CHAPTER 1

ATOMS, MOLECULES
AND
STOICHIOMETRY

BY : MISS SHARINAH IDERIS

 Learning Outcomes
1.1 Relative masses of atoms and Molecules

a) define and use the terms relative atomic, isotopic,

molecular and formula masses, based on the 12C scale

1.2 The mole and the Avogadro constant

a) define and use the term mole in terms of the Avogadro

constant
1.3 The determination of relative atomic masses, Ar

a) analyse mass spectra in terms of isotopic abundances

(knowledge of the working of the mass spectrometer is not
required)

b) calculate the relative atomic mass of an element given

the relative abundances of its isotopes, or its mass
spectrum
1.4 The calculation of empirical and molecular
formulae

a) define and use the terms empirical and molecular

formula

b) calculate empirical and molecular formulae, using

combustion data or composition by mass
1.5 Reacting masses and volumes (of solutions and gases)

a) write and construct balanced equations

b) perform calculations, including use of the mole concept,
involving:
(i) reacting masses (from formulae and equations)
(ii) volumes of gases (e.g. in the burning of hydrocarbons)
(iii) volumes and concentrations of solutions

c) deduce stoichiometric relationships from calculations

such as those in 1.5(b)
RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS/RAM
; Ar
The relative atomic mass is the
weighted average mass of naturally
occurring atoms of an element on a
scale where an atom of carbon-12 has a
mass of exactly 12 units.
From this it follows that:
Ar [elementY]
average mass of one atom of element Y×12
=
mass of one atom of carbon-12

*We use the average mass of the atom of a particular element

because most elements are mixtures of isotopes.
*Isotopes are atoms of the same numbers of
protons but different numbers of neutrons.

*Nucleon number is the total number of

neutrons plus protons in an atom. This is
also known as the mass number.

The nucleon number written at the top left-hand corner

of the atom’s symbol, e.g. 20Ne,
or by a number written after the atom’s name or
symbol, e.g. neon-20 or Ne-20.
 • We use the term relative isotopic mass for the mass
of a particular isotope of an element on a scale where
an atom of carbon-12 has a mass of exactly 12 units.

• If we know the natural abundance of every isotope of an

element and their isotopic masses, we can calculate
Relative atomis mass (Ar) of the element very
accurately. To find the necessary data we use an
instrument called a mass spectrometer.
A mass spectrometer can be used:
 to measure the mass of each isotope present in an element.
 to compares how much of each isotope is present – the
relative abundance (isotopic abundance)
• In a mass spectrometer the sample is first vaporized to
converted into ions.
• The stream of ions is brought to a detector after being
deflected (bent) by a strong magnetic field.
• As the magnetic field is increased, the ions of heavier and
heavier isotopes are brought to the detector.
• The detector is connected to a computer, which displays the
mass spectrum.
• In a mass spectrometer the sample is first vaporized to
converted into ions.
• The stream of ions is brought to a detector after being
deflected (bent) by a strong magnetic field.
• As the magnetic field is increased, the ions of heavier and
heavier isotopes are brought to the detector.
• The detector is connected to a computer, which displays the
mass spectrum.
To calculate the relative atomic
mass we follow this method:
 Multiply each isotopic mass by
its percentage abundance
 Add the figures together
 Divide by 100
 14

Average atomic mass (20.12)

Look at the mass spectrum of germanium, Ge.
a Write the isotopic formula for the heaviest isotope of
germanium.
b Use the % abundance of each isotope to calculate the
relative atomic mass of germanium.
RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS
; Mr
The relative molecular mass of a
Compound (Mr) is the relative
mass of one molecule of the
compound on a scale where the
carbon-12 isotope has a mass of
exactly 12 units.
We find the Mr by adding up the Ar of all the
atoms present in the molecule.
 RELATIVE FORMULA MASS
; Mr

For compounds containing ions we

use the term relative formula mass.
For example, for magnesium hydroxide:
Use the Periodic Table to calculate the relative
formula masses of the following:
a. calcium chloride, CaCl2

b. copper(II) sulfate, CuSO4

c. ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4

d. magnesium nitrate-6-water, Mg(NO3)2.6H2O

 Hint: for part d you need to calculate the mass of

water separately and then add it to the Mr of
Mg(NO3)2.
 THE MOLE

One mole of a substance is the

amount of that substance that has
the same number of specific
particles (atoms, molecules or
ions) as there are atoms in exactly
12 g of the carbon-12 isotope.
 AVOGADRO CONSTANT ;
L / NA
• The number of atoms in a mole of atoms is very large:
6.02 × 1023 atoms.
• This number is called the Avogadro constant (or
Avogadro number).
• The Avogadro constant applies to atoms, molecules, ions
and electrons.
• So in 1 mole of sodium there are 6.02 × 1023 sodium
atoms and in 1 mole of sodium chloride (NaCl) there are
6.02 × 1023 sodium ions and 6.02 × 1023 chloride ions.
How many moles of sodium chloride are present
in 117.0 g of NaCl ?
(Ar values: Na = 23.0, Cl = 35.5)
What mass of NaOH is present in 0.25 mol
of NaOH?
(Ar values: H = 1.0, Na = 23.0, O = 16.0)
a Use these Ar values (Fe = 55.8, N = 14.0, O = 16.0, S= 32.1)
to calculate the amount of substance in moles in each of the
following:

i 10.7 g of sulfur atoms

ii 64.2 g of sulfur molecules (S8)
iii 60.45 g of anhydrous iron(III) nitrate, Fe(NO3)3.

b Use the value of the Avogadro constant (6.02 ×1023 mol–1)

to calculate the total number of atoms in 7.10 g of chlorine
atoms. (Ar value: Cl = 35.5)
Use these A r values:
C = 12.0, Fe = 55.8, H = 1.0, O = 16.0, Na = 23.0.
Calculate the mass of the following:

a 0.20 moles of carbon dioxide, CO2

b 0.050 moles of sodium carbonate, Na2CO3
c 5.00 moles of iron(II) hydroxide, Fe(OH)2
 MOLE CALCULATIONS:
REACTING MASSES
• When reacting chemicals together we may need to
know what mass of each reactant to use so that they
react exactly and there is no waste.

• To calculate this we need to know the chemical

equation.

• This shows us the ratio of moles of the reactants

and products – the stoichiometry of the equation.
• 1 mole of iron(III) oxide reacts with 3 moles of carbon
monoxide to form 2 moles of iron and 3 moles of carbon
dioxide.

• The stoichiometry of the equation is 1 : 3 : 2 : 3.

• The large numbers that are included in the equation (3, 2
and 3) are called stoichiometric numbers.

• In order to find the mass of products formed in a

chemical reaction we use:
■ the mass of the reactants
■ the molar mass of the reactants
■ the balanced equation.
Magnesium burns in oxygen to form magnesium oxide.

We can calculate the mass of oxygen needed to react

with 1 mole of magnesium. We can calculate the mass of
magnesium oxide formed.

Step 1 Write the balanced equation.

Step 2 Multiply each formula mass in g by the relevant
stoichiometric number in the equation.
From this calculation we can deduce that:
■32.0 g of oxygen are needed to react exactly with 48.6 g of
magnesium
■80.6 g of magnesium oxide are formed.

If we burn 12.15 g of magnesium (0.5 mol) we get 20.15 g of

magnesium oxide. This is because the stoichiometry of the
reaction shows us that for every
mole of magnesium burnt we get the same number of
moles of magnesium oxide.
• In this type of calculation we do not always need to
know the molar mass of each of the reactants

• If one or more of the reactants is in excess, we need

only know the mass in grams and the molar mass of
the reactant that is not in excess (the limiting
reactant).
Iron(III) oxide reacts with carbon monoxide to form
iron and carbon dioxide.

Calculate the maximum mass of iron produced when

798 g of iron(III) oxide is reduced by excess carbon
monoxide.
(Ar values: Fe = 55.8, O = 16.0)
a Sodium reacts with excess oxygen to form sodium
peroxide, Na2O2.

Calculate the maximum mass of sodium peroxide formed

when 4.60 g of sodium is burnt in excess oxygen.
(Ar values: Na = 23.0, O = 16.0)
b Tin(IV) oxide is reduced to tin by carbon. Carbon
monoxide is also formed.

Calculate the mass of carbon that exactly reacts with 14.0

g of tin(IV) oxide. Give your answer to 3 significant figures.
(Ar values: C = 12.0, O = 16.0, Sn = 118.7)
 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
• Any digit that is not zero is significant
 1.234 kg 4 significant figures

• Zeros between nonzero digits are significant

 606 m 3 significant figures

• Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are

not significant
 0.08 L 1 significant figure
•
 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

• If a number is greater than 1, then all

zeros to the right of the decimal point are
significant
 2.0 mg 2 significant figures

• If a number is less than 1, then only the

zeros that are at the end and in the
middle of the number are significant
 0.00420 g 3 significant figures
How many moles of calcium oxide are there in 2.9 g of
calcium oxide?

(Ar values: Ca = 40.1, O = 16.0)

If you divide 2.9 by 56.1, your calculator shows 0.051 693

…. The least number of significant figures in the data,
however, is 2 (the mass is 2.9 g). So your answer should
be expressed to 2 significant figures,
as 0.052 mol.
Note 1 Zeros before a number are not significant
figures. For example, 0.004 is only to 1 significant figure.

Note 2 After the decimal point, zeros after a number are

significant figures. 0.0040 has 2 significant figures and
0.004 00 has 3 significant figures.

Note 3 If you are performing a calculation with several

steps, do not round up in between steps. Round up at the
end.
 MOLE CALCULATIONS:
The stoichiometry of a reaction
We can find the stoichiometry of a reaction if we know
the amounts of each reactant that exactly react
together and the amounts of each product formed.
• We can still deduce the stoichiometry of this reaction
even if we do not know the mass of oxygen that reacted.
• The ratio of hydrogen to water is 1 : 1.
• But there is only one atom of oxygen in a molecule of
water – half the amount in an oxygen molecule.
• So the mole ratio of oxygen to water in the equation
must be 1 : 2.
56.2 g of silicon, Si, reacts exactly with 284.0 g of chlorine,
Cl2, to form 340.2 g of silicon(IV) chloride, SiCl4. Use this
information to calculate the stoichiometry of the reaction.
(Ar values: Cl = 35.5, Si = 28.1)
 MOLE CALCULATIONS:
Percentage composition by mass
We can use the formula of a compound and relative
atomic masses to calculate the percentage by mass of
a particular element in a compound.
Calculate the percentage by mass of iron in iron(III)
oxide, Fe2O3.

(Ar values: Fe = 55.8, O = 16.0)

Calculate the percentage by mass of carbon in ethanol,
C2H5OH.
(Ar values: C = 12.0, H = 1.0, O = 16.0)
 EMPIRICAL FORMULA

The empirical formula of a compound is the

simplest whole number ratio of the elements
present in one molecule or formula unit of the
compound.
 MOLECULAR FORMULA

The molecular formula of a compound shows

the total number of atoms of each element
present in a molecule.
Write the empirical formula for:

a hydrazine, N2H4
b octane, C8H18
c benzene, C6H6
d ammonia, NH3
• The empirical formula can be found by determining the
mass of each element present in a sample of the
compound.
• For some compounds this can be done by combustion.
• An organic compound must be very pure in order to
calculate its empirical formula.
• Chemists often use gas chromatography to purify
compounds before carrying out formula analysis.
• An empirical formula can also be deduced from data that
give the percentage composition by mass of the elements
in a compound.
 DEDUCE EMPIRICAL
FORMULA BY COMBUSTION

Example:
Deduce the formula of magnesium oxide.
This can be found as follows:
 burn a known mass of magnesium (0.486g) in
excess oxygen
 record the mass of magnesium oxide
formed(0.806g) (Ar values: Mg = 24.3, O = 16.0)
 Calculate the mass of oxygen that has combined
with the magnesium (0.806 – 0.486g) = 0.320g
 Calculate the mole ratio of magnesium to oxygen

Moles of oxygen = 0.320 g / 16.0 gmol-1 = 0.0200 mole

Moles of magnesium = 0.486 g / 24.3 gmol-1 = 0.0200 mole

 The simplest ratio of magnesium : oxygen is 1:1

When 1.55 g of phosphorus is completely combusted 3.55 g
of an oxide of phosphorus is produced. Deduce the
empirical formula of this oxide of phosphorus.
(Ar values: O = 16.0, P = 31.0)
 FORMULA BY PERCENTAGE
COMPOSITION
Example:
A compound of carbon and hydrogen contains 85.7%
carbon and 14.3% hydrogen by mass. Deduce the
empirical formula of this hydrocarbon.
(Ar values: C = 12.0, O = 16.0)
A compound of carbon and hydrogen contains
C H
Step 1 note the % by mass 85.7 14.3
Step 2 divide by Ar values 85.7/12.0= 7.142 14.3/1.0= 14.3
Step 3 divide by the lowest 7.142/7.142= 1 14.3/7.142 = 2
Figure

Empirical formula is CH2.

The composition by mass of a hydrocarbon is 10% hydrogen
and 90% carbon. Deduce the empirical formula of this
hydrocarbon.
 DEDUCE MOLECULAR FORMULA
• The molecular formula shows the actual number of each
of the different atoms present in a molecule.

• The molecular formula is more useful than the empirical

formula.

• We use the molecular formula to write balanced equations

and to calculate molar masses.

• The molecular formula is always a multiple of the

empirical formula.

• For example, the molecular formula of ethane, C2H6, is

two times the empirical formula, CH3.
In order to deduce the molecular formula we need
to know:
■the relative formula mass of the compound
■the empirical formula.

It is an exact multiple of the empirical formula.

molecular formula = (empirical formula)n

DEDUCE MOLECULAR FORMULA

Example 1 :
A compound has the empirical formula CH2Br. Its relative
molecular mass is 187.8. Deduce the molecular formula of
this compound.
(Ar values: Br = 79.9, C = 12.0, H = 1.0)
step 1 find the empirical formula mass:
12.0 + (2 × 1.0) + 79.9 = 93.9

step 2 divide the relative molecular mass by

the empirical formula mass: 187.8/93.9 = 2

step 3 multiply the number of atoms in the empirical

formula by the number in step 2:
2 × CH2Br, so molecular formula is C2H4Br2.
The empirical formulae and molar masses of three
compounds, A, B and C, are shown in the table below.
Calculate the molecular formula of each of these
compounds.
(Ar values: C = 12.0, Cl = 35.5, H = 1.0)
Chemical formulae and chemical equations:
Deducing the formula
Formula of Ionic Compounds
2 x +3 = +6 3 x -2 = -6
Al2O3
Al3+ O2-

1 x +2 = +2 2 x -1 = -2
CaBr2
Ca2+ Br-

1 x +2 = +2 1 x -2 = -2
Na2CO3
Na+ CO32-
 TABLE OF IONS

POSITIVE IONS (CATIONS) NEGATIVE IONS (ANIONS)

hydrogen H+ chloride Cl¯
sodium Na+ bromide Br¯
potassium K+ iodide I¯
lithium Li+ hydroxide OH¯
1 rubidium Rb+ nitrate NO3¯
caesium Cs+ nitrite NO2¯
copper(I) Cu+ hydrogencarbonate HCO3¯
silver(I) Ag+ hydrogensulphate HSO4¯
ammonium NH4+

calcium Ca2+ sulphate SO42-

barium Ba2+ sulphite SO32-
magnesium Mg2+ sulphide S2-
2 zinc Zn2+ oxide O2-
iron(II) Fe2+ carbonate CO32-
cobalt Co2+ copper(II) Cu2+
manganese(II) Mn2+

3 aluminium Al3+ phosphate PO43-

iron(III) Fe3+
a Write down the formula of each of the following
compounds:
i magnesium nitrate
ii calcium sulfate
iii sodium iodide
iv hydrogen bromide
v sodium sulfide

b Name each of the following compounds:

i Na3PO4 iii AlCl3
ii (NH4)2SO4 iv Ca(NO3)2
Chemical formulae and chemical equations:
Balancing chemical equations
 When chemicals react, atoms cannot be either created or
destroyed.
 So there must be the same number of each type of atom
on the reactants side of a chemical equation as there are
on the products side.
 A symbol equation is a shorthand way of describing a
chemical reaction.
 It shows the number and type of the atoms in the
reactants and the number and type of atoms in the
products.
 If these are the same, we say the equation is balanced.
Write balanced equations for the following reactions.
a Iron reacts with hydrochloric acid to form iron(II)
chloride, FeCl2, and hydrogen.

b Aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH)3, decomposes on heating

to form aluminium oxide, Al2O3, and water.

c Hexane, C6H14, burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide

and water.
 Balance the following equations:

(a) K + H2O → KOH + H2

(b) NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + H2O
(c) Mg + O2 → MgO
(d) Cl2 + NaI → NaCl + I2
(e) O3 → O2
(f) KOH + H3PO4 → K3PO4 + H2O
Chemical formulae and chemical equations:
Using state symbols

STATE SYMBOLS :
Solid state (s)
Liquid state (l)
Gas state (g)
Solution in water (aqueous solution)(aq)
Write balanced equations, including state symbols, for the
following reactions.
a Solid calcium carbonate reacts with aqueous hydrochloric
acid to form water, carbon dioxide and an aqueous solution
of calcium chloride.

