amending Old Major's revolutionary statement ("All animals are equal")
to a nonsensical one that justifies their dominance ("All animals are equal, but some
animals are more equal than others").
Animal Farm is an allegorical story about communism, the political ideology that
promotes the eradication of class and the equality of all people. Old Major
symbolizes the fathers of communism, Karl Marx and Vladmir Lenin, while the
hypocritical ruling class of pigs represents the Soviet Government in the wake of the
Russian Revolution. George Orwell likely chose to use an allegorical story to attack
totalitarianism (rather than attacking it directly or explicitly) because it was such a
sensitive political subject at the time that he wrote the book (1944-45).

Allegory in John Milton's Paradise Lost

In Book II of Paradise Lost, a character known as Sin describes how she gave birth
to Death after she was impregnated by Satan (or the devil), who is her own father.
Her story is allegorical because each character is highly symbolic, as are their

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relationships to one another. (For instance, in the Judeo-Christian tradition, death
didn't even exist until Satan tempted the first humans to sin. In that sense, Satan
gave rise to Sin, and together the two gave rise to Death.) In this passage, Milton
describes Sin giving birth to Death:
At last this odious offspring whom thou seest
Thine own begotten, breaking violent way
Tore through my entrails, that with fear and pain
Distorted, all my nether shape thus grew
Transform'd: but he my inbred enemy
Forth issu'd, brandishing his fatal Dart
Made to destroy: I fled, and cry'd out Death;
Hell trembl'd at the hideous Name, and sigh'd
From all her Caves, and back resounded Death.

Additional Allegories in Literature

Some additional famous allegorical works of literature, and their symbolic meanings,
are:

● Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene: A moral allegory about Queen

Elizabeth I's reign, and knightly virtues such as temperance.
● John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress: A religious allegory about a
Christian's spiritual journey toward finding salvation.
● Percy Bysshe Shelley's Prometheus Unbound: A complex allegory about
the French Revolution, and the Romantic ideal of creativity.
● Franz Kafka's Metamorphosis: A social allegory about the alienation of the
modern individual in society.

Folktales
Folktales are stories in the oral tradition, or tales that people tell each other out
loud, rather than stories in written form. They're closely related to many storytelling
traditions, including fables, myths, and fairy tales.

Examples of Filipino Folktales are:

1. The Monkey and the Turtle

The Monkey and the Turtle is a perfect example of folktale short story written by
Philippine national hero Jose Rizal. The story focuses on the monkey and turtle who
started as friends. They both saw a floating banana plant on the water. They
thought of splitting it so they could plan it. The monkey chose the upper part of the
plant for he thought it was better. Meanwhile, the turtle got the bottom part with the
roots so he grew an abundant plant. Since the turtle couldn’t climb the tree to get
the fruits, he asked the monkey to get it for him. Instead, the monkey betrayed the
turtle and ate every fruit. The turtle planned a revenge to him which ended to the

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monkey’s death. The friends of the monkey also planned a revenge but they did not
win over the turtle.

2. Why the Fish has Scales

The Girl Who Turned into a Fish and Other Classic Philippine Water Tales as
narrated by Maria Elena Paterno. This Filipino folktale talks about a beautiful girl
who grew up being vain and spoiled. She was admiring her beauty by the river
when the chief of crabs adored her beauty and spoke to her. She was shocked and
shoved away the crab. In return, the chief scratched her face and cursed her to
become a fish with many scales.

3. The Story of Piña

Why the Piña has a Hundred Eyes as narrated by Neni Sta. Romana-Cruz depicts
the folktale about Pinang, an adorable yet lazy girl. The time came when her mother
asked her to cook which she ignored at first. When she finally agreed to do it, she
could not find the ladle. Her frustrated mother hoped that Pinang could grow
hundred eyes for being lazy and so that she could find everything. Later on, Pinang
disappeared and then a yellow fruit with hundred eyes grew in their backyard.

4. Mother Mountain

The Mother Mountain talks about a widow who lived with her two daughters that
want nothing but to play. The mother asked her daughters to prepare their dinner as
soon as she finishes work. By the time the mother came home, the daughters were
not there so she cooked the dinner herself. As soon as the daughters came home,
they saw their mother preparing dinner and yet decided to play again. The mother
got frustrated and left the house. It was late night and the daughters mother
followed her. Little do they know that their mother turned into a shape of mountain
called Mt. Iraya.

F. Fairytales

A fairy tale is a story, often intended for children, that features fanciful and
wondrous characters such as elves, goblins, wizards, and even, but not necessarily,
fairies. The term “fairy” tale seems to refer more to the fantastic and
magical setting or magical influences within a story, rather than the presence of
the character of a fairy within that story. Fairy tales are often traditional; many
were passed down from story-teller to story-teller before being recorded in books.

Fairy tales, in the literary sense, are easy to find. Look at your bookshelf or your
DVD collection. You may see titles likes these:

▪ Snow White
▪ Cinderella
▪ Rip Van Winkle

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▪ The Twelve Dancing Princesses
▪ Rumpelstiltskin
▪ Thumbelina

They are all fairy tales. They belong to no one and have been adapted and
retold countless times.

Fairy tales do not need to be written down to be legitimate. Many tales that your
parents or grandparents may have told you off the top of their heads are also fairy
tales. For example, stories of the tooth fairy, the boogeyman, leprechauns and pots
of gold or even Santa Claus.
If a story takes place in a magical land, with fantastical creatures who perform
wondrous tasks, it is very likely a fairy tale.
Examples of Fairy Tales in Literature
Fairy tales exist in every culture in the world and there are elements of the fairy tale
going back for as long as people have been telling stories. In Western culture, there
are a few authors who were particularly important in the formal recording of fairy
tales.
Example 1
Hans Christian Anderson
Hans Christian Anderson was a Danish author who published his fairy tales in the
late 1800s. Here are a few of his titles:
The Tinder-Box, The Princess and the Pea, Thumbelina, The Little Mermaid, The
Emperor’s New Clothes, The Staunch Tin Soldier, Willie Winkie, The Nightingale,
The Ugly Duckling, The Snow Queen. (Larsen)
Example 2
Brothers Grimm
Jacob Ludwig Carl Grimm and Wilhelm Carl Grimm were German brothers who
published their stories in the early 1800s. Here are a few of their titles:
The Good Bargain, Rapunzel, Hansel and Gretel, Cinderella, Little Red Cap, The
Bremen Town Musicians, The Robber Bridegroom, The Juniper Tree, Little Brier-
Rose, and Little Snow-White. (Ashliman)
G.Legends
Legend means “something which ought to be read.” According to J. A. Cuddon, a
legend is “a story or narrative that lies somewhere between myth and historical fact
and which, as a rule, is about a particular figure or person.” Traditionally, a legend is
a narrative that focuses on a historically or geographically specific figure, and
describes his exploits. Similar to a myth, a legend can provide an etymological
narrative, often filling in historical gaps.

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Difference between a Legend and a Myth
There are marked differences between a legend and a myth. While legends are
made up stories, myths are stories that answer questions about the working of
natural phenomenon. Myths are set in olden times, even in pre-historic times.
However, legends are stories about people and their actions, or deeds they perform
to save their people or nations.
The people mentioned in legends might have lived in recent times, or sometime in
known history. Legends are told to serve a specific purpose, and can be based on
facts – but they are not completely true. People mentioned in a legend might not
have really done what the story of the legend relates. In some cases, legends
change the historical events.
King Arthur, Beowulf, and Queen Boadicea are some popular English legends.
However, it is also important to understand that some of the stories about the
Knights of the Round Table, and Merlin the Magician may not be true. The common
point between a myth and a legend is that they both have been passed down from
generation to generation in oral form.
Examples of Legend from Literature
Example : Faust
Faust is the major character in the classical German legend. According to the
legend, Faust was a dissatisfied scholar. On account of his dissatisfaction, he
makes a deal with the devil in exchange for his soul. The deal promises him a great
deal of knowledge, and limitless pleasures of the world. However, he meets his
tragic end, as the devil takes his soul after his death.
In fact, the legend of Faust presents an over-ambitious man, who surrenders
his moral integrity for the achievement of worldly powers and success for a limited
period of time. This kind of character teaches us the lessons of moral integrity, and
the value of ethical uprightness
Learning Exercise 14.1

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Myths

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Fables

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Learning Exercise 14.3

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Fairy Tales

Read the fairytale“Thumbelina” andsummarize.

