BOILER PRIMER E WW HONEYWELL, INC, PROCESS CONTROL DIVISION MS&S BUSINESS UNIT MAY 19821,0 INTRODUCTION BJECTIVES. © To quickly inform the MS&S instrument sales force about the fundamentals of boilers. 0 To prepare the sales force for customer interfaces. 0 To provide a convenient reference information source on boilers and to supplement the boiler-oriented Application Notes. MARKET SIZE There are currently 40,000 industrial watertube boilers installed in the U.S. These installations are approximately distributed as follows!: Size Number, Market Segment 10K - 50K #/hr 30,000 Smal 50K - 250K #/hr 8,100 Medium above 250K #/hr 900 Large MARKET POTENTIAL OF the 30,000 Small Boiler installations, it is expected that all will require instrumentation within 15 years. This translates to approximately 2,000 per year. The assumption, based on our discussions with General Motors, Anerican Maize and others suggests that instrumentation in the range of $20K to $30K per boiler is expected. The absolute market potential for the Smal] Boiler Market is $40M - $60M per year.? Process steam boilers represent an excellent target for instrumentation modernization because they use 13% of the fossil fuel consumed in our nation and they are predominately in the chemical, petroleum, primary metal, food processing and paper industries. Data secured by Honeywell's Energy Management Information Center on 50 operating installations showed boiler energy savings following controls modernization have been as high as 20% while the typical savings was abour 5%. 5% improvement means a 30,000#/hr boiler producing steam at a cost of $6,00 per 1000# would save $72,000 a year! This is good justification for improved controls. 1. Power Magazine: EPA Report EPA-650/2-74-078a 2. Based on data appearing in Business Meek: 13 Aug. 1979. “Microprocessors That Run Boilers Better" 1-12.0 FUNDAMENTALS OF BOILERS In order for an instrument engineer or a systems engineer to design a contro} system for any boiler, he should have a good working knowledge of the boiler, sensitive areas of contro! and the language of boiler plant hardware to review and interpret a customer's specification. The prine purpose of a boiler is, of course, to make steam. But we need to know how much steam? khat will be the normal steam load and peak capacity? What is its operating temperature and pressure? Will the steam be saturated or superheated? What kind of fuel will be used? Will the firebox be operated at a positive pressure or be negative? Will more than one fuel be used; will they be fired individually or simultaneously? What is the purpose of the boiler, will it produce steam for power generation, for process (chemical, petroteum, etc.) or will it bea waste type bol ler where the main purpose is to get rid of a waste product such as black liquor from a paper mill? Each boiler is designed to fulfill specific operating requirements and the more the control engineer knows about the boiler design and operation, the more accurate will be his control system design. A. WHAT IS A BOILER? Essentially, a boiler is a container into which water can be fed and, by the application of heat, evaporated continuously into steam. In early designs the boiler was a simple shell with a feed pipe and stean outlet, mounted on a brick setting. Fuel was burned on a grate and the heat released was directed over the lower shell surface before most of it went out the flue. 8. FIRE TUBE & WATER TUBE BOILERS Designers soon learned that heating a single large vessel of water was remarkably inefficient, that it was necessary to bring more of the water into close contact with the heat. One way to do this is to direct the hot combustion products through tubes within the boiler shell. The Firetube design was designed to not only increase the heat surface exposed to the water, but also to distribute the steam produced more uniformly throughout the mass of water. (See Figures 1 & 2) In contrast to the firetube idea, watertube designs featured one or more relatively small drums with a multiplicity of tubes in which the water-steam mixture circulates. See Figures 3, 4 and 5. Heat flows from outside the tubes to the water contained in the tubes. This subdivision of pressure parts, makes large capacities and higher Pressures possible. 2-1Ss FIG. 1 TVPICAL GAS FLOW PATTERNS FOR PACKAGED FIRE-TUBE BOILERS. ee nen y eo: MONTH AMERICAM ATLAS OERERAT FIG. 2 ~TVPIGAL SPAS, WETBACK, PACKAGED FIRE- TUBE BOILER. (Courtesy of North American My. Co, (Cleveland, Ohio.) 2-2FIG, 5 -D-TYPE PACKAGED WATER-TUBE BOILER. 2-3TERMINOLOGY ASSOCIATED WITH BOILERS SATURATION When water is boiling, both water and steam are at the sane temperature, this 1s at saturation temperature. For each boiling Pressure there is only one saturation temperature and vice versa. During the boiling process, temperature remains constant, even though heat is being added. This heat is used to change water from the liquid state to the vapor state. This heat expressed in BTU per pound of water ig the enthalpy of evaporation. ~ Enthalpy of saturated steam is enthalpy of the water at saturated state plus enthalpy of evaporation; that is the heat required to raise the water to steam at a given pressure. SUPERHEATING As long as steam and water are in contact, the temperature will be the same as the saturation temperature at a given pressure. To raise the temperature of the steam superheat must be applied to heat the water high enough so the steam goes out of contact with the water. The rate of temperature rise depends also to some degree on the pressure rise until the steam becomes high enough in temperature that it separates completely from the water to become almost completely dry. See tne chart for changes which steam and water undergo with increases in temperature and pressure. CRITICAL POINT This point is (see the graph) where water turns into steam without boiling or at a temperature of 705.4°F with a pressure of 3206.2 1b per sq. in absolute operating pressure. This is the condition which a large utility type boiler attains. Industrial type boilers are usually limited to operating pressures of 1000 psi. See Graph #1. STEAM TEMPERATURE & TABLES Since the properties of steam and water are definitely fixed they are then measured and tabulated in tables referred to as “Thermodynamic Properties of Steam". These tables list data on saturated water and steam by both temperature and pressure and also superheated steam up to temperature of 1600°F at pressures of 5,500 psia. There are new tables being developed to cover stean properties up to 15,000 psia. See attached existing tables. BOILER AUXILIARIES Our main interest is the watertube type boiler. These are built in ‘two forms, as a package unit which comes from the boiler manufacturer as a fully completed unit and larger boilers which are field erected and must be completely assembly on the job site. Package boilers can now be Produced with steam generating capacities up to 300,0000 Ibs of steam per hour. Higher steam production capacities usually require the field erected unit. 2-4W7 FAS NLG 'ATWHLNG 4 Ze | 002 00% 009 008 ocor el Ly HOBYD YNLVATIN IL Jo 2.5A boiler may be looked upon as a large heat exchanger, with the products of combustion giving up heat to the water. Figure No. 6 shows a cross sectional view of water wall type, two drum boiler, with its steam and mud drum, associated superheater, and reheater, economizer, and air heater. a. SUPERHEATERS & REHEATERS Superheaters and reheaters are sets of tubes with heat absorbing surfaces through which the steam alone passes to raise its temperature above its saturation point. A superheater raises the temperature of the steam before it leaves the boiler, whereas a reheater raises the steam temperature close to its initial superheated temperature when it is returned to the boiler. The steam is returned for reheating after it leaves the high pressure turbine and before it enters the pressure turbine. (See Figure 7) Doing this results in a thermodynamic gain in efficiency, and second the superheating dries the steam making it a safer operating medium in a steam turbine. Also being superheated before entering the turbine will reduce the tendency for the steam to condense in the last stages of the turbine. The superheater and the reheater must be designed to provide the steam of a uniform temperature over a wide range of steam loads. Some of the larger field erected boilers develop changes in steam temperature when a certain stean load (for illustration 70%) is reached. Normally the superheater design assures the steam temperature. When the steam temperature varies with steam load, then the boiler is designed with an initial superheater and a final superheater. The steam temperature is measured at the outlet of both superheaters with water injected in the steam line outlet from the initial superheater before it enters the final superheater. Superheaters are also classified dependent on whether they be located in the radiant or convection section of the boiler. Most package type boflers have the superheater in the radiant section. The field erected boiler will usually have the initial superheater in the convection section of the boiler with the final superheater in the radiant part of the boiler. 2-6SYaWOD NMOG FIGURE & XOBQNIA 4aLV3H YIv- wAZIWONOD3 SALVIHsAdNs Wad WLS WOE aSteam temperature {s also controlled by the percentage of excess air in the firebox, by position of the burner flame and also varying the temperature of the feedwater. The steam temperature will depend on where the superheater is located and the amount of excess air in the firebox. For illustration; if it is located in the convection section, additional excess air will raise the temperature of the steam, because the hot gas flow from the burners is greater over the superheater tube surfaces. If located in the radiant section more excess air reduces the steam temperature because the firebox temperature is reduced. b. ECONOMIZERS An ECONOMIZER is a heat exchanger through which the flue gasses are passed to preheat the feedwater. For every 10 to 11 F (5.5 to 6 C) increase in feedwater temperature, boiler efficiency increases about 1%. This is usually designed as a tube and shell exchanger with the hot flue gases, as they leave the boiler, coming in contact with the external tube surfaces. The water passing through the exonom{zer tubes comes from the deaerator with a pH of 8-10, with the inlet temperature high enough to not cause sweating of the outer surfaces of the tubes in contact with the flue gases. The tenperature of the water to an economizer on a low pressure boiler is usually limited to 200°F minimum. For a high pressure boiler, 40°F is the minimum to be specified. The water comes from the boiler feedwater pumps through the economizer to pick up the final heat before passing on to the boiler steam drum. See Figure No. 8. c. AIR HEATERS The device uses the last available heat in the flue gas coming from the boiler or economizer to heat the incoming combustion air from the forced draft fan. Boiler efficiency increases about 2% for each 100 F (55.6 C) increase in air temperature. There are two basic types, tubular, and regenerative. The tubular type consists of a series of tubes through which the hot flue gases pass with the combustion air from the forced draft fan to the shell side of the air heater, thereby coming in contact with the outer surface of the tubes. These usually have dust collectors located on the outlet side of the tubular air heater to collect any parcicles released from the cooled flue gases prior to Passing on to the stack. See Figure No. 10. Another type of tubular air heater used on larger boilers is the steam operated air heater. Here the steam leaving the boiler passes first through the tubes of this heater to raise the temperature of the incoming combustion air flow from the F.0. fan.2-9Fa 9 Diagrammatic ilsralion of salary Ieonerstve oir heater (vatiel af or rangement) with gos and’ air couterow Gas urnow GAs Dowsnow (AR COUNTERALOW, THaGEPASS ‘Amt PALALLELFLOW, THRLEPASS Fig. 10 Some arrangements of tubvior oie heaters to wit vorious directions of gos ond oir low 2-10FUEL SAVINGS § The regenerative air heater is one which is designed as a circular unit consisting of many compartments, each filled with perforated metal plates. These plates are heated by first coming in contact with the hot flue gases leaving the boiler. The plates are then rotated to bring them into contact with the incoming combustion air from the forced draft fan to give up their heat to raise the temperature of the combustion air. (See Figure 9) The advantage of raising the combustion air temperature prior to entering the firebox increases the efficiency which results in fuel savings. This can equal 2% higher efficiency for each 100°F ‘increase in the combustion air temperature. See curve below. 12 in nn a 10 e 100 200 300 400 ‘500 200 COMBUSTION AIR TEMPERATURE, FCc rN 0. BOILER WATER CIRCULATION The circulation of water through a boiler is of extreme importance to the continued efficient operation of the boiler. Referring to Figure No. 11.1s a schematic drawing of the watertube circuit in which the boiler feedwater enters the steam drum and flows down the unheated “Oowncomer" tubes to the “Heated Riser® tubes where the heat from the firebox and burners changes it to a steam bubbles and water mixture. The flow continues upward to the steam drum where the steam bubbles are released as steam from the top of the drum. In actual design the boiler will have a few larger downconers but many smaller risers. the most ideal boiler design is one with unheated downcomers, but the modern boiler has these tubes in the heated area, but by the time the combustion gases reaches the downcomers it has released most of its heat to the riser tubes. In actual design most boiler downcomer tubes raise the water temperature to its saturation temperature and no steam bubbles are formed. Forced circulation 1s used to get the water flowing through the boiler tubes and this is provided by the feedwater pump. The amount of water circulating through a boiler can be equal to 10:1 or there is 10 times more water circulating as compared to the 1 part used to generate steam. The amount used to generate steam 1s of upmost importance to the control engineer. This is usually a 1:1 ratio or for each pound of steam generated there must be one pound of water provided. This is the basis for all drum level and feedwater control systems. The action of "Swell" and “Shrink” is one in which during the “Swell” action the steam bubbles in the riser tubes expand and cause the bofler water level to rise up the steam drum thereby creating a false level indication. Likewise, when a "Shrink* action takes place the steam bubbles are compressed and being made smaller the level of water in the steam drum will fall. This process activity creates the “swell™ and "srhink" action with the varying steam demand which changes the pressure in the steam heater, and ‘in turn changes the pressure imposed on the water in the steam drum (See Figure No. 12).Figuge 12 2 SHRINK & Swe 2-133.0 BOILER CONTROLS The attached article from In Tech magazine provides a good overview of the most important boiler control Toops. Our Application Notes expand on each contro] loop and all notes pertinent to boiler control, steam and fuel measurement are listed in the Biblfography (Section 6.0). ote that all notes in the boiler series are not yet issued.Industrial boilers are used to satisfy plant demand for steam. Most large facilities have multiple units, and emphasis is growing on control sys~ tems designed to ensure fuel economy, safety, and ability to respond to rapid demand changes. The systems control factors such as combustion, feed- water flow, furnace pressure, steam temperature, and air heater cold-end temperature. KEYWORDS: boiler control, industrial boilers. Control Alternatives for Industrial Boilers PETER CONGDON, Fisher Controls Co Industrial boilers are used to satisfy plant demand for steam. Most large facilities have multiple units, with total installed capacity determined by maximum expected rate of steam use. The control systems govern the operating points ofthe individual boilers to ensure Fuel economy, safety, and ability to re- spond to rapid demand changes for any plant load. COMBUSTION CONTROL Combustion controls are needed to regulate the flows of fuel and air into the furnace. The objective is normally to meet the plant demand for steam with the highest practical combustion efficiency. This is generally achieved by regulating the amount of Fuel delivered to the furnace and ensuring that the cor- responding low of air is enough for complete com- ustion but not so great that unnecessary heat is lost in the flue gases. The importance of minimizing excess air is that for each 1% reduction of oxygen in the stack. the efficiency gain due to reduced heat Joss is approximately 0.5%. 0192-303X/81/12/053/10/$2.50 ©1981 ISA InTech December 1981 3-2 Figure 1 shows a schematic of a basic combustion control system for a facility with multiple boilers. Steam header pressure is the principal process vi able. The master pressure controller compares this FIGURE 1 Basie combustion control Joop for lotallation with smuliphe tesa beersa Fuel flow control valve 2nd fuel flow fl control valve 2+ "(optional) steak “Air flow Pressure Master pressure damper controller FIGURE 2. Direct jacahitt combustion control rye tem with air/fuel tate ereblished through fixed mechanical ages. measurement with a setpoint and produces a firing rate demand signal. This is applied to boiler masters on the individual units, where it is used to initiate commands for the fuel flow control valves and ait dampers. The master pressure controller is usually a two-mode proportional-plus-reset or proportional- integral (PI) instrument. Boiler masters The firing rate demand signal is transmitted to a boiler master on each unit feeding the header. The boiler master is commonly configured as an auto/ ‘Steam 2] Master pressure PIT] coouoller XA rather Ba Seon +E tote mane OO A, Fos Eaton i Fut! flow Air fow control valve damper FIGURE 3. Direc poutioning combustion contro a implemented ih gece porate Te offers ree fiexhiry Jecahite spproach bocaise Uh al/Putl rte {a aafucible by the operon. 