46) The peinooss killed the king with the knife, is ining, but fo This sentence turns out fo have more than one mear ‘only the least difficult reading for it (the phrase in quotes paraphrase): "the man used the knife to kill the king.” Re Modification: 7 Prinaple of Medifation (revised): If an XP (that is, a phrase ‘mosis some head Y, then XP must be a sister to ¥ (i, a dal (69 68) NP 5 The princess (ity the ki K © king| with D RK With the kel descr, ‘ttiched under the Now consider » Killed by thy. man ( 1 and thos atached on ® hee eee mas The pe cess«1, we beld linguistics in general incre ethod. That is, if we make a hy scents pothesis. Inthis chapter, wehave volte jor higher-level groupings called ea conpuctures and are generated by rules, Ip ry beable © testi in general (as well as est, onde to figure out what kinds of test, ines the hypothesis. The definitionofa * vtunctions a8 a unit. IF this is the ease, then, be j behave as single units. These instances can, ier words, they are fests for constituency, ovement, and coordination. Firs the smallest constituent is a single word, vup of words with a single word then we Consider the italicized NP in (70), It can be proncun) This is the replacement test, 1) a) The woman from NY flew only ult ‘Ste flew only ultra-light planes. Thre is one important caveat to the test of. ‘ules of optional items (those things marked \*dP+! N). When we replace a string of w “eat just leaving off the optional * constituent, Consider “Stor the constituency of t thePreliminaries 2 72) a) Ateata really fancy restaurant “hy tAteat. ‘ es ther ofthese responses is proper English in preseriptive te Neither of these ter than (72b).. . ee ur third tate constituency. If you can movi in the sentence, then they form a constituent = because Some typical examplesare shown in (73), Cle betiveen If ws (or I is) and a that i n aalled pseudoclefting) involves putting the string of words b ‘who at the front of the sentence. We discuss the passive (730) a tl N, Briefly, it involves putting the object in the subject position Frage’ (ater the word by) and changing the verb form (for Kissed). 73) a). Clefting [as [a brand new car] that she bought, (rom She bought a brand new car) 5) Preposing: [Big bowis of beans] are what Ilike, (trom 1 ike big bots of beans) ©) Passive: [The big boy] was kissed by [the slobbesi (from The si lobbering dog kissed the big boy) Again, the movement test is only reliable when you keep the mear a8 in the original sentence. Finally, we ha structures are same Mlactic category can by 74) 4) [Anitaland [the man 5) “Anita and very 1 Went to the store. blue went to the store. IF you can coordinate a Broup of words with a g) constituent, ——— —_ You now —_You n imilar group5. CONSTITUENCY IN akesand processes We have seen so fap ‘ee alish Sentence constituent st net nguages Vary from One another aia wrguages that appear to have no phrase shee ard ower and conclude with Some tips 1 ond Ordering? ssdiscussed above, the head of a phrase is the ‘Word sy prepositions are the heads of prepositional pores et, English tends towards having the heads o Prepositions come before the NPs they are associat the cause they modify, ete. Leaving. aside adjectives, res up the picture a bit, it is also the case that nadiers, and verbs come before noun phrase and , Tierefore we often say that English is lof adele hendediness properties There are many languages where the precom ace rghtheaded). Take for example the sei Jonguage spoken in Azerbaijan (data from | prepositions (or more accurately postpositior 5) duvturrin ——_patariw doctors to “She went to doctors.” "ephrase structure rule for Lezgian PPs \Waather than preceding it. * PP Npp English adjectives appear before “they typically follow the noun the} ) let femme ther. women ——__ ae lic of the data in this section "P!/Walsinio),Preliminaries 94 (0) N (Agr) Oe ated wit fe follow the verb they are associ ee jpcroe ecb cones Kereta ep ings) including spsnese, ab structure rule (leaving out the adverbs and PPS) for the J e phrase str (so. , i ohn-ga tegamio ——_yonda, e 7) Jiesom,—_loberowecr © ead tage : “John read the letter.” > 80) VP (NPY j Even in the onter of the subject and the VP J (predicate), we find r in Nias, a language spoken in Suma and its object: 5 example, among languages. For example, sentence follows both the verb si) Iino vakhe inagu cook rice mother. 