EEA Report No 05/2022

Beyond water quality —

Sewage treatment in a
circular economy
 EEA Report No 05/2022

Beyond water quality —

Sewage treatment in a
circular economy
Cover design: EEA
Cover photo: ©Marco Bicca on Unsplashed
Layout: Formato Verde/EEA

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Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2022

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 Contents

Acknowledgements.....................................................................................................................................5

Key messages ..............................................................................................................................................7

Executive summary.....................................................................................................................................9

1 Introduction — preventing water pollution.....................................................................................11

1.1 Aim of the report.................................................................................................................................. 11
1.2 Scope of the report............................................................................................................................... 12
1.3 Sewage management — policies and ambitions.............................................................................. 13

2 Urban waste water treatment, health and pollution.....................................................................15

2.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 15
2.2 Sewage and urban waste water treatment....................................................................................... 15
2.3 Dwellings not connected to a sewerage system............................................................................... 19
2.4 Storm overflows.................................................................................................................................... 22
2.5 Waste water from industry.................................................................................................................. 22
2.6 Pollution from sewage......................................................................................................................... 23
2.7 Sludges arising from urban waste water treatment........................................................................ 27
2.8 Greenhouse gas emissions.................................................................................................................. 28

3 Energy and resources — reduce, reuse, recycle and recover.........................................................31

3.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 31
3.2 Energy use and efficiency.................................................................................................................... 31
3.3 Recovering resources from sewage and sewage sludge................................................................. 33
3.4 Decentralised sewage systems........................................................................................................... 41

4 Embedding circularity in sewage treatment....................................................................................43

4.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 43
4.2 Rethinking 'urban waste water treatment'....................................................................................... 43
4.3 Circular economy — from 'waste water treatment' to resource hub............................................ 45
4.4 Accelerating the transition................................................................................................................... 47
4.5 What needs to change.......................................................................................................................... 49

Abbreviations.............................................................................................................................................50

Glossary.......................................................................................................................................................51

References..................................................................................................................................................52

Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy 3

© Ivan Bandura on Unsplashed
 Acknowledgements

We are very grateful for the inspiring conversations We would also like to thank Eionet reviewers for their
with colleagues: useful comments:

Alberto Pistocchi, Dries Huygens and Glenn Orveillon (JRC) Bertrand Vallet, Anders Finnson, Mari Heinonen, Sarah
Gillman (EurEau); Mohamad Kayyal (UN); Sara Johansson (EEB);
Anna Marczak, Nele-Frederike Rosenstock and Michel Sponar Andreas Scheidleder (Austria); Wayne Trodd (Ireland)
(DG ENV)

Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy 5

© Patrick Federi on Unsplashed
 Key messages

• Treatment to clean up our sewage is essential to protect human health and the environment, with urban waste water
treatment key to improvements in the quality of Europe's waters in recent decades.

• Treatment of sewage is not 'one size fits all'. Local conditions call for local solutions. Financial resources, the
availability of land, population density, nature of the receiving water and types of industrial activity all influence
the options available. Ensuring flexible approaches to meet necessary quality standards can enable innovation and
locally-appropriate solutions.

• For all of us, a first step is to become more water-efficient, as this reduces the total amount of water required to be
abstracted from the environment, pumped and treated.

• Urban waste water treatment has focused on cleaning water to return it to the environment — a linear approach. Yet
there is significant potential to become more resource efficient and much more circular, as is being demonstrated
through innovation for water utilities in some countries to meet climate neutral targets for operations by 2030.

• Nevertheless, urban waste water treatment remains energy intensive, and greenhouse gases can be emitted at many
stages, embedded in infrastructure like sewers or released during waste water and sludge treatment.

• Urban waste water treatment plants (UWWTPs) can act as 'resource hubs' integral to resource recovery, rather than
just a form of waste management. Reclaimed water, energy, nutrients and organic materials all have proven potential
for reuse, recycling and recovery.

• Economic incentives for recycling and more favourable legislative frameworks are needed to scale up circular
approaches to urban waste water treatment, enabling recovered resources to enter the market, while legal barriers
limiting the use of such resources — for example treated sewage sludge — should be revisited.

• A major barrier to achieving circularity lies in the persistent pollutants that can be discharged to or run off into
urban waste water, which then need to be removed and which may contaminate sewage sludge. Upstream measures
are needed to keep these out of waste water, through restrictions, controls at source, and development of more
sustainable alternatives to the harmful substances currently in use.

• While large UWWTPs can deliver considerable efficiencies of scale, effective sewage treatment can also be achieved
through local, decentralised facilities, ranging in scale from individual buildings up to small towns. Technologies such
as separated waste water systems enable sewage to be safely treated while recovering both energy and nutrients.
Waste water from washing and cooking can be reused for applications where lower quality water will suffice, such as
irrigation of parks and gardens.

• Achieving the transition to sewage treatment and a circular economy requires change not only in regulatory and
institutional approaches, but also in how we as citizens appreciate our individual and collective responsibilities
towards sewage management. Nature-based solutions, which provide benefits such as green space and flood
alleviation — for example reed beds — can generate local support.

Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy 7

© Marcin Jozwiak on Unsplashed
 Executive summary

The European Green Deal sets out an ambitious agenda 'to materials such as concrete and steel, and is energy-intensive in
transform the EU into a fair and prosperous society, with a operations. However, the UWWTD does not consider greenhouse
resource-efficient and competitive economy where there are no gas emissions of methane and nitrous oxides, nor resource
net emissions of greenhouse gases' (EC, 2019a). recovery. We need to review the sustainability of such approaches
and move to more resource efficient and circular practice.
Sewage treatment is an essential service that can deliver clean
water, nutrients and organic fertiliser (Figure ES1). It can and Solutions for sewage and urban waste water treatment are
should contribute to delivering the broad goals of the Green necessarily local and need to take into account the local situation.
Deal, with a key role in supporting the ambition to achieve zero An optimal approach for a densely populated city is unlikely to
pollution. Reviews and evaluations of key parts of European apply to a low-density, rural population. Focusing on the desired
legislation, such as the Urban Waste Water Treatment and the outcome could provide flexibility in finding local solutions.
Sewage Sludge Directives, present the opportunity to modernise
and improve coherency across the sector. While recognising the Water managers have already identified ways to become more
broad scope of sewage treatment, it must be appreciated that the energy efficient and reduce operational greenhouse gas emissions.
primary priority is to protect human health and the environment Some UWWTPs generate more energy than they use, through
from the harm caused by insufficiently-treated sewage. biogas generation and waste water heat recovery. Some towns,
operators and even countries have ambitious plans for 'net zero'
This report focuses on water management, but action is needed greenhouse gas emissions from the water sector, intensively
in other sectors to support this area in achieving the ambitions of reviewing their infrastructure and operations.
the Green Deal. In particular, planning legislation should enable
innovative sewage treatment, while upstream efforts on water Alternative approaches to energy-intensive treatment include
efficiency and pollution control must minimise both the volume of the effective control of pollution at source and decentralised
water to be treated and the level of contamination. Innovation is approaches that treat and dispose of relatively small volumes
needed not only in technical approaches but also at cultural levels, of waste water. Furthermore, nature-based solutions such as
for example in allowing citizens to take part in local decisions on constructed wetlands and reedbeds can provide flood resilience
approaches to water and sewage management. and green space for citizens in a cost-effective manner.

Together with other parts of the economy, the water sector has UWWTPs should be more widely recognised as 'resource hubs',
significant potential to become more resource efficient and much integral to resource recovery, rather than 'waste management'.
more circular than at present. As well as water, energy, nutrients and While technical solutions exist, recovered nutrients and other
organic materials all have proven potential for reuse, recycling and materials from waste water and sludge struggle to compete with
recovery. mineral fertilisers and other materials on the market. Therefore,
both economic incentives for recycling and more favourable
EU water legislation has focused on the water cycle, improving legislative frameworks are needed to scale up such circular
water quality and aiming to restore biodiversity. It has little approaches, enabling recovered resources to enter the market.
influence on reducing water use, either in abstraction from the Legal barriers limiting the use of recovered resources should
environment or in the water efficiency of networks and products. be revisited, and economic tools to support circularity need to
It controls what can be discharged back into water and on to be provided.
land, but the list of controlled substances is small compared
with the range now used and produced, and it does not include A significant barrier to realising circularity in sewage treatment
greenhouse gases. The 1991 Urban Waste Water Treatment is the presence of harmful chemical pollutants in waste water,
Directive (UWWTD) has improved water quality in Europe, but coming from hazardous substances in household consumer
urban waste water treatment plants (UWWTPs) still represent the products, urban run-off and industries connected to UWWTPs.
major point source of pollutants of Europe's waters (EEA, 2018a; These need advanced treatment to remove them from the water,
EC, 2019b). which may lead to persistent pollutants ending up in sewage
sludge. The presence of such persistent pollutants can make the
Compliance with the UWWTD requires the building of collection and sludge unsuitable for recycling on land. Breaking this cycle over the
treatment facilities, usually involving the use of energy-intensive longer term requires the successful implementation of the Green

Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy 9

 Executive summary

Deal 'chemicals strategy for sustainability', and more effective approaches may take time to become widespread, but already
measures to control run-off so that harmful pollutants are no innovative towns, cities and utilities are finding solutions (see case
longer present in urban waste water. In the near term, efforts studies in chapters 3 and 4). Recognition that as citizens we all
to stop such pollutants entering waste water can drive change have a responsibility for, and can contribute to, a circular economy
upstream, as discharges to the sewerage network are reviewed for in sewage management through minimising the discharge of
their impact on water and sewage sludge quality. harmful substances 'down the drain', is key to reducing the need
for removal of harmful substances from water and enabling reuse
Achieving a circular economy in sewage treatment requires of sludge. As essentially renewable resources, sewage and 'waste
multiple stakeholders to participate, both in contributing solutions water' present a prime opportunity to demonstrate the systemic
and in accepting change. At the infrastructure level of UWWTPs, goals of the Green Deal.
towns and industry sectors, transition to more sustainable

Figure ES1 Implementing circularity in sewage treatment

Centralised
sewage treatment Discharge into
environment

Resource recovery Treatment

Discharge into Decentralised

environment sewage treatment
Reuse
N, P, Energy heat, Water for irrigation,
fertilisers water industrial processes, Treatment Resource recovery
flushing

Sewage

Reuse

N, P, fertilisers

Energy heat

Water for irrigation, flushing

Large urban areas Small urban areas

Drinking
Urban runoff and industrial discharges water
can also be conveyed via sewers.

10 Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy

 1
Introduction — preventing
water pollution

1.1 Aim of the report change. Rather than 'waste', we should consider the treated
water and sewage sludge as resources to be reused and
Treatment of sewage and urban waste water is essential for recycled in a circular economy. Cleaner water provides more
the health of both humans and the environment. Originally natural habitats than polluted water, benefiting biodiversity.
undertaken to prevent disease through contamination of Investment in preventing pollution, including upstream
drinking water supplies, recognition of the potentially harmful measures such as avoiding the use of harmful chemicals, is
role nutrients had on the environment led to the Urban Waste key to delivering sustainability.
Water Treatment Directive (UWWTD) in 1991 (EEC, 1991).
Figure 1.1 summarises the challenges that urban waste
In recent years, we have become more aware of the many water treatment is facing, together with some of the
other pollutants in waste water, which are not targeted by solutions and opportunities that water managers can and
the UWWTD. The overarching perspective of the European are implementing. From climate and demographic change to
Green Deal and the Eighth Environmental Action Programme compliance and investment, solutions are needed at scales
(EC, 2022) also better recognise the broader role that waste ranging from individual households to cities with millions
water treatment can provide in helping to mitigate climate of inhabitants.

Figure 1.1 Challenges, solutions and opportunities for urban waste water treatment plants

KNOWN CHALLENGES THE SOLUTIONS THE OPPORTUNITIES

Storm water management and Emerging treatment techniques Enhancing resilience

adaptation to climate change - reduced flood risks
- improved asset life
Pollution source control and - energy self-sufficiency
Urban and rural waste water behavioural change
treatment provision
Greening cities and Increasing sustainability
catchment-based solutions - circular economy
Improving resource and
energy efficiency - reduced waste
- lower greenhouse gas emissions
Concentrate treatment at fewer,
more energy-efficient plants
Contaminants of emerging
concern Improving innovation
Innovation approaches to rural
provision of waste water treatment - advanced treatment techniques
- new technologies for material recovery
Compliance with European
legislation Sustainable financing

Developing new markets

Financing - for waste water treatment by-products
Enabling circular economy

Source: EEA (2019a).

Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy 11

 Introduction — preventing water pollution

However, if we constrain efforts to those challenges that can be The combination of sewage, urban run-off from roads and
met by water managers alone, we cannot achieve the ambitions of hard surfaces and industrial waste water is termed 'urban
the Green Deal. Planning legislation needs to permit decentralised waste water' (Figure 1.2). Left untreated, this waste water
solutions for and innovation in sewage treatment. Markets pollutes rivers, lakes, groundwater and seas, while potential
need incentivising to enable the viable recovery of resources, resources are lost. The treatment required to minimise
such as phosphorus, while the use of hazardous substances pollution of water, however, can lead to the production of
in processes and products must be reduced to minimise their greenhouse gases and contaminated sludges, which can go on
ultimate discharge. Citizens should be given more opportunity to to pollute air, soils and water.
contribute to water and sewage management, with consideration
given to solutions that offer multiple benefits such as improving For the 11% of Europeans whose dwellings are not connected
biodiversity, recreational space and flood resilience. to waste water treatment plants (Eurostat, 2019), individual
treatment such as septic tanks or package plants are
This report sets out considerations for sewage treatment to meet necessary. These too can pollute air and water.
the ambitions of the European Green Deal for 2050, focusing on
the opportunities to achieve zero pollution and circularity. However, it does not have to be this way. By applying a
systemic approach to sewage and waste water, Europe can
move to a virtuous circle, minimising pollution and using the
1.2 Scope of the report renewable resources provided by sewage and its treatment.
Delivering this will need a range of approaches, including
This study focuses on sewage, that is urine, faeces and the technology, investment in infrastructure, nature-based
dirty ('grey') water we send down sinks, drains and sewers. solutions, changes in legislation and cultural acceptance.

Figure 1.2 Composition of urban waste water

Urban run-off
(rain and storm water
washed from hard surfaces)

Sewage from households and commerce

(faeces, urine, greywater from cleaning,
kitchens, laundry) Discharges from local industries

Urban waste water

Source: EEA, 2022.