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CHAPTER vi

Types of modern short story: Literature of the nomad

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Specific Learning Objectives

At the end of this Chapter, the student will be able:

1. Labelthe types of modern short stories.

2. Interpret theformal elements of fiction.
3. Use Freytag pyramid.
4. Examine functions of dialogue.
5. Interpret the difference between tone and diction.
6. Determine the importance of theme in stories.
7. Use antihero and tragic hero in making a story.
8. Discover the character of foil and stock in a story.
9. Citethe four types of third-person point of view.
10. Use the functions of dialogue.
Input 15 Sensory Experience in Writing

Types of Modern Short Stories

To discuss the different types of short stories, first I should define a short story.

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 A short story is a piece of brief literature, usually written in narrative prose.
Short stories can be written in a variety of formats, but the most typical features a
small cast of characters with names and focuses on a single, self-contained
incident.  Short stories make use of a plot and other normal literary components,
just to a lesser and shorter degree than a novel.  They also vary in length.

10 Types of Short Stories

Now that we know generally what a short story is, we can discuss the different types
of short stories.  This is by no means a comprehensive list, since short stories come
in a wide variety of lengths and styles.  But this is a list of the most common.

Anecdote
An anecdote is a short account of something interesting and amusing, which usually
tells a story about a real person and/or incident.  Often, anecdotes are used to
illustrate or support a point in an essay, article, or chapter.  They are very short, but
have no specific limits.
From grammar.about.com’s entry for the anecdote, an example anecdote about
Ralph Waldo Emerson:
“In [Ralph Waldo] Emerson’s later years his memory began increasingly to fail. He
used to refer to it as his ‘naughty memory’ when it let him down. He would forget
the names of things, and have to refer to them in a circumlocutory way, saying, for
instance, ‘the implement that cultivates the soil’ for plow. Worse, he could not
remember people’s names. At Longfellow’s funeral, he remarked to a friend, ‘That
gentleman has a sweet, beautiful soul, but I have entirely forgotten his name.’
Perhaps most touching was his term for umbrella–‘the thing that strangers take
away.'”

Drabble
A drabble is an exceptionally short piece of fiction, usually of exactly 100 words in
length – not including the title.  The purpose of a drabble is extreme brevity and to
test an author’s skill at expressing himself/herself meaningfully and interestingly in a
very confined space.
A drabble example, by the lovely Matty, is available over at Sugar and Blood: Light
as a Feather.  In fact, Matty has many drabble stories!
Fable
A fable is a succinct story featuring anthropomorphic creatures (usually animals, but
also mythical creatures, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature) to tell a story
with a moral.  Often the moral is explicitly told at the end.  A fable is similar to a
parable, but differs most in the fact that fables use animals to tell a story but
parables do not.

The most well-known example of a fable would be any of the many told in Aesop’s
Fables.  The one I always remember the best is The Ant and the Grasshopper.

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Feghoot
A feghoot is an interesting short story type also known as a story pun or a poetic
story joke.  It is a humorous piece ending in an atrocious pun.  It can be very short,
only long enough to sufficiently illustrate the context of the piece enough to lead up
to the pun.

I found an interesting blog of all Feghoots.  This one is a good example and totally
groan-worthy as the format requires: The Buck of the Draw.
Flash Fiction
Flash fiction refers to an extremely short piece of literature.  It has no widely
accepted length, but has a debated cap of between 300 and 1000 words.

I found a whole webpage of flash fiction, called Flash Fiction Online.  It has a small
section of fantasy and I thought this one a good example to share: One Last Night
at the Carnival Before the Stars Go Out.
Frame Story
A frame story is also known as a frame tale or a nested narrative.  It is a literary
technique of placing a story within a story, for the purpose of introducing or setting
the stage for a main narrative or a series of short stories.

A few good example of a frame story would be a flashback within a larger piece or a
quest within a larger game environment.

Mini-saga
A mini-saga is a short story told in exactly 50 words.  It is a test in brevity – about
saying a lot with a little.

I found a fascinating “guide” to writing a mini-saga.  It has a few examples and the
bottom is for filling in with your exact 50 words.  There was another page with good
advice and a progressive piece as an example.
Story Sequence
A story sequence, also called a short story cycle or a composite novel, is a group of
short stories that work together to form a longer piece, while still functioning as
complete short stories on their own.

It would be hard to link to an example, but the best I can think of are several of the
works of Isaac Asimov – the Foundation books and I, Robot (the original book, NOT
the story portrayed in the Will Smith movie) in particular.  They are not a novel in the
traditional sense, but instead a collection of short stories in chronological order that
both tell small stories and one larger one.
Sketch Story
A sketch story is a shorter than average piece containing little or no plot.  It can be
merely a description of a character or a location.  Character sketches are common,
and a good way to build a character that will eventually be part of a longer piece.

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I found this good handout about character sketches, including an example.  I wrote
a piece a while back about writing character sketches.  I think Regrets, my original
blog post and the start of my Shaman-Effy/DK-Effy stories, and the character sketch
piece I wrote for creative writing last semester are both good examples as well.
Vignette
And finally, we come to the vignette, which started this whole post in the first place!

A vignette is a short, impressionistic piece that focuses on a single scene,

character, idea, setting, or object.  There is little emphasis on adhering to
conventional theatrical or literary structure, or story development.  It can be a stand-
alone piece or part of a larger work.

From grammar.about.com’s entry for the vignette, an example vignette by E.B.

White:
“The strong streak of insanity in railroads, which accounts for a child’s instinctive
feeling for them and for a man’s unashamed devotion to them, is congenital; there
seems to be no reason to fear that any disturbing improvement in the railroads’
condition will set in. Lying at peace but awake in a Pullman berth all one hot night
recently, we followed with dreamy satisfaction the familiar symphony of the cars–
the diner departing (furioso) at midnight, the long, fever-laden silences between
runs, the timeless gossip of rail and wheel during the runs, the crescendos and
diminuendos, the piffling poop-pooping of the diesel’s horn. For the most part,
railroading is unchanged from our childhood. The water in which one washes one’s
face at morn is still without any real wetness, the little ladder leading to the upper is
still the symbol of the tremendous adventure of the night, the green clothes
hammock still sways with the curves, and there is still no foolproof place to store
one’s trousers.
“Our journey really began several days earlier, at the ticket window of a small
station in the country, when the agent showed signs of cracking under the
paperwork. ‘It’s hard to believe,’ he said, ‘that after all these years I still got to write
the word “Providence” in here every time I make out one of these things. Now,
there’s no possible conceivable way you could make this journey without going
through Providence, yet the Company wants the word written in here just the same.
O.K., here she goes!’ He gravely wrote ‘Providence’ in the proper space, and we
experienced anew the reassurance that rail travel is unchanged and unchanging,
and that it suits our temperament perfectly–a dash of lunacy, a sense of
detachment, not much speed, and no altitude whatsoever.”

Learning Exercise 15.1

Name: Rating:
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Date: Section:

Types of Modern Short Stories

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Write a piece of original flash fiction, 1000 words.