1s oss “My mother cooked rice.” + * the right half of the sentence rule is the reverse of that in English, 82) TP vpNP To summarize what we' languages. Often this isan effect of ‘o put their heads on the right-ha, and involve more v; that one is usually al headedness. Japanese and Lezgian, vid side of the phrase, But the pa riation than this. What remains the same ble to describe the senter ges with apy order. These topics of the next two 5.2 Languages without Phin There are many Instead, one Mexico), wher 83) Nimic tomimaka, “Tl give you mone "y. # ! co ar called polysynthetc languages, At eae lat the existence ch forms means that phe World's languages, 4 oversimplfication,howen that even in English wyChapter 3: C¢ jmuhetic languages is that ste pasic idea is that the rules, ye The rules that Sovern Word form vit pallenge t0 the idea that much ote arothll grecomes from languages with refit asettt ystralian language Warlpiri (q [eotthe phrases can appear in any order. spite he second position in the sentence, dl aysin ‘a so 2 arrka-ngku ke wawine man-ERG AUX kangaroo ‘he man isspearing the kangaroo” ) Wawarr ka panti-rn ngarrkaeng, rani-mi ka ngartkarngku wawarri sjaiveever taken lessons in Latin, YOu! know easel One can find all of he following ny ja) Miliés —urbem délébunt, NY soldiers city destroy.#ur.3p1, “The soldiers will destroy the city.”” b) Miles delébunt urbem. ©) Urbem milités délbunt, 4) Urbem delebunt mitites, ) Delebunt milités urbem, {) Délebunt urbem mitites, ‘erence (85a) was the most normal order (subject. \\?) V) but all the other orders were possible too. What co We make of languages that exhibit freedo yen linguists such as the Persian linguist: ‘olin E Kiss have shown that these orders cnferng there is a special semantics applied. ‘ny that comes first in the sentence is most ar the old information in the sentence or: imbertond viscourse, So for example, we'd vie, about some particular city immedi im tt an be attected by emphasis ‘ahotint idea contrasted with other id ft! Me put at the beginning of “> tpic and focus structures. we: ve language that exhibits “free” ‘Pkally, this is the order used whPreliminaries 96 “ a ial kit led a “transfor | a special kind of rule cal q tavsesmnted sini ceri ha configurational languages in chapter 18. 5.3 Doing Forcign Language Problem Seis ther than English n, linguistic examples from languages o ish ane from Sinhala ~a language spoken in Sri Lanka; data fi Actual language data 86) Jon ballava diikka, John dog saw Word-by-word “Joba saw thedog”” Adj), and we are treating the word for “h julows that the Sinhala NP rule is at least the fol tive that the order of elements in this rule is the same as ‘Sinhala sentence. You should also note that the PP meaning “from the \ seis not part of the NP rule at this point, Since it \Prule. Question (b) asks usabout the PP rule. We have one Pi ‘om tn sentence (91), Pay careful attention here, This P ‘ulthe noun associated with the P is the one meani i "Sinhala follows the NP; so the rule is PP NP S optional The \P rule is next in (c). Sentence (91) is the me ‘bein the VP in English, we have the PP 1 ve ‘is “dog”. These both precede the V. This ‘ * “larly optional, but there is no evidence in. Set Vou are told to assume that “all non "PP ND) y as we have the TP rule. Like . "+ NP-VP. We have no evidence Te the trees for (91) and (92).6. CONCLUSION We've done a lot inthis chapter. We looked at the idea that sentences CrBanized into constituent structures. We Tepresented these trees and bracketed diagrams. We also developed a set of rules to at constituency tests that English Phrase sp a CPC) 1p 5 TP INP/CP) (Ty yp &) yp Ades) VN) (INP, CP & NP-+ Dy (adpey NOP) (Cp ®) PPP np, © AdiP 5 (Adve) Adj 8) AdvP + (Adupy Ady §) XP XP cong ) v) vi) vip(onst. TREFS NPS, ADJPS AND ADVPs yp of Skills: Basic! — Draw the tres for the following AdjPs, AdvPs and NPs: 5) very smelly b) tooquickly ©) much tog quickl very quickly, ° beak eee pet 1) thesoggy limp spaghetti noodle fassime spaghetti = Adi] 4) these very finicky: children ») any ugly smelly sock: Cosa, TREES: ENGLISH PS ‘jylcatin of SklUS; Basie) " Draw the irees for the following English NPs and PP: 5) the desk with the wobbly drawer J 5) in my black rubber boots [assume rubber =A that notebook with the scribbles in the margin 4) the pen atthe back of the drawer in the desk near t GPst AwpicUrTYT |p Stnton of Skills and Knowledge; Basic} Consider the two trees below in (A) and (B). These abstractly te sentences below them. Determine whether each sente structure in (B), or both! (A triangle indicates that th inportant to the question.) Al mr te vp ool Ss N ¥ NP ow (0) ON 4 bought the parrot in the store 3) Pot the milk in the fridge a \ led the sweater to ‘Mary 3) ty chased the man with the car °) tes the man with the brown haltGPS4. Trees IIT: THe Vices oF Vs ici ils; Intermediate] [Application of Skills; ee Draw the trees for the following Eng 5: a) snores » cats burgers ©) always smokes in the car 1) drinks ®) smokes in the car frequently f) smokes 8) sent Gregory a dirty email on Friday GPSS. TrEESIV: CooRoINATION ‘Application of Skits; intermediate} Draw the tees forthe following English coordinations: ®) buttons and bows b) toand from the house. © very big and ugly (note: this is ambiguous and could have 2 trees: 4) kiss and hug, Your dad (this isa vp) ©) kiss your dad and hi A) He tikes cookies and 'B Your mom (this isa Vp) he hates crumbeake, GPS6. ENGLISH Sextences lApplication of Skitte