12 Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy

 Introduction — preventing water pollution

In the broader context of integrated water management and current approach to treatment and how we can deliver more
waste management, the first preference is to reduce resource sustainable sewage treatment.
use where possible (Smol et al., 2020; EEA, 2021a). Efficient use
of water reduces both the demand on the environment and
the amount of waste water to be treated. Smol et al. (2020) 1.3 Sewage management — policies
elaborate on the EU waste hierarchy (EU, 2008) in the waste and ambitions
water context:
1.3.1 Historical context
• reduce — prevent waste water generation by reducing
water use and pollution at source; Recognition of the link between disease and sewage in the 19th
century led to the development of sewerage networks in cities
• reclaim (remove) — use technologies to remove pollutants around Europe. Treatment facilities were gradually developed,
from water and waste water; although even as late as the 1990s and 2000s some European
cities were still discharging untreated sewage to their waters
• reuse — use waste water as an alternative source of water (EC, 2002, 2011). Understanding of the association between
for non-potable use; healthy waters for humans and the environment increased from
the 1970s, with the first European Community environment
• recycle — recovery of water from waste water for potable action programme setting out to 'prevent, reduce and as far as
use and sewage sludge for application to land; possible eliminate pollution and nuisances; maintain a satisfactory
ecological balance and ensure the protection of the biosphere;
• recover — resource recovery, e.g. nutrients and energy ensure the sound management of and avoid any exploitation
from water-based waste; of resources or of nature which cause significant damage to the
ecological balance' (EEC, 1973). Legislation to protect drinking
• rethink— use resources to create a sustainable economy, water (EEC, 1975a) and bathing water (EEC, 1976) and other water
'free' of waste and emissions. pollution prevention measures followed.

Here, we focus on the prevention of pollution types other than Recognising the harm caused by excessive nutrients in sewage
sewage that contaminates water discharged from our homes, discharged to surface waters, the UWWTD (EEC, 1991) was
and on the resources used in treating water so that it can be adopted in 1991 with the objective of protecting the environment
safely reused. from the adverse effects of the treatment and discharge of
urban waste water and from certain industrial sectors. This
The economic aspects of water supply and treatment are very directive set requirements for minimum levels of treatment for
significant. Other related reports perform detailed analysis of urban areas (so-called 'agglomerations') of 2,000 population
costs and benefits, while this assessment provides a narrative equivalents (p.e.) (1) and above. More demanding levels of
of the topic in its broad application (EC, 2019b; OECD, 2020; treatment were required for larger populations and where the
EC, forthcoming). discharge was into sensitive waters.

With the ambition of the European Green Deal coinciding with

the revision of water legislation, there is now an opportunity 1.3.2 Current policies and ambitions
to reset our approach to the treatment of waste water and set
Europe on track for sustainable waste water treatment by 2050. The European Green Deal (EC, 2019a) sets out an ambition to
reset the Commission's commitment to tackling climate- and
environment-related challenges. It also aims to protect, conserve
1.2.1 Structure of the report and enhance the EU's natural capital, and to protect the health
and well-being of citizens from environment-related risks and
Chapter 1 sets out existing policies and relevant legislation. impacts. Alongside this strategic direction for Europe, the Eighth
Chapter 2 focuses on the treatment of waste water and Environment Action Programme (EC, 2022a) aims at 'accelerating
pollution, considering the reduction and removal of the transition to a climate-neutral, resource efficient, clean and
pollutants. Chapter 3 considers sustainable urban waste water circular economy in a just and inclusive way'. Living well, within the
treatment and sludge management, namely water reuse limits of our planet, requires in Europe a fundamental reappraisal
and recycling, and resource recovery. Chapter 4 rethinks our of how we use and recycle resources. This sets a bold context

(1) Population equivalent is a unit used to measure the amount of sewage. A population equivalent of 1 expresses the amount of sewage
generated by one person per day and it corresponds to the organic biodegradable load having a 5-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) of
60g of oxygen.

Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy 13

 Introduction — preventing water pollution

for waste water treatment, where the opportunity to move to a bioaccumulative and persistent substances, can be recorded
circular economy exists in tandem with reducing pollution. under chemical status (if the substance is listed under the
Environmental Quality Standards Directive (EU, 2008, 2013). Other
Looking at the Green Deal, the zero pollution ambition is to substances in excessive amounts can lead to failure of ecological
reduce pollution 'to levels no longer considered harmful to health status if they are regarded as 'specific pollutants' at the river basin
and natural ecosystems' and which respect planetary boundaries level. For these reasons, the UWWTD is a basic measure under the
(EC, 2021a). Waste water treatment has a key role to play here, WFD, as failure to fully implement the UWWTD is likely to lead to
representing the last chance to prevent pollutants in urban waste failure to achieve good status requirements under the WFD.
water reaching the aquatic environment; however, the focus
on minimising pollutants in the effluent has, until recently, not An additional driver for the implementation of the UWWTD in
considered the gaseous and solid waste emissions to a similar some areas has been the Bathing Water Directive (EEC, 1976;
degree. Greenhouse gases can be released during treatment, EU, 2006b). With its focus on human health, the need to reduce
energy used in pumping water is significant, while sewage faecal contamination of bathing waters has driven high standards
sludge can contain the substances 'cleaned' from the water. The of waste water treatment, such as disinfection where beach
Sewage Sludge Directive is currently being evaluated. It currently tourism is a significant industry. Protection of drinking waters
contains limits only on metals (EEC, 1986); however, there are from microbiological, chemical and physical contamination has
concerns that the limits are set too high and other pollutants are a long history in the EU, with the 1975 Drinking Water Directive
not considered (Anderson et al., 2021). Reflecting the pressures being recast in 2020 to reflect more recent understanding about
on water availability already affecting some Member States, the contaminants (EEC, 1975b; EU 2020b).
Water Reuse Regulation (EU, 2020a) sets standards for treated
waste water to be used for irrigation, such as on chemical and United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 6 is to ensure the
microbiological contamination levels. An integrated nutrient availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation
management plan is being developed under the circular economy for all (UN, n.d.). While much of the EU considers implementation
action plan to use nutrients more sustainably and stimulate of more advanced waste water treatment, we should not overlook
markets for recovered nutrients (EC, 2020a). those who still lack access to sanitation (e.g. Filčák et al., 2018;
Heidegger and Wiese, 2020). In 2021, the World Health
In recent decades, it has been increasingly understood that the Organization estimated that there were over 30 million people
development of many more chemicals and products has led to in this position in the European region: significant inequalities
many thousands of chemicals potentially being released to the persist between rural and urban areas, and between rich and
environment. We have little knowledge of the behaviour and poor people, with rural dwellers and the poorest being the most
fate of many of these, yet the risk posed by some could be high. disadvantaged (WHO, 2021a).
Alongside this, there is a crisis in biodiversity driven by factors
such as changes in land and sea use, over-exploitation, climate In line with the precautionary principle towards the environment,
change, pollution, and invasive species (EC, 2020b). Ensuring that set out in the Treaty on the Functioning of the EU, A.191
we limit pollution from sewage and waste water is essential, but (EU, 1992), much of the EU policy on chemicals takes a 'source
this is an 'end-of-pipe' solution. It is very complex to identify the control' approach, which aims to prevent pollution, while the WFD
origin of pollutants in sewage and to try and exclude them from provides a mechanism to monitor the most harmful substances
product chains (Anderson et al., 2021). While chemical source present in water. Thus, the 2006 REACH Regulation aims to
control legislation such as REACH (Regulation on Registration, improve the protection of human health and the environment
Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals) aims to through better and earlier identification of the intrinsic properties
protect human health and the environment (EU, 2006a), a more of chemical substances (EU, 2006a). Meanwhile, the Industrial
fundamental review of the chemicals and products we use in Emissions Directive (IED) targets discharges from industrial
our homes and workplaces is needed. The chemicals strategy installations, while the European Pollutant Release and Transfer
for sustainability sets out the ambition towards a toxin-free Register (E-PRTR) requires operators to record pollutant emissions
environment, with the aim that chemicals are made safe and above certain thresholds (EU, 2010; EU, 2006c). E-PRTR reporting
sustainable by design, and will be produced and used in a way allows the identification of major sources, with thresholds
that maximises their contribution to society, while avoiding aiming to address 90% of pollutants released by a sector. The
harm (EC, 2020c). IED and E-PRTR Regulation are currently under revision, with the
proposals tightening permit controls on emissions to air and
The overarching Water Framework Directive (WFD) (EU, 2000) water, and consideration being given to the reporting of the use of
provides a framework for the management of Europe's waters. In energy and resources and of water use. (EC, 2022a,b). The E-PRTR
surface waters, the WFD considers both chemical and ecological requires urban waste water treatment plants to report when
status, with the objective that all water bodies should be of good they are over a threshold of 100 000 p.e., which is considered
status. Nutrient pollution caused by insufficiently treated waste as a rather high threshold, owing to a significant proportion of
water is a pressure on the natural ecosystem, most immediately pollutants being missed as they are released by smaller treatment
affecting the ecological status. Chemical pollution, with toxic, plants (ETC/ICM, 2017; ICF Consulting Services, 2020).

14 Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy

 2
Urban waste water treatment,
health and pollution

2.1 Introduction 'end‑of‑pipe' control. Treatment to clean the water can transfer
pollutants to the atmosphere, to sewage sludge and treatment
The primary reason for treating sewage is to protect human sludges, potentially requiring management of solid waste.
health and the environment. Lack of sanitation pollutes
drinking water and leads to disease in humans. In 1991, the While we may think of urban waste water treatment plants
Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive (UWWTD) focused (UWWTPs) as being 'sources of pollution', it must be remembered
on organic and nutrient pollution (primarily nitrogen and that the pollution is not derived from the plant itself: rather,
phosphorus) in efforts to reduce oxygen depletion and the it arises from the many sources in the sewerage network —
eutrophication of Europe's rivers, lakes and seas. Together homes, industry, schools, etc.— which are collected at the plant.
with legislation to restrict pollution from industry, this action
has been effective in seeing life return to 'dead rivers'. The enormous effort to reduce sewage pollution, underpinned
by the UWWTD and supported by other EU and national
In Europe, most sewage enters sewers to be conveyed to a legislation and EU funding, has led to a significant improvement
waste water treatment plant where it is treated to reduce in the quality of Europe's surface waters in recent decades. Such
the pollutant load. The effluent is then discharged to the efforts cannot stand still: the additional cost of achieving and
environment, typically rivers, lakes and coastal zones. In maintaining compliance with the UWWTD has been estimated
less densely populated areas, or those where investment in at EUR 253 billion between 2019 and 2030 (EC, 2019b). Without
infrastructure is lacking, individual solutions need to be found tackling the root causes of harmful pollutants, doing 'more
for sewage, such as package plants, nature-based solutions of the same' will not be a sustainable way of managing an
(e.g. reed beds) and infiltration of different kinds (e.g. from essentially renewable resource.
septic tanks). The construction, maintenance and operation of
waste water collection and treatment comes at high financial
and greenhouse gas emission costs. Furthermore, biological 2.2 Sewage and urban waste water treatment
and chemical sludges arising from the treatment process must
be regularly removed from the plant and treated. 'Show me your waste water and I will tell you who you are.'
Composition of waste water reflects all human activities, life
Nowadays, we know that there are many more pollutants style, materials used in homes. It provides information on
in sewage than were recognised in 1991. We have limited the use of medicines and personal care products, and on
understanding of the risks to aquatic life presented by mixtures environmental behaviour' (Henze et al., 2008).
of chemicals in surface waters, and many of these chemicals
have come from products used in our own homes (2). We also
know that in the future there are likely to be risks of which 2.2.1 What's in sewage and urban waste water?
we are not necessarily yet aware. Moreover, the coronavirus
pandemic has reminded us of the value of waste water as a way Sewage is mainly water (UN, 2017). It includes excreted human
to monitor disease in the community (EC, n.d.). waste, as well as 'grey' water drained from kitchens, bathrooms
and laundry. Together with run-off and industrial discharges,
When source control of pollution fails, the treatment of urban waste water contains a range of organic and inorganic
urban waste water presents the last chance to protect substances, and dissolved and suspended solids (Table 2.1).
the environment from the pollutants it contains, and it is Large volumes of urban waste water are generated every day.

(2) For example, polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFASs), pharmaceuticals, antibacterial silver, mercury from our amalgam fillings.

Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy 15

 Urban waste water treatment, health and pollution

Table 2.1 Typical constituents of sewage and urban waste water

Substance Examples Source Impact

Microorganisms Pathogenic bacteria, viruses, worms Faeces Human health risks when bathing,
and their eggs, protozoa eating shellfish

Biodegradable, Carbohydrates, starch, volatile fatty Faeces, food Oxygen depletion in rivers and
organic materials acids, proteins, cellulose lakes causing deaths of fish and
other aquatic life forms , odour

Other organic Fats and oils, solvents, phenols, Kitchen and domestic Toxicity, bioaccumulation
materials surfactants, detergents waste, industry

Nutrients Nitrogen, phosphorus, ammonium Urine and faeces, food Eutrophication, oxygen depletion,
toxicity

Micropollutants Medicines, food additives, phthalates, Urine and faeces, Toxicity, bioaccumulation, sublethal
biocides, flame retardants, PFASs, food, human activities, effects, e.g. on growth and
pesticides, plastics, etc. industry reproduction. Contamination of
drinking water resources

Metals Zinc, copper, cadmium, lead, Homes and industry Toxicity, bioaccumulation
chromium, mercury, nickel, silver

Other inorganic Acids ( e.g. hydrogen sulphide), alkalis Homes and industry Corrosion, toxicity
materials

Note: PFASs, polyfluorinated alkyl substances.

Source: Adapted from Henze et al. (2008).

Urban waste water is characterised by parameters 2.2.2 Treatment methods

describing its polluting potential. Total suspended solids
represent the organic and inorganic matter present Waste water treatment lowers the concentration of organic
in waste water but which could settle out in calmer matter, nutrients and disease-causing microorganisms in sewage,
conditions, while the load of organic matter in the waste prior to its discharge back into the environment. Sewage can
water is represented by biological oxygen demand (BOD), be treated in various ways, locally in septic tanks or domestic
chemical oxygen demand (COD) or total organic carbon. treatment systems, centrally at municipal treatment plants or by
Concentrations of nutrients, total phosphorus and total using decentralised treatment, including nature-based methods
nitrogen, determine the eutrophication potential of such as constructed wetlands.
waste water. Other waste water characteristics affecting
treatment process include pH, alkalinity and chloride Biological waste water treatment, which is the most common
concentration. Some of these parameters are used for process for treating sewage, uses bacteria and other
regulatory purposes and in the design of waste water microorganisms to degrade organic matter and use the nutrients
treatment plants. The UWWTD sets emission limit values for their growth. It resembles self-purification processes
for the BOD, COD, total suspended solids, total nitrogen occurring naturally in the aquatic environment. Waste water
and total phosphorus. Some Member States set stricter treatment intensifies and controls these processes to achieve
emission limit values and regulate a wider scope of optimal levels of pollutant removal.
pollutants to meet the objectives of the Water Framework
Directive (WFD). The volumes treated are large, e.g. At treatment plants, the sewage usually goes through several
in Sweden, with 10 million inhabitants, over a billion consecutive treatment steps (see Table 2.2): pre-treatment,
tonnes of waste water were collected and treated in 2018 primary treatment, secondary treatment (Image 2.1) and,
(Statistics Sweden, n.d.). possibly, advanced treatment.

