Formula Sheet
Matrices and Determinants
DEFINITION OF MATRIX
A system of mx nt numbers arranged in the form
of an ordered set of m rows and m columns is
called an m x n matrix. It can be read asm by n
‘matrix, It is represented as A =[ay],, , , and can
be written in expanded form as
1 M2 ++ in
M34 22 + ay
4,
Bt Ad Sn
DIFFERENT TYPES OF MATRICES
(i) Rectangular matrix and square matrix: If in
an m xn matrix m # n, then it is a rectangular
‘matrix
But if m =n, it is a square matrix.
(ii) Column Matrix : A matrix which has only one
column and m rows is called a column matrix of
Tength rm.
(iii) Row Matrix A matrix which has only one row and,
‘columns is called a row matrix of length 1
(iv) Diagonal Matrix : A square matrix of any order
with zero elements everywhere, except on the
‘main diagonal, is called a diagonal matrix.
(¥) Scalar matrix: A matrix whose diagonal elements
are all equal and other entries are zero, is called
a scalar matrix.
(vi) Identity or Unit Matrix : A square matrix in
which all the elements along the main diagonal
(elements of the form a,) are unity is called an
identity matrix or a unit matrix. An identity matrix
of order m is denoted by I,
Null or Zero Matrix : The matrix whose all
elements are zero is called null matrix or zero
matrix. It is usually denoted by O.
(viiiTriangular Matrix : A square matrix whose
elements above the main diagonal or below the
main diagonal are all zero is called a triangular
matrix
Note : (@) [aj], , is said to be upper triangular
matrix if 1> j=" ay = 0,
Gi) [ay], . i said (0 be lower triangular matrix
ifi
a,
(ix) Sub Matrix A matrix obtained by omitting some
rows or some columns or both of a given matrix
Ais called a sub matrix of A.
(9) Horizontal Matrix : Any matrix in which the
number of columns is more than the number of
rows is called a horizontal matrix.
(xi) Vertical Matrix: Any matrix in which the number
of rows is more than the number of columns is
called vertical matrix.
EQUALITY OF TWO MATRICES
‘Two matrices A = [aj] and B = [by] are said to
be equal if they are of the same order and their
corresponding elements are equal. Iftwo matrices
‘Aand Bare equal, we write A = B.
OPERATION ON MATRICES
Addition of Matrices
If A and B are two matrices of the same order
‘mn, then their sum is defined to be the matrix of
order m xn obtained by adding the corresponding
elements of A and B.
wi Subtraction of Two Matrices
If A and B are two matrices of the same order
then the sum A +(-B) , written as A - B, is the
matrix obtained by subtracting B from A.
Properties of Matrix Addition
If A, B, Care three matrices of the same order,
then
() A +B=B +A (commutative law of addition)
Gi) A+ (B+ C) = (A + B) + C (associative law
(iy) A+ B=A+C = B=C
() A+CA)= (CA) +A=0.
‘Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar
TA = [ay], and A isa scalar
then 2A = Pail n
‘Multiplication of Two Matrices
For two matrices A and B, the product matrix
AB can be obtained if the number of columns in
‘A= the number of rows in B.
Properties of Matrix Multiplication
(i) Matrix multiplication is associative
ies (AB)C = A(BC), A, B and C are mx 1,
nx p and p x q matrices respectively.
i) Multiplication of matrices is distributive over
addition of matrices ic., A(B + C) = AB + AC
Existence of multiplicative identity of square
matrices. If is a square matrix of order n and
I, is the identity matrix of order m, then
Al, =1,A= A
(iv) Whenever AB and BA both exist, it is not
necessary that AB = BA.
(¥) The product of two matrices can be a zero
matrix while neither of them is a zero
matrix.
(vi) In the case of matrix multiplication of
AB = 0, then it doesn’t necessarily imply that
A=0orB=0 or BA =0.
‘TRACE OF A MATRIX
Let A be a square matrix of order n. The sum of the
diagonal elements of A is called the trace of A.
Trace A) = 34 = 044033 04g
‘TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
‘The matrix obtained from any given matrix A,
by interchanging rows and columns, is called the
transpose of A and is denoted by A’ or AT.
Properties of Transpose of a mat
@ Ysa
Gi) (A+ By = a's
iii) (GAY = 1A’, o being any scalar,
(iv) (ABy = BA’
‘SPECIAL MATRICES
© Symmetric Matrix
‘A matrix which is unchanged by transposition
is called a symmetric matrix. Such a matrix is
necessarily square ie if A= [dy], i8 asymmetric
matrix then m = 1, ay = a ies A”= A,
‘© Skew Symmetric Matrix
A square matrix A = [a,] is said to be skew
symmetric, tay = a, for all #and j.
‘Thus if A = [ayy 8 skew symmetric matrix,
then m=n,a,7~'ay ie, A’ = -A.
Obviously diagonal élements of a square matrix
are zero.