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Learning Exercise 15.2

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Types of Modern Short Stories

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Write a piece of original mini-saga, in exactly 50 words, not one more and
not one less.

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Learning Exercise 15.3

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Drabble

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Input 16 The Formal Elements of Fiction

The Formal Elements of Fiction

Characters

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 Characters are the people, animals, or aliens in the story. Readers come to
know the characters through what they say, what they think, and how they act.

Setting
Setting is where and when the story takes place. It includes the following:
● The immediate surroundings of the characters such as props in a scene:
trees, furniture, food, inside of a house or car, etc.
● The time of day such as morning, afternoon, or night.
● The weather such as cloudy, sunny, windy, snow, or rain, etc.
● The time of year, particularly the seasons: fall, winter, summer, spring.
● The historical period such as what century or decade the story takes place.
● The geographical location including the city, state, country, and possibly even
the universe, if the writer is writing science fiction.
Plot
Plot is the order of events in the story. The plot usually follows a particular
structure called Freytag’s Pyramid. Gustav Freytag, a German playwright who lived
during the 1800s, identified this structure.

Point of View
Stories are generally told in one of two points of views:
● First-person point of view
● Third-person point of view
Theme
Is not the plot of the story. It is the underlying truth that is being conveyed in the
story. Themes can be universal, meaning they are understood by readers no matter
what culture or country the readers are in. Common themes include coming of age,
circle of life, prejudice, greed, good vs. evil, beating the odds, etc.

Tone
Is the attitude of the narrator or viewpoint character toward story events and
other characters.In a story with first-person POV, tone can also be the narrator's
attitude toward the reader. In non-fiction, tone is the writer's attitude toward subject
matter and reader

Diction

As a literary device, diction refers to the choice of words and style of expression

that an author makes and uses in a work of literature. Diction can have a great
effect on the tone of a piece of literature, and how readers perceive the characters.

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Style

Is a writer's verbal identity, which he or she constructs by choosing various words,

putting those words together in particular ways, and employing specifically selected
figures of speech. A writer's style is personal and unique and distinguishes his or
her work from that of all other writers.

Dialogue

Is the speech of fiction, the talk between two or more characters.It is speech
appropriate for the story, verbal communication that works with and for, not against,
the fiction

A.Character

Picking up a book is a great way to meet new people. Although there's always a
main character, whom we learn the most about, he or she plays off other
characters. This makes the other characters important too because, through each
interaction, we learn more and more about the main character. This is otherwise
known as characterization.

There are nine types of characters generally found in fiction (and movies too). All of
them have a role to play in driving the story, regardless of how large or small that
role is.

Character Types

Let's take a look at the types of characters in fiction. Once you're aware of the
different character types, you'll find yourself noticing them more and more. The next
time you pick up a novel, see how many you can spot.

Protagonist
We must begin our study with the protagonist, or main character. The protagonist is
the central figure around whom the story revolves, like Katniss Everdean in The
Hunger Games. Throughout the story, we will watch him or her (or them) face
conflict that must be resolved and make key decisions that move the story forward.
Protagonists are often heroic, like Katniss, but they don't have to be.

If you're writing in the first person and choosing to tell your story through a narrator,
that will typically become your protagonist. However, that's not a hard and fast rule.
Consider The Great Gatsby. In this novel, F. Scott Fitzgerald made Nick the
narrator, even though Gatsby was the protagonist.

Anti-Hero

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The anti-hero can also be the main character in a story. Typically, we imagine our
main characters to be admirable. Perhaps they're people we'd love to know in the
"real world." But, have you ever read a book where the main character was lacking
in sound moral judgment?
Take Jack Sparrow from the Pirates of the Caribbean movies. He's hard not to like,
even though he wouldn't be considered a first-rate citizen. Or how about Lestat de
Lioncourt from The Vampire Chronicles? That's one vain man (vampire). Yet, he
has moments of altruism, making him difficult to hate too.

Characters like Jack and Lestat are anti-heroes. Given their ability to dip in and out
of deviant behavior, they can be exciting characters. There's a lot of depth to them.
And as they color outside the lines, they, too, will have to face some type of conflict.

Antagonist

Good, bad, or otherwise, most main characters will be faced with an antagonist, or
villain. Often, this is the person that stands in the way of - antagonizes - whatever
the main character is trying to achieve. Antagonists will set out all kinds of
roadblocks and be the source of several drama-filled scenes.

Interestingly, the antagonist doesn't have to be another person. It can be something

the protagonist is facing internally, like addiction, anxiety, depression, or loneliness.

Can you name Gatsby's antagonist? Well, all Gatsby wanted was Daisy. But, he
couldn't have her because she was married to Tom Buchanan. This makes him the
guy Gatsby had to face off against. Beyond that, Tom was particularly unlikeable
because he was cheating on Daisy, but wouldn't let her be with the love of her life -
Gatsby.

Foil

What would a story be without several juicy bits of drama? A foil is a character
(often the antagonist) whose qualities stand in stark contrast to another character
(often the protagonist). This contrast provides the reader with a better
understanding of each character.

For example, if the protagonist is loyal, brave, and morally sound, each of those
qualities will be augmented every time we read more about the foil who's disloyal,
cowardly, and selfish.

In The Great Gatsby, there's no doubt Tom Buchanan was a foil to Gatsby. They
stand in opposition to one another. Tom came from money, Gatsby came from
poverty. Tom is a "rough and gruff" kind of guy while Gatsby is more sensitive and
quiet. However, you could argue the Nick Carraway is also a foil to Gatsby. Nick

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began as realistic, practical, and ethical against Gatsby's flashy, flighty, and
dishonest ways.
For a deeper dive into human idiosyncrasies, check out our Character Trait
Examples.

Dynamic

A dynamic character is one who evolves or changes significantly over time. This
label is often reserved for the main character, given the conflict they're trying to
overcome. If they come out the other side, they've typically grown or evolved in
some way.
Let's remain with The Great Gatsby. As mentioned, F. Scott Fitzgerald did
something interesting with his creation of the narrator, Nick Carraway. Nick's
evolution throughout the novel was extreme. He was a nice, hard-working boy who
just wanted to secure a role on Wall Street. Then, he met Gatsby and everything
changed. By the end of the novel, Nick was totally disillusioned, sick of everything
Wall Street stood for, and disgusted by his rich friends.

Static

In contrast to a dynamic character, a static character does not change over time.
Perhaps this is someone like the main character's father or mentor. They might be
consistently wise, or abrasive, or enlightening. This label is often reserved for
peripheral characters.
Daisy's friend Jordan Baker in The Great Gatsby could be considered a static
character. She didn't change much throughout the course of the novel. She had her
own career as a pro golfer and sort of stood on the periphery of the novel. Sure, she
was there for all the dramatic moments, a foil to Daisy, but she remained
unchanged.

Round

Have you ever encountered a character with a difficult mother or spouse? You can't
tell whether they love or hate them. If so, you could consider that "difficult person" a
round character.

This is someone with a complex personality. They're neither overtly kind nor
innately cruel. They may act inconsistently, rather than follow a smooth arc.
Somewhere deep down, they're most likely conflicted and, to the main character
and the readers, perhaps even a little contradictory.

In The Goldfinch by Donna Tartt, you'll meet a round character in Boris. It would be
easy to label him a bad person, given his propensity for stealing. However, he's
more than that. He's also loyal to the main character, Theodore. So, while he may
be self-serving, he's also capable of friendship and kind acts. All these facets make
him a very round character.

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To help you develop your own round characters, check out our Examples of
Personality Traits.