Untreated sewage is infectious and contains a diversity After secondary treatment, waste water is pumped into the
of bacteria, mainly intestinal and soil inhabiting, e.g. secondary settling tanks, where sludge is separated from treated
coliforms, streptococci and clostridia. There are also water. Treated water is then discharged into the receiving water.
protozoa, viruses, fungi, worms and microalgae. When the quality of effluent from secondary treatment does
Discharge of untreated sewage can create serious public not meet the required emission standards, specific types of
health risks, leading to outbreaks of cholera, for example advanced treatment (also known as tertiary treatment) will be
(WHO, 2021b).

16 Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy

 Urban waste water treatment, health and pollution

Image 2.1 Secondary treatment

© Caroline Whalley.

Table 2.2 Urban waste water treatment processes

Treatment Process Typical technologies Treats/removes

Pre-treatment Physical separation Screening, sedimentation, flotation Debris, grit, fibres, sand, oil, grease
Primary Physical separation Sedimentation, flotation Suspended solids, oils
Secondary Biochemical Activated sludge process Organics, partial treatment
degradation of nutrients (nitrogen and
Trickling filters
phosphorus), microorganisms (a)
Physical separation
Sequential batch reactor
Moving bed biofilm reactor
Membrane bioreactor
Oxidation ponds/lagoon-constructed wetlands

Advanced Physical separation Disinfection (chlorination, ozonisation and Microorganisms, nutrients,

Chemical degradation ultraviolet (UV) treatment) highly biologically active and
difficult to biodegrade substances
Biochemical Activated carbon filtration, advanced oxidation
(micropollutants)
degradation
Advanced biological treatment, reverse osmosis,
coagulation, microfiltration, ultrafiltration

Note: (a) Although conventional secondary treatment has not been designed to remove nutrients or micropollutants, waste water treatment
plants do remove some nutrients and micropollutants to some extent (including some pharmaceuticals and metals).

required, to tackle specific substances (e.g. nitrogen, phosphorus, of advanced treatment is not mandatory but should be
micropollutants) and harmful microorganisms (by disinfection). used to ensure that the receiving water body meets quality
objectives after the discharge of treated waste water. In
The UWWTD requires that, in agglomerations larger than 2007, 20% of the total waste water treated in Member
10,000 p.e. located in areas sensitive to eutrophication, States was subject to advanced treatment, which had risen
Member States apply an advanced treatment to remove to 41% (3) in 2018 (4), although there was wide variation
nitrogen and phosphorus from waste water prior to discharge between countries (Figure 2.1) (EEA, 2020a). Sand filtration
(called 'more stringent treatment'). Application of other types and microfiltration were the most commonly used advanced
treatment methods.

(3) The 27 Member States of the EU (EU-27) and Iceland (IS), Norway (NO) and the United Kingdom (UK).
(4) Values reflect advanced treatment, excluding nitrogen and phosphorus removal.

Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy 17

 Urban waste water treatment, health and pollution

Figure 2.1 Proportion of waste water load subjected to advanced treatment, 2018

EU-27
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czechia
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden

Iceland
Norway
United Kingdom

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percentage

Filtration or other Disinfection Both Zero or no data

Notes: Treated waste water measured in population equivalents.

Nitrogen and phosphorus treatment not included.

Source EEA (2020a).

Map 2.1 shows that disinfection is commonly used to generation or UV treatment in disinfection, or the use of activated
treat waste water prior to discharge into coastal waters or carbon in micropollutant reduction. Energy consumption may
estuaries (31% of waste water treated in treatment plants (5) be increased by between 10% and 60% with these advanced
discharging into coastal waters or estuaries). Disinfection methods. Meanwhile, optimisation of biological treatment for
is also applied to discharges at inland plants (17% of the nutrient removal from water also supports reductions in the
waste water treated in treatment plants discharging into concentrations of many micropollutants.
fresh water or on land). Chlorination is still the most widely
applied disinfection method, followed by ultraviolet (UV) Treatment needs to take account of local characteristics. For
radiation treatment. In southern Europe, disinfection may example, ozonation of water containing bromide above a
be primarily used during the summer bathing water period certain level presents a risk of carcinogenic bromated organic
when there also is lower water availability. compounds being formed (Kehrein et al., 2020).

Most of the advanced treatment methods require the input

of extra energy and/or resources, e.g. energy for ozone

(5) The EU-27 Member States plus IS, NO and the UK.

18 Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy

 Urban waste water treatment, health and pollution

Map 2.1 Waste water treatment plants equipped with disinfection, 2018

60 °
20 ° Guadeloupe
- 50° and - 40° - 30° - 20° - 10° Svalbard
0° (NO)
10 20 ° 30 ° 40 ° 50 ° 60 °
6
Martinique Islands (FR)
80 ° Waste water treatment plants
- 60° equipped with disinfection, 2018
60 ° 30 °
Chlorination
UV disinfection
10 ° 20 ° Chlorination and ultraviolet
French Guiana (FR) (UV) radiation disinfection
Ozonation or ozonation and
other type of treatment

No data
Outside coverage
Mayotte Island (FR)

50 °

50 °

Reunion Island (FR)

Azores Islands (PT)

40 °
40 °
40 °
- 30°

Madeira Island (PT)

- 20°

30°

Canary Islands (ES)

30 °

30 °
30 ° - 10 °
0 500 1,000 1,500 km
10° 0° 20 ° 30 ° 40 °

Reference data: ©ESRI | ©EuroGeographics

Note: UV, ultraviolet treatment.

Source: EEA (2020a).

2.3 Dwellings not connected to a The UWWTD requires that waste water produced and
sewerage system collected in urban settlements under 2 000 p.e. must be
suitably treated. For some areas, this can be a small UWWTP
Dwellings that are not connected to UWWTPs can be a but in other, often less densely populated areas, individual
source of diffuse pollution if sewage is directly released into or other appropriate systems (6) (IASs) (e.g. septic tanks,
the environment without treatment, or when local sewage domestic waste water treatment plants) can be used (see
treatment is applied but the system is not well maintained Image 2.2). These solutions can be used when building
or operated (EC, 2007). Approximately 11% of the EU a collecting system is not justified because it has 'no
population (55 million people) was not connected to a waste environmental benefit or because it would involve excessive
water collection network in 2017 (Eurostat, 2019). Reporting cost', and must be able to ensure that discharged waste
under the WFD showed that non-connected dwellings were water allows the receiving waters to meet the relevant
a significant diffuse pollution pressure, affecting 8.5% of quality objectives and the relevant provisions of the UWWTD.
surface water bodies and 4% of groundwater area (Grebot Reporting on the implementation of the UWWTD in 2018
et al., 2019; EEA, 2021b). (for urban settlements above 2,000 p.e.) showed that about
9.9 million p.e. (7) was neither collected nor received any

(6) IAS equate to 'non-connected dwellings' under the WFD.

(7) EU-27, plus IS, NO and the UK.

Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy 19

 Urban waste water treatment, health and pollution

Image 2.2 A non-connected toilet, with a pit that

treatment, mainly among newer Member States (Figure 2.2).
requires emptying
It also indicated that 13.8 million p.e. of waste water was
collected and treated via IASs, with some countries relying
on this approach for a significant proportion of their
sewage (Figure 2.3).

Non-connected dwellings and small settlements can treat

sewage effectively, for example through small treatment
plants, reed beds, infiltration systems and constructed
wetlands, although typically this requires strong oversight
(Grebot et al., 2019). Owners of individual systems need
to take care not to disrupt the treatment process, e.g.
avoiding the flushing of harmful substances (Mulder, 2019).
Regulation of waste water treatment in urban areas below
2,000 p.e. is the responsibility of national authorities.

For example, in Finland, with approximately 1 million

people living in urban areas below 2,000 p.e. (c.18% of total
population) and with an additional 1 million holidaymakers,
extensive legislation applies regulating the operation of
IASs (Grebot et al., 2019). However, more often regulation is
relatively weak, not least because such facilities are usually
on private land, and it can be a challenge to ensure effective
treatment when financial resources, as well as skilled
personnel, may be lacking (Grebot et al., 2019).
© Caroline Whalley.

Figure 2.2 Percentage of waste water load collected in collecting systems, addressed through IASs or
discharged without treatment in Europe, 2018

EU-27
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czechia
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden

Iceland
Norway

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percentage

Connected to collecting system Addressed through individual or other appropriate system (IAS) Neither collecting system nor IAS

Source: EEA (2020a).

20 Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy

 Urban waste water treatment, health and pollution

Figure 2.3 Actual waste water load treated via IAS, 2018

EU-27 2.4

Italy 3.9

Poland 5.2

Germany 1.6

Hungary 9.4

Greece 9.1

Croatia 21.3

Spain 1.0

Slovakia 12.9

Czechia 5.3

Romania 1.9

Bulgaria 4.9

Ireland 3.6

Austria 0.6

Slovenia 7.6

Latvia 4.2

Estonia 3.2

Lithuania 1.6

Cyprus 2.4

Luxembourg 0.7

Sweden 0.0

Portugal 0.0

Netherlands 0.0

Malta 0.0

France 0.0

Finland 0.0

Denmark 0.0

Belgium 0.0

Norway 0.9

Iceland 0.4

0 500,000 1,000,000 1,500,000 2,000,000 2,500,000 3,000,000 3,500,000 13,500,000 14,000,000

Population equivalent

Addressed through Individual or other Appropriate Systems (IAS) Proportion of the total population equivalent reported (percentage)

Source: EEA (2020a).

Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy 21

 Urban waste water treatment, health and pollution

2.4 Storm overflows pilot study for storm water management in northern France,
Bézannes Joint Development Zone constructed a landscaped
Rain and storm water or water from melted snow, which park (Oppla, 2021). Aims included reducing the flood risk to
does not soak into the soil, forms surface run-off. The quality and load on sewerage systems by controlling the quantity of
of surface run-off is determined by land use characteristics. water upstream, restoring ecosystems and their functions,
Water falling on impervious surfaces, such as roads, streets, improving water quality, and increasing biodiversity,
roofs, industrial and construction facilities, is recognised as a accessibility to green space and well-being through nature-
significant source of pollutants to water bodies originating in based solutions.
the urban environment.
With climate change increasing the frequency of heavy
Urban run-off is collected in sewers. In separated sewerage rainfall events in some areas, without additional efforts the
systems, run-off is conveyed separately and discharged problems related to CSO discharges are likely to increase.
without treatment into nearby waterways, whereas in Adapting to sudden, heavy rainfall is a priority in some
combined sewers, it is collected together with waste water and European cities, not least to avoid tragic consequences such
travels to a UWWTP. To prevent flooding of the UWWTP during as those in Austria, Belgium and Germany in the summer
heavy rainfall, combined sewerage systems are equipped with of 2021.
combined sewer overflows (CSOs). This allows discharge of a
mixture of run-off and urban waste water directly into surface
waters, thus leading to their pollution. 2.5 Waste water from industry

There are over 3 million kilometres of sewerage systems Small-scale manufacturers and food and drink producers
across Europe, with at least 650,000 CSOs (EurEau, 2020). In typically discharge to the sewerage system, where the waste
the second reporting under the WFD, 4% of surface water water is treated at the UWWTP. Member States must ensure
bodies were reported to be affected by pollution from storm that the discharge of industrial waste water to the sewer
overflows (from 18 Member States) (EEA, 2021b), although the can be effectively treated by the UWWTP, so that it neither
actual proportion of water bodies affected may be higher, as damages equipment nor affects the biological treatment
there are few data enabling the quantification of the impacts process, and so that the resulting sludge can be treated
of discharges on water bodies. While separated sewers can and disposed of in an environmentally sound manner. In
reduce pollution from CSO discharges, challenges such as the contrast, large industrial sources, such as the pulp and
direct discharge of road run-off would remain. paper, metals, energy supply and chemicals sectors, have
on-site treatment facilities. Such installations are regulated
Studies into the implementation of the UWWTD found under the Industrial Emissions Directive (IED) (EU, 2010;
that under full compliance (8) with the directive, CSOs can EEA, 2018b).
contribute to 50% or more of the remaining impact on
waterbodies and that the management of CSOs and urban While not regulated under the IED, emissions to water
run-off would offer a significant reduction in the pollution load from large UWWTPs are reported and publicly available
that ends up in the environment (EC, 2019b). under the European Pollutant Release and Transfer
Register (E-PRTR) Regulation (EC, 2006c; EU, 2010; EEA, n.d.).
To reduce the frequency of CSO discharges, some UWWTPs Minimum reporting thresholds apply, to limit the reporting
have temporary storage tanks that hold the 'first flush' burden, based on installation size and pollutant quantity
of storm water, which is considered to be the most released. A relatively small proportion of the reporting
contaminated. Sewerage systems are expensive — the concerns emissions to water, and a relatively small number
Thames Tideway Tunnel in London, which is being built to of UWWTPs report data to the portal (in 2017, 901 reports
reduce CSO discharges, is expected to cost about EUR 6 billion in the 27 EU Member States (EU‑27)). Both the IED and the
(Thames Water, 2021). E-PRTR are currently under review, with UWWTP capacity
thresholds one of the areas under consideration (ICF
Conventional methods for storm water management have Consulting Services, 2020). Even with the limited reporting
often involved channelisation and concrete infrastructures. under the E-PRTR, UWWTPs represent the major 'point
However, nature-based solutions are a subject of increasing source' of pollution to water (EEA 2018a; EEA, 2018b).
interest, owing to their potential for multiple benefits. In a

(8) According to the UWWTD, full compliance is achieved when all load generated in agglomerations ≥ 2,000 p.e. is treated in line with
requirements of article 3, 4 and 5 of the Directive. The only exception to meeting the obligation to collect and treat urban waste waters
(article 3) is for the management of storm water (EEC, 1991).

22 Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy

 Urban waste water treatment, health and pollution

2.6 Pollution from sewage had fallen by 61%, 32% and 44%, respectively, between
1990 and 2014, showing the impact of this policy, and
2.6.1 Nutrients data on the concentrations of phosphate in rivers show a
significant decline (Figure 2.4). Despite these improvements,
Excess nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, cause eutrophication remains an issue of concern, particularly in
eutrophication resulting in excessive growth of algae coastal areas such as the Baltic and Mediterranean (Pavlidou,
and aquatic plants, increased water turbidity and oxygen et al., 2019). Diffuse pollution from agriculture is a major
depletion. The evaluation of the UWWTD (EC, 2019b) found pressure on water, particularly as it relates to nutrients
that the discharged loads of BOD, nitrogen and phosphorus (EEA, 2018a).

Figure 2.4 Phosphorus in rivers in European water bodies, 1992-2019

Rivers (mgPO4-P/l)

0.12

0.10

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0.00
1992 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2019

1992-2019 2000-2019

Note: Concentrations in milligrams of phosphorus per litre (mg PO4-P/l)

Source: EEA, 2022.

Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy 23

 Urban waste water treatment, health and pollution

Figure 2.5 Proportion (%) of domestic waste water safely treated in Europe, 2020

Netherlands
Germany
Switzerland
Austria
Liechtenstein
Luxembourg
Denmark
Sweden
Italy
Lithuania
Latvia
Greece
France
Finland
Belgium
Estonia
Czechia
Hungary
Spain
Ireland
Poland
Slovakia
Bulgaria
Norway
Portugal
Iceland
Slovenia
Croatia
Romania
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Montenegro
Serbia
Malta
Albania
North Macedonia

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percentage

Source: UN, 2021.

However, challenges to fully comply with the UWWTD in countries for Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6.3.1 —
ensuring that waste water is both collected from most the proportion of waste water safely treated — calculated as
dwellings and treated to an acceptable standard before a proportion of all domestic waste water generated based
being discharged back to the water environment persist in on household per capita water use data, shows significant
some Member states (EC, 2020d). Monitoring in European challenges still to be addressed in some areas (Figure 2.5).

24 Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy

 Urban waste water treatment, health and pollution

Figure 2.6 Selected significant pressures causing failure to achieve good ecological status (under second river
basin management plans)

Percentage of surface water bodies

12

10

0
Urban waste Urban Non-connected Storm
water run-off dwellings overflows

Coastal and transitional water bodies All surface water bodies

Source: WFD database https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/dashboards/wise-wfd (EU-27 + NO + UK).

Reporting under the WFD indicates that most Member treated or removed (Pistocchi et al., 2019). Such pollutants
States are challenged in achieving targets with respect to can arise from both natural sources and human activities,
restoring all water bodies to 'good status' by 2027. Pollution like metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),
pressures from urban waste water caused failure to achieve as well synthetic biocides, medicines, flame retardants, etc.
good ecological status, arising both from point sources from Waste water treatment is capable of removing relatively high
UWWTPs (8% of water bodies) and storm overflows (3%) and proportions of many of these substances from the water,
from diffuse sources such as non-connected dwellings (10%) but often not sufficiently to meet the chemical standards
(Figure 2.6) (EEA, 2021b). Urban run-off seems to represent a required under the WFD (Gardner et al., 2013). Other
significant pressure in transitional and coastal waters. substances are not removed at all and pass through the
UWWTP to the receiving waters. Furthermore, concern about
Where sewage discharges have occurred over decades, recovery mixtures in the environment (EC, 2012a; Posthuma et al.,
of an ecosystem can be difficult to assess. However, a historical 2019) has led to calls for higher rates of removal from urban
study on the River Seine in France showed the impact of human waste water.
activities on migratory fish from the sea to Paris, between
the 1900s and 2010s (Beslagic, 2013; Le Pichon et al., 2020). Historically, we have largely understood chemical pollutants as
Discharges of untreated sewage and other wastes in the 1970s arising from industry and agriculture. However, restrictions on
led to low dissolved oxygen concentrations in the river, leading to industrial discharges, particularly from point sources, have led
a 'chemical barrier' to migration. By the 2010s, improvements to to a decline in the significance of this as a source. Research in
waste water treatment and the implementation of effective fish the United Kingdom showed that the most significant source of
passages allowed migratory fish to again reach Paris. micropollutants in UWWTPs was our homes (Figure 2.7) (Comber
et al, 2014).

2.6.2 Micropollutants This finding should have a profound impact on our

understanding of chemical pollutants in sewage. Rather
Understanding of the range of pollutants in water, and our than being 'someone else's responsibility' with an impact
ability to measure them, has come a long way since the 'somewhere else', these pollutants are in chemicals and
UWWTD came into force in 1991. We now recognise that products that we use in our homes: substances with harmful
many 'micropollutants' find their way into urban waste water characteristics such as carcinogenicity and endocrine
and risk being discharged to the environment if they are not disruption, as well as those directly harmful to aquatic life.

Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy 25

 Urban waste water treatment, health and pollution

Figure 2.7 Pollutant sources to UWWTPs

Domestic
Ratio
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
Town 1 Town 2 Town 3 Town 5 Town 6 Town 7 Town 9

Light industry
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
Town 1 Town 2 Town 3 Town 5 Town 6 Town 7 Town 9

Runoff
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
Town 1 Town 2 Town 3 Town 5 Town 6 Town 7 Town 9
Town centre
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
Town 1 Town 2 Town 3 Town 5 Town 6 Town 7 Town 9
Trade effluent
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
Town 1 Town 2 Town 3 Town 5 Town 6 Town 7 Town 9

Copper Lead Nickel AMPA BDE99

Bisphenol-A DEHP Indeno (1,2,3-cd) pyrene 17α ethinyloestradiol 17β oestradiol
Diclofenac Erythromycin Ibuprofen Propranolol

Notes: AMPA, Aminomethylphosphonic acid. DEHP, di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate. BDE, brominated diphenylether.

Sources: UK WIR Chemical Investigation Programme (Comber et al, 2015).

Citizens are concerned. 84% of Europeans are worried about on drinking water resources, and a lack of effective strategies
the impact of chemicals present in everyday products on their for control at source, resulted in a referendum and then
health, and 90% are worried about the impact of chemicals legislation to upgrade existing waste water treatment plants to
on the environment (EC, 2020c). In Switzerland, studies on remove micropollutants (Logar et al., 2014).
the impact of micropollutants on surface water status and

26 Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy

 Urban waste water treatment, health and pollution

Despite restrictions on certain substances through source intended use or disposal. Two main types of sewage sludge arise
control legislation such as the Regulation on Registration, from the waste water treatment process:
Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH)
(EU, 2006a), the number of chemicals in everyday use has 1. primary sludge — settleable solids separated during
grown enormously in recent decades (EEA, 2019b). Efforts are primary treatment of waste water (physical separation
in place to break a cycle where restriction of one substance such as screening);
has merely led to its replacement by a similar (unrestricted)
molecule — so-called 'regrettable substitution' (ECHA, n.d.; 2. secondary sludge — organic material produced by bacteria
Kemi, n.d.) — and moving to safe and sustainable-by-design during secondary, biological treatment.
criteria for chemicals (EC, 2020c).
Sewage sludge is characterised by a high carbon and nutrient
content and high water content. It may contain pathogens and
2.6.3 Disease and antimicrobial resistance traces of pollutants such as metals, persistent organic compounds,
microplastics and pharmaceuticals. It can have an unpleasant
One of the 'discoveries' of the COVID-19 pandemic was the role odour. Sludges from treatment of urban waste water are
that waste water monitoring can play in tracking the presence categorised as 'absolute non-hazardous' waste in the European
of the virus, such that the European Commission recommended List of Wastes (EC, 2014a).
a common approach to establish systematic surveillance of
SARS‑CoV-2 (EC, 2021b,c). In fact, such monitoring has a long Following its extraction from the waste water treatment process,
history, with polio being monitored this way in the 1940s sewage sludge requires treatment to enable it to be transported
(Schmidt, 2020). Pathogens excreted through bodily fluids, skin efficiently and safely and for the ultimate recovery (of nutrients
and hair find their way into sewers through toilet flushing and or energy) and/or disposal. Common treatment options include
cleaning (e.g. bathing, floor washing) (Sinclair et al., 2008). Use thickening, stabilisation, dehydration and sometimes drying of
of waste water monitoring for early warning and tracking of sludge. Additional and well-established management techniques
disease outbreaks seems likely to continue, given its potential for for sewage sludge include lime treatment, anaerobic digestion and
widespread coverage and its relatively low cost (~EUR 25,000 for composting with other organic waste. Final recovery and disposal
one UWWTP per year) (Gawlik et al., 2021b). options include spreading of treated sludge on farmland, using it
in landscaping and incinerating it. The application of sludge onto
There is real concern about the risk represented by antimicrobial farmland is allowed only if the sludge content remains under
resistance, in which antibiotics are no longer able to cure common thresholds established for a set of heavy metals and after given
infections (WHO, 2021c). Intensive studies comparable to those time periods have passed between the production of the sludge
carried out in the food and health sectors have not yet been and its application. Minimum durations are set out in the Sewage
undertaken in an environmental setting (EFSA Panel on Biological Sludge Directive (EEC, 1986).
Hazards, 2021). Waste water treatment relies on naturally resistant
organisms breaking down organic matter and other waste water However, because the sludge can contain pollutants removed
constituents. Resistance genes may be transferred and generated from the water, there are concerns about the pollutant load in
in the waste water, e.g. through exposure to antibiotic residues the sludge (Huygens et al., forthcoming). Limits on metal loads
excreted by patients, and then transferred into the environment. to the soil are set in the Sewage Sludge Directive and some
Large-scale studies to understand the potential for transfer of Member States have set stricter limits than those in this old
resistance genes back into people are not yet available, but some directive (Mudgal et al., 2014; Anderson et al., 2021). Concerns
smaller studies show contamination, e.g. surfers had three times in some Member States about the contaminant load potentially
the level of antibiotic‑resistant Escherichia coli compared with entering human food or animal feed, or being released into
non-surfers (Leonard et al., 2018). If UWWTPs were found to be a the environment, have led to restrictions on sludge being
significant cause of the transfer of resistance genes, it is possible spread on land (e.g. in Germany and the Netherlands). Some
that disinfection would be more widely required. Research in this countries have found that to maintain consumer confidence,
area is ongoing. and to protect the environment, they have needed to develop
comprehensive assurance schemes for sludge applied to land
(see Box 3.2, case study 2).
2.7 Sludges arising from urban waste
water treatment
2.7.2 Process waste
2.7.1 Sewage sludge
Waste water treatment produces process waste that must be safely
Treatment of urban waste water at UWWTPs produces sewage disposed of, as well as treated water and sludge. Classification,
sludge, which is usually treated (e.g. dewatering, thickening, processing, treatment and disposal of the process waste is subject
pasteurisation, sanitation) to ensure that sludge is suitable for its to waste management legislation. Sending waste to landfill is

Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy 27

 Urban waste water treatment, health and pollution

considered the least preferred waste management option under (landfilling, incineration), is the subject of numerous
the EU waste hierarchy (EU, 1999, 2008). Together with aims research project. These study, for example, the conversion
to ensure a progressive reduction in the landfilling of waste, of fats, oils and grease from sewage pre-treatment
particularly waste that is suitable for recycling or other recovery, to biofuel using physicochemical processes, or the
such policies are intended to expand both treatment methods and recovery of resources, e.g. biopolymers from materials
the use of process waste through reuse and recycling. recovered from membrane‑based technologies applied in
advanced treatment.
Other process wastes depend on the type of treatment
technologies applied and may include chemical sludge from
phosphorus precipitation, concentrated liquid wastes from 2.8 Greenhouse gas emissions
membrane-based treatments and spent, activated carbon. It
is difficult to find detail on the amounts of waste produced by Typically, we consider water quality and sewage sludge
waste water treatment processes. The substrate for trickling when thinking about the impacts of waste water
filters, such as lava rock or plastic substrate, can be used for treatment. However, direct emissions of greenhouse
decades so is understood to be relatively insignificant, while gases (GHG) arise from the biological treatment of organic
the amounts of sand used in sand filters are relatively small material in urban waste water, principally methane (CH4)
compared with those used in construction, for example. and nitrous oxide (N2O) (which is associated with nitrogen
A study by UK Water Industry Research considered the use removal). Improved treatment of urban waste water since
of activated carbon in micropollutant removal (UKWIR, 2020). the 1990s has helped to prevent significant methane
Use of granular activated carbon to remove micropollutants emissions, owing to the collection and treatment of waste
was expected to increase carbon emissions from the UK water water in efficient, centralised facilities (EC, 2020e), with
sector by 7-8%, based on an existing total greenhouse gas emissions steadily declining to 17,351kt CO2 equivalent
emissions of 4 million t/year, and an increase of 2% in total dry (CO2e) in 2019 (Figure 2.8). The decline has largely been
solids sludge production (UKWIR, 2020). in methane emissions, which have more than halved
since 1989, while those of nitrous oxides have changed
The recovery of resources from waste water treatment little since the early 2000s, at about 6,100kt CO2e per year
residues, as an alternative to traditional modes of disposal (EEA, 2021c).

Figure 2.8 CO2e released by the domestic waste water treatment sector in the EU-27

Kilotonne of CO2 equivalent (kt CO2e)

35,000

30,000

25,000

20,000

15,000

10,000

5,000

0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2019

Notes: Greenhouse gas emissions from the domestic waste water treatment sector. Overall emissions in CO2e.

Source: EEA, GHG emissions data viewer. Data based on IPCC 2006 guidelines (9).

(9) The numbers differ from the impact assessment for the revision of the UWWTD (EC, forthcoming), as that used modelled greenhouse gas
emissions based on IPCC 2019 guidelines.

28 Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy

 Urban waste water treatment, health and pollution

Indirect emissions from UWWTPs arise mainly from the use • renewable energy generation to reduce operational
of fossil fuels in electricity production and in drying and emissions, e.g. through on-site generation of energy.
transporting sewage sludge (Zheng and Ma, 2019).
Further analyses of energy use in relation to micropollutant
Infrastructure for urban waste water treatment (Image 2.3) removal have been undertaken as part of the development
can lead to a high level of embedded greenhouse gases, with of the impact assessment for the revision of the UWWTD
estimates suggesting that infrastructure‑related greenhouse (EC, forthcoming; Pistocchi et al., forthcoming). These all serve
gas emissions comprise about 50% of the total emitted by to show that longer-term sustainability requires control of
waste water treatment (Paravicchini, et al., forthcoming). pollution at source.
Emissions arise from the extraction of raw materials, for
example those used in concrete and steel for pipes and
tanks, and from construction activities. Scottish Water has Image 2.3 Waste water treatment tanks
developed a measure called 'investment intensity' to assess
and control emissions of this nature (Scottish Water, 2022).
It estimates that 60% of these emissions come from civil
engineering, with infrastructure and mechanical and electrical
work making up most of the remainder. Scottish Water aims
to choose low‑emission options, procure low- or zero‑emission
construction materials and build using low- or zero-carbon
construction techniques. This will require innovation in
the development of materials, construction methods
and equipment.

Emissions of greenhouse gases from waste water treatment

can be reduced through a range of methods, from optimising
operation to modifying the plant. Emissions of carbon dioxide
can be reduced by enhancing the energy efficiency of the
treatment, minimising pumping and treatment of surface
run-off, and generating biogas from the anaerobic digestion
of sewage sludge for heat and energy in combined heat
and power production technology or by the production of
biomethane. Reductions in emissions of nitrous oxides can be
achieved by applying control strategies to prevent incomplete
nitrification/denitrification during waste water treatment,
while methane emissions can be reduced by improving
management systems, for example, to introduce measures to
prevent methane gas leakages from sludge handling facilities
and to reduce the amounts of methane formed in sewers.

Additional demands for waste water treatment to remove

micropollutants are likely to significantly increase energy
requirements, as their removal is currently based mostly
on energy-intensive methods per unit of pollutant removed
(Capodaglio and Olsson, 2019). Strategies that water utilities
could adopt to mitigate the carbon impact of micropollutant
removal include (Georges et al., 2009):

• least-carbon end-of-pipe/process addition, which aims

to find the least-carbon solution, acknowledging the
embodied and operational carbon emissions associated
with additional treatment;

• increased operational efficiencies;

• redeveloping existing treatment processes to lower

© Caroline Whalley.
energy alternatives;

Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy 29

© Ivan Bandura on Unsplashed
 3
Energy and resources —
reduce, reuse, recycle
and recover

3.1 Introduction 3.2 Energy use and efficiency

'Waste water treatment' aims to deliver clean water that is 3.2.1 Sustainable use of resources
safe to be returned to the environment. The term reflects a
linear process. To better reflect the opportunities presented, Minimising the unnecessary use of resources is the first step
the other resources used and generated by sewage treatment towards sustainability and can often provide financial savings
need to be considered in the context of integrated water and to operators. In the context of water, efficient use of this
waste management. essential resource should be high priority, because water can
be in short supply, and because pumping and treatment are
Efficient use of water is necessary to ensure that the use of expensive in both energy and financial terms. Furthermore,
the resources to treat it can be optimised. Urban waste water water saved from use does not become waste water. The
treatment currently uses at least 1% of total energy production circular economy action plan under the European Green Deal
in Europe (Ganora et al., 2019; Capodaglio and Olsson, 2020). sets out the European Commission's ambitions for a circular
Pumping and treating water makes it the largest municipal economy, focusing on certain product value chains and
user of energy. Energy efficiency can deliver savings on recognising the relationship between circularity and climate
existing treatment costs, while the demand for more intensive neutrality (EC, 2020a).
treatment is likely to drive up the energy requirement.
Figure 3.1 summarises the inputs and outputs of (a) urban
Meanwhile, sewage contains valuable resources. This includes waste water treatment and (b) sewage treatment separated
not only the water itself but also heat, nutrients such as at source, such as in decentralised treatment facilities.
nitrogen and phosphorus, and energy and other resources that While many of the products are similar, the main difference
can be derived from sewage sludge. Treated sewage sludge is scale — typically, (a) might apply from 50 people to
itself is valued for its nutrient and organic matter for agriculture millions, while currently (b) would mainly apply in Europe to
in parts of Europe; however, concerns about mainly chemical pilot studies. This chapter mainly focuses on conventional
contamination constrain its potential applications. treatment (a) as the dominant approach. However, the
importance of decentralised approaches (b) is increasing, as
Considering these issues, the best operating plants are able used by innovative towns and operators.
to meet environmental discharge limits and generate at
least enough energy to power their own energy needs. By
driving quality requirements on incoming effluent through
to resource recovery, these 'resource hubs' can underpin a
circular economy.

Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy 31

 Energy and resources — reduce, reuse, recycle and recover

Figure 3.1 Inputs and outputs of sewage treatment

a) Urban waste water treatment plan

Energy Greenhouse gas Chemicals Heat energy

emissions

Sewage Sludge
W a s te w t
a t er tr e a t m e n treatment Biogas

Treated Stabilised,
waste water dewatered
sludge

Discharge to the Reuse in agriculture / composting / incineration

environment / water reuse Landfill

b) Decentralised treatment

Urine Fertilisers

Sewage Grey water Water reuse, e.g. irrigation / flushing

Treatment and resource
Faeces recovery units Energy, heating

3.2.2 UWWTP energy use and efficiency Increasing energy costs, as well as pressure to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions, have driven waste water treatment
Energy use by an individual urban waste water treatment operators to look for ways to optimise energy consumption and
plant (UWWTP) is determined by the location, the navigate towards energy neutrality or even positivity, resulting
characteristics of sewage, treatment plant size, treatment in energy self-sufficiency or surplus (see Section 3.3.4). Sweden
technology used and the quality requirements of the and Denmark have recently set targets to have climate-neutral
treated water. For example, location, elevation and slope of operation of their water and waste water sectors by 2030.
terrain determine whether the sewage will be gravity fed or Reductions in energy consumption can be achieved through a
pumped to the UWWTP. Large plants treating large volumes variety of means, for example:
of sewage consume more energy than smaller plants,
but typically have much higher energy efficiency, owing • installing energy-efficient aeration equipment in secondary
to modern technologies and more advanced methods treatment;
of operation, such as automatic regulation of processes
(Ganora et al., 2019). Pumps, mechanical aerators or • improving process control;
blowers and sludge handling systems account for the
largest share of total energy consumption. The Enerwater • reducing leakage and energy efficiency approaches to
study showed that secondary treatment consumes the sludge thickening.
most energy in the treatment process, consuming between
64% and 74% of the total energy used by UWWTPs (size Case study 1 (Box 3.1) looks at how efficiencies at the Sofia
ranging from below 2,000 population equivalents (p.e.) to UWWTP were achieved, even as the plant increased its
over 100,000 p.e.) (Longo et al., 2019). capacity by one third, between 2014 and 2017.

32 Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy

 Energy and resources — reduce, reuse, recycle and recover

Box 3.1 Case study 1— Improvements in energy efficiency in Sofia, Bulgaria

The Sofia waste water treatment plant was commissioned in 1984 and historically consumed between 16,000MWh and
24,000MWh electricity per year. Following the installation of combined heat and power (CHP) units in 2010, the energy
produced annually on site rose from 15,288MWh to 23,100MWh in 2017. Measures implemented to reduce energy
consumption included optimising the aeration process via air flow regulation, improving the anaerobic digestion process
and using the heat potential of on-site CHPs. This led to the plant producing 23% more energy than was needed for its
operation in 2017 (i.e. 4300MWh).

Source: CircE (2018).

It is estimated that, if all UWWTPs that use more than the currently under evaluation (June 2022). However, concerns
current average amount of energy were shifted to the remain that the treated sludge has effectively collected many
EU average value, the saving would be slightly more than of the persistent pollutants present in waste water, which
5,500GWh/year. With highly stringent targets of efficiency may then be dispersed on to the land and become a source
improvement, saving of about 13,500GWh/year could be of diffuse pollution. A study in Norway on microplastics in
expected (Ganora et al., 2019). sludge concluded that they could be a major source to the
environment, but there was no assessment of the risk that
Although the waste water treatment industry is not targeted this might present (Lusher et al., 2017). Recent Swedish
by the EU Energy Efficiency Directive (EU, 2018), water utilities studies show that about 40-60% of the microplastics present
use benchmarking and energy audit procedures as tools to in incoming waste water were subsequently found in the
optimise energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions anaerobically digested sludge, with the rest being removed or
in waste water treatment (Clos et al., 2020). Currently, disintegrating/degrading during treatment. The concentration
there is no systematic EU-wide data collection of the energy of microplastics in sludge from three UWWTPs corresponded
efficiency of urban waste water treatment, as a standardised to between 5 and 8g/p.e. per year. Meanwhile, sludge used
methodology at European level has not been adopted. as fertiliser for 35 years seemed not to cause an elevated
Enerwater has developed a methodology for assessing and microplastic concentration in the soil in one study (Tumlin and
improving energy efficiency and labelling of waste water Bertholds, 2020). Knowledge about the sources and presence
treatment plants, enabling rapid auditing and assessment to of microplastics in water is still limited (ETC/WGME, 2021).
support decision-making (Longo et al., 2019).
A study investigating concentrations of metals and several
pharmaceuticals in the sludge itself, from 11 UWWTPs over
3.3 Recovering resources from sewage and 1 year, calculated that concentrations in the soil would be
sewage sludge below the predicted no-effect concentrations (UKWIR, 2018).

3.3.1 Sewage sludge Across Europe, there are polarising opinions as to the fate of
sewage sludge. In Germany there is a national strategy to end
Unsustainable land use and management has led to the the application of sewage sludge to soil, with a deadline of 2032
degradation of EU soils (EC, 2021d). Sewage sludge has been for UWWTPs over 50,000 p.e., although sludge from smaller
used for centuries as a fertiliser (Mulder, 2019). Addition of plants may still be used (Anderson et al., 2021). In parallel, the
sewage sludge to land can provide nutrients such as nitrogen ProgGress strategy requires the recovery of phosphorus from
and phosphorus, as well as micronutrients and humus that the sludge through mono-incineration from UWWTPs larger
can help the soil structure. Long-term experiments show than 50,000 p.e. (BMUB, 2016). Meanwhile, in Sweden, policy
enhanced fertility after sewage sludge application, resulting has shifted towards treated sludge going to land as part of a
from reduced soil bulk density and increased soil carbon more circular approach (see Box 3.2, case study 2). Achieving
concentration (Börjesson and Kätterer, 2018). Lime-treated this has required significant effort among all stakeholders
sludge can also help reduce the acidity of agricultural soils. to avoid chemical contamination of waste water, so that the
The Sewage Sludge Directive (EEC, 1986) sets minimum resulting sludge does not contain persistent pollutants, and
treatment standards to protect against health and pollution customer confidence in food quality can be maintained.
risks from sludge application to land. This old directive is

Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy 33

 Energy and resources — reduce, reuse, recycle and recover

Box 3.2 Case study 2 — REVAQ-certified waste water treatment plants, Sweden

In Sweden, concerns about contaminants in sludge led to recommendations not to apply sludge to land during the early
2000s (Anderson et al., 2021). However, in 2008 a collaboration between farmers, regulators and the water and food
industries led to a certification scheme, 'REVAQ', which assures a certain level of control at source, upstream measures and
the safety of sludge applied to agricultural land, in relation to the quality of soil and food and to water quality. An industry
is not allowed to connect to a REVAQ waste water treatment plant if it handles, uses or produces any of the chemicals on
the Swedish Chemicals Agency's list for phasing out (c.7,500 substances) (Kemi, n.d; ChemSec, n.d.). This has increased
confidence among farmers and the food industry in using sludge, with the amount applied to land rising from 22% in
2011 to 45% in 2018 (Anderson et al., 2021). Studies showed that 'there is clear evidence that sludge fertiliser application
supplies plant nutrients and humus that agriculture demands.'

Source: Ministry of the Environment of Sweden (2020).

3.3.2 Sewage sludge production With regard to sludge production, the treatment can have
two objectives:
The annual production of sewage sludge in the 32 member
countries of the EEA (EEA-32) was about 11.1 million tonnes in 1. recovery of materials or energy from sludge, using its
2018, which equates to about 17 kg per person, of which 94% resource potential;
was disposed of (Anderson et al., 2021).
2. reduction in the amount of sludge produced,
Figure 3.2 shows a wide variation in the destinations of sewage minimising waste.
sludge. Based on data reported by 2022, 34% of the sewage
sludge was used in agriculture, 31% was incinerated, 12% used Sludge dewatering significantly reduces the volume of
in compost and other applications, 12% went to landfill, and wet sludge for disposal and increases the solid content
10% was used in another way. Some countries predominantly of sludge. Methods based on physical, mechanical,
send treated sewage sludge to land, while others incinerate chemical, thermal and biological treatments are used to
it. Decisions are based partly on geography (e.g. availability of reduce the dry mass of sludge, which reduces the solid
land) and also on the level of concern about pollutant loads in content and further decreases the volume. Most methods
the sludge. There is a lack of data on sludge destinations for a aim to solubilise the solids and destroy bacterial cells in
number of European countries. the sludge.

The cost of treatment plus disposal of sludge in European

countries has been estimated to reach, on average,
approximately EUR 200 per tonne of dry mass, according
to the type of treatment and disposal (Capodaglio and
Olsson, 2020).

34 Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy

 Energy and resources — reduce, reuse, recycle and recover

Figure 3.2 Sewage sludge management approaches in Europe

EU-27

Austria

Belgium

Bulgaria

Croatia

Cyprus

Czechia

Denmark

Estonia

Finland

France

Germany

Greece

Hungary

Ireland

Italy

Latvia

Lithuania

Luxembourg

Malta

Netherlands

Poland

Portugal

Romania

Slovakia

Slovenia

Spain

Sweden

EEA-32

Iceland

Liechtenstein

Norway

Switzerland

Turkey

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percentage

Agricultural use Incineration Compost and other applications Landfill Other

Notes: Reported data for each of the different uses was compared with the total disposed, according to various categories - agricultural use,
compost and other applications, landfill, incineration, and other.

Data from 2018 and 2019, except for France and Switzerland (2017); Portugal (2016); Denmark and Italy (2010).

Source: Eurostat (2022).

Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy 35

 Energy and resources — reduce, reuse, recycle and recover

3.3.3 Resource recovery from sewage sludge processes exist, but they are not (yet) cost-effective and
are therefore not yet applied to large-scale UWWTPs.
Owing to its high nutrient and organic matter content, and In Switzerland, regulatory changes envisage phosphorus
the energy content of dried sludge being comparable to that recovery from sewage sludge becoming mandatory. Some
of woody biomass, sewage sludge is a prospective secondary incineration plants already store sludge ash in order to recover
resource that can contribute to Europe's transition to a the phosphorus in future.
circular economy (Anderson et al., 2021). A potential obstacle
for promoting sludge recycling and recovery stems from two Significant efforts have been made to recover phosphorus
policy objectives, which may be in conflict: from sewage sludge based on the precipitation of phosphorus
minerals, e.g. in the form of struvites. These recovery
• protecting the environment and human health, which technologies have been developed and are in operation
requires that sludge for recycling complies with specific largely in Canada, Japan and the Netherlands (Tchobanoglous
quality standards; et al., 2014). Global demand for fertiliser is expected to
increase by 4% a year because of population growth, so it can
• promoting the use of sludge in agriculture in the interests of be expected that fertiliser recovery from waste water will gain
resource efficiency, ensuring the recycling and recovery of further importance in the future. However, to not only recover
valuable and finite nutrients. but also recycle phosphorus in agriculture, market incentives
for using the recovered nutrient must be created, since the
Preventing contamination of sewage by persistent, hazardous price of recovered phosphorus is currently unable to compete
pollutants would allow recycling of sewage sludge on land with mineral sources (10). As well as conventional fertiliser,
without giving rise to concern that this might lead to diffuse manure from livestock production also competes with fertiliser
pollution by these substances of soils, plants and water. recovered from waste water. In livestock-rich areas, manure
may be a more cost-effective solution than treated sewage
The estimated annual amount of nutrients that could be sludge, demonstrating again the need to apply local solutions
potentially recovered from sewage sludge produced in to sewage treatment (Kehrein et al., 2020).
UWWTPs in the 27 EU Member States (EU-27) ranges between
6,900 and 63,000t of phosphorus and between 12,400 and
87,500t of nitrogen (for the EEA-32, this ranges between Image 3.1 Fertiliser derived from sewage sludge
8,100 and 68,100t of phosphorus and between 14,600
and 94,700t of nitrogen) (see Image 3.1). These amounts
correspond to 0.6‑6% of total phosphorus fertilisers and
0.1-1% of total nitrogen fertilisers used in the EU in 2018,
respectively (Anderson et al., 2021).

Phosphorus

The Commission has identified phosphate rock as a critical

raw material (EC, 2014b). As an essential nutrient for the
food system, the recovery and reuse of phosphorus is of high
priority. Policies under the European Green Deal are addressing
this: as part of the circular economy action plan, an integrated
nutrient management plan will be developed to ensure the
sustainable application of nutrients and to stimulate markets
for recovered nutrients (EC, 2020a). More broadly, the chemicals
strategy for sustainability aims to promote the resilience of
supply and sustainability of critical chemicals in the EU (EC,
2020c). At the same time, the farm to fork strategy envisages
a reduction in nutrient losses from agriculture by at least 50%,
while ensuring no deterioration in soil fertility and a reduction
in the use of fertilisers of at least 20% by 2030 (EC, 2020f).

The recovery of phosphorus from sewage sludge is a great

challenge for countries where sewage sludge is incinerated
and where nutrients are not being recycled. Various recovery
© Caroline Whalley.

(10) Recent events in eastern Europe may promote interest in ensuring the resilience of fertiliser supply.

36 Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy

 Energy and resources — reduce, reuse, recycle and recover

Other resources can be recovered from waste water and Energy recovery of the chemical, thermal and hydrodynamic
sewage sludge, e.g. nitrogen, cellulose, bioplastics and alginic energy contained in sewage can provide electricity, biogas,
acid (Kehrein et al., 2020), with potential cellulose pulp steam and hot water. The energy content of the sludge is
production at 1-3 kg/person per year (Ostermeyer et al., 2022). typically similar to the energy content of low-grade coal (Rafie
Case studies illustrate a wide variety of possible recovery et al., 2016). Energy can be generated from sewage sludge
options, as well as the technical solutions for resource recovery, through pre-treatment by anaerobic digestion to produce
e.g. UWWTP Amsterdam West, which considered the recovered biogas and/or by incineration, pyrolysis and gasification of
products alginic acid, bioplastic, cellulose, phosphorus and the sludge. Biogas (Image 3.2) comprises 60-70% methane,
biogas (van der Hoek et al., 2016). It is not the availability of 30-40% carbon dioxide and trace amounts of other gases
technology that is preventing the wide-scale application of (e.g. hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide and nitrogen). Biomethane
resource recovery but the lack of both incentives encouraging recovered from biogas can be used as vehicle fuel, in gas
circularity and a planning and design methodology to engines and for generating electricity and/or heat. Serious
identify and deploy the most sustainable solutions in a given accidents can occur with biogas generation (e.g. BBC,
context. The WOW! Interreg project considers the market 2020), and the ability to meet necessary safety standards
potential for products such as biochar and acetic acid, noting as part of the transition to greater sustainability is an
challenges such as high prices owing to small sizes of UWWTPs, important consideration.
consistently meeting quality requirements and legal issues in
the registration of products derived from waste water (Interreg
North-West Europe WoW!, 2020).
Image 3.2 Biogas generation in anaerobic digesters.

Actions leading to a more circular and sustainable economy

revolve around reduction, reuse and recycling. Bottlenecks
that can hinder the successful implementation of these can
be grouped into three categories: (1) economics and value
chain; (2) environment and health; and (3) society and policy.
Recovering the value from sewage sludge illustrates aspects
of bottlenecks, such as process costs, resource quality,
market value and competition, and use and application in
the value chain assessment. Legislation to create strong
markets and demand for recovered phosphorus and nitrogen
may be required (Duong and Saphores, 2015; Kehrein et al.,
2020; Mesa-Pérez and Berbel, 2020). Societal acceptance of
the recycling of treated sewage sludge and the resources
recovered from it — overcoming the 'yuck' factor — is an area
with significant challenges.

3.3.4 Energy generation

Although UWWTPs use significant amounts of energy, the

waste water theoretically contains between five and ten times
more chemical and thermal energy than that needed for
treatment. While only some of this energy can be recovered, it
is possible for the biggest UWWTPs to be net energy producers © Caroline Whalley.
(Riley et al., 2020).

Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy 37

 Energy and resources — reduce, reuse, recycle and recover

Several studies have made estimations of the additional source of energy. At the Katri Vala heat recovery plant
energy potential (i.e. on top of that already recovered) by in Finland, the estimated potential heat energy recovery
assessing different sewage sludge options. Direct comparison represents up to 500% of a plant's heat energy consumption
of the results is difficult, owing to differences in starting (Heinonen, personal communication).
assumptions. Anderson et al. (2021) considered the amount
of sewage sludge sent to landfill and composting, i.e. from Actual solutions for a particular plant depend on local
30% of the total sludge produced in the EU. They estimated circumstances. For instance, incineration facilities may not be
that the EU-27 could potentially recover between 1,800GWh available, while biogas generation may not be an economic
and 3,200GWh of energy (net heat and electricity) through option at some smaller sites. District heating schemes using
anaerobic digestion of the total sewage sludge generated, heat recovered from waste water are applicable if there are
and 250GWh (net electricity) through incineration of the total buildings needing heating and where it makes sense to build a
sewage sludge generated that is currently sent to landfill. This central heating network.
represents 7%, 13% and 1%, respectively, of the total waste
water sector energy needs in the EU-27 in 2018.
3.3.5 Water reuse
Using an alternative approach to energy calculation, including
of the available sludge, Huygens et al. (forthcoming) estimated A perhaps less recognised benefit of waste water treatment is
that up to an additional 3,285GWh could potentially be recovered that it enables others to reuse this precious resource. Cleaning
through anaerobic digestion of the total sewage sludge applied the water allows its use for other human activities, avoiding
directly to land (30% of the total) and 850GWh resulting from the abstraction from other, possibly non-renewable sources, such
incineration of sludge currently sent to landfill. as groundwater.

Considering energy production if all sewage sludge was The return of suitably clean water is also important for aquatic
anaerobically digested, Svenskt Vatten estimated that about life, ensuring sufficient water in lakes and rivers for life to
3,000kWh of biogas can be recovered per tonne of dry sewage persist. In parts of Europe, particularly the south, climate
sludge (with 1 t representing the annual load of 33 p.e.). change is predicted to lower river discharge levels by up to
Biogas production from Swedish UWWTPs was 721GWh in 40% under a 3 oC temperature rise scenario (EEA, 2021a).
2020, with a total energy potential estimated at 800GWh for its The Water Framework Directive and biodiversity strategy
population of 10 million (Svenskt Vatten, 2021). (EC, 2020g) both consider ecological flows, i.e. the amount of
water required for the aquatic ecosystem to continue to thrive
Selection of the optimum option for energy recovery from and provide the services we rely upon (EC, 2016), but Member
sewage sludge must consider additional energy demands States are in the early stages of implementation (EEA, 2021a).
and greenhouse gas losses that arise from sludge processing.
Energy savings and burdens need to be summed to derive Water reuse has become a key part of water resource
net values for assessed energy recovery options. Huygens management in countries suffering the greatest water
et al. concluded that, of the different sewage sludge stress and where the costs already favour reuse. Where
options, anaerobic digestion followed by use on land and water resources are abundant or under less stress, waste
co‑incineration were the options that have the lowest (but still water reuse is driven by other factors, e.g. conservation
net positive) greenhouse gas emissions. of groundwater resources; reduction of costs; and the
precautionary principle, whereby prevention of possible harm
Most focus on energy generation from waste water treatment is prioritised (EEA, 2019c). The primary use of reused water is
has been on anaerobic digestion and incineration, but in irrigation for agriculture; the modelled potential for reuse is
operators may have other options. For instance, solar and shown in Map 3.1. Other uses are in irrigation of urban spaces
wind energy generation can make a contribution, while heat such as parks and sports fields, groundwater recharge and
recovery from the waste water itself can be a significant improvement of river flow.

38 Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy

 Energy and resources — reduce, reuse, recycle and recover

Map 3.1 Modelled potential for reusing water for agricultural irrigation in the EU

-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60°

60 70°
70

Modelled potential for reusing

water for agricultural irrigation
in the EU

m3/year
1,000
1,000-100,000
100,000-250,000
60°
250,000-500,000
500,000-11,750,000

No data
Outside coverage
50°

50°

40°

40°

0 500 1,000 1,500 km

0° 10° 20° 30° 40°

Reference data: ©ESRI

Note: Average irrigation water requirement, computed with the EPIC model.

Source: Pistocchi et al. (2017).

Water reuse can be classified as indirect or direct: recreational), which determines the treatment technology
applied. Waste water treatment plants producing water
• Indirect reuse is the reuse of treated waste water that is intended for reuse may be equipped with an advanced
stored in a water body, such as a lake, river or aquifer, and treatment composed of various technologies (e.g. coagulation/
then some of it is retrieved for later use. flocculation, filtration, ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis,
disinfection) which determine the costs of investment,
• Direct reuse of treated waste water refers to the maintenance and operation.
introduction of treated waste water via pipelines, storage
tanks and other infrastructure directly from a water Reusing water is not widespread in the EU, although it is
treatment plant, e.g. distributing treated waste water to be increasing in some Member States (Figure 3.3) and may be
used directly in agricultural irrigation. expected to become more widespread (EU, 2020a). It has
been estimated that the potential for treated urban effluent
The quality requirement for reclaimed water is dictated by in the EU is six times higher than the current level of reuse
the final use (agricultural, industrial, urban, environmental, (Pistocchi et al., 2017). In countries with significant problems

Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy 39

 Energy and resources — reduce, reuse, recycle and recover

of water stress or water scarcity, water reuse practices have

Figure 3.3 Water reuse in Mediterranean
EU Member States
been developed, facilitated by national guidelines. Data are
hard to come by but suggest that Cyprus reuses more than
Mm3/year
90% of its waste water, followed by Greece, Malta, Portugal,
Italy and Spain, where the share of reused urban effluent 1,200
ranges between 1 and 12% (EEA, 2020a). Experience in these
countries might benefit other countries expecting a decline 1,000
in water availability. Water reuse schemes have been locally
applied in other EU countries, e.g. Belgium and Germany,
800
for purposes such as urban irrigation, industrial uses and
aquifer recharge. In Sweden, a key driver of water reuse was
the protection of coastal water quality and conservation of 600
groundwater resources. Analysis carried out in preparation
for the Water Reuse Regulation expected a total cost
400
for the reclaimed water of less than EUR 0.5 per cubic
metre (EC, 2018b).
200
The reuse of treated water helps to increase the amount of
water available at a relatively low marginal cost. The treated
0
effluent quality can be adapted to the user's needs, allowing 2003-2007 2008-2012 2013-2019
economic efficiency. The costs of treated waste water may
be lower where users are close to each other, owing to Spain France Italy Greece Cyprus Malta

savings in infrastructure and transport costs. However, issues

such as the social acceptability of reusing 'waste water', Source: EEA (2020b).

the costs in comparison with abstracted water and the

infrastructure investment that may be needed can hinder the
implementation of water reuse.

Case study 3 (Box 3.3) provides an example of waste water beer in Czechia (Box 3.4, case study 4) is a clear challenge for
reuse building on historical practice to deliver water for the quality of treated waste water, demonstrating the high
irrigation, which otherwise might need to be met from the standards it is possible to achieve. Such examples provide a
drinking water supply. Meanwhile, treatment to produce a way of increasing public confidence in treated 'waste' water.

Box 3.3 Case study 3 — Reusing waste water for irrigation in Milan, Italy

Reusing waste water for irrigation reduces the quantity of drinking water used for irrigation and guarantees the supply
of high-quality water for farmers in the Milan area. All the water treated by the Nosedo and San Rocco plants meets
the requirements applicable to reuse for irrigation purposes, as certified by the regional environmental protection
agency (ARPA), and it is used to irrigate a substantial portion of farmland with a surface area of over 100km2. It has been
estimated to save farmers between EUR 2 million and EUR 4 million in a year in water costs. This practice of irrigating the
rural areas outside the city has its roots in the past.

Source: MMSPA (2018).

40 Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy

 Energy and resources — reduce, reuse, recycle and recover

Box 3.4 Case study 4 — Beer brewed using recycled waste water at Čížová microbrewery, Czechia

To raise public awareness of the importance of preserving water, Veolia, together with the Čížová microbrewery in Czechia,
developed a beer brewed using recycled waste water. Veolia recovers waste water at its Prague treatment plant and then
treats the water using a mobile membrane water reclamation unit. The treatment comprises coagulation, followed by
ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis, in which ultra-fine synthetic membranes serve as a filter that lets water pass through
and retains suspended solids and other substances, such as microorganisms and viruses. The water is then filtered
through granulated activated carbon and disinfected. The advantage of membrane technology is that the filtration does
not need added chemicals and the new types of membranes have lower energy consumption than in the past. The treated
water is then transported to Čížová microbrewery, where it is used to brew Erko beer. In May 2019, 15 hectolitres of lager
were produced and production continues to increase as interest in supporting recycling schemes grows.

Source: Veolia (2019).