3-3 “4 manual station; this allows the operator to overri the firing rate demand generated by the master pre sure controller. In addition, the boiler master appls a bias to the Firing rate demand; this allows operator to modify the firing rate demand of boilers individually to account for characteris: of particular units. Direct positioning For applications in which the fuel heating valt does not fluctuate, the boiler master may wansn the modified firing rate demand signal directly 1 the fuel flow control valve and air flow damper. T+ same signal is presented to both sets of final conts. elements. The air/fuel ratio is fixed by mechanic. linkages between the valve, damper, and the co= mon jackshaft as in Figure 2. This configuration + common on small boilers having Fairly steady loa demand. Greater flexibility can be achieved by replacing th mechanical jckthalt ages wih cheeee pneumatic instruments, as indicated in Figure = Commands from the boiler master move the ele ments to established positions to provide predete: ined flows. In a system of this type, the ‘operato can adjust the air/fuel ratio. flow PL Testioter FoeiTiow Air fow contr ‘army per FIGURE &. Serica metering combustion contol provides fen back forthe Foe low control valve and are damper; the roles of the fl and ale sigaals are rometines vere. InTech December =Boiler = |master, Fuel fiow control valve FIGURE 5, Parallel metering combustion control provides com sands tote fuel lw valve and alr damper iamultaneowsly. Series metering Series metering combustion control is a closed loop strategy. A common implementation is shown in Figure 4, Systems may alternatively be configured with the roles of the fuel and air flow controllers reversed. In Figure 4, the boiler master output is used as fuel flow setpoint. A two-mode controller compares this setpoint with a fuel flow measurement and positions the valve in a closed loop manner. The fuel flow measurement, multiplied by a manually-adjusted coefficient at an air/fuel ratio station, is used to determine the air flow setpoint. The air flow con- troller is a two-mode instrument that compares the setpoint with an air flow measurement to produce a damper positioning command, In this system, air/fuel ratio can be modified without introducing a disturbance. The system can also re- spond to disturbances in the fuel or air flow before they affect the steam pressure in the header. The chief shortcoming of series metering is that fuel and air flows do not respond simultaneously to changes in firing rate demand. In the configuration of Figure 4, temporary fuel-rich mixtures would ‘occur when the firing rate demand increases. Switch- ing the uel and air flow controller positions would yield rich mixtures when the firing rate demand Starts to decrease. Because of this problem, series metering combustion contol systems are’ rarely 3-4 InTah December 1961 specified today, but many are found in older installa. Sons. Parallel metering Parallel metering combustion control can be imple- mented as in Figure 5. In this approach, the fuel valve and air damper are adjusted simultaneously because the boiler master provides a modified firing rate demand signal as the remote setpoint to both controllers, The air/fuel ratio is usually adjusted by applying a gain to the air flow process variable, as illustrated. Parallel metering does not completely solve the problem of transient disturbances to the air/fuel ratio in the furnace, because the flow con- trol loops can respond at different rates. Cross liinited parallel metering Cross limited parallel metering has become the most frequently specified combustion control stra- tegy. The systems can accommodate wide steam demand fluctuations and provide close control of air/fuel ratio without creating undesirable rich mixtures. Fuel-rich conditions can be avoided with a cross limiting strategy using high and low signal selec- tors, a8 shown in Figure 6, to achieve a lead-lag Firing roe semand Fuel flow control ‘abe FIGURE 6, Crom-linied metering fe 2 Parallel combustion came trol rategy that prevents the mbstre in the furzace Frou Deco ing Fock,effect. The high selector compares the firing rate demand with the fuel flow process variable and passes the larger of the two as the remote setpoint to the air flow controller. The low signal selector compares the firing rate demand with the air flow process variable and transmits the lower of the two 45 the remote setpoint to the fuel flow controller. The coefficients in the system are adjusted so that the paits of signals provided to the high and low selectors are equal under steady state conditions. When the firing rate demand increases, the high se lector provides it as an air flow setpoint while the low selector transmits the air flow process variable as the Fuel flow setpoint. Air flow therefore starts to increase immediately; fuel flow rises only after the air flow responds. When the Firing rate demand si rnal decreases, the low selector provides it as the fuel flow setpoint, while the high selector transmits the fuel flow process variable as the air flow setpoint. Fuel flow starts decreasing immediately; air flow drops only after Fuel flow responds. Likewise, if a disturbance causes ait flow to drop, the low selector transmits the ait flow signal to the fuel flow control- ler. Fuel flow then decreases regardless of the steam demand, preventing a fuel-rich condition. The disadvantage of the system in Figure 6 is that overall responce is constrained by the slower of air Fuslflow “Airflow Firing fate” Square root ‘Square root demand extractor extractor Fustfiow Air flow control valve damper FIGURE 2, Adding bias and gain modules 02 lead-lag metering tystem improves sensitivity © soul changes in ling rate de- 3-5 flow or fuel Flow response to changing demand si nals. For example, i the Bring tate demand ris Aight, he syrtan ft osions the danger increase air flow; as air Flow rises, the system oy the Fad valve. pe Better response to small load changes can be of tained using bias and gain modules on the flo. signals ahead of the high and low selectors. As indi cated in Figure 7, these reduce the effective fue flow signal presented to the high selector whil raising the air flow variable provided to the lor selector. ‘Under steady state conditions, the firing rate de trand is presented athe setpoint to both conmolers Likewise, if firing rate demand changes only slight. ty, it wall still be transmitted by both signal selec tors and will cause. oie Flows to increas: or decease accordingly. 1f the changes in Bring rat demand exceed the otfset introduced by the buss and gain modules, the system will operate like the one in Figure 6. ‘As a result, uel flow can respond to small increases in firing rate demand without raising air flow. Simi- larly, ar flow may be adjusted slightly downward if firing rate demand falls, without having to decrease fad flow. Automatic oxygen correction ‘The air/fuel ratio can be controlled automatically by monitoring the oxygen concentration in the stack. This not only minimizes the margin of excess air needed for safety, but also compensates for fuel heating value changes or other operating factors (Oxygen correction can be implemented using instru- ‘mentation like that in Figure 8 to replace the manual FIGURE & Ai /fue rato an be adjusted automaticaly by com ‘aol thst regulate excess at on Une bani of the oxygen concen Arai te ck InTech Decenber 18air/fuel ratio station in a lead-lag metering system. This equipment acts as a compensator, adjusting the process variable applied to the air flow controller and low signal selector. The setpoint to the oxygen controller is derived from measured steam flow based on a relationship like that shown in Figure 9. The controller output is applied to the compensator. IF the air/fuel ratio ‘adjustment factor is unity, the compensator has no ‘effect on the air flow process variable. IF a correc- tion is needed, it will be represented by Re Relatively higher excess oxygen is usually main- tained at lower loads, because burner velocities decrease as steam flow drops. so fuel and air become less thoroughly mixed. The higher excess oxygen provides more air to mix with the fuel, enhancing the chances of chemical reaction. ‘The characterizer in Figure 8 implements slope and limit values ~ like those shown in Figure 9 — re lating boiler load and excess oxygen. The summer provides a bias from the operator station, 30 the operator can shift the setpoint curve up or down. ‘The oxygen controller compares the measured flue gas oxygen concentration to the load-programmed setpoint and applies PI action to correct the offeet. “Anti-reset windup and adjustable output limiting are usually provided. The oxygen controller is direct acting: the air/fuel ratio adjustment factor therefore increases if oxygen concentration in the stack rises due to effects such as reduced fuel heat- ing value at constant flow. Increasing the air/fuel ratio adjustment factor raises the compensated srocess variable transmitted to the air flow control- x. This instrument is reverse acting, $0 it closes the damper, decreasing air flow and lowering the percent oxygen in the stack. FEEDWATER CONTROL Feedwater control is employed on all industrial boilers. The objective is to maintain constant water level in the steam drum. Intuitively, drum level should fall temporarily when steam demand goes up, because water removal rate increases before the feedwater flow controller can respond, Likewise, the level should rise when steam demand goes down because water removal rate de- creases before the feedwater controller can react. In practice, the reverse occurs, An increase in steam deznand lowers drum pressure, This action expands the volume of steam bubbles, increasing or swell the drum ‘water level temporarily -- even though the mass of water may decrease. Similatly, a de- crease in steam demand tases steam drum pressure This contracts the volume of steam bubbles, reduc- ing of shrinking the drum level temporarily — even though the mass of water may rise slightly. InTech December 1981 36 Oxygen % 160% 6 2% Boiler load FIGURE 9, Relationship benreen baer lad and desced excess oxygen, implemented in the sutocutie oxygen corection Contre fem. Single element control Feedwater is often controlled with a single element system as illustrated in Figure 10, using drum level as the only process variable, A Pi controller is em- ployed to avoid offset in the level, but the reset action magnifies the effect of shrink and swell. Sys- tems of this type are suitable for boilers with rel tively large drums, especially when they are subject to small load changes. ‘Two element control Two element feedwater control is a feedforward strategy using steam flow and drum level as process variables. As shown in Figure 11, the level measure- ment is applied to a PI controlier. The controller ‘output is added to a signal representing steam flow, + Drum level controller aaa OX [ow Feedwater valve FIGURE 10. Single cement fenrater contol rytemn 0 maintain dram level,Drum level controler Fecdwater FIGURE 11, Two slement feedwater contol ase feedforward signal fom the pam flow to anticipate drem ied changes and the sum is used to command the feedwater valve position. The steam flow acts. se feedforward Component, causing the feedwater valve f operate as soon as 4 variation in stoam low i detected. This opposes the tendency of the feedwater vaive to close due to swell or to open due to shrink, as would occur if only drum level control were used. The feedback signal from the drum level controller trims the feedforward command and stabilizes the system. Two element control should be satisfactory if the pressure drop across the feedwater control valve is constant. PI controllers are normally employed, although proportional-only instruments may be used since the feedforward signal minimizes offset. Three element control More precise control of feedwater flow can be achieved using a three element system like that in Figure 12, Drum level, steam flow, and feedwater Flow are the process variables. As in the fwo element system, steam flow is fed forward to indicate the demand for feedwater. This is added to the output of a drum level controller, which provides a feed- back trim action. The sum is used as the setpoint of a feedwater flow controller, which produces the valve positioning command. Three element control can maintain drum level icrespective of boiler load, even with varying feed- water header pressure. These systems are recom- mended for large boilers where cost makes it desir- able to minimize drum size and raise flow rates, They are also advantageous on small boilers subject to rapid load changes. Three element control with blowdown: Blowdown is required to remove solids that en! the steam drum with the feed and accumulate water evaporates. If Blowdown is performed nti -wously at a constant rate, no special provision. needed in the feedwater control system other th: calibration to account for the additional loss. Blowdown is intermittent or variable, an offset ci ‘occur in drum level. While this will be slowly co rected by reset action if a PI controller is used in t) level loop, problems can occur during a load teat sient. These can be avoided using a blowdown flo measurement a8 an additional feedforward comp nent in determining the feedwater flow setpoin Figure 13 shows such a system for an applicatio in which blowdown is a function of steam flow. Pressure-corrected three-element control Steam drum level is typically measured with differential pressure sensor having taps locate above and below the normal setpoint. Absolut pressure in the drum affects both sides of the trans nitter equally, so the level measurement depend only on the height and density ofthe water column In igh pressure ates, hover, water densi may change antly with operating pressure 2 compentaion is need WS teoid ret The magnitude of the effect may be equivalent to sev. eral inches of water. A condensate reservoir at the upper connection of the differential pressure transmitter maintains 2 constant head that serves 2s the measurement reference. The water in this leg is at ambient tem- Steam Feecwater Steam sure ow ise ied ® Drum ine conven Ta a & sett 4 EL feedwater 3] fw FIT] controler OOBlowdown foe eater 9 wy Sauare root ewan use rot ean 2 = Pir Blowdown "summer Ufo Vert alter GAD Ratan can) Brom v fia eile Blowdown soon oie FIGURE 13. A feedforward term improves drum level cntel in inwaliatons wi intermittent or variable perature. Variations in this temperature affect the density and therefore influence reference pressure, but the changes are usually negligible. The pressure at the lower transmitter tap is affected by the water density in the drum. Since the steam drum is at saturation conditions, the density could be found as a function of pressure or temperature. Pressure is usually employed to provide density compensation: the pressure is already measured for indication purposes, and values are easier to obtain than those of drum water temperature. For opera tion below 500 psig, the effects of density changes are small and can usually be ignored; up to 1000 psig, linear correction for pressure excursions is, adequate; at higher operating pressures, the com- pensating signal should be characterized. Figure 14 shows a pressure-corrected three-element feedwater control system. Drum pressure is modi- fied with a signal characterizer to provide a correc- tion factor. The level signal is multiplied by this factor to obtain the process variable for the level controller. FURNACE PRESSURE CONTROL Forced draft (FD) systems are used in many indus- trial boilers. In these, fans upstream of the furnace provide combustion air tothe fuel burners. Air flow is determined by the action of the combustion con- InTech December 1981 38 trol system on the FD fan damper, with no provision for furnace pressure regulation. Balanced draft systems are gaining popularity foe industrial installations. These use induced draft (ID) fans downstream of the furnace to remove hot flue 150565, in addition to the forced draft fans employed upstream to ensure the availability of combustion air. The air admitted to the furnace is determined by the action of the combustion control system on the FD fan dampers. A separate pressure control system is used to position the ID Fan dampers, and is usually intended to maintain the furnace at a slight vacuum. In some installations, roles of the FD and ID fans are reversed. Single element control In single element balanced draft control, furnace pressure is provided as a process variable to a PI controller. The output of this device positions the ID damper or controls ID fan rotor speed. Two element control Controls for the induced draft and air flow dampers ‘can be coupled, as in Figure 15. The air flow damper position demand is fed forward to position the in- duced draft fan damper. This component is trimmed with the output of the feedback controller in the Furnace pressure loop. This approsch anticipates changes in furnace pressure and inter corrective action in advance. Steam rum Feecwater flow rum pressure Steam flow vane FIGURE 14. Theve element feedwater control eytem with cor ‘action far water denaty changes ht high pres weexn drums.Fost Air Furnace fow Faw ped Square root [==] squi ty tevrector [V_Jentctor 2 F [1] Furnace Peewure Eonvralter FIGURE 15. A signal from the at flow controle a added tothe pressure controller output in two element balanced deaft pressure ‘control systems. ‘STEAM TEMPERATURE CONTROL Many industrial boilers have superheaters to raise ‘steam above the saturation temperature. These con figurations offer a means of increasing the energy transported through the distribution system. The steam is controlled to the desired degree of super- heat. This is achieved using desuperheaters to regulate its temperature. A representative installa~ tion is shown in Figure 16. The most common industrial desupetheaters oper- ate by spraying water into a superheated steam line. ‘The spray vaporizes, mixing with and cooling the superheated steam. Single element steam temperature control A single element steam temperature control system for a facility of this type is shown in Figure 17. Temperature at the supetheater outlet is the process variable, A three-mode proportional-integral-deriv- 3-9 Desuperheater Suj pach Superhener Aamperature temperature InTech December 1¢4 Controtter FICURE 17. Single clement stexm temperature control, wing the nupenbeater outlet tenpeature 28 the proces varibla, ative (PID) controller positions a spray valve which regulates water Flow to the desuperheater nozzle. ‘Two element steam temperature control Figure 18 shows a two element steam temperature control system, configured as a feedforward loop. The supecheater outlet temperature is the process variable to. the feedforward controller: the load index, usually air flow, is the feedforward input. ‘The controller positions the valve that regulates water flow to the desuperheater nozzle. The feed- forward approach anticipates changes in the super- heper oulet temperature by Joking +t the load Three element steam temperature control Further improvement in steam temperature control can be achieved with a three element system like that shown in Figure 19. This uses combustion air flow as a feedforward component to anticipate changes in boiler firing rate. The air flow meas- urement is added to the output of the supetheater temperature controller for use as the desuperheater outlet temperature setpoint. The feedforward signal anticipates changes in the boiler firing rate AIR HEATER COLD-END TEMPERATURE CONTROL Average cold-end temperature contiol is often used on boilers with ar heaters to Keep the five gat above the dew point. This is desirable because the 3-10 InTech December 1981 LLosd index er ae spray valve FIGURE 1, ta two sement stam temperature control, over eutet lenpontre kop te cecaded Sab seery riperbeater outlet temperate controber, Superhener Combustion Suber SefiowSenersure flue gas contains oxides of sulfur that can dissolve in the condensate to form a corrosive Bquid Figure 20 shows a possible temperature control system with transmitters in the combustion air inlet and flue gas outlet. Each transmitter signal is nor- mally an average of teveral sensor readings taken inta ‘Average cold fend tamperature [ «| Heating coil control wave FIGURE 20, Ais heater cokd-end temperature control ryote, the same plane. The tsansmitter outputs are also averaged, with the result used as the ‘88 vari~ able to a Pl controller. The output of this controller positions a valve in a device such 25 a steam or glycol heating coil to achieve the target temperature. FOCUS ON CONTROLS Increasing concern with fuel costs is focusing more attention on advanced control for industrial boilers. Techniques such as optimum load allocation among. the units in a plant are being implemented in many facilities. But none of the advanced strategies can work unless the basic controls on the individual boilers respond quickly and accurate. to higher level commands. o 3-11 InTech December 1984,0 - REFERENCE TABLES & DATA. Steam and Other Energy Cycles ots: Te following team ube and Malle cht ave een, aac fo Therm peter of Stam (Copyright 1997, by ‘Keenan und Keyes) publed by Joha Wiky & Sonn, In. eters 0 this boo i desu fr values outside the Tange ofthe abut nod fr eer datas TABLE 1, SATURATION: TEMPERATURES: Abs. Prenure Specie Volume Entholpy Extropy se ot fe Steam, Fein Und mp VaperUnnidBogp Vora Ud Een Vener > % weve wo ON Ow O& ' oosssk oot se s108 oom 107$8 10758 0.000 21871 21977 0.905. o.o1e02 247 sK7 oz over 10771 Oise Oole: dea bte4 aos lonia lores OuaTs2 Ootone ode sed = 1808 Lows 10S Size olen ina Tous = aor 100s 108k? 02500" .oieod izoaa 108 T ©—8H_ 10509. 10850 03651 0.01600 wre 867.9 «9804 10543 10029 230m Golo AL Saal © dan 1OIas f0088 Coos ooielo wexo dono Sy.b9 104 11009 cows oolels a0 so va? toma lisa Tavs Oovei7 asa aes Fre fooke 11005 Looe 0.01620 sages 0427 = 87.92 10888 11187 22995 O.oLe2s Is7ag. 15734 97.90 10200 1117.9 2g98 © O.0le9 12299 2x01 107.59 1014111220 A718 00164 9708 © OT.0T-~—«LIT89 10082 11281 4741 Ole «1737 —7729— 12789 1o0Rs 11002 S992 0.0164 Od 6208 «13790 908] 11K 7510 0.01651 5081 $0.23. 14792 9602 11081 gis9 016s? “wosd © 40.968 «S795 9841 11420 11528 0.01663 She2 = 3864 187.99 OTTO 1145.9, 14123 O.o1eT9 «780 © Taz «178OS. TL. 1149.7 ie 14.008 0.01672 2878 © 28.80 «180.07 970.3 11504 03100 144s 17588 212 171880017) FAIS, 28S 188139852 11534 O.geI9 20780 © O.0les © odes No.3 10823 GSKB 1157.0 0.3087 24900 0.01602 1908 ea 2084 GSE? 11003 O55 29.825 01700 SBM «1S PIR HSS 11040 0.2675 35429 0.01709 «1-748 «11.763 2RGA GAT 1673 OBIT 41558 001717 0b 10061-2884 SH18 L178 0.9058 ‘ics 0.01725 eR RAS «249.08 8247 1173.8 0.4008 STSS0 001795 74447481 «25031 GITS 11788 0.424 erols«OOITAS a at08 20059 9101 11797 0.4369 9.60 ©0175 4806 4.914 20028 849 11852 OTT NOL = 001787, a7 3788 NLS 9.4900 1520400181] 2a30 2957 HIB Osis 19577 001893 2SIT. Baas sas osais 24TD1 «001A aT «18633 O749T ©8280 12010 O.50a4 30883 * 0.01804 1.4811 15000 90877 0a 1.1 ODI 40 38150 © 0.01828 L1gT9«L-2I71_ 418.90 7854 19043 0.8158 460 3089 00196 «© os48 ON 4417 «7812 1M8 Oem 430 586.1 0.0200 © Oxwig«OBIT2 46447394 12M O.8es 500 80.8 (0.0204 O.eKS | (O.8T49 ABTA TIS 1201.7 Q.68K7 3124 0.0209 OStAS | OSSO4 S119 8884 11982 O10, 9625 Ooals aaa 0.4049 S388 6588 T1912 Oar ua. Oost = 3647 © 0.0868 SOL aN42 TAHA UTED 13258 00228 = .samg «0.8217 S8R9 SARA LIT7TS ORT 1329 —«0.0238.=«OeI © (O.28GR ITO «HBS 11655 OAIIL 17368 OOT = IGS 0.2001 B87 SERB INS BNE 297 0.020) «sg 0.178 6788 4520 T1505 OnETa 285.4 00278 = .Nles 0.1442 714.2 3902 NOK OAT 2708.1 oox0s = doalo OLS 7573 3m.9 1omT.2- ODSL sea One) = O.ote2 0.0781 «82.3171 wasp 705.4 32082 0003 «= 8st nT) TOO 4-1TABLE 2. SATURATION: PRESSURES Specific Volume Enthalpy Entropy Toternol Energy Abe Prem Soe Sat et os se st Set Za ON quid Vapor guid Erop. Vaper guid Erm, Vopr Unuid Bron Yaner Sin, ve Yoke eh Se Ue Botts 338 e970 10383 01998 18456 19782 97D 9748 10.31. 001623 173739199 10222 0.1749 17451 19200 93.98 GSTS 10sL9 2 0.0160 M871 wosaT 10132 0.2008 1.8855 1.8863 10038 M473 loseT 34 0166 9.63 120.86 10084 2198 16427 1.8625 12085 930.3 Toe? 4. 0.018 7382 130.19 10010 02347 [e084 T8441 15012 9330 toet 5 {2 170.08 voles 4198 137.98 9982 Osd7e 1.5820 19292 15794 RTS 1OB4 6. 10 TORS 0.019 S364 14478 9921 02581 15586 LBleT 14474 O27 OETA 7. £0 18286 0.01653 4734 15079 9885 OseTé 15383 18057 15077 9184 1000.2 20 188.28 00165 4240 15022 9852 11414 0.2759 15208 1 79e2 15819 9148 10708 Ye 193.21 0.01659 3842 16117 9821 1143 0.2835 15041 1.7876 IOLA 9111 10722 14696 212.00 0.01672 288 180.07 $703 11504 0.9190 Le 1.7588 16002 BUTS 10775 1, 13.03 0.01672 2829 181.11 96RT 11508 0.135 1441S 1749 18100 9087 10778 Is 20 22796 0.01683 20.080 19416 960.1 11543 0.8358 1.9962 17919 19810 8858 1081.9 20 30 550.89 0.01701 11748 21882 453 11641 0.5880 19913 Lees 21873 800.1 -10878 30 42 367.25 0.01715 10.498 29803 9337 11607 0.3910 12844 1.6763 23500 8581 10020 40 50 28L.0h 0.01727 51S 25009 9240 NTI —OALIO 12474 1.8585 249983 445A 1005.3 50 ¢@ 29271 0.01798 77S 26209 9ISS 1171.8 0.4270 1.2168 1.0438 261.90 8380 10x79 se 70 90292 0.01748 8208 77281 9079 11908 0.4409 1.1908, sers 11002 70 80 91203 001757 5.472 28902 SOLL 116R1 04591 1.1676 ge03 M1021 80 80 920.27 0.01708 4806 20058 8947 11853 0.4041 LIATL B134 11037 90 eo 527.81 001774 44s2 70840 8888 TsT2 04740 1.1288, sor. 11052 190 120 941.25 0.01789 3.728 31244 STT9 11904 0.4916 1.0002 7358 11078 120 140 353.02 0.01802 53220 2482 S682 11KR0 05009 1.0682 140 168 963.52 0.01815 28M 3593 A502 LIBS] 05204 L040 18@ 515.08 0.01827 2512 34803 8508 I1989 —O.S925 L027 ‘200 S8K70 0.01819 2288 3558 8490 11984 0.5405 1.0018 259 400.05 0.01885 1.8438 97800 8251 I2O11 0567S 9588 250 340 417.93 0.01800 13435 90284 9090 12028 0.5570 09228 300 350 431.72 0.01913 1.3280 409.09 7942 12089 0.6058 0.8010 30 deo HAS9 0.0103 11613 4240 7805 12045 0.6214 0.8030 400 450° 456.28 0.0195 1.0820 457.2 7614 1208 0.6358 0.8978 @s2 IAT 450 500 457.01 00197 0.9278 440.4 7550 12044 0.0487 08147 350 47694 0.0100 0.8124 400.8 7431 12089 0.0008 0.7004 Geo 456.21 00201 7098 471.8 791.8 1082 0.6720 0.7704 Jeo 503.10 0.0205 O.4584 4015 0.0025 07371 ears 1163 708 00 518.25 0.0200 0.5887 500.7 0.7108 0.7045 eors 1144 300 seo 501.98 0.0212 0.5008 S208 o72Ts oss 580.0 11121 $90 too, 544.81 0.0216 0.4458 S424 0.7450 0.6467 57L0 1109.4 1000 Mee "556.31 0.0220 0.4001 0.7575 0.6205 S85 084 1100 O.7711 0.5958 5383 11040 1200 1200 567.22 0.0293 3300 577.46 0.0227 1400 $47.10 0.0201 100 590.23 0.0235 7000 GI5.A2 0.0257 2500 668.13 0.0287 5 3000 695.36 0.018 32062 705.40 0.0503, SRA 10094 1300 $02.7 1005.4 1400 s0s2 11786 0.7840 OSTIO STAT 11734 0.7063, 0491 5583 11679 0.8082 0.5260 48.1 1001.2 1500 404 11351 0.8619 0.4290 4034 1085.6 2000 3005 WOOL. 09128 OSIGT 1.2382 TITS 3133 10008 2500 2178 0A O99 O.18BS LOLS 7824 1823 97RT 3000 0 927 1.0580 0 © 1.058 S729 OBR 3208.2 42be Prom hie (Sat Tomp) Lo (0174) sok (e224) wok (19821) = 14s bk (21200) 2 (2190) » (1208) « we (oz781) ae k (estas) wok (9502) wk (36153) 4 res (31300) 8 20k (38170) 8 a (999.80) » ek (297.7) « son8 11804 20612 7818 1188 1s pred 1148.8 7927 TABLE 3, SUPERHEATED VAPOR Tompercture F 300 "sto S00 600700 4523 5120 S7L8 e312 608 A195 1241.7 12883 1835.7 1385. 21153 21730 22095 23702 23137 90.25 102.26 114.22 128.16 138.10 11950 1241.2 19880 1305.4 1383.6 19970 Lopi2 20458 20087 2.1961 45.00 51.04 57.05 63.03 6901 Aigo 1240.6 19875 1955.1 1988.4 18805 1.9172 1.9689 2.0160 2.0508, 9053 94.68 9878 42.86 40.04 11928 12009 1987.1 1304.8 1381.2 1.8160 1.8745 1.9261 19734 20170 2299 25.43 2848 SLAT S47 1116 19392 12888 194.4 19829 1.7908 1.8908 1.8018 1.9362 1.9829 11,040 12628 14.168 15.588 17.198, 1188.8 19365 12848 1532.1 1981.9, 1.9004 1.7608 1.8140 1.8619 1.9058 7.250 8957 9.405 10.427 11441 1181.8 1253.6 1283.0 1331.8 1380.9, 1.492 1.7135 1.7678 1.8162 1.8005, 0200 7020 7.707 B02 12007 1231.1 1350.5 13799 6701 1.7948 1.7838 1.8281 4907 5559 6.218 8815 1927.8 1279.1 1329.1 .13789 1L6SI8 1.7085 L7S81 1.8029 4081 4.638 5.165 5.083 124.4 12772 1387.7 1377.8 1Le@87 1.8860 1.7570 1.7802 4468 9.954 4413 4.801 12214 1275.2 1498.4,13788 119067 1.0685 1.7100"1.7648, 2008 2.443 3869 4.244 12178 127.1 1995.0 1575.7 15008 e519 17008 1.7491 200 904 3411 3.704 12140 1271.0 1993.5 13747 13745 16373 LRM 17355 2381 2726 306 2.380 alo 128R9 13221 13728 13504 Lezdo e767 1.7232 212s 2485 2772 3.008 120055 1260.7 1920.7 19726 13453 LALIT 1.6652. 1.7120 1ga7s 2247 2509 2.504 1am 12645 19192 19715 13U19 1.e003 1.6546 7017 43 we 900 730.4 800.9 14328 M4827 SSNS 1607-7 1765; 1008 005 1200 1400 998.7 1107.8 20542 2.025 2.498 24952 2.5568 130.03 161.95 17387 197.71 221. Ve127 14828 15584 1657.7 17457 2ite7 22148 ‘498 s095 wes 14824 29508 as 1312 20178 2370 9884 110.77 1607.6 1745.8 2ioog 21388 21744 22415 22098 51.00 5807 yas 14823 20578 2.0058 s148 4045 ree ant ma ssa 21319 4a 15330 e725 7537 1697.5 1748.5 2.1960 22608 4oat ssa7 1637.0 1745.4 ovis 20618 2.0978 2.1648 2.2065 18702 20.20 Mins 181.4 19487 1.9850 1249 15.452 14505 14808 19015 19400 9392 10077 1439.7 1480.1 18004 1.9079 7448 5052 eng 14705 Uses 1.8899 195 4.702 21.70 so 20212 6s4 19 L9r62 10.510 1531.3 L9H 3.658 15308 isis 120 209 2768 1657.0 1745.1 2.088 2.1498 toast 18.448 e160 1744.8 20434 2.1049 i232 13.80 Te1a2 17445 20115 20731 9.800 11.000 wsis.7 1744.2 1.9987 20484 aa12 9.214 1ORI 7B 15302 1635.5 1739 LAETT 1.8825 1.8000 19804 20281 Sam 5738 wera aTAs Lane LAst S015 urs Laso1 4452 Tater 053 4002 348 14782 G aos. 304 Low ae esa a7a 15207 LaRiT 5.98 152011 Uses az92 TASH 4209 15280 3.918 ass asm 15989 La ross 7.808 teit9 175, 1.9483 20110 4152 6.900 16Hs 1745.2 LSM 1.9962, 5.488 6.138 H4iA8 15288 16.1 17429 19012 L98t 4arT ssa sa37 174208 55 180A LBAIS 1.9064 1.9713 44st 5.017 N94 14755 137s rev 17423 LSi7 1.9607 4.009 4.597 13129 LaBee 1.9510Abe Pm ig (Sr Tomp (90442) + 20 (41105) 300 (41738) + ek (431.72) = wk (44450) wet (45628) seek (487.01) sak (47894) » wk (49821) » ek (08.10) » seek (51823) 6 300 (531.98) « 1000 (sans 1100 (S841) 1200 (567.22) 8 08 (587.10) TABLE 3. 