Flat

A flat character is the opposite of the round character. These characters may be
overtly kind or inanely cruel - and it shows. When you think of a flat character, you'll
immediately perceive one characteristic and that will, essentially, define who they
are. In contrast to the complex nuance of a round character, a flat character is
simple and obvious.

In Hamlet, Hamlet's mother, Queen Gertrude, is an example of a flat character.

She's opinionless and, worse, a little clueless. She doesn't see that Claudius used
her to seize the throne. In fact, most of the characters, especially Claudius and
Polonius, use her as a pawn and she is completely unaware.

Stock

Stock characters, also known as archetypes, are the ones that get repeated time
and time again. They're clichéd or stereotypical. For example, how many times
have we met the kindly gray-haired grandmother, the nerdy kid with glasses, the
less-attractive best friend, or the absent-minded professor?

Other instances include the seductive femme fatale such as Poison Ivy, or the
buttoned-up school teacher like Professor McGonagall. These expected traits make
them more of a flat character than a round character as these characters are often
one-dimensional and don't develop.

B.Setting

Setting is the time and place (or when and where) of the story. It’s a literary element
of literature used in novels, short stories, plays, films, etc., and usually introduced
during the exposition (beginning) of the story, along with the characters. The setting
may also include the environment of the story, which can be made up of the
physical location, climate, weather, or social and cultural surroundings.

C.Plot

Plot is a literary term used to describe the events that make up a story, or the main
part of a story. These events relate to each other in a pattern or a sequence. The
structure of a novel depends on the organization of events in the plot of the story.

1. Exposition

Figure 3.1: Freytag’s Pyramid

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 Freytag’s Pyramid by Gustav Freytag, a German playwright

Exposition is an introduction to the characters, time, and the problem. At the point
where exposition moves into rising action a problem, sometimes called an inciting
incident, occurs for the main character to handle or solve. This creates the
beginning of the story.

Rising action includes the events that the main character encounters. Each event,
developed in separate scenes, makes the problem more complex.

Climax is the turning point in the story. Usually, it is a single event with the greatest
intensity and uncertainty. The main character must contend with the problem at this
point.

Falling action includes the events that unfold after the climax. This usually creates
an emotional response from the reader.

Denouement or resolution provides closure to the story. It ties up loose ends in

the story.

D. Point of View
Point of view is the angle of considering things, which shows us the opinion or
feelings of the individuals involved in a situation. In literature, point of view is the
mode of narration that an author employs to let the readers “hear” and “see” what
takes place in a story, poem, or essay.

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 The 4 Types of Point of View

Here are the four primary POV types in fiction:

● First person point of view. First person is when “I” am telling the story. The
character is in the story, relating his or her experiences directly.
● Second person point of view. The story is told to “you.” This POV is not common
in fiction, but it’s still good to know (it is common in nonfiction).
● Third person point of view, limited. The story is about “he” or “she.” This is
the most common point of view in commercial fiction. The narrator is outside of the
story and relating the experiences of a character.
● Third person point of view, omniscient. The story is still about “he” or “she,” but
the narrator has full access to the thoughts and experiences of all characters in the
story.

E.Tone
In literature, the tone of a literary work expresses the writer's attitude toward or
feelings about ... in himself. The "smug smirk" provides a facial imagery of Charlie's
pride. In addition, using imagery in a poem is helpful to develop a poem's tone.
F. Diction
Can be defined as style of speaking or writing, determined by the choice of words
by a speaker or a writer. Diction, or choice of words, often separates good writing
from bad writing. It depends on a number of factors. Firstly, the word has to be right
and accurate.

G. Style
Style in fiction is a writer's verbal identity, which he or she constructs by choosing
various words, putting those words together in particular ways, and employing
specifically selected figures of speech. A writer's style is personal and unique and
distinguishes his or her work from that of all other writers.

H.Dialogue
A dialogue is a literary technique in which writers employ two or more characters to
be engaged in conversation with one another. In literature, it is a conversational
passage, or a spoken or written exchange of conversation in a group, or between
two persons directed towards a particular subject.

The three main function of dialogue in fiction;

● Progressing the plot forwards - Using dialogue between characters moves

the story forwards quickly  and can dramatically increase the pace providing
a fast paced gripping story. This method is vitally important in short stories
where every word counts. 

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 ● Giving out  important background information - Dialogue exchanged between
characters can be a really interesting way of providing background
information that is relevant to the plot and also helps to move it along. 

● Characterization - Characterization involves using many methods to portray a

character, dialogue is just one of these methods. For dialogue to be really
effective in portraying a character make sure that each word your character
speaks shows the sort of person that they are. Does their speech make them
sound clever or stupid? Does their speech demonstrate their background?
Are they wealthy?

I. Theme
A theme is a universal idea, lesson, or message explored throughout a work of
literature. One key characteristic of literary themes is their universality, which is to
say that themes are ideas that not only apply to the specific characters and events
of a book or play, but also express broader truths about human experience that
readers can apply to their own lives. 

Learning Exercise 16.1

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:

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 Date: Section:

Characterization

Fill in the details to create three-dimension characters.

CHARACTER WORKSHEET

Name:
Physical Description:
Age:
Height and Weight:
Eyes:
Hair:
Special Abilities:
Pets:

Learning Exercise 16.2

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 Date: Section:

Plot

Use the following questions to narrow down your story and build its
structure. Answer each of these questions to structure your story.

Who? Characters
What? Conflict
When? Time
Where? Place
Why? Character’s motivation
How? Resolve the conflict

Learning Exercise 16.3

Name: Rating:

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 Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Points of View

Can you examine the similarities and differences among first person,
second person, and third person points of view?

CHAPTER vii

182
 Modernism vs. post modernism: Post-modernism is modernism with the
optimism taken out

Specific Learning Objectives

At the end of this Chapter, the student will be able:

1. Determine the general characteristics of modernism.

2. Interpret postmodernism.
3. Organize ideas between fabulation and magic realism.
4. Examine the literary techniques being used by postmodernists.
5. Discuss the difference pastiche and bricolage.
6. Choose one literary technique and apply it in writing.
7. Value the importance of metafiction in writing.
8. Name the literarytechniques.
9. Formulate own perspective about postmodernism.
10. Apply modernism in writing.
Input 17 Modernism vs. Postmodernism

Modernism vs. Postmodernism

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 In the fine arts, a break with the past and the concurrent search for new forms of
expression. Modernism fostered a period of experimentation in the arts from the late
19th to the mid-20th century, particularly in the years following World War I.

A. Modernism
Is a period in literary history which started around the early 1900s and continued
until the early 1940s. Modernist writers in general rebelled against clear-cut
storytelling and formulaic verse from the 19th century. Instead, many of them told
fragmented stories which reflected the fragmented state of society during and after
World War I.

Many Modernists wrote in free verse and they included many countries and
cultures in their poems. Some wrote using numerous points-of-view or even
used a “stream-of-consciousness” style. These writing styles further demonstrate
the way the scattered state of society affected the work of writes at that time.

B. Postmodernism
 Is indefinable is a truism. However, it can be described as a set of critical, strategic
and rhetorical practices employing concepts such as difference, repetition, the
trace, the simulacrum, and hyperreality to destabilize other concepts such as
presence, identity, historical progress, epistemic certainty, and the univocity of
meaning.

Modernism vs. Postmodernism

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Learning Exercise 17.1

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Modernism vs. Postmodernism

Cite the difference between modernism and postmodernism.

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 MODERNISM POSTMODERNISM

Similarities: Difference

Learning Exercise 17.2

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Modernism

Write the advantages of modernism.

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 ADVANTAGES

Learning Exercise 17.3

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Postmodernism

Write the disadvantages of postmodernism.

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 DISADVANTAGES

Input 18 Postmodernism Literary Techniques

Postmodernism Literary Techniques

Here are some literary techniques being used by postmodernists:
A. Fabulation
B. Magic Realism
C. Metafiction

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D. Pastiche
E. Brigole

A. Fabulation
In literary criticism, the term fabulation was popularized by Robert Scholes, in his
work The Fabulators, to describe the large and growing class of mostly 20th century
novels that are in a style similar to magical realism, and do not fit into the traditional
categories of realism or romance. They violate, in a variety of ways, standard
novelistic expectations by drastic—and sometimes highly successful—experiments
with subject matter, form, style, temporal sequence, and fusions of the everyday,
fantastic, mythical, and nightmarish, in renderings that blur traditional distinctions
between what is serious or trivial, horrible or ludicrous, tragic or comic. To a large
extent, fabulism and postmodernism coincide; John Barth, for example, was labeled
a fabulist until the term "postmodernism" was coined.

B. Magic Realism
 Os an approach to literature that weaves fantasy and myth into everyday life.
What’s real? What’s imaginary? In the world of magical realism, the ordinary
becomes extraordinary and the magical becomes commonplace.
Also known as “marvelous realism,” or “fantastic realism,” magical realism is not
a style or a genre so much as a way of questioning the nature of reality. In books,
stories, poetry, plays, and film, factual narrative and far-flung fantasies combine to
reveal insights about society and human nature. The term "magic realism" is also
associated with realistic and figurative artworks — paintings, drawings, and
sculpture — that suggest hidden meanings. Lifelike images, such as the Frida Kahlo
portrait shown above, take on an air of mystery and enchantment.
C. Metafiction
Is a form of fiction that emphasizes its own construction in a way that continually
reminds the reader to be aware that they are reading or viewing a fictional work.
Metafiction is self-conscious about language, literary form, and storytelling, and
works of metafiction directly or indirectly draw attention to their status as
artifacts.Metafiction is frequently used as a form of parody or a tool to undermine
literary conventions and explore the relationship between literature and reality, life,
and art.

D. Pastiche
Is a work of visual art, literature, theatre, or music that imitates the style or
character of the work of one or more other artists. Unlike parody, pastiche
celebrates, rather than mocks, the work it imitates.
The word pastiche is a French cognate of the Italian noun pasticcio, which is
a pâté or pie-filling mixed from diverse
ingredients.Metaphorically, pastiche and pasticcio describe works that are either
composed by several authors, or that incorporate stylistic elements of other artists'
work. Pastiche is an example of eclecticism in art.
E. Bricolage

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Bricolage (French for "DIY" or "do-it-yourself projects") is the construction or
creation of a work from a diverse range of things that happen to be available, or a
work constructed using mixed media.

The term bricolage has also been used in many other fields,

including anthropology, philosophy, critical theory, education, computer software,
and business.

Learning Exercise 18.1

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Fabulation

Give one example of fabulation and explain.

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Learning Exercise 18.2

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Magic Realism

Give one example of magic realism and explain.

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Learning Exercise 18.3

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Metafiction

Give one example of metafiction and explain.

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CHAPTER viii

Reading and writing drama: read to escape reality, write to embrace it

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Specific Learning Objectives

At the end of this Chapter, the student will be able:

1. Classified the elements of drama.

2. Cite the component parts of tragedy.
3. Use tragicomedy in literature.
4. Contrast fantasy from musical drama.
5. Criticize the function if dialogue.
6.Identify various techniques and elements in drama.
7.Write short exercise involving character, dialogue, plot, and other elements of
drama.
8.Understand intertextuality as a technique of drama.
9. Identify what is drama.
10. Composed some quotes on drama.
Input 19 Reading and Writing Drama

1. What is Drama?

Is the specific mode of fiction represented in performance:a play, opera, mime, 
ballet, etc., performed in a theatre, or on radio or television. Considered as a genre
of poetry in general, the dramatic mode has been contrasted with the epic and

194
the lyrical modes ever since Aristotle's Poetics (c. 335 BC)—the earliest work
of dramatic theory.

Drama is the portrayal of fictional or non-fictional events through the performance of

written dialog (either prose or poetry). Dramas can be performed on stage, on film,
or the radio. Dramas are typically called plays, and their creators are known as
“playwrights” or “dramatists.”

2. Some Quotes on Drama

“I never travel without my diary. One should always have something sensational to
read in the train.”
― Oscar Wilde, The Importance of Being Earnest

“Never trust a pretty girl with an ugly secret.”

― Sara Shepard

“It was only a smile, nothing more. It didn't make everything all right. It didn't make
ANYTHING all right. Only a smile.A tiny thing. A leaf in the woods, shaking in the
wake of a startled bird's flight. But I'll take it. With open arms.Because when spring
comes, it melts the snow one flake at a time, and maybe I just witnessed the first
flake melting. - Amir”
― Khaled Hosseini, The Kite Runner

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“No amount of fire or freshness can challenge what a man will store up in his
ghostly heart.”
― F. Scott Fitzgerald, The Great Gatsby

“I just wanted to tell you that I understand if you go. It’s okay if you have to leave us.
It’s okay if you want to stop fighting.”
― Gayle Forman, If I Stay

“People don't want their lives fixed. Nobody wants their problems solved. Their
dramas.their distractions. Their stories resolved. Their messes cleaned up.
Because what would they have left? Just the big scary unknown.”
― Chuck Palahniuk, Survivor

“I can't go on, I'll go on.”

― Samuel Beckett, I Can't Go On, I'll Go On: A Samuel Beckett Reader

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“All the world's a stage and most of us are desperately unrehearsed.”
― Seán O'Casey

“Love means never having to say you're sorry.”

― Erich Segal, Love Story

“A day wasted on others is not wasted on one's self.”

― Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities

“Free yourself from the complexities and drama of your life. Simplify. Look within.
Within ourselves we all have the gifts and talents we need to fulfill the purpose
we've been blessed with.”
― Steve Maraboli, Life, the Truth, and Being Free

“The whole world can become the enemy when you lose what you love.”
― Kristina McMorris, Bridge of Scarlet Leaves

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“Your complaints, your drama, your victim mentality, your whining, your blaming,
and all of your excuses have NEVER gotten you even a single step closer to your
goals or dreams. Let go of your nonsense. Let go of the delusion that you
DESERVE better and go EARN it! Today is a new day!”
― Steve Maraboli, Unapologetically You: Reflections on Life and the Human
Experience

“What is drama but life with the dull bits cut out.”
― Alfred Hitchcock

“She had no tolerance for scenes which were not of her own making.”
― Edith Wharton, The House of Mirth

“The other girl, Iko, cupped her chin with both hands. "This is so much better than a
net drama.”
― Marissa Meyer, Cress

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“If there really is such a thing as turning in one's grave, Shakespeare must get a lot
of exercise.”
― George Orwell, All Art is Propaganda: Critical Essays

“I'd heard of Evergreen Care Center before. Cass and I had always made fun of the
stupid ads they ran on TV, featuring some dragged-out woman with a limp perm
and big, painted-on circles under her eyes, downing vodka and sobbing
uncontrollably. "We can't heal you at Evergreen", the very somber voiceover said.
"But we can help you to heal yourself." It had become our own running joke,
applicable to almost anything.
"Hey Cass, "I'd say, "hand me that toothpaste."
"Caitlin," she'd say, her voice dark and serious. "I can't hand you the toothpaste.
But I CAN help you hand the toothpaste to yourself.”
― Sarah Dessen, Dreamland

3.Types of Drama
Drama is a mode of fictional representation through dialogue and performance. It is
one of the literary genres, which is an imitation of some action. Drama is also a type
of a play written for theater, television, radio, and film.