Despite the Water Reuse Regulation of 2020, which recognises 3.4 Decentrilsed sewage system
that water reuse will become more necessary and so sets
standards for the agricultural reuse of waste water, numerous Options for urban waste water treatment are constrained
barriers to water reuse still exist in Europe. Drivers of reuse by local factors. A densely populated city, with many
include population pressure and water scarcity. A coherent industries and limited land availability, presents one extreme,
legislative framework is needed that provides flexibility in while sparsely populated, rural areas represent another.
treated water quality, depending on destination uses, and that Construction of waste water treatment plants can involve
allows for governance structures enabling interdependencies greenhouse gas-intensive activities and high costs, in both
between waste water providers and users of reused water the building and operating phases. Alternative solutions
(Guerra-Rodriguez et al., 2020). Under the circular economy can use less energy, release fewer harmful emissions and
action plan, the Commission will facilitate water reuse and provide local benefits and control (WaterProjectsOnline, 2019).
efficiency, including in industrial processes (EC, 2020a). Figure 3.4 illustrates the sorts of considerations, in relation to
operational costs, energy and land use, that are needed when
planning sewage treatment solutions.

Figure 3.4 Qualitative comparison of the need for land, energy and maintenance between constructed
wetlands and conventional urban waste water treatment

Energy, operational and maintenance costs

Mechanical treatment systems

Aerated wetlands

Intensified wetlands

Natural treatment systems

Land area requirements

Source: Adapted from Stefanakis (2019).

Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy 41

 Energy and resources — reduce, reuse, recycle and recover

A focus on nature-based solutions under the EU's biodiversity and organic matter from household wastes by returning
strategy (EC, 2020b) highlights small-scale solutions for them to the soil, which enabled those societies to live for
sewage treatment. Natural wetland systems and reed beds centuries in closed loop systems (Bracken et al., 2007). Modern
can transform and/or remove various pollutants through examples of decentralised closed loop systems for resource
a series of physical, biological and chemical processes, recovery, encompass, for instance, modern urine separating
thereby improving water quality (Image 3.3). These processes flush toilets invented in Sweden in the 1990s (Hellström and
are mimicked in 'constructed' wetlands, which treat waste Johansson, 1999) or an integrated concept for decentralised
water near its source, without high demands in terms of waste water treatment and energy production that applies a
infrastructure and operational costs, while enabling the use source separation approach to sewage treatment and on-site
of resources from waste water and increasing green space resources and energy recovery in newly developed residential
in rural or peri-urban areas. In a study in Slovenia, the Joint areas, e.g. Hamburg Water Cycle (Augustin et al., 2014).
Research Council compared various solutions in terms of
cost-effectiveness and socio-economic acceptability. They
found that nature-based solutions were a preferred option Image 3.3 Nature-based solution to treat combined
for areas with predominantly rural, scattered dwellings and sewer overflows at Gorla Maggiore
small settlements. The concept was proposed as a mainstream (Oppla, n.d.).
solution for the less urbanised areas of the Lower Danube
region (Pistocchi et al., 2020).

Owing to their low costs and low maintenance requirement,

constructed wetlands are popular in low-income regions.
However, they can also be used as a decentralised approach
for blocks of buildings, neighbourhoods, commercial facilities,
isolated communities and remote areas. They can deliver
similar results to tertiary treatment in terms of reducing
nutrient concentrations (Cooper et al., 2020). Studies on
micropollutants suggest that such constructed wetlands can
be effective at preventing their release to water (Gorito et al.,
2018), although care must be taken to ensure that oxidation
conditions in constructed wetlands are appropriate to address
organic micropollutants (Reyes Contreras et al., 2019).

Recent technological advances have significantly closed the

gap between nature-based sewage treatment solutions
and conventional, mechanical technologies in terms of land
requirement (e.g. the compact, mobile aerated constructed
wetland) (Stefanakis, 2019). Such solutions can be integrated
in urban and peri-urban areas for waste water treatment
and urban run-off control and management, following the
decentralised approach. For example, the Innoqua Horizon
2020 project investigated a modular system for water
treatment based on the purifying capacity of biological
microorganisms (earthworms, zooplankton and microalgae),
developing a technology for decentralised waste water
treatment (Innoqua, 2018).

In the context of resource recovery, technological solutions

based on source separation are promising approaches
in decentralised sewage treatment. Source separation
technologies consist of the separate collection and treatment
of concentrated fractions of sewage (urine, faeces and
grey water). Numerous studies have shown that treating
concentrated, unmixed fractions is more resource efficient
than treating highly diluted, combined fractions (Larsen and
Gujer, 1997). Resource recovery from sewage is not a novel
concept: traditional agricultural societies recognised the
© Bruna Grizzetti
nutrient and organic value of sewage, recovering the nutrients

42 Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy

 4
Embedding circularity in
sewage treatment

4.1 Introduction economy, and enabling the conditions to support circularity,

efforts to protect waste water can drive change upstream.
Treatment to clean our sewage is essential to protect human
health and the environment. Waste water treatment is
also expensive and resource intensive and can generate 4.2 Rethinking 'urban waste
significant greenhouse gas emissions. In seeking to protect water treatment'
the environment from micropollutants generated by our
modern way of living, we solve the issue by adding yet more As a society, we have gone to considerable lengths to address
resource‑intensive solutions, creating further waste and the harm that our untreated sewage causes to human
emissions. In our focus on ensuring that the water cycle is and environmental health. The 1991 Urban Waste Water
respected, we have developed a linear solution — missing Treatment Directive (UWWTD) required that Member States
the circularity that sewage treatment should represent. This provide collection systems and treatment of waste water,
approach is an unsustainable way to resolve an issue of a which has led to significant improvement in Europe's water
'waste' that will be continuously generated. quality. But this has come at considerable cost, not only
financial but also in pollutant discharges to water and to air
A central problem that we create for ourselves is the use of as greenhouse gas emissions, and, as the climate changes, it
substances that are harmful to the environment, traces of brings with it new challenges. More intense rainfall in parts
which can enter the water system from our homes, schools and of Europe is leading to more frequent surface water flooding
workplaces. While other sources, such as traffic and industry, and discharge or run-off of pollutants. In other areas, lack of
also contribute pollutants to waste water, Section 2.6.2 showed water resources is becoming a key concern. Demographic
that micropollutants mainly come from domestic sources. change can lead to over- and under-capacity in water utilities
Some of these substances are essential and alternatives may such as urban waste water treatment plants (UWWTPs), which
not be available. But for others, achieving the aims of the reduces their efficiency.
chemicals strategy for sustainability will provide a long-term
solution. Transitioning to a society in which chemicals and Practically, we have built a system that requires dilution of a
products no longer contain substances of concern (11) not only nutrient- and energy-rich natural resource with clean water,
advances zero pollution but also allows circularity, within both mixing that with other potentially harmful substances, then
the product and the 'waste water' chain. Before achieving that draining or pumping this mixture through an extensive
ambition, we will nevertheless have to manage pollutants that pipeline network to a central point. Here, energy is used
are already in use and in circulation. to aerate and pump 'waste water' through various filters
and treatment facilities, dry out the solid material and then
Historically, we have left it to water managers to solve discharge the cleaned water. Disposal of the sewage sludge
society's waste problem — at the end of the pipe. River basin faces continual challenges in finding politically acceptable and
management planning under the Water Framework Directive economically viable routes. This linear approach focuses on
has shown how cross-sectoral efforts can be joined up to water quality, giving a lower priority to other environmental
manage water: a much greater multi-sectoral effort is required dimensions.
to deliver circularity in sewage treatment. Already, more
sustainable solutions are being trialled by innovative utility There are other ways to manage our sewage safely and with
companies, towns and cities. By recognising the central role less carbon-intensive infrastructure. Keeping faeces and urine
that sewage and waste water treatment can play in a circular separate from grey water, such as that from washing, allows

(11) That is, those with persistent, toxic, bioaccumulative and mobile characteristics.

Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy 43

 Embedding circularity in sewage treatment

alternative, water-less treatment to kill pathogens and recover (Mulder, 2019). Realising the ambitions of the chemicals
the nutrients and/or energy (Zeeman and Kujawa-Roeleveld, strategy for sustainability over the longer term is key to
2011). Meanwhile, less energy-intensive treatment allows the reducing harmful micropollutants at source. 'Hybrid grey
grey water to be reused where quality demands are lower, and green' water infrastructure combines centralised
e.g. in parks and gardens. Such decentralised schemes can and decentralised water treatment, reducing water loss,
operate at a very local scale, e.g. buildings and streets. increasing water reuse, optimising the exploitation of
alternative water sources in a circular economy and
Clearly, such approaches are niche in the near term. strengthening resilience against climate change events
Conventional safe treatment and management of human (Water Europe, 2020).
waste mostly relies on expert engineers and water managers,
and the infrastructure in homes, schools and workplaces One of the features of such a local approach is that it
mostly relies on connection to UWWTPs. Experiments with already provides the opportunity for small, remote or
building-focused sewage treatment and water reuse have under-served communities to tackle sewage treatment in
already highlighted the problems associated with mistakes areas where it is still lacking or insufficient, and to develop
in construction, where effluent from other non-drinking skills and capabilities in 'new' technologies (or re‑learning
water systems in buildings have been introduced into the traditional recycling). Options to meet stringent, new
drinking water distribution system, compromising human quality standards at Ingoldisthorpe included a new
health (EC, 2021e). Less immediately, environmental harm treatment plant with both high capital and carbon costs,
may be caused if the waste from ourselves and our houses but collaboration between the water utility, environmental
continues to be contaminated with micropollutants (Comber regulator, local community and landowner allowed the
et al., 2014, KomS, 2021; Zintz et al., 2021), despite efforts establishment of a water-treating wetland ecosystem
made by households with individual treatment systems, such (Box 4.1, case study 5).
as septic tanks, being careful not to poison those systems

Box 4.1 Case study 5 — Collaboration at village level, Ingoldisthorpe, United Kingdom

The River Ingol is one of only 200 chalk rivers in the world and provides an extremely rare habitat for a variety of plants
and wildlife. The river was threatened by increased levels of phosphate and ammonia released into the river by a UWWTP.
Initial plans to build a new treatment plant would have had both high capital and carbon costs. Instead, Anglian Water,
the environmental regulator, local organisations such as the Norfolk Rivers Trust and the local community arrived at a
'soft engineering' solution. The project created a natural wetland of one hectare, to naturally filter the water downstream
from the UWWTP and to improve the quality of water flowing into the River Ingol. The outcomes were high water quality,
a thriving habitat for wildlife and reduced flood risk. Provoked by customer support for natural capital solutions, Anglian
Water committed to undertake a further 30 feasibility studies for wetland treatment sites.

Source: WaterProjectsOnline, 2019; WWF, 2020.

Box 4.2 Case study 6 — Collaboration at city level, Amsterdam, Netherlands

In Buiksloterham, a collaboration between the water board, the municipality and a housing corporation is piloting a study on
separating waste water at source, to test the sustainability of decentralised sewage treatment. An innovative vacuum sewer
and floating treatment plant has been built with a capacity of 1,550p.e., with vacuum toilets installed in 47 floating homes.

The traditional waste water sewerage system has been replaced by a multiple sewer system, which consists of a vacuum
pipe with a small diameter for the collection of concentrated sewage and a free-fall pipeline for grey water. This collection
method enables efficient local water treatment, and raw materials (phosphate), heat and energy (biogas) can be recovered
and reused locally. This primarily provides raw materials and energy, but also saves energy by avoiding pumping the waste
water over long distances.

Amsterdam plans to learn from Buiksloterham in its development of Strandeiland, a new island in IJburg where
approximately 8,000 homes will be built. The water board and the municipality want to apply 'new sanitation' there, as well
as using thermal energy from waste water and surface water to make Strandeiland energy neutral.

Source: Waternet (2020a,b).

44 Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy

 Embedding circularity in sewage treatment

New building in urban areas can also provide opportunities economy action plan under the European Green Deal seeks
for purpose built, decentralised treatment approaches, such to accelerate the transition towards a regenerative growth
as the brownfield development site at Buiksloterham (see Box model and to move towards keeping resource consumption
4.2, case study 6). within planetary boundaries (EC, 2020a). Three principles
underpin the process of achieving a circular economy (Ellen
Health protection and prevention of pollution continue to be MacArthur Foundation, n.d.):
the key purpose of sewage and urban waste water treatment.
Improved scientific knowledge since the 1990s has shown the 1. eliminate waste and pollution;
presence of many pollutants in surface waters, and many of these
arise from chemicals and products that we use in our homes 2. circulate products and materials;
and workplaces. Such societal and sectoral issues are beyond
the capacity of water managers to resolve; rather they require 3. regenerate nature.
wholesale review of what substances we choose or allow to be
used. Such is the role of the chemicals strategy for sustainability, If water use is based on a linear
launched by the European Commission in 2020 (EC, 2020c). Among 'take‑make‑consume‑dispose' model, as it has been
its ambitions, the strategy aims to ban the most harmful chemicals historically, the quality of water declines until it becomes
in consumer products, allowing their use only when essential. unfit for further use by humans and ecosystems (Stuchtey,
This limitation is key, both to lowering direct human exposure to 2015). Urban waste water treatment breaks into this linear
harmful chemicals and to reducing releases of harmful chemicals approach by cleaning the used water, returning it to the
to water. The ambition to boost the production and use of environment for reuse and allowing sludge to be recycled
chemicals that are safe and sustainable by design should lead on land or the resources it contains to be recovered.
to less chemical pollution over the longer term. In turn, lower However, focusing only on the treatment process itself will
pollution loads in waste water will reduce the need for advanced, not lead to circularity, as the principles of minimising water
energy-intensive treatment than at present, i.e. turning waste use and preventing pollution of urban waste water need to
water treatment from a vicious into a virtuous circle. be applied upstream (Smol et al., 2020).