2.063, 13003 1sast 1.9087 Reo 13798 1za1s 13578 LszoL 1.4993 155 13481 12881 12682 15281 1azat red 15085 gee 1238 14919 gas 12337 1a7s1 7947 12187 14588 100 ‘SUPERHEATED VAPOR Temperature F 2930 2582 2.827 sit Leer 2158 ries 1334 2.005 13147 1.6268 036 1109 4.8070 1aTo 13089 13604 1.3005 13028 1573s sot 13988 15588 1043 1043. 13451 osses 138909 115023 07904 12808 15084 ost 17107 114863 ossts 12602 14853 03140 1488 1450 o4sse 12387 14951 4018 12935, 1.4082 ogits 11950 13704 1.6022 2.392 wae04 1.8834 aes 1308.3 16751 1.3080 1303.5 1Les63 1.9508 1962.7 1.6308 14584 13509 1.8250 1.304 13570 Louis 17s 13540 15901 Lotsa 1381.1 1381s ‘sort 143.0 15085 07833 1338.8 1476 0.6863 13921 115003 0.9084 1325.3 Asia osu 1183 14980 0.4908 rao Lass 0.4082 1295.5 1492.3, 17382 ant aL 17365 Perry 1490.8 17164 208 iss 17008 1s181 wana 1584 1eote maa 13660 140s rat Les 1.9058 1900.9 ease 1.1899 wor7 1.6043 1.9108 1403.2 Let ‘oe 1000 1208 14008 3067 9905 4778 4242 W4T42 15283 16925 1741.7 17748 1.8118 1.8790 19480 2M5 3008 3504 3508 1473S 1525.8 16821 17415 Lose 1.8083 1.8716 19357 20s 2850 3260 S64 14728 1525.2 1651.7 1741.0 17582 1.704 1.8658 1.9260 2280 245 ‘2708 S147 WWTLI 15238 1630.7 17403 17408 LTTTT 1.8483 19088 Lover 21S4 245 2751 Mend 1522-4 1629.6 1738.5, LTMT 1.7633 1.831) 1.5008 L7s1e 18028 2170 2443 1467.7 1521.0 1628.6 17387 17108 1.7486 1.8177 1.8903, LSTIS 1.0908 1.9804 2197 ¥48a0 1519.6 1677.6 1737.9 1Lees2 1.7383 1.8056 1.9683, 14241 1.5414 1.7708 1.9957 14049 15182 16288 1737.1 1868 1.7250 L.TO46 LSSTS 1.019 1.4090- 1.6208 1.8279 14625 15187 16255 17303 L616 1.7174 1.7848 13478 1.2082 1.2024 41.9853 1.5041 M4500 15139 16235 17348, 11.8573 1.9968 1.7606 18290 0.8765 0.9603 1.0470 1.2088 13682 1998.8 13072 ome 1390.9 sale 1458.4 1511.0 Tenia 17312 1.6407 1.6801 1.7510 L846 0.8506 0.9292 1.0714 12126 14518 15081 1619.5 1731.6 11.6957 1.6086 1.7971 1.5000 0.4878 0.7004 0.8294 0.9815 1.0803 1380.2 13670 MARS 1505.1 1617.3 17300 Lela Leses 1.7245 17858 0.8191 0.6808 0.7508 0.8716 a96a5 13843 15805 Has 15022 1615.2 IT2R4 15005 16405 1.7190 L773 0.5617 0.6250 0.8843 0.7967 09048 1370.3, 115409 0am 1360.1 1440.7 1499.2 1610.1 17289 15879 L¢299 1.7095 1.7672 0.5281 0.5605 0.st80 ozrzT 1433.1 1493.2 1608.9 17237 aor 18542 Loess 4a70 18540 19012 4078 1857 19885 493 18581 11.9663 3.085 18525 19813 2714 18519 19381 aus 1851.3 9262 2210 1450.8 91s 2053 18500 119058 705 as 138) see wars Lsrz9 13500 16463 1.3505 128 1645.0 ste Lica 143.8 16a o1or 1425 1a263, 0.3640 18400 1.3600 14567 1.3177 1.5606 1.6089 1.6836 1.7450 1.8083 44te Prem wig (Sat Temp) week (604.90) 1500 (621.08) roe k (685.82) & ate h (oosta}e 000 8 (95.38) s2eez b (708.40) « ‘00 ssee TABLE 3, SUPERHEATED VAPOR Temperature F oaai7 04004 1z7a7 13584 Lagos 14964 0.2907 0.508 1200.3 1347.2 Lao Lave 0.2489 03074 12400 1155 1378) Lasts 0.1680 0.2954 1i7as tone a073 LalgT 0.0084 0.1760 10007 12672 L968 1.3600 01585 1305 1Lss08 0.0300 0.1364 7905 19249 assis Lazat 9287 0.1052 "7008 1748 ont LaTsT 0.0278 00708 7515 1189 525s 12204 0.0268 0.0503 484 1047.1 ois? L102 nee ose U3 985.0 (0.9090 1.1058 0.4553 0.5027 0.5906 0.8738 0.7545 1495.3 1487.0 10048 17205 18575 115478 1.5014 1.6500 1.7338 1.7998 (0.9986 0.4421 0.5218 0.5068 0.0000, HIT 14908 10004 17173 18350 A'SG01 1.5752 1.6520 1.7185 1.7788 0.3532 0.3095 0.4608 0.5352 0.6011 1409.2 14745 1508.1 1714.1 18925 4115159 15003 1.6584 1.7055 1.7600 0.2710 0.3061 0.3878 0.4244 0.4784 1987.8 1458.4 1585.3 1708.1 18262 LATI2 15279 1.0088 LOTiS 1.7359 0.2159 0.2476 0.3018 0.3505 0.3008 1385.0 1441.8 1574.3 16080 1819.9 1.4499 14984 1.3857 1.6540 1.7163 0.1018 0.2288 0.2808 0.3267 0.570 1355.2 14947 15008 1004.8 1817.2 1.4900 14874 1.5742 1.6452 1.7060 0.1762 0.2058 0.2548 0.2977 0.3381 1MOT 14245 1560.5 1050.8 18138 LALZT 14723 1.3615 1.6356 1.6968 0.1402 0.1743 0.2192 0.2581 0.2043, ¥a144 Mons 15521 1681.7 18072 LaR2T AAA 1.5417 1.6154 1.8705 0.1226 0.1500 0.1917 0.2279 0.2002 1286.5 19884 15108 1672.5 16009 1.9829 1495315235 1.5900 1.6640 0.1038 0.1903 0.1806 0.2027 0.2399 125A5 1900.5 15205 1605.3 THES 1.3231 14004 1.5068 1.5830 1.6490 0.0880 0.1143 0.1516 0.1835 0.2108 1224.1 1540.3 151R2 1697.0 17HRL 1.2950 1.3821 1400 1.5499 1.6100 4-5t Volume 1 eubie yard = fT auble feet 1 enhie meter (m") 1000 titers 0763 cube meter 1.308 exble 1 exbie foot 1728 eubie laches 3541 enbie 28.32 Titers 1 her 1000 cw centimeters 2 cube tach 16.30 ca centimeters 9.2200 penal 1 Impertal gallo TTA sabe laches ee eae 1s. ge . 25) pet ton 1 board foot = grind, a = 351 cubic inches len =i chic kee 1 US. barrel (petroleum) 42: U.S. gallons ou per min 1.609 m* per hour 235 Imperial gallons 1 mt per hour Pressure 1 Atsoephere 700 mm (29,92. tn.) 1%) per spare tnch 2030 tn. head of mercury with density, a TS.5Q5 grams per cmt 2300 1 bead of water (0.0708 lelogram per cm? ie Bare ware inch 0.0¢00 bar TEST pot ton perme ich = 1408 gas prt Ten Uc hed of water 5.20 pound pera I tmeptere (eats) Lig per em 1 toad water = 0438 per sur lsh Ike Bate Um bad eae 0. ig per ot 10'm heed of water Mees a Lin, head of mereury 0.491 Th per sq in. 1 Bar (megadyne per sq cm) = 1000 milibars Imbel ot erreuy 4,300 kg per cmt = eat mm bead of 535 miles 1 ilegram pee mt 1 mm bead of water 0.2008 Ty por ag rrercary = 102" per 9q conte = 156 Mh per 5q toch 0.1924 in. of water 438 bilograms pet m* ke pee met Tn these conversions, lnchet and fort of water are mensurrd at €2F (18.7C}: millimeters nd meters of water “at JV2F UC) sod inches, rilincters and meters of mercury at A9F (0X2) 125.5 mm of mere 0.981 bar "7 122 B per aq ia. 0:71 tom por 9g fm 1 kilogram pet cm? 1B per square’ foot Heat, Work and Power ‘The British thermal unit (Blu) or the kilogain-Caborie (Cal) were originally defined a8 the heat required to rate the temperature af 1 ponnd or 1 kilogram of sate by IF or 1G respectively. Recent the Intemational Gabe ls ben ‘cfined af 1/860Rh International kilowatt hour. The Btw tx derived Frm the International Calorie from the elation 1 Cal pee kg = EA Mu per th The ATiferences ate loge than 0.05 nf TF an an thtetver foe te purpoes of these . tables neeible, 1 Betsy thermal nit (Btw) = TTR foot pms 107A Kegan astere 0.3520 Caine 1 Bt pe th 0.598 Calne pe he T Rta per on AO Cal per ew ter 1 Btw pee my Fe 12 Cal pee wy miter - 1 Btw per oy ft per F = 188 Cal per ay me per © A Buw/C ey FYFE, FAN Cal/ he 96} dC 4-6~ 5.0 GLOSSARY ABSOLUTE PRESSURE - the pressure above the absolute zero, or above a perfect vacuum. The atmospheric pressure is always expressed as an absolute pressure. If the pressure of the gas in a line is greater than the atmospheric pressure, the atmospheric pressure in psia is added to the gauge pressure in psig to obtain the absolute pressure of the gas in tne Tine. If the gauge pressure is 40 psig (above atmospheric pressure) and the atmospheric pressure is 14.4 psia, then the absolute pressure fs 54.4 psia. ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE - On the Fahrenheit themometer scale, the temperature is expressed in degrees above or below an arbitrary zero, which is 32° below the freezing point of water. Absolute zero is 460° below the zero of the Fahrenheit thermometer scale. Absolute temperature, the temperature above the absolute zero, is obtained by adding 460° to the reading of a thermometer. If the reading of the Fahrenheit thermometer is 60°F, the corresponding absolute temperature is 60°F, the eorresponding absolute temperature is 60°F added to 460°F or S20°F ‘absolute. - AFTERCOOLER - a device used for lowering the temperature of boiler blow-off discharge before it enters the building drain. AIR-FUEL RATIO - the ratio of air supply flow rate to the fuel supply flow rate 5 measured in the same units under the same conditions. The optimm air-fuel ratio is the minimum ratio that will provide complete combustion of the fuel with enough excess air to maintain a stable flame envelope. Also see STOICHIOMETRIC AIR-FUEL RATIO. AMBIENT AIR - the air that surrounds the equipment. The ASMA standard ambient air for performance calculations is air at 80°F (26.7°C), 60% relative humidity, and a barometric pressure of 29.92 in. hg. (101.325 Pa), giving a specific humidity of 0.013 1b (kg) of water vapor per 1b. (kg) of air. AMINES, FILMING - High molecular weight amine salts which will deposit a film on steam and condensate lines, thus providing a mechanical barrier between dissolved 02 and C02 in boiler water and the metal. AMINES, NEUTRALIZING - Volatile amines used to neutralize acidic condensate and prevent C02 corrosion of steam and condensate return line. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE - the pressure acting upon each square inch (in2) of the carth's surface 1s equal to the weight of a column of the atmosphere one inch square in cross section, extending vertically upward to its limit - an unknown height. The atmospheric pressure is usually measured by a barometer in inches of mercury column; such measurements are generally corrected to the height of an equivalent column of mercury at 32°F. The atmospheric pressure will change for various elevations above Sea jevel. The atmospheric pressure at sea level is 14.7 Ib. per sq. inch or 29.92 inches of mercurcy. Also call BAROMETRIC PRESSURE. 5-1BASIC OXYGEN FURNACE - a cylindrical, brick-lined vessel which can be rotated on a horizontal axis toward one side for charging and toward the other for pouring. BLOWDOWN, BOTTOM - The removal of non-dissolved solids and accumulated sludge from the bottom of the steam drum or mud drum. It is normally accomplished manually with quick-opening valves on an intermittent basis. BLOWDOWN, SURFACE - The discharge of boiler water from the steam drum to reduce the level of total dissolved solids (TOS) in the water system. It fs normally removed at a level a few inches below the water - steam ‘interface where high concentration of dissolved solids exist. It may be intermittent or continuous. It is also referred to as "skinmer* blowdown. BOILER - a closed vessel in which water is heated, steam is generated, steam is superheated, or any combination thereof, under pressure or vacuum by the application of heat from combustible fuels, electricity or nuclear energy. The term does not include such facilities of an integral part of a Continuous processing unit but shall include fired units of heating or vaporizing liquids other than water where these units are separate from processing systems and are complete within themselves. BENT TUBE - a water tube boiler cons{sting of two or more drums connected by tubes practically all of which are bent near the ends to permit attachment to the drum shell on radial lines. BOX HEADER - a horizontal boiler of the longitudinal or cross-drum type consisting of a front and rear inclined rectangular header connected by tubes. FIRE TUBE - a boiler with straight tubes, which are surrounded by water and steam and through which the products of combustion pass. HORIZONTAL - a water tube boiler in which the main bank of tubes are straight and on a slope of 5 to 15 degrees from the horizontal. HORIZONTAL FIRE-BOX - a firetube boiler with an internal furnace the rear of which {s a tube sheet directly attached to a shell containing tubes. The first-pass bank of tubes is connected between the furnace tube sheet and the rear head. The second-pass bank of tubes, passing over the crown sheet, is connected between the front and rear end closures. HORIZONTAL RETURN TUBULAR - a firetube boiler consisting of a shell, with tubes inside the shell attached to both end closures. The products of combustion pass under the bottom half of the shell and return through the tubes. LOCOMOTIVE - a horizontal firetube boiler with an internal furnace the rear of which is a tube sheet directly attached to a shell containing tubes through which the products of combustion leave the furnace. 5-2LONGITUDINAL ORUM - a sectional header or box header boiler in which the ‘axis on the horizontal drum or drums is parallel to the tubes in a vertical plane. LOW HEAD - a bent tube boiler having three drums with relatively short tubes in a vertical plane. LOW-PRESSURE, HOT-KATER AND LOW-PRESSURE STEAM - a boiler furnishing hot water at pressures not exceeding 160 pounds per square inch (1 103 168 Pa) or at temperatures not more than 250°F (121°C) or steam pressures not more than 15 pounds per square inch (103 422 Pa). HIGH PRESSURE - a boiler furnishing steam at pressure in excess of 15 pounds per square, inch (103 422 Pa) or hot water at temperatures in excess of 250°F (121°C) or at pressures in excess of 160 pounds per square inch (1 103 168 Pa). HIGH TEMPERATURE HOT WATER - a water heating boiler operating at a pressure exceeding 160 psig (1 103 168 Pa) or temperatures exceeding 250°F (121°C) HORSEPOWER (BoHP) - the equivalent of the heat required to evaporate 34.5 1b (15.648 kg) of water per hour from a temperature of 212 F (100 C) into dry, saturated steam at the same temperature. Equivalent to 33,472 Btuh, 9,803 kilowatts or 40 pounds of steam per hour. MINIATURE - a boiler, the dimensions and working pressure of which do not exceed the following limits: dianeter 16" working pressure, 100 psig; gross volume, 5 cubic feet; of heating surface, 20 square feet. REFRACTORY LINED FIRE-80X - a horizontal firetube boiler, the front portion of which sets over a refractory of water-cooled refractory furnace, the rear of the boiler shell having an integral or separately connected section containing the first-pass tubes through which the products of combustion leave the furnace, then returning through the second-pass upper bank of tubes. SCOTCH BOILER ~ a cylindrical steel shell with one or more cylindrical internal steel furnaces located (generally) in the lower portion and with a bank or banks (passes) or tubes attached to both end closures. SECTIONAL HEADER - a horizontal boiler of the longitudinal or cross-drum type, with the tube bank comprised of multiple parallel sections, each section made up of a front and rear header connected by one or more vertical rows of generating tubes and with the sections or groups of sections, having a common steam drum. STACK ECONOMIZER - a simple heat exchanger. placed inside the exhaust stack; uses boiler feedwater as a transfer mediun. SUBMERGED VERTICAL - same as the plain type above, except that by use of a water leg construction as a part of the upper tube sheet, it is possible to carry the water-line at a point above the top ends of the tubes. 5-3VERTICAL ~ a firetube boiler consisting of a cylindrical shell, with tubes connected between the top head and the tube sheet which forms the top of the internal furnace. The products of combustion pass from thé furnace directly through the vertical tubes. WATER TUBE - a boiler in which the tubes contain water and steam, the heat being applied to the outside surface. BOYLE'S LAW - The volume occupied by a given mass of gas varies inversely with the absolute pressure if the temperature remains constant. BURNER - A device for the introduction of fuel and air into a furnace at the desired velocities, turbulence and concentration to establish and maintain proper ignition and combustion of the fuel. BURNER, AUTOMATIC - a burner that stops and starts automatically. BURNER, AUTOMATICALLY IGNITED - one where main burner fuel is automatically turned on and ignited. BURNER, FORCED DRAFT - a burner where air for combustion is supplied above atmospheric pressure. CARRYOVER - An undesirable condition where boiler water from the steam drum gets into the steam header, causing excessive moisture in the steam (low quality) and eventual salt deposits. CHARLES’ LAW - The volune of a given mass of gas is directly proportioned to the absolute temperature if the pressure is constant. COMBUSTION - the rapid oxidation of a fuel resulting in the release of heat. COMBUSTION, PERFECT - burning with exactly the correct proportion of air to fuel so that all of the fuel and oxygen are burned. Also referred to as STOICHIOMETRIC BURNING and THEORETICAL COMBUSTION CONDENSATE - Water which has condensed from steam that cooled below the saturation temperature. CONDUCTANCE - The reciprocal of resistance expressed in units of reciprocal ‘ohms or mho's (ohas spelled backwards). CONDUCTANCE, SPECIFIC - Another term for conductivity. CONDUCTIVITY - The inverse of resistivity. This is a material's property which is the de conductance between opposite parallel faces of the material having a unit length and unit cross-section - its units are fho's per cm. DEAERATION - The removal of dissolved gases such as carbon dioxide, oxygen ‘and ammonia from the boiler feed water before it is admitted to the steam drum. 54DEAERATION, CHEMICAL - The addition of a chemical oxygen scavenger, such as sodium’ sulfite, to remove traces of dissolved 02 remaining after mechanical deaeration. DEAERATION, MECHANICAL - Removal of dissolved gases from water, usually by raising the water to saturation tenperature and scrubbing by thoroughly mixing with steam and venting the released gases. DESIGN LOAD - the load for which steam generating unit is designed, usually considered the maximum load to be carried. DESIGN PRESSURE - the pressure used in the design of a boiler for the purpose of determining the minimum permissible thickness or physical characteristics of the different parts of the boiler. DESIGN STEAM TEMPERATURE - the temperature of steam for which a boiler, superheater or reheater is designed. DESUPERHEATER - Apparatus for reducing and controlling the temperature of a superheated vapor (Attemperator). OIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE - The differential pressure across an orifice in a meter tube fs the difference between the pressure at the upstream tap before the gas passes through the orifice and the pressure at the downstream tap after it has passed through the orifice. The upstream pressure is transmitted to one side of the mercury chamber of a gauge and the downstream pressure to the other. This will cause the mercury in the two sides of the chamber to assume different levels. The difference in thse levels is the differential pressure measured in inches of the mercury used in the gauge. The meter ts calibrated so that this differential in inches of mercury is converted into inches of water and recorded in those units on the meter chart. DIRECT-FIRED FURNACES - a furnace in which the products of combustion, that is, the flue gases come into direct contact with the product being heated. ORYER - a basic type of heating unit which is designed for the purpose of driving off volatile materials. EXCESS AIR - air supplied for combustion in excess of that theoretically required for complete oxidation. FEEDWATER - water introduced into a boiler during operation. It includes make-up and return condensate. FIN TUBE WALL - spaced waterwall tubes on which flat metal extensions are welded in a plane parallel to the wall. FLASH POINT - the maximum temperature at which fuel of1 can be stored and handled without serious fire hazard. FLASH TANK = A vessel where high pressure condensate is discharged at lower pressure allowing steam to “flash” off at the lower pressure. This steam is then used to perform additional work or heating. 