Note : Every square matrix can be uniquely
expressed as the sum of symmetric and skew
symmetric matrix,
ee eee
fey A= HAA (A-AD
where 5(A-+ a’ and (4 =A)
are symmetric and skew symmetric parts of A.
Orthogonal Matrix
‘A square matrix A is said to be orthogonal, if
AA’ ‘A = I, where I is a unit matrix.
Note:
(i IfA is orthogonal, then A’ is also orthogonal
(ii) If A and B are orthogonal matrices then AB
and BA are also orthogonal matrices
© Hdempotent Matrix : A square matrix A is called
idempotent provided if it satisfies the relation
AP=A.
+ Involutory Matrix
‘A square matrix A is called involutory matrix if
© Periodic Matrix
‘A square matrix A is called periodic, if A¥*1 = A,
where k is a positive integer. IF ki the least positive
integer for which A‘*' = A, then k is said to be
period of A. For k = 1, we get A?= A and we called
it to be idempotent matrix.
‘© Nilpotent Matrix
A square matrix A is called a nilpotent matrix,
if there exists a positive integer m such that
‘A™ = 0. If mis the least positive integer such that
A™ = 0, then mis called the index of the nilpotent
matrix A or nilpotency of matrix. DETERMINANT
Equations a,x + b,y = 0 and a,x + byy = 0 in
xand y have a unique solution if and only if
ln
a,b, ~ ab, # 0. We write a,b, ~ a,b, as
and call it a determinant of order 2.
Similarly the equations a,x + by + cy
ax + by + ez =Oand ax t by + cz =Ohavea
unique solution if a, (b,c, ~ byc,) + by (aye, ~ 363)
+6, (aby ~ ayb,) #0
ja ha
ie, A=|a, by oy] #0
[as by es]
‘The number a, By, ¢, (i = 1, 2, 3) are called the
elements of the determinant.
‘The determinant obtained by deleting the #* row
and j'* column is called the minor of the element
at the #" row and j” column. We shall denote it
by M,. The cofactor of this element is (-1)!") Mj
denoted by Cy,
Let A= [aj],,, bea matrix, then the corresponding
determinant (denoted by det A or |Al) is
lau 12 |
la21 22 23
las 32 ss
Itis easy to see that [A] = a,,Cy,# 0,9 + 445C,3
(we say that we have expanded the determinant
|A| along first row). Infact value of |A| can be
obtained by expanding it along any row or along
any column, Further note that if elements of a row
(column) are multiplied to the cofactors of other
row (column) and then added, then the result is
FO : Ay4Cyy + y3Cyy + A43Cy, = O.
PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
‘The value ofa determinant remains unaltered, if its
rows ate changed into columns and the columns
into rows.
If all the elements of a row (or column) of a
determinant are zero, then the value of the
determinant is zero.
If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant
are identical, then the value of the determinant is
zero.
‘The interchange of any two rows (columns) of a
determinant results in change of its sign.
If allthe elements ofa row (column) ofa determinant
are multiplied by a non-zero constant, then the
determinant gets multiplied by that constant.
Ifeach elementofa row (or column) ofa determinant
is a sum of two terms, then determinant can be
‘written as sum of two determinant in the following
way:
1h td) | al la a
lesb. extd]=l0p by co+lay by dy
lay by ytd] lag bs | fay by a
© Thevalue ofa determinant remains unaltered under
a column operation of the form CC, + 4G, +
C\(j, #2) or a row operation of the form
RR, + aR, + BR Gk #1)
Product of two determinants
la hal lh bb
lay by] xm my ml
las bs cs] [mommy
a +bymg +e, aly +m +e
lah +bym team gh +bym, +My dghy+bymy Hen
lagh +bym, tem dghy+bym, +ehy agh +bymy Hey
(row by column multiplication)
lah th tals ym, + bm, tem ayn thn, +E
Hlagh +Byly Healy ayy, +Oym, +eqm, ag, tyr, +N
lash +Pylp Fey ayy, +bymy Fey, ayn, +by, +e]
(row by row multiplication)
We can also multiply determinants column by row
or column by column.
Limit of a determinant
a, +m, +e
f(x) g(x) h(x]
Let A(x)=| (x) (x) nfx)},
u(x) v(x) w(x]
lim f(x) lim g(x) _ lim h(x)|
seni 3m) in),
~ in wo) “im we) lim wt
provided each of nine limiting values exist finitely
Differentiation of a determinant
\/e) gtx) hea)
Let A(x)=|1Cx) mfx) nf],
x) 4x) wbx)
Ye) e%) MO) [f) g@) ho)
then A’(x)=| Mx) (x) n(x)|+"(x)_m'(x)_n'(x))
lx) v(0)whx)f fata) v0) 00)
fl) gh) He)
+] 1G) mks) no)
wx) va) woo] Integration of a Determinant
Lfix) g(x) Wx)
Let Aw=|a be |,
tom on
where ab, ¢ lm and m are constants,
Is 4 fi
[[fonde fetmde frac]
’
then fA(x)de=| a 6 «
a ! m n
Note that if more than one row (column) of A(x)
’
are variable, then in order to find [ A(x)dx. First
we evaluate the determinant A(x) by using the
properties of determinants and then we integrate
it
‘SPECIAL DETERMINANTS.