Meanwhile, UWWTPs face the challenge of cleaning up waste Pollution prevention at UWWTPs can be improved by
water to meet more demanding standards set in legislation. reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing the
Modelling for the revised UWWTD by Pistocchi et al. has removal of micropollutants. Circularity can be supported
examined the costs and benefits of micropollutant removal, by the transition of UWWTPs from a role of 'pollutant
considering c.1,200 chemicals assumed to be a proxy of the removal' to resource recovery, becoming 'resource
total pollution conveyed by raw waste water. This has shown hubs'. A wide range of technologies is available for water
that advanced treatment for micropollutants at all plants in reuse and for energy and resource recovery, despite
Europe with a capacity of 100,000p.e. or more could reduce their limited full-scale application (Kehrein et al., 2020;
the overall toxicity of discharged effluents by about 40% Veolia, n.d.). Returning water to the environment and
(Pistocchi et al., forthcoming). recycling it for potable and non-potable use contribute to
regenerating nature.
The solutions identified to address sewage and urban waste
water treatment are necessarily local. Water managers aim Figure 4.1 depicts the circularity that can be achieved in
to optimise solutions according to local requirements and sewage treatment by both UWWTPs and decentralised
possibilities: ensuring that circularity principles form part of approaches. Both start with sewage from households, but,
those considerations, and enabling them to do so, is the role whereas decentralised treatment retains resources for local
of policymakers. When trade-offs come into play, ensuring reuse and recycling, the scale of treatment and recovery at
the protection of human health and the environment should UWWTPs can be more intensive and much larger.
take priority.
Smol et al. (2020) noted the need to 'rethink' our approach
to the reuse and recycling of resources from waste water
4.3 Circular economy — from 'waste water treatment. From the water treatment perspective, there
treatment' to resource hub are difficulties relating to the regulatory environment and
to opaque market conditions (IWA, 2016). Implementing
The goal of a circular economy is to manage natural resources circularity may require changes in building regulations,
efficiently and sustainably (EEA, 2016). Respecting planetary for example to allow decentralised and/or nature-based
boundaries by increasing the proportion used of renewable solutions, and extending the regulatory context in which
resources while reducing the consumption of raw materials and water utilities operate, for instance where UWWTPs could
energy, and cutting emissions and material losses, meets goals become energy producers. Meanwhile mechanisms are
set for both sustainability and business efficiency. The circular needed to incentivise the use of recovered resources, such

Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy 45

 Embedding circularity in sewage treatment

Figure 4.1 Implementing circularity in sewage treatment

Centralised
sewage treatment Discharge into
environment

Resource recovery Treatment

Decentralised
sewage treatment
Discharge into
environment
Reuse

N, P, Energy heat, Water for irrigation,

fertilisers water industrial processes, Treatment Resource recovery
flushing

Sewage

Reuse

N, P, fertilisers

Energy heat

Water for irrigation, flushing

Large urban areas Small urban areas

Drinking
Urban runoff and industrial discharges water
can also be conveyed via sewers.

46 Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy

 Embedding circularity in sewage treatment

as phosphorus in struvite, over those from non-renewable management' to 'resource hubs' is already happening in
sources, which are currently uneconomic compared with some forward‑thinking towns and utility organisations. A
commercial fertilisers (see Box 4.5, case study 9). determination to reach net zero emissions drives analysis of
both capital and operational expenditure, allowing investment
A key input into the circle is customer feedback defining the in innovative solutions where necessary.
quality of products. Specific value chains, embedded in local or
regional economies, may need to be established, such as in the Case study 7 (Box 4.3) outlines the fundamental review
REVAQ scheme for sewage sludge (see Box 3.2, case study 2). that Scottish Water is undertaking across its operations as
it aims to reach zero greenhouse gas emissions, while the
Marselisborg UWWTP (Box 4.4, case study 8) focuses on the
4.4 Accelerating the transition city scale.

Sewage treatment is an essential service that can provide Innovation can play a major role in enabling circularity. More
clean water, nutrients and renewable energy. However, in efficient technologies that can reduce the energy costs of
its current form it uses significant amounts of energy, leads resource recovery and increase recovery rates are perhaps
to significant emissions of greenhouse gases and produces familiar, but innovation also applies to new partnerships.
large quantities of sewage sludge that may represent These may extend across public administration, research,
disposal problem for utilities. The shift from 'waste water industry and citizens, with new business models and

Box 4.3 Case study 7 — Net zero emissions, Scottish Water, United Kingdom

Scottish Water has a target to reach net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2040. Some actions are directly under its
control, such as improving energy efficiency and hosting renewable energy. Others, however, require efforts to influence
customers and supply chains, such as the amount of water people use, removing surface water from sewers and reducing
emissions from the cement the organisation buys. It has identified areas for innovation, such as low-energy treatment
methods; ammonia and methane recovery; the need for digital and analytical tools; and low-/zero-emission materials for
investment and operations.

Source: Scottish Water, 2022.

Box 4.4 Case study 8 — Energy efficiency and recovery, Marselisborg UWWTP, Denmark

In 2005, Aarhus City Council decided to upgrade and consolidate its municipal waste water treatment system, which at that time
comprised 17 small facilities. In 2019, the Danish water sector set out its ambition to be climate and energy neutral by 2030.

The Marselisborg urban waste water treatment plant has increased plant efficiency and reduced energy consumption by
optimising its processes. It now produces 50% more electricity than it needs for waste water treatment and 2.9GW of heat
for the district heating system. Energy-saving technologies include an advanced control system, a new turbo compressor,
sludge liquor treatment and optimisation of the bubble aeration system. This has resulted in savings of approximately
1GWh/year (c.25%) in power consumption. By implementing energy-efficient solutions and producing biogas from the
sludge, the utility is able to cover almost all the energy needed for the whole water cycle, from groundwater extraction, to
pump stations, water distribution and waste water treatment

Source: Aarhus Vand A/S (n.d.).

Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy 47

 Embedding circularity in sewage treatment

new forms of water governance that can also stimulate Decentralised systems focus on the on-site treatment of
and support technological innovation (Ellen MacArthur waste water and on local reuse and recycling of resources
Foundation, 2015; Arup et al., 2019). The strategic contained in domestic waste water. They are particularly
implementation plan for the European Innovative Partnership attractive because of the possibility of reducing long-term
on Water identifies several areas for stimulating innovative treatment costs. The systems can be easily adapted to local
solutions, such as water reuse and recycling; water and waste conditions and capacity can be added incrementally and
water treatment; the water-energy nexus; and cross-cutting quickly. Therefore, they can serve as (possibly cheaper)
issues including water governance; decision support systems alternatives to conventional expansion/refurbishment of the
and monitoring and financing (EC, 2012b). Digitalisation can sewerage network. The use of remote control and monitoring
help in the delivery of improved efficiency and productivity contributes to operational and management improvements
and of rapid monitoring to inform decision-making (EC, 2021f; and resolves problems arising from a lack of skilled personnel.
Mbavarira and Grimm 2021). Mechanisms to promote a shift Nature-based solutions can contribute to biodiversity and
towards markets for recovered resources and sustainable provide additional benefits, such as biomass production,
technologies may be required. Practically, achieving circular carbon sequestration, flood mitigation, aesthetic value and
practice can require sustained efforts by many players, not opportunities for recreation. Decentralised solutions allow
least in enabling legislation, as demonstrated by the work source separation of urine and faeces, and the reuse of
done so far in the Netherlands to allow phosphorus recovery grey water or other water saving systems, which can further
from sewage sludge (Box 4.5, case study 9). enhance the recovery of resources and energy. They can
help support local water use and reuse in that treated water
can be used in agriculture, or (in more urban areas) can be
4.4.1 Decentralised solutions for circularity used instead of high-quality drinking water for purposes such
landscaping, recreation, groundwater recharge or industrial
One of the empowering aspects of sewage treatment is that cooling, which have lower quality requirements (Capodaglio,
local conditions necessarily lead to local solutions (Aqua Publica 2017). Implementation of a decentralised solution to waste
Europea, 2019). There are tools for individual houses, small water treatment needs local discussion, which can attract
villages and towns, and including major cities (Daigger, 2009). the interest of local stakeholders. Stakeholder involvement
can also help in establishing closed loops for local reuse and
Decentralised waste water management is used to treat and recycling of recovered resources, and thus contribute to
dispose of, at or near the source, relatively small volumes of establishing a viable value chain for recovered resources. In
waste water, originating from single households or groups of this way, they can serve as sources of novel ideas and provide
dwellings located in relatively close proximity (less than c.3-5km) pilot studies that can be extrapolated to larger scales.
and not served by a central sewerage system connecting them to a
regional UWWTP. They include nature-based solutions (Figure 4.2).
4.4.2 Individual action
While still needing a local collection system, decentralised
waste water treatment is likely to be smaller scale and less For those of us living in areas where our sewage and waste
expensive than conventional, centralised treatment, especially water disappears down the pipe, our influence on reducing
when the grey water components have been separated from the environmental impact of waste water treatment might
human waste (Capodaglio, 2017; Capodaglio et al., 2017).

Box 4.5 Case study 9 — Legislative barriers to urban phosphorus recovery, the Netherlands

Phosphorus can be recovered in different products from sewage sludge, for example as struvite (which can be used as
a slow-release fertiliser) or in ash following mono-incineration (i.e. when the sludge is not mixed with other wastes). In
the Netherlands, experiments to recover struvite from urban waste water treatment plants at full scale started in 2006,
but its introduction to the fertiliser market was hindered by the classification of struvite as a waste, with the Fertilisers
Act prohibiting the use of wastes (van Nieuwenhuijzen et al., 2009). A change in legislation was supported by studies
examining struvite's use as a fertiliser and various initiatives undertaken by the Dutch Nutrient Platform (Ehlert et al.,
2013), particularly the Dutch Phosphate Value Chain Agreement, signed by more than 30 businesses, research institutes,
non-governmental organisations and the Dutch Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management, to initiate a sustainable
market for reusable phosphate streams (Nutrient Platform, 2018). The use of struvite and another two recovered
phosphates as fertilisers was eventually approved in 2015. Even so, struvite today still forms a very small part (less than 1%)
of the EU fertiliser market

Source: Muys et al. (2021).

48 Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy

 Embedding circularity in sewage treatment

Figure 4.2 Decentralised sewage treatment

Decentralised waste water treatment

Grey infrastructure Green infrastructure (Nature-based solutions)*

Individual home waste water treatment plants Surface flow wetlands

Package waste water treatment plants Subsurface flow wetlands
Source separation toilets and treatment systems Surface aerated ponds
Willow systems (Zero discharge systems)
Soil infiltration

Note: *Treatment of raw waste water, grey water or waste water after primary treatment.
Further information on grey infrastructure available in Grebot et al. (2019) and on green infrastructure in Cross et al. (2021).

seem somewhat remote; however, we all have a part to play, situation risks accepting that Europe will become locked-in to
for example by: an unsustainable process (EEA, 2019b).

1. Using water more efficiently. This not only saves water, but Water managers are skilled at optimising processes within
also the energy used for treating it and pumping it to the tap, their remit. UWWTP processes can be optimised to improve
and subsequently the resources required to take it through energy efficiency. Greenhouse gases released during
the sewage treatment process. Energy-efficient appliances, treatment can be reduced and more energy recovered from
such as dishwashers, also tend to be water efficient. the waste water treatment cycle, such as in biogas and
through heat recovery. Restrictions on the application of
2. Avoiding putting harmful pollutants down the sink sewage sludge to land and phosphorus recovery requirements
and drain. This avoids the need to remove them from are leading some utility organisations towards solutions such
the water — if indeed that is possible. Safe disposal of as mono-incineration and finding innovative applications for
pollutants is usually offered by local councils, while leftover recycling the remaining ash.
medicines can be taken back to pharmacies. Look for
products with an ecolabel, such as the Nordic Swan, which Meeting the aims of the European Green Deal requires a
sets requirements, e.g. for cosmetics and household fundamental review of human activities to find approaches
chemicals (Nordic ecolabelling, n.d.). that can deliver long-term sustainability. Protecting human
health and the environment from sewage does not necessarily
3. Choosing environmentally friendly materials when replacing require the major infrastructure programme that we have
clothes, textiles and furniture, where possible. This helps developed up until now. Decentralised approaches, including
avoid pollutants in such products being washed out and nature-based solutions such as reed beds, enable low‑input,
then eventually reaching the sewerage system. effective sewage treatment, while at the same time producing
local environmental benefits such as green space. Large
4.5 What needs to change UWWTPs can become energy-efficient resource hubs,
promoting reuse and recycling. While the treatment solution
With no change in the current direction, the trajectory for at a particular place has to reflect the local situation, more
urban waste water treatment in Europe will be towards more sustainable approaches are available and must be enabled.
energy-intensive treatment to remove micropollutants, about
which we are becoming increasingly aware. Concern about Achieving a circular economy in sewage treatment is a long‑term
pollutants transferred to sludge during water treatment will project and is dependent on multiple contributors, many of
continue to limit opportunities for applying sewage sludge them outside the water sector. As well as water managers,
to land, leading to increased demand for incineration and stakeholders include citizens, the chemicals sector and urban
problems for regions lacking such capacity or those with planners, while innovation and enabling legislation are needed
soils lacking organic matter. Infrastructure investment at all levels, together with efforts to establish viable markets
costs will continue to increase, along with the greenhouse for recycled products. This is what we need to do to transition
gas emissions embedded in concrete, plastics and steel for towards the level of sustainability demanded by the Green Deal.
sewerage networks and treatment plants. Accepting this

Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy 49

 Abbreviations

BOD Biological oxygen demand

CSO Combined sewer overflow

E-PRTR European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register

GHG Greenhouse gas

IAS Individual or other appropriate system

IED Industrial Emissions Directive

JRC Joint Research Council

PAHs Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

REACH Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals

REVAQ Swedish certification system ensuring quality of sewage sludge

SDG Sustainable Development Goal

UV Ultraviolet

UWWTD Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive

UWWTP Urban waste water treatment plant

WFD Water Framework Directive

50 Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy

 Glossary

Word Meaning

Advanced treatment Advanced (tertiary) treatment can involve (biological or chemical) nutrient removal to help prevent
eutrophication and/or removal of specific toxic substances, disinfection (to reduce pathogenic
bacterial and viral organisms), e.g. by treating waste water with ultraviolet light (UV treatment)
or by ozonisation or chlorination. In the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive, nitrogen and
phosphorus removal is called 'more stringent treatment'.

Agglomeration An area where the population and/or economic activities are sufficiently concentrated for urban
waste water to be collected/treated.

Circular economy The circular economy offers an opportunity to recognise and capture the full value of water — as
a service, an input to processes, a source of energy and a carrier of nutrients and other materials.
In a circular economy, water is seen as the finite resource it is. Using water is avoided whenever
possible and water and other resources are reused.

Eutrophication The enrichment of water by nutrients, especially compounds of nitrogen and/or phosphorus,
causing accelerated growth of algae and higher forms of plant life to produce an undesirable
disturbance in the balance of organisms present in the water and in the quality of the water
concerned.

Grey water Waste water that comes from sinks, washing machines, bathtubs and showers.

Population equivalent The organic biodegradable load having a 5-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) of 60g of
(p.e.) oxygen per day. It corresponds to the average oxygen demand of the waste water produced by one
person per day.

Pressure An effect of an anthropogenic activity. There are three main types: (1)

excessive use of environmental resources; (2) changes in land use; and (3) emissions (of pollutants,
waste, radiation, noise) to air, water and soil.

Primary treatment A physical and/or chemically enhanced settlement of suspended solids in waste water.

Receiving water Water body (stream, river, pond, lake, coastal, transitional) into which treated or untreated waste
water is discharged.

Secondary treatment 'Biological' treatment, using bacteria to degrade the biodegradable matter in waste water.

Sewage A mixture of domestic waste water from baths, sinks, washing machines and toilets.

Urban waste water A mixture of sewage (domestic waste water), industrial waste water, and rain water and runoff
which drains from urban areas into sewers.

Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy 51

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60 Beyond water quality — Sewage treatment in a circular economy

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