Types of Drama
Let us consider a few popular types of drama:

⮚ Comedy – Comedies are lighter in tone than ordinary works, and provide a

happy conclusion. The intention of dramatists in comedies is to make their
audience laugh. Hence, they use quaint circumstances, unusual characters,
and witty remarks.
⮚ Tragedy – Tragic dramas use darker themes, such as disaster, pain, and
death. Protagonists often have a tragic flaw — a characteristic that leads
them to their downfall.

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 ⮚ Farce – Generally, a farce is a nonsensical genre of drama, which often
overacts or engages slapstick humor.
⮚ Melodrama – Melodrama is an exaggerated drama, which is sensational and
appeals directly to the senses of the audience. Just like the farce, the
characters are of a single dimension and simple, or may be stereotyped.
⮚ Musical Drama – In musical dramas, dramatists not only tell their stories
through acting and dialogue, but through dance as well as music. Often the
story may be comedic, though it may also involve serious subjects.
⮚ Tragicomedy is a literary device used in fictional works. It contains
both tragedy and comedy. Mostly, the characters in tragicomedy are
exaggerated, and sometimes there might be a happy ending after a series of
unfortunate events. It is incorporated with jokes throughout the story, just to
lighten the tone.
⮚ Fantasy is a genre of speculative fiction set in a fictional universe, often
inspired by real world myth and folklore. Its roots are in oral traditions, which
then became fantasy literature and drama. From the twentieth century it has
expanded further into various media, including film, television, graphic
novels, manga, animated movies and video games.

Learning Exercise 19.1

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Comedy

Criticize comedy below from one of the types of drama.

COUNTESS: Marry, that’s a bountiful answer that fits all

questions.

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 CLOWN: It is like a barber’s chair that fits all buttocks,

the pin-buttock, the quatch-buttock, the brawn

buttock, or any buttock.

COUNTESS: Will your answer serve fit to all questions?

CLOWN: As fit as ten groats is for the hand of an attorney,

as your French crown for your taffeta punk, as Tib’s

rush for Tom’s forefinger, as a pancake for Shrove

Tuesday, a morris for May-day, as the nail to his

hole, the cuckold to his horn, as a scolding queen

to a wrangling knave, as the nun’s lip to the

friar’s mouth, nay, as the pudding to his skin.

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Learning Exercise 19.2

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Farce

Criticize farce below from one of the types of drama.

ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE: Where England?

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 DROMIO OF SYRACUSE: I looked for the chalky cliffs, but I could find no
whiteness in them; but I guess it stood in her chin,
by the salt rheum that ran between France and it.

ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE: Where Spain?

DROMIO OF SYRACUSE: Faith, I saw it not; but I felt it hot in her breath.

ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE: Where America, the Indies?

DROMIO OF SYRACUSE: Oh, sir, upon her nose all o’er embellished with
rubies, carbuncles, sapphires, declining their rich
aspect to the hot breath of Spain; who sent whole
armadoes of caracks to be ballast at her nose.
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Learning Exercise 19.3

Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Tragedy

Criticize tragedy below from one of the types of drama.

Then must you speak

Of one that loved not wisely but too well,

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 Of one not easily jealous but, being wrought,
Perplexed in the extreme; of one whose hand,
Like the base Indian, threw a pearl away
Richer than all his tribe; of one whose subdued eyes,
Albeit unused to the melting mood,
Drop tears as fast as the Arabian trees
Their medicinable gum. Set you down this,
And say besides that in Aleppo once,
Where a malignant and a turbaned Turk
Beat a Venetian and traduced the state,
I took by th’ throat the circumcised dog
And smote him thus.

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Input 20 Elements of Drama

Elements of Drama

At its most basic, content marketing is about narrative building. At its extra-most basic,
content marketing follows an incredibly simple 2-part narrative structure: Problem →
Solution. While that simplified structure might work in some situations (you need food? I
sell food! Problem solved.) you’re missing a huge opportunity to really connect with your
audience. 
Instead of this simplified model, consider building a more highly narrative story,
taking into account the buyer’s journey and beyond. There is a lot of great advice
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about storytelling, but I always like to return to a foundational expert of writing,
philosophy, and drama: Aristotle.

The Elements of Drama

“How can a Greek philosopher who lived almost 2500 years ago teach us anything
about marketing?” you might ask. Fair question. Writing advice often over-
complicates things. That can be especially true when you’re trying to reach your
goals, engage an audience, and build your brand. What is great about Aristotle’s
guidelines is simplicity.

Aristotle and Friends

Aristotle was born in 384 BC, but his thoughts on drama have been at the heart of
writing curricula pretty much since that time. In Poetics, he wrote that drama
(specifically tragedy) has to include 6 elements: plot, character, thought, diction,
music, and spectacle.

Plot 
Aristotle says: “The plot, then, is the first principle, and, as it were, the soul of a
tragedy”
Character
Aristotle says: “Character is that which reveals moral purpose, showing what kind of
things a man chooses or avoids”.

Thought
Aristotle says: “Thought is the faculty of saying what is possible and pertinent in
given circumstances”

Diction
Aristotle says: “Diction; by which I mean, as has been already said, the expression
of the meaning in words; and its essence is the same both in verse and prose.”

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Music
Aristotle says: “Song holds the chief place among the embellishments”. 

Spectacle
Aristotle says: “The Spectacle has, indeed, an emotional attraction of its own, but, of
all the parts, it is the least artistic”

A.Plot and Conflict

Plot is arguably, the most important element of a story. It is literally the sequence of

events and, in that sequence, we learn more about the characters, the setting, and
the moral of the story.

Conflict is a necessary element in any story. Before we dive deeper into the
purpose of conflict, here’s the standard definition of conflict, regardless of the
medium you choose to express it.

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1. Freytag’s Pyramid

Gustav Fregtag, a 19th-century German playwright, developed his 7-Step “Freytag’s

Pyramid” for storytelling:

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 1. EXPOSITION: the background, setting, characters, setting the scene
2. INCITING INCIDENT: something happens to begin the action
3. RISING ACTION: the story builds
4. CLIMAX: the point of greatest tension
5. FALLING ACTION: events that happen as a result of the climax
6. RESOLUTION: the character solves the problem/conflict
7. DENOUEMENT: French term meaning “the ending”

2. The Unities
Classical Greek and Latin dramas were strict in form. The concept of the three
unities, in relation to classical drama, derives from Aristotle's Poetics but is not
directly formulated by the Greek philosopher. He merely states that a tragedy
should have unity of action.

The Poetics was unknown in Western Europe during the Middle Ages. During

the Renaissance a Latin translation is published in Italy, after which there is much
discussion of classical literary principles. However it is not until 1570, in a book by
LodovicoCastelvetro, that the concept of three unities evolves:

1. Unity of Time: The action of the play should take place in a short internal
chronology, ideally, no more than 24 hours. The neo-classicists believe that the
spectators would not believe in the reality of an action that compressed several
days or years into a three-hour drama. If the spectators did not believe in the reality
of an action, the tragedy would not have its proper effect.
2. Unity of Place: It was said that in drama there should be no change of place,
and even if the scene changes it must not be too great a distance.  A public square
or palace courtyard would usually serve this purpose well. But the plays of the
Elizabethans incorporate scenes of various places and action and their plays moves
from one city to another city, from one country to another.
3. Unity of Action: It is the unity of action which makes the plot intelligible,
coherent, and individual. The events and incidents are connected with each other
logically and inevitably on the principle of probability; they move towards a common
goal, the Catastrophe, aimed at by the dramatist.  The plot must have “a beginning,
a middle and an end”

B. Characters/Dramatis Personae
Dramatis personae (Latin: "the masks of the drama") are the main characters in a
dramatic work written in a list. Such lists are commonly employed in various forms
of theatre, and also on screen. Typically, off-stage characters are not considered
part of the dramatis personae.

1. Types of Characters

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1. Confidante Character
A confidante is someone or something the main character confides in. Readers can
learn a lot about the main character’s personality and thoughts through this. The
confidante can be another character or it can be the inside pages of the main
character’s diary.

2. Dynamic or Developing Character

A dynamic character is someone who changes throughout the story. This may be a
good change or a bad one, but their motivations, desires, or even their personality
changes due to something in the story. This is usually a permanent change and
shows how the character has learned and developed over time in the story.

3. Flat or Static Character

A flat character is the opposite of a dynamic character. A flat character doesn’t
change much or at all throughout the story. Their personality and/or background
isn’t revealed well and we only know a handful of traits about them.

4. Foil Character
A foil character is someone who is the opposite of another character. They reflect
the opposite traits, hence a foil character. Your main character can be sweet and
caring and the foil character will bring out that side by being nasty. It contrasts two
characters.

5. Round Character
A round character is similar to a dynamic character. They change throughout the
story gaining new traits, some traits opposite to who they used to be.

6. Stock Character
A stock character is just stock photos you can get off the internet. They are not a big
deal to the story, they don’t change at all, they’re pretty much cliche characters such
as the “dumb jock” or “popular cheerleader.”

7. Protagonist or Main Character

Main characters are the root of the story. They will develop over time and will
ultimately be part of the driving force of the plot. This is the character your readers
will care most about.

8. Antagonist
An antagonist is the opposite of your protagonist. They will oppose your main
character. They will, along with the main character, be the driving force behind the
plot.

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9. Villain
A villain is similar to the antagonist, but they are evil. As described in Sacha
Black’s 13 Steps To Evil: How To Craft Superbad Villains, they have evil actions
and motives that drive the plot.

2.Symbolism and Allegory

An allegory is a complete narrative that involves characters and events that stand
for an abstract idea or event. A symbol, on the other hand, is an object that stands
for another object, giving it a particular meaning. Unlike allegory, symbolism does
not tell a story.

C. Thought/Subject/Time
In Aristotle’s poetics, thought refers to the theme or the main idea of the drama or
play.

Aristotle is committed to the view that there is time when the mind (I should say the
soul) is aware that the instants of time are two. Moreover, he claims that between
two instants of time there can always be another instant of time. In other
words, Aristotle believes that time is continuous.

D.Diction/Dialogue/Language/Point-of-View
Dialogue is typically a conversation between two or more people in a narrative work.
As aliterary technique, dialogue serves several purposes. It can advance the plot,
reveal a character's thoughts or feelings, or show how characters react in the
moment.
Dialogue is written using quotation marks around the speaker's exact words. These
quotation marks are meant to set the dialogue apart from the narration, which is
written as standard text. Together, let's explore some dialogue examples.

1. Functions of Dialogue
Dialogue, he informs us, performs four functions: It provides information, reveals
emotion, advances the plot and exposes character.
Information: This seems straight forward enough. Tell the audience what they
need to know to follow the story. The catch is that the writer should do so without
being obvious or slowing down the forward thrust of the tale.
Emotion: Whenever possible, dialogue should also reveal emotion. Failure to do so
makes for boring lines. In the above mentioned example, each line uttered by the
Nazi officer in the scene serves to heighten the stakes for the farmer and his family
since discovering the Jews under the floorboards will surely lead to everyone’s
execution.
Plot: Additionally dialogue should advance the plot, but it should do so
surreptitiously so that it does not expose its purpose. Initially, it seems that the Nazi
officer is merely questioning the French farmer and will leave at the end of the
interview. But as the questioning continues it becomes clear that the Nazi already

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has the answers and is merely prolonging the process to the torment of the farmer
and his family.
Character: Lastly, dialogue should characterize the speaker and the person to
whom it is directed. The Nazi officer, seems, at first, to be cultured and polite. The
interview initially seems more of a conversation between friends than an
interrogation. The farmer, although reticent, is encouraged to participate in the
exchanges. But the niceties are only superficial – part of the cat-and-mouse game
that the German is playing with the farmer. This characterizes him as a sadistic
tormentor and the farmer and his family as helpless, passive victims.
2.Point of View and Perspective

Perspective is how the characters view and process what's happening within

the story. Here's how it compares with point of view: Point of view focuses on
the type of narrator used to tell the story. Perspective focuses on how this
narrator perceives what's happening within the story.
E. Music/Melody/Rhythm/Performance Elements
When Aristotle wrote his Poetics and outlined his six elements of drama, nearly all
plays had music.

2. Tones and Atmosphere

TONE
“Tone” is the writer’s attitude that is expressed in the writing.
For example, the tone of a novel could be suspenseful, because the author holds
back certain information to create this feeling.
Tone is also generally thought of as describing the work as a whole, rather than a
particular section.

How do you create tone in your writing?

It helps to decide what kind of tone you want. Often it depends on the genre. If its a
mystery novel, then the tone should be suspenseful, if its a romance novel then its
likely that you’ll want a certain amount of sexual tension. It’s often more the plot
than the actual word choice that creates this tone, as the plot generally builds up to
a climax that reveals it.

ATMOSPHERE
The definition of “atmosphere” is debatable. Some say that it is the overall feeling
created from the tone and mood, but others argue that it is the emotions and feeling
created from the character. I prefer the character definition as how a character’s is
feeling will reflect on the reader, making it important for the writer to think about.

How do you create atmosphere in your writing?

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Atmosphere is about understanding character feelings and getting in their head. It is
often most effective for 1st person and 3rd person limited POVs, but as long as your
reader can have a relationship with the characters, and feel their pain and joy, then
atmosphere can be created. For the most part, atmosphere is about choosing the
correct emotions that go with a certain character and the situation they are in. It is
be best to concentrate on one characters feelings per scene, rather than trying to
cover everyone, because otherwise the atmosphere becomes diluted and is harder
to relate to.

F. Spectacle (Opsis)/ Visual and Technical Elements/ Mise-en-scene

Mise-en-scène ("placing on stage") is the stage design and arrangement of actors

in scenes for a theatre or film production, both in visual arts through storyboarding,
visual theme, and cinematography, and in narrative storytelling through direction.
The term is also commonly used to refer to single scenes that are representative of
a film. Mise-en-scène has been called film criticism's "grand undefined term".

Learning Exercise 20.1

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 Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Some Quotes on Drama

Write at least three own quotes about drama.

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Learning Exercise 20.2

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 Name: Rating:
Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Tragedy

Read the tragedy drama below and criticize.

A young man referred to simply as the Bridegroom enters his home and tells
his mother that he’s going out to their vineyard to cut grapes. This makes his mother
anxious, as she curses the invention of knives and anything that “can cut a man’s
body.” Going on in this manner, she reminisces about the death of the Bridegroom’s
father and brother, both of whom were murdered by members of the Felix family.

She complains about the fact that the murderers have only been imprisoned and
thus are still alive, a punishment she finds unsatisfactory. “Are you going to stop?”
the Bridegroom asks, wanting to change the subject, though she continues to talk
about violence and death, saying she doesn’t like it when he leaves the house
because she fears something will happen to him.

Eventually, the Bridegroom succeeds in distracting her by talking about his plans to
get married. When he brings this up, his mother expresses her happiness for him,
though she points out that she doesn’t know the young woman and that the entire
ordeal is moving quite fast. Still, she says she knows the Bride is “good,” and she
agrees to meet her and her father that Sunday to make the wedding plans official.

When the Bridegroom leaves, a neighbor enters and speaks to his mother, who
asks if she knows anything about the girl her son is about to marry. The neighbor
explains that the Bride is an attractive young woman who lives far away with her

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father. The girl’s mother is dead, the neighbor says, adding that the Bride’s mother
never loved her husband.

Lastly, she informs the Bridegroom’s mother that the Bride was in a serious
relationship with Leonardo Felix. In fact, they almost got married, but then Leonardo
ended up marrying the girl’s cousin. Hearing this, the old woman is distraught,
bemoaning the fact that her son’s Bride has been associated with the Felix family,
but the neighbor tells her to be reasonable, pointing out that Leonardo was only
eight years old when the violence between their families took place.

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Learning Exercise 20.3

Name: Rating:

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 Teacher: Time:
Date: Section:

Elements of Drama

Read the story below and make a plot using Freytag pyramid.

THE EMPEROR'S NEW CLOTHES

Hans Christian Andersen

Many years ago there was an Emperor so exceedingly fond of new clothes that he
spent all his money on being well dressed. He cared nothing about reviewing his
soldiers, going to the theatre, or going for a ride in his carriage, except to show off
his new clothes. He had a coat for every hour of the day, and instead of saying, as
one might, about any other ruler, "The King's in council," here they always said.
"The Emperor's in his dressing room."

In the great city where he lived, life was always gay. Every day many strangers
came to town, and among them one day came two swindlers. They let it be known
they were weavers, and they said they could weave the most magnificent fabrics
imaginable. Not only were their colors and patterns uncommonly fine, but clothes
made of this cloth had a wonderful way of becoming invisible to anyone who was
unfit for his office, or who was unusually stupid.

"Those would be just the clothes for me," thought the Emperor. "If I wore them I
would be able to discover which men in my empire are unfit for their posts. And I
could tell the wise men from the fools. Yes, I certainly must get some of the stuff
woven for me right away." He paid the two swindlers a large sum of money to start
work at once.

They set up two looms and pretended to weave, though there was nothing on the
looms. All the finest silk and the purest old thread which they demanded went into
their traveling bags, while they worked the empty looms far into the night.

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"I'd like to know how those weavers are getting on with the cloth," the Emperor
thought, but he felt slightly uncomfortable when he remembered that those who
were unfit for their position would not be able to see the fabric. It couldn't have been
that he doubted himself, yet he thought he'd rather send someone else to see how
things were going. The whole town knew about the cloth's peculiar power, and all
were impatient to find out how stupid their neighbors were.

"I'll send my honest old minister to the weavers," the Emperor decided. "He'll be the
best one to tell me how the material looks, for he's a sensible man and no one does
his duty better."

So the honest old minister went to the room where the two swindlers sat working
away at their empty looms.

"Heaven help me," he thought as his eyes flew wide open, "I can't see anything at
all". But he did not say so.

Both the swindlers begged him to be so kind as to come near to approve the
excellent pattern, the beautiful colors. They pointed to the empty looms, and the
poor old minister stared as hard as he dared. He couldn't see anything, because
there was nothing to see. "Heaven have mercy," he thought. "Can it be that I'm a
fool? I'd have never guessed it, and not a soul must know. Am I unfit to be the
minister? It would never do to let on that I can't see the cloth."

"Don't hesitate to tell us what you think of it," said one of the weavers.

"Oh, it's beautiful -it's enchanting." The old minister peered through his spectacles.
"Such a pattern, what colors!" I'll be sure to tell the Emperor how delighted I am with
it."

"We're pleased to hear that," the swindlers said. They proceeded to name all the
colors and to explain the intricate pattern. The old minister paid the closest
attention, so that he could tell it all to the Emperor. And so he did.

The swindlers at once asked for more money, more silk and gold thread, to get on
with the weaving. But it all went into their pockets. Not a thread went into the looms,
though they worked at their weaving as hard as ever.

The Emperor presently sent another trustworthy official to see how the work
progressed and how soon it would be ready. The same thing happened to him that
had happened to the minister. He looked and he looked, but as there was nothing to
see in the looms he couldn't see anything.

"Isn't it a beautiful piece of goods?" the swindlers asked him, as they displayed and
described their imaginary pattern.

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"I know I'm not stupid," the man thought, "so it must be that I'm unworthy of my
good office. That's strange. I mustn't let anyone find it out, though." So he praised
the material he did not see. He declared he was delighted with the beautiful colors
and the exquisite pattern. To the Emperor he said, "It held me spellbound."

All the town was talking of this splendid cloth, and the Emperor wanted to see it for
himself while it was still in the looms. Attended by a band of chosen men, among
whom were his two old trusted officials-the ones who had been to the weavers-he
set out to see the two swindlers. He found them weaving with might and main, but
without a thread in their looms.

"Magnificent," said the two officials already duped. "Just look, Your Majesty, what
colors! What a design!" They pointed to the empty looms, each supposing that the
others could see the stuff.

"What's this?" thought the Emperor. "I can't see anything. This is terrible!

Am I a fool? Am I unfit to be the Emperor? What a thing to happen to me of all

people! - Oh! It's very pretty," he said. "It has my highest approval." And he nodded
approbation at the empty loom. Nothing could make him say that he couldn't see
anything.

His whole retinue stared and stared. One saw no more than another, but they all
joined the Emperor in exclaiming, "Oh! It's very pretty," and they advised him to
wear clothes made of this wonderful cloth especially for the great procession he
was soon to lead. "Magnificent! Excellent! Unsurpassed!" were bandied from mouth
to mouth, and everyone did his best to seem well pleased. The Emperor gave each
of the swindlers a cross to wear in his buttonhole, and the title of "Sir Weaver."

Before the procession the swindlers sat up all night and burned more than six
candles, to show how busy they were finishing the Emperor's new clothes. They
pretended to take the cloth off the loom. They made cuts in the air with huge
scissors. And at last they said, "Now the Emperor's new clothes are ready for him."

Then the Emperor himself came with his noblest noblemen, and the swindlers each
raised an arm as if they were holding something. They said, "These are the
trousers, here's the coat, and this is the mantle," naming each garment. "All of them
are as light as a spider web. One would almost think he had nothing on, but that's
what makes them so fine."

"Exactly," all the noblemen agreed, though they could see nothing, for there was
nothing to see.

"If Your Imperial Majesty will condescend to take your clothes off," said the
swindlers, "we will help you on with your new ones here in front of the long mirror."

217
The Emperor undressed, and the swindlers pretended to put his new clothes on
him, one garment after another. They took him around the waist and seemed to be
fastening something - that was his train-as the Emperor turned round and round
before the looking glass.

"How well Your Majesty's new clothes look. Aren't they becoming!" He heard on all
sides, "That pattern, so perfect! Those colors, so suitable! It is a magnificent outfit."

Then the minister of public processions announced: "Your Majesty's canopy is

waiting outside."

"Well, I'm supposed to be ready," the Emperor said, and turned again for one last
look in the mirror. "It is a remarkable fit, isn't it?" He seemed to regard his costume
with the greatest interest.

The noblemen who were to carry his train stooped low and reached for the floor as
if they were picking up his mantle. Then they pretended to lift and hold it high. They
didn't dare admit they had nothing to hold.

So off went the Emperor in procession under his splendid canopy. Everyone in the
streets and the windows said, "Oh, how fine are the Emperor's new clothes! Don't
they fit him to perfection? And see his long train!" Nobody would confess that he
couldn't see anything, for that would prove him either unfit for his position, or a fool.
No costume the Emperor had worn before was ever such a complete success.

"But he hasn't got anything on," a little child said.

"Did you ever hear such innocent prattle?" said its father. And one person
whispered to another what the child had said, "He hasn't anything on. A child says
he hasn't anything on."

"But he hasn't got anything on!" the whole town cried out at last.

The Emperor shivered, for he suspected they were right. But he thought, "This
procession has got to go on." So he walked more proudly than ever, as his
noblemen held high the train that wasn't there at all.

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