5-5FLUE - a passage for products of combustion. FLUE GAS ANALYZER - indicator that continuously measures CO and stack temperature, giving direct readings of boiler efficiency. FLY ASH - suspended ash particles carried in the flue gas. FLY ASH COLLECTOR - auxiliary equipment designed to remove fly ash in dry form from the flue gas. FOAMING - Contamination of boiler water with of] or organic matter causing bubbles which might carryover into the steam lines. FORCED DRAFT FAN - a fan supplying air under pressure to the fuel burning equipment. FUEL OIL - any hydrocarbon of1 as defined ty ASTM D 396. HARDNESS - A measure of calcium and magnesium minerals in water. Usually expressed as, grains per gallon or ppm of CaC02. HEAT - energy which is transferred, without a transfer of mass, across the boundaries of a system due to a temperature gradient across the boundary surfaces. HEAT OF COMBUSTION - the energy released when a combustile material is burned. HEAT, OF FUSION - the heat necessary to turn a crystalline solid into a Viquid.. HEATING SURFACE - that surface which is exposed to the heating medium for absorption and transfer of heat to the heat medium. BOILER AND WATERWALL HEATING SURFACE - this surface shall consist of all ‘the apparatus in contact on one side with the water or wet steam being heated and on the other side with gas or refractory being cooled in which the fluid being heated forms part of the circulating system; this surface shall be measured on the side receiving heat. HORSEPOWER (hp) - a unit of power equal to 550 foot pounds per second, 33,000 foot pounds per minute or 746 watts. INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION - combustion in which the fuel is only partially burned, and is capable of being burned further under proper conditions. It results from an inadequate amount of air for the quantity of fuel provided. It can also occur, even in excess air conditions, if mixing is poor and/or the flame is chilled below the ignition tenperature before the full combustion reaction can take place. An example is the burning of carbon, producing carbon monoxide (CO); with more air, carbon dioxide (COg) would result. LIVE STEAM - steam which has not performed any of the work for which it was gener ated. 5-6LOAD MOLDING - matching plant electrical load to utility load tonditions. LOW WATER CUTOFF - a device to shut down the burner when the water level in a boiler fails to a predetermined, dangerously low level. MAKE-UP - the water added to boiler feed to compensate for that lost through . exhaust, blow-down, leakage, etc. HHO - A unit of conductance measurement. The inverse of ohms (resistance). MICRO-NHO - One millionth of amho. This unit is used for very low conductance measurements. OIL HEATER - a heat exchanger utilizing steam, hot water or electricity to heat ofl to the desired viscosity. OPACITY - the state of quality of being opaque; smoke density measured in Ringelmanns. Smoke opacity which exceeds a preset level will cause a stack smoke detector to pull in an alarm relay. OPEN HEARTH FURNACE - a long, shallow bath heated by radiation and convection from a flame that sweeps above the metal in the hearth of the furnace. PACKAGE BOILER - a boiler equipped and shipped complete with fuel burning equipment, mechanical draft equipment, automatic controls and accessories. Usually shipped in one or more major sections. PACK CARBURIZING - an indirect-fired, controlled-atmosphere operation which is usually performed in a batch-type, direct-fired furnace. PERFECT MIXTURE - fuel components combined so that their exact proportions will result in the complete combustion of each component. PITTING - Metal corrosion caused by dissolved oxygen in the boiler water, especially active at high pressure and temperature. PRESSURE BASE - the pressure at which the cubic foot (ft3) is the unit of measurement according to the contract. Frequently base pressures are indicated as gauge pressures, as a certain number of “ounces*. Such an indication would be above an assumed average atmospheric pressure. To definitely specify the basis for the measurement, the base pressure must be an absolute pressure. For example, a pressure base of 10 ounces {above an assumed atmospheric pressure of 14.4 psia), may be written 15.025 psta.. The use of the absolute value is definite and leaves no doubt as to the value of the absolute pressure base. There are 16 ounces in a pound; 10 ounces then would be the fraction 10/16, or the decimal equivalent .625, which when added to atmospheric pressure of Jac4 psia would give you a pressure base of 15.025 psta. PRIMARY AIR - air introduced into a burner before the occurrence of combustion. PROCESS HEAT - the heat needed to change the physical or chemical state of a Product without changing its temperature. 5-7PRODUCT HEAT - the energy contained in a material due to its temperature. RECIRCULATING FURANCE = a furnace having a fan which circulates the atmosphere within the furnace chamber. REHEATED STEAM = superheated steam which derived its superheat from a reheater. (See Reheating). REHEATING - the process of adding heat to steam to raise its temperature ‘after it has done part of its intended work. This 1s usually done between the high pressure and low pressure sections of a compound turbine or engine. REHEATER - heat transfer apparatus for heating steam after it has given up ‘some of its original heat in doing work in the high-pressure section of a steam turbine. RESISTANCE - Electrical impedance to the flow of current in a material depending on the dimensions and temperature. This determines the current flow produced by a given difference of potential (voltage). The unit of measure is ohms. ines, E {votts) = R in ohns T (amps SALT POT - a special type of indirect-fired, control led-atmosphere batch furnace. SATURATED STEAM - steam at the temperature corresponding to its pressure. SCALE - a hard coating or layer of chemical materials on internal surfaces of boiler pressure parts. SECONDARY AIR - air which is introduced at the point of combustion; air which fs not mixed with the fuel before it enters the combustion changer. SENSIBLE HEAT - (same as product heat). SIGHT GAUGE - an inexpensive device used to measure fluid levels. SLUDGE - A dense precipitate formed by the phosphate treatment to remove calcium and magnesium hardness from boiler water. It must be periodically removed by bottom blowdown, S00T BLOWER - a mechanical device for discharging steam or air to clean heat absorbing surfaces. SPECIFIC GRAVITY - the weight of a £t3 of gas compared. to the weight of a ft3 dry air under the same pressure and temperature conditions 1.000. If the specific gravity of a gas 1s 0.6 it is 6/10 as heavy as air. SPECTROSCOPIC ANALYSIS - identification of chemical elements by characteristic emission and absorption of light rays. 5-8STEAM DRUM - The steam drum 1s an integral part of a boiler. This vessel's primary function is to provide a surface area and voluse near the top of the boiler where separation of steam from water can occur. It also provides a location for (1) chemical water treatment, (2) addition of feedwater, (3) recirculation water, and (4) blowdown which removes residue and maintains a specified impurity level to reduce scale formation. STEAM GENERATING UNIT - a unit to which water, fuel, and air or waste heat ~ are supplied and in which steam is generated. It can consist of a boiler furnace, and fuel burning equipment, and may include as component parts waterwalis, superheater, reheater, economizer, air heater, or any combinations thereof. STOICHIOMETRIC AIR-FUEL RATIO - the air-fuel ratio which results in complete burning without excess air. SUPERHEAT -.to raise the tenperature of stean above in satutation ‘temperature; in excess of its saturation temperature. SUPERHEATER - a group of tubes which absorb heat from the products of combustion to raise the temperature of the vapor passing through the tubes above the temperature corresponding to its pressure. CONVECTION SUPERHEATER - a superheater so arranged and located to absorb heat from the products of combustion mainly by convection. RADIANT SUPERHEATER - a superheater so arranged and located to absorb heat mainly by radiation. SUPERHEATER OUTLET PRESSURE - the steam pressure at the point where it leaves the superheater. SUPERHEATER OUTLET TEMPERATURE - the temperature at which the primary steam leaves the superheater. SUPERHEATER PRESSURE DROP - the drop in pressure between the boiler drum and ‘superheater outlet. SWELL ~ the sudden increase in the volume of the steam in the water steam mixture below the water level. WATERSIDE - This refers to the part of the boiler system exposed to water (as opposed to fireside). 5-96.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY BURNERS AND BOILERS, Flame Safeguard Reference Manual No. 70-8107, Honeywell Inc. LEXICON, STEAM GENERATING EQUIPMENT, ——“Sw'Edition, Arlington, VA. American Boiler Manufacturers Association, 1977 CONSERVING ENERGY IN BOILERS AND STEAM DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS, foTume nergy Conservation Guide Series, HONEYWELL PCD APPLICATION NOTES: STEAM NEASUREMENT ~ No. 93-00-07-04, 1980 NATURAL GAS MEASUREMENT - No. 93-00-07-05, 1980 HEAT TRANSFER - BTU MEASUREMENT ~ No. 93-00-07-15, 1981 BOILER ORUM LEVEL CONTROL - No. 93-00-07-13, 1981 FUEL-AIR RATION CONTROL - No. 93-00-07-14, 1981 OXYGEN TRIM OF FUEL-AIR RATIO - Mo. 93-00-07-29, 1982 GONTINUOUS BLOWOOWN CONTROL ~ No. 93-00-07-30, 1982 BOILER WATER CONTROLS ~ No. 93-00-07-32, 1982 BOILER EFFICIENCY MONITORING - Planned STEAM SUPERHEAT TEMPERATURE CONTROL - Planned MULTI-FUEL-AUTOMATIC TRANSFER - Planned W/P 3731-1M/70M