b An aqueous solution of zinc sulfate, ZnSO4, reacts with

an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide. The products are
a precipitate of zinc hydroxide, Zn(OH)2, and an aqueous
solution of sodium sulfate.
Chemical formulae and chemical equations:
Balancing ionic equations
 When ionic compounds dissolve in water, the ions
separate from each other.
 For example:

 Ionic compounds include salts such as sodium bromide,

magnesium sulfate and ammonium nitrate.
 Acids and alkalis also contain ions. For example H+(aq)
and Cl–(aq) ions are present in hydrochloric acid and
Na+(aq) and OH–(aq) ions are present in sodium
hydroxide.
 Many chemical reactions in aqueous solution involve
ionic compounds.
Only some of the ions in solution take part in these
reactions.
 The ions that play no part in the reaction are
called spectator ions.
 An ionic equation is simpler than a full chemical
equation.
 It shows only the ions or other particles that are reacting.
 Spectator ions are omitted.
 HOW TO WRITE IONIC EQUATION?
1. Write the full eqn and balance it. Then
write another eqn using rules 2,3 and 4.

2. For dissolved ionic substances, write the

ions separately.

3. For all solids, gases and liquids. Write

the full formula.

4. Cross out all the ‘spectator’ ions.

Example:
 Chemists usually prefer to write ionic equations for
precipitation reactions.
 A precipitation reaction is a reaction where two aqueous
solutions react to form a solid– the precipitate.
 For these reactions the method of writing the ionic
equation can be simplified.
 All you have to do is:

■write the formula of the precipitate as the product

■write the ions that go to make up the precipitate as the
reactants.
Solubility is the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve
in a given quantity of solvent at a specific temperature.
An aqueous solution of iron(II) sulfate reacts with an
aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide. A precipitate of
iron(II) hydroxide is formed, together with an aqueous
solution of sodium sulfate.
 Solutions and concentration:
Calculating the concentration of a solution
Calculate the concentration in mol dm–3 of sodium
hydroxide, NaOH, if 250 cm3 of a solution contains 2.0 g of
sodium hydroxide.
(Mr value: NaOH = 40.0)
Calculate the mass of anhydrous copper(II) sulfate in 55
cm3 of a 0.20 mol dm–3 solution of copper(II) sulfate.
(Ar values: Cu = 63.5, O = 16.0, S = 32.1)
a Calculate the concentration, in mol dm–3, of the following
solutions: (Ar values: C = 12.0, H = 1.0, Na = 23.0, O = 16.0)
i a solution of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, containing 2.0 g of
sodium hydroxide in 50 cm3 of solution
ii a solution of ethanoic acid, CH3CO2H, containing 12.0 g of
ethanoic acid in 250 cm3 of solution.

b Calculate the number of moles of solute dissolved in each of

the following:
i 40 cm3 of aqueous nitric acid of concentration 0.2 mol dm–3
ii 50 cm3 of calcium hydroxide solution of concentration 0.01
mol dm–1
 CARRYING OUT A TITRATION
• A procedure called a titration is used to
determine the amount of substance
present in a solution of unknown
concentration.
• Ex: neutralisation of an alkali by an
acid.
If we want to determine the concentration of a solution of
sodium hydroxide we use the following procedure.

 Get some of acid of known concentration.

 Fill a clean burette with the acid (after having washed
the burette with a little of the acid).
 Record the initial burette reading.
 Measure a known volume of the alkali into a titration
flask using a graduated (volumetric) pipette.
 Add an indicator solution to the alkali in the flask.
 Slowly add the acid from the burette to the flask,
swirling the flask all the time until the indicator changes
colour (the end-point).
If we want to determine the concentration of a solution of
sodium hydroxide we use the following procedure. Cont’

• Record the final burette reading. The final reading minus

the initial reading is called the titre. This first
• titre is normally known as a ‘rough’ value.
• Repeat this process, adding the acid drop by drop near
the end-point.
• Repeat again, until you have two titres that are no more
than 0.10 cm3 apart.
• Take the average of these two titre values.
Your results should be recorded in a table, looking like this:
You should note:
• all burette readings are given to an accuracy of
0.05 cm3
• the units are shown like this ‘/ cm3’
• the two titres that are no more than 0.10 cm3
• apart are 1 and 3, so they would be averaged the
average titre is 34.70 cm3.
In every titration there are five important pieces of
knowledge:

1 the balanced equation for the reaction

2 the volume of the solution in the burette
3 the concentration of the solution in the burette
4 the volume of the solution in the titration flask
5 the concentration of the solution in the titration flask