Skew symmetric Determinant
A determinant of a skew symmetric matrix of odd
order is always zero,
Circulant Determinant
A determinant is called circulant if its rows
(columns) are cyclic shifts of the first row
(columns).
la |
1 |b © a). Iecan be shown that its value is
le ad
~(@ +B 4 Babe).
ied
a b cl=(@-bb-o(e-a)
lee 2
rad
ab cla-Nb-oe-alarb+o)
> wl
raid
= (b= Olea) (ab + be + ca)
ADJOINT OF A SQUARE MATRIX
Let A= [ay], be ann x n matrix. The transpose
B’ of the matrix B= [Aj], , q» Where A, denotes
the cofactor of the elements a, in the [Aly is called
the adjoint of the matrix A and is denoted by the
symbol adj A.
‘Thus, the adjoint of a matrix A is the transpose
of the matrix formed by the cofactors of A.
Properties of Adjoint Matrix
If A, B are square matrices of order n and 1, is
corresponding unit matrix, then
(@ lad) A) = [Al I, = (adj A) A
(Thus A(adj A) is always a scalar matrix)
[adj Al= [Ay
(iv) ladj (adj A):
() adj (AT) = (adj A)?
(vi) adj (AB) = (adj B)adj A)
(vii) adj (A") = (adj AY", me N
(viii) adj (KA) = KP"! (adj A), ke R
(ex) adj (1,) = 1,
(® adjo=o
Ais symmetric => adj A is also symmetric.
Ais diagonal => adj A is also diagonal.
A iis triangular = adj A is also triangular.
Ais singular = adj Al = 0
INVERSE OF A SQUARE MATRIX
Let A be any ni-rowed square matrix. Then a matrix
B, if exists, such that AB = BA = I, is called the
inverse of A. Inverse of A is usually denoted by
A” (if exists).
We have, |4|I,, = A(adjA)
|4] 471 = (adj A). Thus the necessary and sufficient
condition for a square matrix A to possess the
inverse is that [4] # 0 and then A“! = sey
lal
A square matrix A is called non-singular if
[A] # 0. Hence, a square matrix A is invertible if
and only if A is non-singular.
Properties of Inverse of a Matrix
i) (AN)T=A
(ii) (AT = (AH
(aBy! = Bat
iy) (A= (A" EN
(©) adj (A") = (ad AY"
A= diag(ay, ayy aun a). A is symmetric
= 47 is also symmetric ({A # 0).
A is diagonal matrix and |A| #0 = A is also
diagonal matrix.
As scalar matrix => A~! is also a scalar matrix.
A is triangular matrix and [4] # 0 => Ais also
triangular matrix. SYSTEM OF LINEAR SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
Consider the system of linear non-homogeneous
simultaneous equations in three unknowns x, y
and 2, given by a,x + by + cz = dy ax + by +
og = dy and ayx + by + 62 dy
a bh a) fx] fd
let A=}a, by | X-|y|, B=] |
ah ol lz
ja 4 4
let |Al=A=la, ba), Ae oh
las bs 3] S|
obtained on replacing first column of A by B.
ln 4 a nh ai
Similarly, let y=lo dy cand A,=lay b
ls hb a les bs 3
It can be shown that AX = B, xA= A, yA = Ay,
zA=
Determinant Method of Solution
‘We have the following two cases,
Case I
If A # 0, then the given system of equations has
‘unique solution, given by
x=A,/Ay=A,/Aand z=
Case IT
If A= 0, then two sub cases arise:
(a) at least one of A A, and A, is non-zero, say
A, #0. Now in r= A, LHS. is zero and
RSS. is not equal to zero. Thus we have, no
value of x satisfying X= A1B
and therefore unique values of x, y and z are
obtained.
(b) We have AX = B => ((adj A)A)X = (adj A)B
= AX= (adj A)B,
If A = 0, then AX = O, , ,, zero matrix of order
3 x 1. Now if (adj A)B = 0, then the system
AX = B has infinitely many solutions, else no
IA.
solution,
Note : A system of equation is called consistent
if it has atleast one solution. If the system has no
solution, then it is called inconsistent,
SYSTEM OF LINEAR HOMOGENEOUS
SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
Consider the system of linear homogeneous
simultaneous equations in three unknowns x, y
and z, given by a,x + by + 2 = 0, ax + by +
og = Oand age + by + 62 = 0.
In this case, system of equations is always consistent
as = is always a solution. Ifthe system
has unique solution (the case when coefficient
determinant # 0), then x 0 is the only
solution (called trivial solution). However if the
system has coefficient determinant = 0, then the
system has infinitely many solutions. Hence in this
case we get solutions other than trivial solution also
and we say that we have non-trivial solution: