1

Southern Luzon State University

College of Engineering
Lucban, Quezon

REFRIGERATION
SYSTEM

A MODULE FOR SLSU MECHANICAL ENGINEERING STUDENT

FEBRUARY 2021

Engr. John E. Tan, PME

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INTRODUCTION

This course is designed to provide a thorough foundation of the thermodynamic

principles and components of mechanical refrigeration systems; cycles and associated
equipment; and the effect of their operation on the environment.

COURSE OUTCOMES

After completing the course, the students should be able to:

1. Apply the basic mass and heat transfer principles in the analysis of refrigeration system.

2. Solve problems involving different refrigeration systems.

3. Evaluate and compare the different properties of refrigerants used in refrigeration

systems and propose alternative refrigerants.

4. Evaluate and compare existing refrigeration systems with other systems under
consideration and make recommendation to improve existing ones.
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Table of Contents

Title Page 1
Introduction 2
Table of Contents 3
DISCUSSION
Introduction to Refrigeration System 4
Carnot’s Cycle 7
Standard Vapor Compression Cycle 12
Actual Vapor Compression Cycle 22
Multi-pressure Refrigeration System 25

Functions and Performance of Compressors 41

Condensers and Evaporators 49
Performance of Condensers 58
Performance of Evaporators 66
Performance of Expansion Devices 72

Refrigerants 89
Absorption Refrigeration System 104
Air-Cycle Refrigeration System 116
Steam Jet Refrigeration System 124
Solar Powered Refrigeration 128
Thermoelectric Refrigeration 134
Cryogenics 144
TABLES and CHARTS 149
REFERENCES 164
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Introduction

Refrigeration, or cooling process, is the removal of unwanted heat from a selected

object, substance, or space and its transfer to another object, substance, or space. Removal
of heat lowers the temperature and may be accomplished by use of ice, snow, chilled water
or mechanical refrigeration.

Before getting into the fundamentals of refrigeration, a few basic definitions should be
considered:

A). Heat is a form of energy transferred by virtue of a difference in temperature. Heat exists
everywhere to a greater or lesser degree. As a form of energy it can be neither created or
destroyed, although other forms of energy may be converted into heat, and vice versa. It is
important to remember that heat energy travels in only one direction; from a warmer to a
cooler object, substance, or area.

B). Cold is a relative term referring to the lack of heat in an object, substance, or area.
Another definition describes it as the absence of heat, no process yet has been devised of
achieving "absolute zero," the state in which all heat has been removed from any object,
substance, or area. Theoretically this zero point would be 459.69 degrees below zero on the
Fahrenheit thermometer scale, or 273.16 degrees below zero on the Celsius thermometer
scale.

C). Refrigeration, or cooling process, is the removal of unwanted heat from a selected
object, substance, or space and its transfer to another object, substance, or space. Removal
of heat lowers the temperature and may be accomplished by use of ice, snow, chilled water
or mechanical refrigeration.

D). Mechanical refrigeration, is the utilization of mechanical components arranged in

a "refrigeration system" for the purpose of transferring heat.

E). Refrigerants, are chemical compounds that are alternately compressed and condensed
into a liquid and then permitted to expand into a vapor or gas as they are pumped through
the mechanical refrigeration system to cycle.

The refrigeration cycle is based on the long known physical principle that a liquid expanding
into a gas extracts heat from the surrounding substance or area. (You can test this principle
by simply wetting your finger and holding it up. It immediately begins to feel cooler than the
others, particularly if exposed to some air movement. That's because the liquid in which you
dipped it is evaporating, and as it does, it extracts heat from the skin of the finger and air
around it).
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Refrigerants evaporate or "boil" at much lower temperatures than water, which permits
them to extract heat at a more rapid rate than the water on your finger.

F). Refrigeration system fundamental components.

The job of the refrigeration cycle is to remove unwanted heat from one place and discharge
it into another. To accomplish this, the refrigerant is pumped through a closed refrigeration
system. If the system was not closed, it would be using up the refrigerant by dissipating it
into the surrounding media; because it is closed, the same refrigerant is used over and over
again, as it passes through the cycle removing some heat and discharging it. The closed cycle
serves other purposes as well; it keeps the refrigerant from becoming contaminated and
controls its flow, for it is a liquid in some parts of the cycle and a gas or vapor in other
phases.

Let's look at what happens in a simple refrigeration cycle, and to the major components
involved. Two different pressures exist in the cycle - the evaporating or low pressure in the
"low side," and the condensing, or high pressure, in the "high side." These pressure areas
are separated by two dividing points: one is the metering device where the refrigerant flow
is controlled, and the other is at the compressor, where vapor is compressed.

The metering device is a point where we will start the trip through the cycle. This may be a
thermal expansion valve, a capillary tube, or any other device to control the flow of
refrigerant into the evaporator, or cooling coil, as a low-pressure, low-temperature
refrigerant. The expanding refrigerant evaporates (changes state) as it goes through the
evaporator, where it removes the heat from the substance or space in which the evaporator
is located.

Heat will travel from the warmer substance to the evaporator cooled by the evaporation of
the refrigerant within the system, causing the refrigerant to "boil" and evaporate, changing
it to a vapor. This is similar to the change that occurs when a pail of water is boiled on the
stove and the water changes to steam, except that the refrigerant boils at a much lower
temperature.

Now this low-pressure, low-temperature vapor is drawn to the compressor where it is

compressed into a high-temperature, high-pressure vapor. The compressor discharges it to
the condenser, so that it can give up the heat that it picked up in the evaporator. The
refrigerant vapor is at a higher temperature than the air passing across the condenser (air-
cooled type); or water passing through the condenser (water-cooled type); therefore that is
transferred from the warmer refrigerant vapor to the cooler air or water.

In this process, as heat is removed from the vapor, a change of state takes place and the
vapor is condensed back into a liquid, at a high-pressure and high-temperature.

The liquid refrigerant travels now to the metering device where it passes through a small
opening or orifice where a drop in pressure and temperature occurs, and then it enters into
the evaporator or cooling coil. As the refrigerant makes its way into the large opening of the
evaporator tubing or coil, it vaporizes, ready to start another cycle through the system.
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The refrigeration system requires some means of connecting the basic major components -
evaporator, compressor, condenser, and metering device - just as roads connect
communities. Tubing or "lines" make the system complete so that the refrigerant will not
leak out into the atmosphere. The suction line connects the evaporator or cooling coil to the
compressor, the hot gas or discharge line connects the compressor to the condenser, and
the liquid line is the connecting tubing between the condenser and the metering device
(Thermal expansion valve). Some systems will have a receiver immediately after the
condenser and before the metering device, where the refrigerant is stored until it is needed
for heat removal in the evaporator.

There are many different kinds and variations of the refrigeration cycle components. For
example, there are at least a half dozen different types of compressor, from the
reciprocating, piston through a screw, scroll and centrifugal impeller design, but the
function is the same in all cases - that of compressing the heat laden vapor into a high-
temperature vapor.

The same can be said of the condenser and evaporator surfaces. They can be bare pipes, or
they can be finned condensers and evaporators with electrically driven fans to pass the air
through tem, or with a condenser pump to pump the water through a water-cooled
condenser.

There are a number of different types of metering devices to regulate the liquid refrigerant
into the evaporator, depending on size of equipment, refrigerant used, and its application.

The mechanical refrigeration system described above is essentially the same whether the
system be a domestic refrigerator, a low-temperature freezer, comfort air conditioning
system, industrial chiller, or commercial cooling equipment. Refrigerants will be different
and size of the equipment will vary greatly, but the principle of operation and the
refrigeration cycle remains the same. Thus, once you understand the simple actions that are
taking place within the refrigeration mechanical cycle you should have a good
understanding how a refrigeration system works.

Extracted from https://berg-group.com/engineered-solutions/the-science-behind-

refrigeration
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Carnot Cycle

The Carnot cycle consists of the following four processes:

I. A reversible isothermal gas expansion process. In this process, the ideal gas
in the system absorbs qin amount heat from a heat source at a high
temperature Thigh, expands and does work on surroundings.
II. A reversible adiabatic gas expansion process. In this process, the system is
thermally insulated. The gas continues to expand and do work on
surroundings, which causes the system to cool to a lower temperature, Tlow.
III. A reversible isothermal gas compression process. In this process,
surroundings do work to the gas at Tlow, and causes a loss of heat, qout.
IV. A reversible adiabatic gas compression process. In this process, the system is
thermally insulated. Surroundings continue to do work to the gas, which
causes the temperature to rise back to Thigh.

The P-V diagram of the Carnot cycle is shown in Figure 2. In isothermal

processes I and III, ∆U=0 because ∆T=0. In adiabatic processes II and
IV, q=0. Work, heat, ∆U, and ∆H of each process in the Carnot cycle
are summarized in Table 1.

T-S Diagram
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The T-S diagram of the Carnot cycle is shown in Figure 3. In isothermal processes I and III, ∆T=0. In
adiabatic processes II and IV, ∆S=0 because dq=0. ∆T and ∆S of each process in the Carnot cyc le are
shown in Table 2.

Efficiency

The Carnot cycle is the most efficient engine possible based on the assumption of the
absence of incidental wasteful processes such as friction, and the assumption of no
conduction of heat between different parts of the engine at different temperatures. The
efficiency of the carnot engine is defined as the ratio of the energy output to the energy
input.
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Problems
1. You are now operating a Carnot engine at 40% efficiency, which exhausts heat into
a heat sink at 298 K. If you want to increase the efficiency of the engine to 65%, to
what temperature would you have to raise the heat reservoir?
2. A Carnot engine absorbed 1.0 kJ of heat at 300 K, and exhausted 400 J of heat at
the end of the cycle. What is the temperature at the end of the cycle?
3. An indoor heater operating on the Carnot cycle is warming the house up at a rate of
30 kJ/s to maintain the indoor temperature at 72 ºF. What is the power operating
the heater if the outdoor temperature is 30 ºF?

Extracted from:
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook
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Reversed Carnot Cycle

Carnot cycle is a totally reversible cycle which consists of two reversible isothermal
processes and two isentropic processes.
It has the maximum efficiency for a given temperature limit.
Since it is a reversible cycle, all four processes can be reversed. This will reverse the
direction of heat and work interactions, therefore producing a refrigeration

cycle.
The cycle consists of
1-2: Isothermal heat transfer from cold medium to refrigerant (Evaporator)
2-3: Isentropic (Reversible adiabatic) compression
3-4: Isothermal heat rejection (condenser)
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4-1: Isentropic Expansion

COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE (COP)

Practical Difficulties of Carnot cycle

compression of two-phase mixture from 1-2

Expansion from 4-1 results in a very wet refrigerant, causing erosion of turbine blades.

Practice Problems

1. A Carnot refrigeration cycle absorbs heat at -12 C and rejects it at 40 C.

(a) Calculate the coefficient of performance of this refrigeration cycle.
(b) If the cycle is absorbing 15 kW at the -12 C temperature, how much power is required?
(c) If a Carnot heat pump operates between the same temperatures as the above
refrigeration cycle, what is the performance factor?
(d) What is the rate of heat rejection at the 40 C temperature if the heat pump absorbs 15
kW at the -12 C temperature?

2. The temperature difference between the minimum and maximum temperature of Carnot
cycle is 50 C. What is the minimum temperature if the COP is 5.5?

3. The power required to drive the compressor in a Carnot refrigeration is 50 HP. It operates
between -5 C and 40 C. Determine the tons of refrigeration.
1 Ton of Refrigeration = 3.516 KW = 200 BTU/min = 12,000 BTU/ hr
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Standard Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle

The impracticalities of the reversed Carnot Cycle can be eliminated by:

-vaporising the refrigerant completely before it is compressed
-replacing the turbine by a throttle valve
By implication; isothermal processes are replaced by constant pressure processes.

The cycle consists of:

1-2: Isentropic compression
2-3: Constant pressure heat rejection (Condenser)
3-4: Adiabatic expansion in a throttling device
4-1: Constant pressure heat absorption (Evaporator)
Pressure-enthalpy chart
The ideal vapour compression cycle consists of two constant pressure process and one
constant enthalpy process. So in preliminary cycle calculations pressure-enthalpy diagrams
are particularly useful.
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SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. If in a standard vapor-compression cycle using refrigerant 22 the evaporating temperature is -5 C

and the condensing temperature is 30 C, sketch the cycle on pressure-enthalpy coordinates and
calculate (a) the work of compression, (b) the refrigerating effect, and (c) the heat rejected in the
condenser, all in kilojoules per kilograms , and (d) the coefficient of performance.
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At pont 1, Table A-6, -5 C,

h1 = 403.496 kJ/kg
s1 = 1.75928 kJ/kg.K
At point 2, 30 C condensing temperature, constant entropy, Table A-7. h2 = 429.438 kJ/kg
At point 3, Table A-6, 30 C
h3 = 236.664 kJ/kg
h4 = h3 = 236.664 kJ/kg
(a) Work of compression = h2 - h1
= 429.438 - 403.496
= 25.942 kJ/kg - - - Ans.
(b) Refrigerating effect = h1 - h4
= 403.496 - 236.664
= 166.832 kJ/kg - - - Ans.
(c) Heat rejected = h2 - h3
= 429.438 - 236.664
= 192.774 kJ/kg - - - Ans.
(d) Coefficient of performance

Coefficient of performance = 6.43 - - - Ans.

2. . A refrigeration system using refrigerant 22 is to have a refrigerating capacity of 80 kw. The cycle is
a standard vapor-compression cycle in which the evaporating temperature is -8 C and the condensing
temperature is 42 C.
(a) Determine the volume flow of refrigerant measured in cubic meter per second at the inlet to the
compressor.
(b) Calculate the power required by the compressor.
(c) At the entrance to the evaporator what is the fraction of vapor in the mixture expressed both on a
mass basis and a volume basis
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PRACTICE PROBLEM

1. Compare the coefficient of performance of a refrigeration cycle which uses wet compression with
that of one which uses dry compression. In both cases use ammonia as the refrigerant, a condensing
temperature of 30 C, and an evaporating temperature of -20 C; assume that the compressors are
isentropic and that the liquid leaving the condenser is saturated. In the wet-compression cycle the
refrigerant enters the compressor in such a condition that it is saturated vapor upon leaving the
compressor.

2. In the vapor-compression cycle a throttling device is used almost universally to reduce the pressure
of the liquid refrigerant.
(a) Determine the percent saving in net work of the cycle per kilograms of refrigerant if an expansion
engine would be used to expand saturated liquid refrigerant 22 isentropically from 35 C to the
evaporator temperature of 0 C. Assume that compression is isentropic from saturated vapor at 0 C
to a condenser pressure corresponding to 35 C.
(b) Calculate the increase in refrigerating effect in kilojoules per kilograms resulting from use of
expansion engine.
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EFFECTS OF OPERATING CONDITIONS

A. Effects of Increasing the Vaporizing Temperature

1. The refrigerating effect per unit mass increases

2. The mass flow rate per ton decreases

3. The volume flow rate per ton decreases

4. The COP increases

5. The work per ton decreases

6. The heat rejected at the condenser per ton decreases

B. Effects of Increasing the Condensing Temperature

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1. The refrigerating effect per unit mass decreases

2. The mass flow rate per ton increases

3. The volume flow rate per ton increases

4. The COP decreases

5. The work per ton increases

6. The heat rejected at the condenser per ton increases

C. Effects of Super heating the Suction Vapor

When superheating produces useful cooling:

1. The refrigerating effect per unit mass increases

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2. The mass flow rate per ton decreases

3. The volume flow rate per ton decreases

4. The COP increases

5. The work per ton decreases

When superheating occurs without useful cooling:

6. The refrigerating effect per unit mass remains the same

7. The mass flow rate per ton remains the same

8. The volume flow rate per ton increases

9. The COP decreases

10. The work per ton increases

11. The heat rejected at the condenser per ton increases

D. Effects of Subcooling the Liquid

1. The refrigerating effect per unit mass increases

2. The mass flow rate per ton decreases

3. The volume flow rate per ton decreases

4. The COP increases

5. The work per ton decreases

6. The heat rejected at the condenser per ton decreases

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LIQUID-SUCTION HEAT EXCHANGER

The functions of the heat exchanger are:

1. To ensure that no liquid enters the compressor

2. To subcool the liquid from the condenser to prevent bubbles of vapour from impeding
the flow of refrigerant through the expansion valve.

Heat balance of the heat exchanger

h3 + h6 = h1 + h4

Refrigerating Effect = h6 – h4 = h1 – h3

COP = h1 – h3 / h1 – h2
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Sample Problem

A refrigerant 22 vapor compression system includes a liquid-to- suction heat

exchanger in the system. The heat exchanger cools saturated liquid coming from the
condenser from 32 C to 21 C with vapour which comes from the evaporator at -10 C.
Calculate the COP of the system with the heat exchanger.

h3= hf at 32 C = 239.2 kJ/kg

h4= h5= hf at 21 C = 225.3 kJ/kg
h6= hg at -10 C = 401.6 kJ/kg
h1 + h4= h3 + h6
h1 = 415.5 kJ/kg
v1 = 72 L/kg
h2 = h at 1255 kPa and s2 = s1 =450 kJ/kg

COP = (h6- h5 )/(h2 – h1) = 5.11

Practice Problems

1. A refrigerant 22 refrigerating system is operating with a condenser temperature of 42 C and an

evaporating temperature of 0 C. a) If the liquid line from the condenser is soldered to the suction
line from the evaporator to form a simple heat exchanger and if as a result of this the saturated
vapour leaving the evaporator is superheated 10 degrees, how many degrees will the saturated
liquid leaving the consenser be subcooled? b) Determine the volume flow rate.

2. A 15 ton refrigeration system is used to make ice. The water is available at 20 C. Refrigerant 12 is
used with saturated temperature limits of -25 C and 54 C. Determine a) the COP, b) the refrigerant
flow rate, c) the temperature at discharge of the compressor, d) the volume flow rate, and the e) the
maximum kg of ice manufactured per day.
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Actual Vapor-compression Cycle

Two main differences with ideal cycle:

Fluid frictions, causing pressure drop
Heat transfer to or from surroundings.

1-2: Irreversible and non-adiabatic compression of refrigerant. Heat transfer from surroundings
to refrigerant è Entropy increases (S2>S1).

1-2': Heat transfer from refrigerant to surroundings è S2'<S1 (preferred)

2-3: Temperature (& pressure) drop due to fluid friction and heat transfer

3-4: pressure drops in the condenser because of fluid friction

4-5: temperature and pressure drop (as in 2-3)

5-6: Throttling process

6-7: The throttle valve and evaporator are usually located very close to each other, so pressure
drop in connecting line is small
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Actual vapor-compression cycle The actual vapor-compression cycle suffers from

inefficiencies compared with the standard cycle. There are also other changes from the standard
cycle, which may be intentional or unavoidable. Some comparisons can be drawn by superimposing
the actual cycle on the pressure-enthalpy diagram ofthe standard cycle, as in Fig. 10-15.

The essential differences between the actual and the standard cycle appear in the
pressure drops in the condenser and evaporator, in the subcooling of the liquid leaving
the condenser,. and in the superheating of the vapor leaving the evaporator. The stat1-
dard cycle assumes no drop in pressure in the condenser and evaporator. Because of
friction, however, the pressure of the refrigerant drops in the actual cycle. The result
of these drops in pressure is that the compression process between 1 and 2 requires
more work than in the standard cycle. Subcooling of the liquid in the condenser is
a normal occurrence and serves the desirable function of ensuring that 100 percent
liquid will enter the expansion device. Superheating of the vapor usually occurs in the
evaporator and is recommended as a precaution against droplets of liquid being carried
over into the compressor. The final difference in the actual cycle is that the compression
is no longer isentropic and there are inefficiencies due to friction and other
losses.

Practice Problem

1. A Freon 12 refrigeration system, with a 10 TR capacity and a COP of 3.23, operates with a
condenser pressure of 984.5 kPa and an evaporator pressure of 150.8 kPa. The temperature
entering and leaving the compressor are -10 C and 80 C respectively. The temperature entering
the expansion valve is 34 C. The compressor is water jacketed and operates with unknown
pressure drops through the valves. Compute a) the mass flow rate per minute, b) the indicated
work, c) the heat removed by the jacket water.

2. A test of a 10 TR ammonia vapour compression refrigeration system gave the following results:
Condenser pressure 1600 kPa
Evaporator pressure 191 kPa
Temperature leaving evaporator coils - 10 C
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Temperature entering compressor 0C

Temperature leaving compressor 100 C
Temperature entering condenser 80 C
Temperature leaving condenser 35 C
Coefficient of Performance 3.1

a) Find heat lost or heat gained, i) between evaporator coils and compressor, ii) between
compressor and condenser, and iii) to condenser water
b) Find i) temperature in the evaporator coils in saturated state, and ii) quantity of the vapour in the
evaporator coils following expansion through valve.
c) Find, i) the work, and ii) the heat absorbed by jacket water.
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MULTIPRESSURE REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

A multipressure system is a refrigeration system that has two or more low-side

pressures. The low-side pressure is the pressure of the refrigerant between the expansion
valve and the intake of the compressor. A multipressure system is distinguished from the
single-pressure system, which has but one low-side pressure. A multipressure system may
be found, for example, in a dairy where one evaporator operates at -35°C to harden ice
cream while another evaporator operates at 2°C to cool milk. Another typical application
might be in a process industry where a two- or three-stage compression arrangement serves
an evaporator operating at a low temperature of -20°C or lower

Two functions often integral to multipressure systems are the removal of flash gas
and intercooling. Then several combinations of multiple evaporators and compressors will
be analyzed.

Removal of flash gas.

A saving in the power requirement of a refrigeration system results if the flash gas that
develops in the throttling process between the condenser and evaporator is removed and
recompressed before complete expansion. When saturated liquid expands through an
expansion valve, the fraction of vapor or flash gas progressively increases. The expansion
process shown on the pressure-enthalpy diagram in Fig. 16-1 takes place from 1 to 2. The
state point, as the expansion proceeds, moves into a region of a greater fraction of vapor.
The end point of the expansion, 2, could have been achieved by interrupting the expansion
at 3 and separating the liquid and vapor phases, which are 4 and 6, respe~tively. The
expansion could then continue by expanding the liquid at 4 and the vapour at 6 to the final
pressure, giving 5 and 7, respectively. The combination of refrigerant at states 5 and 7 gives
point 2. Inspection of the expansion from 6 to 7 confirms that it is wasteful. In the first
place, the refrigerant at 7 can do no refrigerating; in the second place, work will be required
to compress the vapor back to the pressure it had at 6. Why not perform part of the
expansion, separate the liquid from the vapor, continue expanding the liquid, and
recompress the vapor without further expansion? The equipment to
achieve this separation is called a flash tank (see Fig. 16-2). The expansion from 1 to 3
takes place through a float valve, which serves the further purpose of maintaining a
constant level in the flash tank. To recompress the vapor at 6, a compressor must be
available with a suction pressure of 6. Thus two compressors are needed in the system.
The flash tank must separate liquid refrigerant from vapor. The separation occurs when the
upward velocity of the vapor is low enough for the liquid particles to drop back into the
tank. Normally vapor velocities less than 1 m/s will provide adequate separation. This
velocity is found by dividing the volume flow of the vapor by the surface area of the liquid.
 26

Intercooling

lntercooling between two stages of compression reduces the work of compression per
kilogram of vapor. In two-stage compression of air, for example, an intercooling from point
2 to 4 on the pressure-displacement diagram of Fig. 16-3 saves some work. If the processes
are reversible, the saving is represented by the shaded area in Fig. 16-3 . Figure 16-4 shows
how compression with intercooling appears on the pressure enthalpy diagram of a
refrigerant. Processes 1-2-3 and 4-5 are on lines of constant entropy, but process 2-3 falls on
a flatter curve than process 4-5. Between the same two pressures, therefore, process 4-5
shows a smaller increase in enthalpy, which indic~tes that less work is required than in 2-3.
Another way of showing that the work of compression increases when the process moves
out farther into the superheat region is to examine the equation for work in a reversible
polytropic compression of a perfect gas and where subscript 1 refers to the entrance and 2
to the exit of the compressor. Between two given pressures, the work of compression is
proportional to the specific volume of entering gas. The specific volume at 2 in Fig. 16-4 is
greater than it is at 4; so the work required for compressing from 2 to 3 is greater than in
compressing from 4 to 5.
 27

Intercooling in a refrigeration system can be accomplished with a water-cooled

heat exchanger or by using refrigerant. (Fig. 16-Sa and b ). The water-cooled intercooler
may be satisfactory for two-stage air compression, but for refrigerant compression the
water is usually not cold enough. The alternate method of Fig. 16-Sb uses liquid refrigerant
from the condenser to do the intercooling. Discharge gas from the low-stage compressor
bubbles through the liquid in the intercooler. Refrigerant leaves the intercooler at 4 as
saturated vapor. Intercooling with liquid refrigerant will usually decrease the total power
requirements when ammonia is the refrigerant but not when refrigerant 12 or 22 is used, as
illustrated in Examples 16-1 and 16-2. In the examples of this chapter, assume that liquid
leaves the condenser saturated, vapor leaves the evaporator saturated, and the
compressions are isentropic.

Sample Problem

1. Calculate the power needed to compress 1.2 kg/s of ammonia from saturated vapor at 80
kPa to 1000 kPa (a) by single-stage compression and (b) by two-stage compression with
intercooling by liquid refrigerant at 300 kPa.

Solution Table 16-1 shows the summary of the calculations with the subscripts referring to
state points in Fig. 16-4. The high-stage compressor in the intercooled system must
compress 1.2 kg/s plus the flow rate of refrigerant that evaporates to desuperheat the gas
at 2. The flow rate of ammonia compressed in the high stage can be calculated by making a
heat and a mass balance about the intercooler, as shown in Fig. 16-6.
 28

Figure 16-5 Intercooling with (a) a water-cooled heat exchanger, and (b) liquid refrigerant.

2. Compare a compression of 3.5 kg/s of refrigerant 22 from saturated vapor at 100

kPa to a condensing pressure of 1000 kPa (a) by single-stage compression and {b) by two-
stage compression with intercooling at 300 kPa, using liquid refrigerant.
 29

Solution Table 16-2 shows the summary of the calculations with the subscripts
referring to state points in Fig. 16-4.

For refrigerant 22 intercooling with liquid refrigerant midway during the compression
is ineffective. The dissimilarity during intertercooling of ammonia and refrigerant 22
systems results from the difference of their properties. The lines of constant entropy
 30

for ammonia become more flat in the superheat region than those of refrigerant 22. In
a refrigerant 22 system, therefore, the saving in work per kilogram by performing the
compression close to the saturated-vapor line does not compensate for the increased
flow rate which must be pumped by the high-stage compressor. There is an optimum
pressure at which the intercooling should take place in an ammonia system. In the
compression of air, where the intercooling is achieved by rejecting heat to the ambient
or to cooling water, that intermediate pressure for minimum total power is

One evaporator and one compressor

The flash tank and intercooler appear in most multipressure systems and will now be
examined in various compressor evaporator combinations. With one compressor and one
evaporator the flash tank may function as shown schematically in Fig. 16-7. A pressure-
reducing valve throttles the flash gas from the intermediate pressure to the evaporator
pressure. The throttling is necessary because there is no compressor available with a high
suction pressure. Calculations would show that the flash tank does not improve the
performance of the system. The only reason for using the flash tank would be to keep the
flash gas in the machine .. room rather than sending it to the evaporator. The flash gas in
the evaporator tubes and long suction line does no refrigeration but does increase the
pressure drop. This system is used infrequently.
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Two evaporators and one compressor

In many situations one compressor serves two evaporators having different temperature
requirements. An example is an industry which needs low-temperature refrigeration for a
process and which must also provide air conditioning for some offices. Figure 16-8a shows
one method of arranging this system, and Fig. 16-8b shows the corresponding pressure-
enthalpy diagram. In Fig. 16-8a the air-conditioning evaporator operates at -10°C even
though a higher temperature in this evaporator would cool the air sufficiently. Furthermore,
difficulties may arise when an evaporator· operates at an unnecessarily low temperature: an
evaporator which cools air for air conditioning may collect frost, which blocks the flow of air;
an evaporator which chills a liquid may freeze the liquid; and an evaporator which cools air
for a room where meat or produce is stored may dehumidify the air so much that the
products will be dehydrated. To overcome the drawbacks of the system in Fig. 16-8a, a
revision may be made as shown in Fig. 16-9a. A pressure-reducing valve installed after the
high-temperature evaporator regulates the pressure and maintains a temperature in the air-
conditioning evaporator of 5°C, for example. Figure 1~-9b shows the corresponding pressure
enthalpy diagram. Differences in performance between the systems in Figs. 16-8a and 16-9a
are as follows. In the system of Fig. 16-9a, the refrigerating effect in the high-temperature
evaporator is greater than it is in the system of Fig. 16-8a. This is an advantage for the
system of Fig. 16-9a. To counterbalance this advantage, the compression in Fig. 16-9b
occurs farther out in the superheat region than in Fig. 16-8b.
 32

The system of Fig. 16-9a therefore demands more work per kilogram of refrigerant.

Sample Problem

1. Calculate the power required by a system of one compressor serving two

evaporators. One evaporator carries a load of 35 KW at 10 C and the other a load of 70 KW
at -5 C. A backpressure valve reduces the pressure in the 10 C evaporator to that of the -5 C
evaporator. The condensing temperature is 37 C. The refrigerant is ammonia. What is the
COP? Figure 16-9
Solution:

h3= h4= h7= hf at 37 C = 375.9 kJ/kg

h5= h6= hg at 10 C = 1471.6 kJ/kg
h8= hg at -5 C = 1456.2 kJ/kg
 33

10 C Evaporator

m4= 35/(h5 – h4) = 0.0319 kg/s

-5 C Evaporator

m7 = 70/(h8 – h7) = 0.0648 kg/s

Total mass flow rate, m1 = m6 + m8 = m4 + m7 = 0.0967 kg/s

Solving for h1 = m1h1 = m6h6 + m8h8

h1 = 1461.3 k j/kg

h2 = h at 1432 kj/kg

h2 = 1665 kj/kg

Power = m1 (h2 – h1) = 19.7 kW

COP = (35 + 70 /19.7 = 5.33

Two Compressors and one Evaporator

Two-stage compression with intercooling and removal of flash gas is often the ideal
way to serve one low-temperature evaporator. This system requires less power than with a
single compressor, and often the saving in power will justify the cost of the extra
equipment.
 34

Sample Problem

Calculate the power required by the two compressors in an ammonia system which serves a
250-kW evaporator at -25°C. The system uses two stage compression with intercooling and
removal of flash gas. The condensing temperature is 35°C.

Solution First sketch the schematic diagram of the system (Fig. 6-lOa) and the corresponding
pressure-enthalpy diagram (Fig. 16-1 Ob). The functions of the intercooler and flash tank are
combined in one vessel.

Next, the mass rates of flow through the compressors can be calculated by
means of heat and mass balances. Heat balance about the evaporator:
 35

This power requirement can be compared with that of a single-compressor system

developing 250 kW of refrigeration at -25°C with a condensing temperature of 35°C. The
pressure-enthalpy diagram is shown in Fig. 16-11. The enthalpies are:

The two-stage compressor system requires 69.2 kW, or 12 percent less power than the
single-compressor system.

Two compressors and two evaporators

The system which has two evaporators operating at different temperatures is

common in industrial refrigeration. A dairy cooling milk and manufacturing ice cream has
been mentioned. A frozen-food plant may require two evaporators at different
temperatures, one at -40°C to quick-freeze the food and the other at -25°C to hold the food
after it is frozen. Process and chemical industries often require different temperatures of
refrigeration in various sections of the plant. Evaporators at two different temperatures can
be handled efficiently by a two-stage system which employs intercooling and removal of
flash gas.
 36

Sample Problem

In an ammonia system one evaporator is to provide 180 kW of refrigeration at -30°C

and another evaporator is to provide 200 kW at S°C. The system uses two-stage
compression with intercooling and is arranged as in Fig.16-12a. The condensing temperature
is 40°C. Calculate the power required by the compressors.

Solution Sketch the pressure-enthalpy diagram of the cycle as in Fig. 16-12b.

The discharge pressure of the low-stage compressor and the suction pressure of the high-
stage compressor are the same as the pressure in the 5°C evaporator.
Next determine the enthalpies at the state points.

The mass rates of flow are

Probably the simplest way to calculate the mass rate .of flow handled by the high-stage
compressor is to make a heat and mass balance about both the high temperature
evaporator and the intercooler, as shown in Fig. 16-13.
37
 38

The combined power for the compressors serving the evaporators individually is
greater than with the combined system in Fig. 16-12. The power required for the
hightemperature evaporator is the same in both cases, so all of the saving is attributable to
flash-gas removal and intercooling of refrigerant serving the low-temperature evaporator.
The intermediate pressure of the system in Fig. 16-12a is the saturation pressure
corresponding to 5°C. This pressure is fixed, therefore, by the temperature of the
hightemperature evaporator. In the system of one evaporator and two compressors
discussed earlier, the intermediate pressure could be adjusted by varying the relative
pumping capacities of the two compressors.

Auxiliary equipment
Modifications are sometimes made in the equipment for intercooling and removal of
flash gas. If the temperature of the discharge gas from the low-stage compressor is
sufficiently high, a water-cooled heat exchanger may remove some of the heat from the
discharge gas before it flows into the main intercooler.
A device which gives the same result as flash-gas removal is called a liquid subcooler
(see Fig. 16-14). It cools the liquid refrigerant by evaporating a small fraction of the liquid.
Compared with the direct-contact flash tank, the subcooler cannot cool the liquid to quite as
low a temperature. On the other hand, the subcooler maintains the liquid at a high
pressure. If the liquid must flow through a long line before it reaches the expansion valve,
there is less possibility that the pressure drop in the line will flash the liquid to vapor and
thus restrict the flow through the expansion valve.

In multipressure systems the removal and recompression of flash gas before complete
expansion decrease the power required by the compressors. Intercooling between stages of
compression reduces the power requirements, at least when ammonia is the refrigerant.
lntercooling decreases the discharge temperature of the refrigerant from the high-stage
compressor. High discharge temperatures cause oil carbonization, sticky compressor valves,
and lubrication difficulties in reciprocating compressors. Any decision to use multiple-stage
systems should be based on an economic analysis. The savings in power must be compared
with the additional cost of equipment to determine whether the added investment is
warranted. Factors such as the refrigerant used, the type of compressor (whether
reciprocating or screw), and the size of the system also have an influence.
 39

Practice Problems
In the following problems, liquid leaves the condensers saturated, vapor leaves the
evaporators saturated, and compressions are isentropic.

1. A liquid subcooler as shown in Fig. 16-14 receives liquid ammonia at 30°C and subcools
0.6 kg/s to 5°C. Saturated vapor leaves the subcooler for the high-stage compressor at -1 ° C.
Calculate the flow rate of ammonia that evaporates to cool the liquid.

2. In a refrigerant 22 refrigeration system the capacity is 180 kW at a temperature of -30°C.

The vapor from the evaporator is pumped by one compressor to the condensing pressure of
1500 kPa. Later the system is revised to a two-stage compression operating on the cycle
shown in the figure below, with intercooling but no removal of flash gas at 600 kPa.
(a) Calculate the power required by the single compressor in the original system.
(b) Calculate the total power required by the two compressors in the revised system.

3. A refrigerant 22 system has a capacity of 180 kW at an evaporating temperature

of -30°C when the condensing pressure is 1500 kPa.
(a) Compute the power requirement for a system with a single compressor.
(b) Compute the total power required by the two compressors in the system shown below
where there is no intercooling but there is flash-gas removal at 600 kPa.
 40

4. A two-stage ammonia system using flash-gas removal and intercooling operates on the
cycle shown in Fig. l 6-l 2a. The condensing temperature is 35°C. The saturation temperature
of the intermediate-temperature evaporator is 0° C, and its capacity is 150 kW. The
saturation temperature of the low-temperature evaporator is -40° C, and its capacity is 250
kW. What is the rate of refrigerant compressed by the high-stage compressor?
 41

COMPRESSORS

The heart of the vapor-compression system is the compressor. The four most
common types of refrigeration compressors are the reciprocating, screw, centrifugal,
and vane. The reciprocating compressor consists of a piston moving back and forth in
a cylinder with suction and discharge valves arranged to allow pumping to take place.
The screw, centrifugal, and vane compressors all use rotating elements, the screw and
vane compressors are positive-displacement machines, and the centrifugal compressor
operates by virtue of centrifugal force.

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

The workhorse of the refrigeration industry is the reciprocating compressor, built in

sizes ranging from fractional-kilowatt to hundreds of kilowatts refrigeration capacity.
Modern compressors are single-acting and may be single-cylinder or multicylinder.
In multicylinder compressors the cylinders are in V, W, radial, or in-line arrangements.

The compressor in Fig. 11-1 has 16 cylinders, 2 in each of the heads. During the
suction stroke of the piston, low-pressure refrigerant gas is drawn in through the suction
valve, which may be located in the piston or in the head. During the discharge stroke the
piston compresses the refrigerant and then pushes it out through the discharge valve, which
is usually located in the cylinder head.
Following the trend of most rotative machinery, the operating speed of compressors
has generally increased in the past 20 years. From the slow speeds of early compressors of
about 2 or 3 r/s, the speeds have increased until compressors today operate at speeds as
high as 60 r/s.
 42

Hermetically sealed compressors

A compressor whose crankshaft extends through the compressor housing so that a
motor can be externally coupled to the shaft is called an open-type compressor. A seal must
be used where the shaft comes through the compressor housing to prevent refrigerant gas
from leaking out or air from leaking in if the crankcase pressure is lower than atmospheric.
Even though designers have continually developed better seals, piercing of the housing
always represents a source of leakage. To avoid leakage at the seal, the motor and
compressor are often enclosed in the same housing, as shown in the cutaway view in Fig.
11-2
. Improved techniques for insulating the motor electrically have allowed motors to
operate even though they are in contact with the refrigerant. In many designs the cold
suction gas is drawn across the motor to keep the motor cool. Almost all small motor
compressor combinations used in refrigerators, freezers, and residential air conditioners are
of the hermetic type. The only connections to the compressor housing are the suction and
discharge fittings and electric terminals. Moisture in the system can be damaging to the
motor; therefore dehydration of hermetic units before charging is essential. On larger
hermetically sealed units the cylinder heads are usually removable so that the valves and
pistons can be serviced. This type of unit is called semihermetic.

Condensing units
The compressor and the condenser of a system are conveniently
combined into a condensing unit (Fig. 11-3). The motor, compressor, and condenser
may be compactly mounted on the same frame and located remotely from the
expansion valve and evaporator.
 43

Performance
Two of the most important performance characteristics of a compressor are its
refrigeration capacity and its power requirement. These two characteristics of a compressor
operating at constant speed are controlled largely by the suction and discharge pressures.
An analysis will be made first of an ideal reciprocating compressor because it affords a
clearer understanding of the effects of these two pressures. Trends established from a study
of the ideal compressor hold true for the actual compressor, although adjustments must be
made in the numerical quantities. These adjustments will be examined in the discussion of
the actual compressor.

Volumetric efficiency
Volumetric efficiencies are the bases for predicting performance of reciprocating
compressors. Two types of volumetric efficiencies will be considered, actual and clearance.
The actual volumetric efficiency is defined by

where the displacement rate is the volume swept through by the pistons in their suction
strokes per unit time.

Clearance volumetric efficiency depends on the reexpansion of gas trapped in

the clearance volume and can be best explained by showing a pressure-volume
diagram of a compressor, as in Fig. 11-4. The maximum volume in the cylinder, which
occurs when the piston is at one end of its stroke, is V3. The minimum volume, or
clearance volume, is Ve, which occurs at the other end of the piston stroke. The
discharge pressure is Pd· In the first instance, assume that the suction pressure is p 1.
Gas trapped in the clearance volume must first expand to volume V 1 before the
 44

pressure in the cylinder is low enough for the suction valves to open and draw in more
gas. The volume of gas drawn into the cylinder will be V 3 - V 1, and the clearance
volumetric efficiency Nvc for this case is (V3 - V1) {100)/(V3 - Vc). When the suction
pressure is p2, the intake portion of the stroke is reduced to V3 - V2 . In the extreme
case where the suction pressure has dropped to p 3, the piston uses its entire stroke to
reexpand the gas in the clearance volume and the clearance volumetric efficiency is O
percent.
The clearance volumetric efficiency can be expressed in another way,
illustrated in Fig. 11-4 using p1 as the suction pressure. The percent clearance m,
which is constant for a given compressor, is defined as
 45

Performance of the ideal compressor

In the ideal compressor, the compression of the gas and the reexpansion of gas
trapped in the clearance volume are both isentropic. The reexpansion of the trapped gas is
the only factor which influences volumetric effiency in the ideal compressor.
In the next few pages the effect of suction pressure on the performance of an ideal
compressor will be studied. Figure 11-5 shows the effect of evaporating temperature
on clearance volumetric efficiency. The volumetric efficiencies are calculated from
Eq. (11-6) and apply to a refrigerant 22 compressor with a clearance of 4.5 percent
operating with a condensing temperature of 35°C. The clearance volumetric efficiency
is zero when the evaporating temperature is -61 °C, at which temperature the saturation
pressure corresponds to p3 in Fig. 114. When the suction pressure and discharge pressure
are the same (same evaporating and condensing pressure), the volumetric efficiency is 100
 46

percent. The mass rate of flow controls the capacity and power requirement more directly
than the volume rate of flow. The mass rate of flow, w kg/s, through a compressor is
proportional to the displacement rate in liters per second and the volumetric efficiency and
inversely proportional to the specific volume of gas entering the compressor.

Using Eq. {11-7) and an assumed rate of displacement of 50 L/s, the mass rate of flow can be
calculated and plotted as done in Fig. 11-5. As the suction pressure drops, the specific
volume entering the compressor increases, which, together with the volumetric efficiency,
reduces the mass rate of flow at low evaporating temperatures.

Power requirement
The power required by the ideal compressor is the product of the mass rate of flow
and the increase in enthalpy during the isentropic compression,
 47

value of ~h; is large at low evaporating temperatures and drops to zero when the suction
pressure equals the discharge pressure_ ( when the evaporating temperature equals the
condensing pressure). The curve of the power requirement in Fig. 11-6 therefore shows a
zero value at two points, where the evaporating temperature equals the condensing
temperature and where the mass rate of flow, is zero. Between the two extremes the power
requirement reaches a peak.
The power curve merits close attention because it has important implications. •
Most refrigeration systems operate on the left side of the peak of the power curve.
During the period of pulldown of temperature following start-up with a warm evaporator,
however, the power requirement passes through its peak and may demand more power
than the motor, which is selected for design conditions, is capable of supplying steadily.
Sometimes motors have to be oversized just-to take the system down through the peak in
the power curve. To avoid oversizing the motor, the suction pressure is sometimes reduced
artificially by throttling the suction gas until the evaporator pressure drops below the peak
in the power curve.

Refrigeration capacity

The refrigeration capacity q is

where h 1 and h4 are the enthalpies in kilojoules per kilogram of the refrigerant leaving and
entering the "'vaporator, respectively. The refrigerating effect; h1 - h4 , increases slightly
with an increase in suction pressure, as Fig. 11-7 shows, provided that the enthalpy entering
the expansion valve remains constant. The increase is due to tlfe slightly higher enthalpy of
saturated vapor at higher evaporating temperatures.
Figure 11-7 also shows the refrigeration capacity calculated with Eq. (11-9). The
capacity is zero at the point where the mass rate of flow is zero. The refrigerating capacity
can be doubled, for example, by increasing the evaporating temperature from 0
to 20°C.

Coefficient of performance and volume flow rate per kilowatt of refrigeration

The coefficient of performance can be derived from the refrigerating capacity of Fig.
11-7 and the power from Fig. 11-6. The result, displayed in Fig.· 11-8, shows a progressive
increase as the evaporating temperature increases. The volume flow rate per unit
refrigeration capacity is an indication of the physical size or speed of the compressor
 48

PRACTICE PROBLEMS

1. An ammonia compressor has a 5 percent clearance volume and a displacement rate of 80

L/s and pumps against a condensing temperature of 40~C. For the two different evaporating
temperatures of -10 and 10°C, compute the refrigerant flow rate assuming that the
clearance volumetric efficiency applies.

2. The catalog for a refrigerant 22, four-cylinder, hermetic compressor operating at 29 r/s, a
condensing temperature of 40°C, and an evaporating temperature of -4°C shows a
refrigerating capacity of 115 kW. At this operating point the motor (whose efficiency is 90
percent) draws 34.5 kW. The bore of the cyclinders is 87 mm and the piston stroke is 70
mm. The performance data are based on 8°C of subcooling of the liquid leaving the
condenser. Compute (a) the actual volumetric efficiency and (b) the compression efficiency.

3. Compute the maximum displacement rate of a two-vane compressor having a cylinder

diameter of 190 mm and a rotor 80 mm long with a diameter of 170 mm. The compressor
operates at 29 r/s.

4. A two-stage centrifugal compressor operating at 60 r/s is to compress refrigerant 11 from

an evaporating temperature of 4°C to a condensing temperature of 35°C. If both wheels are
to be of the same diameter, what is this diameter?
 49

CONDENSERS AND EVAPORATORS

Since both the condenser an evaporator are heat exchangers, they have certain
features in common. One classification of condensers and evaporators (Table 12-1) is
according to whether the refrigerant is on the inside or outside of the tubes and whether
the fluid cooling the condenser or being refrigerated is a gas or a liquid. The gas referred to
in Table 12-1 is usually air, and the liquid is usually water, but other substances are used as
well.
The most widely used types of condensers and evaporators are shell-and-tube heat
exchangers (Fig. 12-1) and finned-coil heat exchangers (Fig. 12-2). Table 12-1 indicates that
certain combinations are not frequently used, particularly the configuration where the gas is
passed through tubes. The reason is that volume flow rates of gases are high relative to
those of liquids and would result in high pressure drops if forced through the tubes.
 50

Overall heat-transfer coefficient

The overall heat-transfer coefficient for an evaporator or condenser is the
proportionality constant, which, when multiplied by the heat-transfer area and the mean
temperature difference between the fluids, yields the rate of heat transfer. If heat flows
across a tube, as in Fig. 12-3, between refrigerant on the outside and water on the inside,
for·example, under steady-state conditions the, rate of heat transfer q in watts is the same
from the refrigerant to the outside surface of the tube, from the outside to the inside
surface of the tube, and from the inside surface of the tube to the water. The expressions
for q in each of these transfers are, respectively,

To express the overall heat-transfor coefficient the area on which the coefficient is
 51

based must be specified. Two acceptable expressions for the overall heat-transfer
coefficient are

From Eqs. (12-4) and (12-5) it is clear that Uo Ao = U;A;. The U value is always
associated with an area. Knowledge of U0 or U; facilitates computation of the rate of
heat transfer q.
To compute the U value from knowledge of the individual heat-transfer coefficients,
first divide Eq. (12-1) by ho Ao , Eq. {12-2) by kAm/x, and Eq. (12-3) by hiAi leaving only the
temperature differences on the right sides of the equations. Next add the three equations,
giving

The physical interpretation of the terms in Eq. (12-8) is that l/Uo Ao and 1/UiAi are
the total resistances to heat transfer between the refrigerant and water. This total
resistance is the sum of the individual resistances
 52

Equation (12-9) is applicable to turbulent flow, which typically prevails with the velocities
and fluid properties experienced in most commercial evaporators and condensers.
McAdams1 proposed. the constant of 0.023 in Eq. (12-9), but Katz et al. found that the
actual value in condensers is about 15 percent higher because the tubes are relatively short
and the effects of higher turbulence due to entrance effects increase the rate of heat
transfer slightly.

Example -1. Compute the heat-transfer coefficient for water flow inside the· tubes (8 mm
ID) of an evaporator if the water temperature is 10°C and its velocity is 2 m/s.

As the fluid flows inside the tubes through a condenser or evaporator, a pressure drop
occurs both in the straight tubes and in the U-bends or heads of the heat ex- changer. Some
drop in pressure is also attributable to entrance and exit losses. The expression for pressure
drop of fluid flowing in straight tubes

Since the pressure drop in the straight tubes in an evaporator or condenser may represent
only 50 to 80 percent of the total pressure drop, experimental or catalog data on the
pressure drop as a function of flow rate are desirable. If the pressure drop at one flow rate
is known, it is possible to predict the pressure drop at other flow rates. The expression
applicable to straight tubes, Eq. (12-10), indicates that the pressure drop is proportional to
the square of the velocity and thus the square of the flow rate.

The other contributors to pressure drop resulting from changes in flow area and direction
are also almost exactly proportional to the square of the flow rate, so if the pressure drop
 53

and flow rate Ap1 and w1 are known, the pressure drop Ap2 at a different flow rate w2 can
be predicted:

Liquid in shell; heat transfer and pressure drop In shell-and-tube evaporators, where
refrigerant boils inside tubes, the liquid being cooled flows in the shell across bundles of
tubes, as shown schematically in Fig. 124. The liquid is directed by baffles so that it flows
across the tube bundle many times and does not short-circuit from the inlet to the outlet.
The analytical prediction of the heat-transfer coefficient of liquid flowing normal to a tube is
complicated in itself, and the complex flow pattern over a bundle of tubes makes the
prediction even more difficult. In order to proceed with the business of designing heat
exchangers, engineers resort to correlations that relate the Nusselt, Reynolds, and Prandtl
numbers to the geometric configuration of the tubes and baffles. Such an equation by
Emerson can be modified to the form

The Reynolds number in this equation is GD/μ, where G is the mass velocity or mass rate of
flow divided by a characteristic flow area. Although in this text we shall delve no deeper into
the complexities of designing a shell-and-tube heat exchanger, one important but simple
realization emerges from Eq. ( 12-12): for a given evaporator or condenser when water
flows in the shell outside the tubes
 54

The pressure drop of liquid flowing through the shell across tube bundles is also difficult to
predict analytically, but when an experimental point is available for one flow rate,
predictions of the pressure drop at other flow rates can be made quite accurately. Figure
12-5 shows the water pressure drop taken from catalog data of a water-chilling evaporator.
The applicable exponent in the· pressure-drop-flow-rate relationship here is 1.9.

Extended surface; fins Equation (I 2-8) expresses the resistances a heat exchanger
encounters when transferring heat from one fluid to another. Suppose that in Eq.
(12-8) 1/h0 A 0 is 80 percent of the total resistance to heat transfer. Efforts to prove the U
value by increasing hi provide only modest benefits. If, for example, hi were doubled so that
1/h;A; is cut in half, the decrease in the total resistance could at best be reduced by 10
percent. The resistance on the outside of the tube, 1/h0 A 0 ,is said to be the controlling
resistance.
When one of the fluids in a condenser or evaporator is a gas (hereafter considered to be
air), the properties of the air compared with those of the liquid, such as water, result in
heat-transfer coefficients of the order of one-tenth to one-twentieth that of the water. The
air-side resistance in a configuration such as shown in Fig. 12-2 would provide the
controlling resistance. In order to decrease 1/hA, the area A is usually increased by using
fins.
The bar fin, shown in Fig. 12-6 is a rudimentary fin whose performance can be predicted
analytically and will be used to illustrate some important characteristics. The
fins are of length L and thickness 2y m. The conductivity of the metal is kW /m • K, and the
air-side coefficient is hf W/m2 • K. To solve for the temperature distribution through the fin,
a heat balance can be written about an element of thickness dx m.
The heat balance states that the rate of heat flow entering the element at position 1 from
the end of the fin plus that transferred to the element from the air equals the rate of heat
transferred out of the element at position 2 toward the base. For one-half a fin width and a fin
depth of Z m, the heat balance in symbols is
 55

When a finned coil cools air, points in the fin farther away from the base are higher in
temperature than points close to the base. The net result of the higher temperature of most
of the fin is that less heat is transferred than if the entire fin were at temperature tb. The
ratio of the actual rate of heat transfer to that which would be transferred if the fin were at
temperature tb is called the fin effectiveness

The bar fin is not a common shape but the dominant type of finned surface is the
rectangular plate fin mounted on cylindrical tubes. The net result is a rectangular or
square fin mounted on a circular base, one section of which is shown in Fig. 12-7 a.
The fin effectiveness of the rectangular plate fin is often calculated by using properties
 56

of the corresponding annular fin (Fig. 12-7 b ), for which a graph of the fin effectiveness
is available, as in Fig. 12-8. The corresponding annular fin has the same area and thickness
as the plate fin it represents.

Example -2. What is the fin effectiveness of a rectangular plate fin made of aluminum 0.3
mm thick mounted on a 16-mm-OD tube if the vertical tube spacing is 50 mm and the
horizontal spacing is 40 mm? The air-side heat-transfer coefficient is 65 W/m2 • K, and the
conductivity of aluminum is 202 W/m • K.
 57

The air-side area of a finned condenser or evaporator is composed of two portions, the
prime area and the extended area. The prime area AP is that of the tube between the fins,
and the extended area Ae is that of the fin. Since the prime area is at the base temperature,
it has a fin effectiveness of 1.0. It is to the extended surface that the fin effectiveness less
than 1.0 applies. Equation ( 12-8) for the overall heat-transfer coefficient can be revised to
read

Gas flowing over finned tubes; heat transfer and pressure drop A precise prediction of the
air-side heat-transfer coefficient when the air flows over finned tubes is complicated
because the value is a function of geometric factors, e.g., the fin spacing,
the spacing and diameter of the tubes, and the number of rows of tubes deep. Usually
the coefficient varies approximately as the square root of the face velocity of the air.
A rough estimate of the air-side coefficient hf can be computed from the equation
derived from illustrative data in the ARI standard

where V is the face velocity in meters per second. Rich conducted tests of coils of various
fin spacings and correlated the dimensionless heat-transfer numbers with specially defined
Reynolds numbers. The drop in pressure of the air flowing through a finned coil is also
dependent upon the geometry of the coil. Figure 12-10 shows the pressure drop of a
commercial cooling coil when the finned surfaces are dry. As expected, the pressure drop is
higher for coils with a large number of fins per meter of tube length. The ordinate is the
pressure drop per number of rows of tubes deep, so the values would be multiplied by 6 for
a six-row coil, for example. For the coil series whose pressure drops are shown in Fig. 12-10
the pressure drop for a given coil varies as the face velocity to the 1.56 power. That
exponent is fairly typical of commercial plate-fin coils.
 58

Condensers
The previous sections presented tools for computing heat-transfer coefficients and
pressure drops of the fluid exchanging heat with the refrigerant in a condenser or
evaporator. For the condenser the fluid to which heat is rejected is usually either air or
water. Air-cooled condensers are shown in Fig. 12-2 and a shell and tube condenser in Fig.
12-1. Another type of water-cooled condenser has cleanable tubes (Fig. 12-11). When the
condenser is water-cooled, the water is sent to a cooling tower for ultimate rejection of the
heat to the atmosphere. Some years ago air-cooled condensers were used only in small
refrigeration systems (less than 100 kW refrigerating capacity), but now individual air-cooled
condensers are manufactured in sizes matching refrigeration capacities of hundreds of
kilowatts. The water-cooled condenser is favored over the air-cooled condenser where
there is a long distance between the compressor and the point where heat is to be rejected.
Most designers prefer to convey water rather than refrigerant in long lines. In centrifugal-
compressor systems large pipes are needed for the low-density refrigerants, so that the
compressor is close-coupled to the condenser. Water-cooled condensers therefore
predominate in centrifugal-compressor systems.
 59

Required condensing capacity

The required rate of heat transfer in the condenser is predominately a function of the
refrigerating capacity and the temperatures of evaporation and condensation. The
condenser must reject both the energy absorbed by the evaporator and the heat of
compression added by the compressor. A term often used to relate the rate of heat flow at
the condenser to that of the evaporator is the heat-rejection ratio

Theoretical calculations of the condenser heat rejection can be made from the standard
vapor-compression cycle, but they do not take into consideration the additional heat added
by inefficiencies in the compressor. A graph of typical values of heat-rejection ratios is
shown in Fig. 12-12. When the motor driving the compressor is hermetically sealed, some of
the heat associated with inefficiencies of the electric motor is added to the refrigerant
stream and must ultimately be removed at the condenser. The heat-rejection ratios of the
hermetically sealed compressors are usually slightly higher than those of the open-type
compressor.
 60

Condensing coefficient
The basic equation for calculating the local coefficient of heat transfer of vapor condensing
on a vertical plate (Fig. 12-13) was developed by Nusselt by pure physical analysis. The
equation for the local condensing coefficient is
 61

Equations (12-22) and (12-24) are beautiful examples of how equations of motion and
energy are combined. They are expressions of the coefficient of heat transfer across the film
of liquid which is continuously condensing on the surface and continuously draining away. A
qualitative examination of Eq. (12-24) shows that an increase in k increases hct because a
greater rate of heat flow can be transferred across a given thickness of liquid film. A high
value of density p or a low value of viscosity μ results in more rapid draining of the
condensed liquid, which decreases the film thickness and increases hct· A high value of hfg
means that for each joule transferred a small mass of vapor condenses, which keeps the film
thinner and increases hct· Finally, a high indicates a high rate of condensation with a
resultant thick film, which decreases .hct·

Equations {12-23) and (12-24) apply to film condensation, one of the two types of
condensation. The other type of condensation is dropwise. In film condensation the
condensed liquid spreads over the entire condensing surface, whereas in dropwise
condensation the condensed liquid gathers in globules, leaving some of the vapor in direct
contact with the surface. Dropwise condensation provides a higher coefficient of heat
transfer, but it can occur only on clean surfaces. To be safe, therefore, performance of
condensers is predicted on the basis of film condensation.

Equations ( 12-23) and (12-24) apply to condensation on the outside of tubes, where there
is little or no vapor velocity. When calculating the condensing coefficient on the inside of
tubes allowance must be made for the reduction in condensing area due to liquid collecting
in the bottom of the tube before draining out the end. When subjected to a vapor velocity,
the drag of the vapor on the condensate may accelerate or retard draining, depending upon
the relative directions of flow of the condensate and vapor.

Fouling factor
After a water-cooled condenser has been in service for some time its U value usually
degrades somewhat because of the increased resistance to heat transfer on the water side
due to fouling by the impurities in the water from the cooling tower. The new condenser
must therefore have a higher U value in anticipation of the reduction that will occur in
service. The higher capacity with new equipment is provided by specifying a fouling factor
1/hff m2 • K/W. This term expands Eq. (12-8) for the U value into

Several different agencies have established standards for the fouling factor to be used.
One trade association specifies 0.000176 m2 • K/W, which means that the condenser should
leave the factory with a 1/Uo value 0.000176 Ao /A; less than the minimum required to meet
the quoted capacity of the condenser.

Desuperheating
Even when the refrigerant condenses at a constant pressure, its temperature is constant
only in the condensing portion. Because the vapor coming from the compressor is usually
superheated, the distribution of temperature will be as shown in Fig. 12-14. Because of the
distortion in the temperature profile caused by the desuperheating process, the
temperature difference between the refrigerant and the cooling fluid is no longer correctly
represented by the LMTD
 62

It is common practice to use Eq. (12-26) anyway with the following justification. Although
the temperature difference between the refrigerant and cooling fluid is higher in the
desuperheating section than calculated from Eq. (12-26), the convection coefficient in this
section is normally lower than the condensing coefficient. The two errors compensate
somewhat for each other, and the application of Eq. (12-26) along with the condensing
coefficient over the entire condenser area usually provides reasonably accurate results.

Condenser design
An example will illustrate how some of the principles described in the previous sections are
combined in designing a condenser.

Example -3
The condensing area is to be specified for a refrigerant ·22 condenser of a
refrigerating system that provides a capacity of 80 kW for air conditioning. The evaporating
temperature is 5°C, and the condensing temperature is 45°C at design conditions. Water
from a cooling tower enters the condenser at 30°C and leaves at 35°C. A two-pass
condenser with 42 tubes, arranged as shown in Fig. 12-15, will be used, and the length of
tubes is to be specified to provide the necessary area. The tubes are copper and are 14 mm
ID and 16 mm OD.

Solution The steps in the solution of this design are as follows: calculate the required rate of
heat transfer, the individual heat-transfer coefficients, and the overall heat-transfer
coefficient; then Compute the required area and tube length.
 63

Rate of heat transfer From Fig. 12-12, assuming the compressor to be a hermetic
one, the heat-rejection ratio at a condensing temperature of 45°C and an evaporating
temperature of 5°C is 1.27. The rate of heat rejected at the condenser q is

The density p and latent heat of vaporization hfg at 45°C are available from Table A-6

The conductivity k and viscosity μ of the liquid refrigerant at 45°C are available from Table
15-5

The average number of tubes in a vertical row N is

The temperature difference between the vapor and the tube is unknown at this point;
therefore change in temperature will be assumed to be 5 K and the value adjusted later if
necessary.

Water-side coefficient The flow rate of water needed to carry the heat away from the
condenser with a temperature rise from 30 to 35°C is
 64

Equation ( 12-9) can be used to calculate the water-side heat-transfer coefficient hw using
the water properties at 32°C

A recheck should now be made of the assumption of the 5-K temperature difference used in
calculating the condensing coefficient. A recalculation may be necessary. The designer
would also check the water-pressure drop in the condenser to see that it does not exceed a
reasonable value (perhaps of the order of 70 kPa.)

Wilson plots
Constructing a Wilson plot is a technique of processing heat transfer data to
determine the individual heat-transfer coefficients in a heat exchanger. The concept was
introduced by Wilson13 and is often applied to condensers and evaporators to determine
the condensing or evaporating heat-transfer coefficient along with the air- or water-side
coefficient.
If it is a water-cooled condenser that is being analyzed, for example, a series of
heat-transfer tests is run and the U value determined for various flow rates of cooling
water. If the condenser tubes are clean, Eq. (12-8) applies and h0 is the condensing side
 65

coefficient and hi the water-side coefficient

The properties of the cooling water are primarily a function of temperature, and if the
temperature range throughout the tests is not large, the properties may be assumed
constant. Equation ( 12-9) can then be simplified to

Air and noncondensables If air or other noncondensable gases enter the refrigeration
system, they will ultimately collect in the condenser, where foreign gases reduce the
efficiency of the system for two reasons: (I) The total pressure in the condenser is elevated,
which requires more power for the compressor per unit refrigeration capacity. The
condenser pressure is raised over the saturation pressure of the refrigerant by the amount
of the partial pressure of the noncondensable gas. {2} Instead of diffusing throughout the
 66

condenser, the noncondensables cling to the condenser tubes. Thus the condensing-surface
area is reduced, which also tends to raise the condensing pressure. Noncondensables can be
removed from the condenser by purging. The purging operation consists of drawing a
mixture of refrigerant vapor and noncondensables from the condenser, separating the
refrigerant, and discharging the noncondensables. Ammonia systems are commonly
equipped with purgers, but the only other systems equipped with purgers are the
centrifugal-compressor systems, which use low-pressure

Noncondensables can be removed from the condenser by purging. The purging operation
consists of drawing a mixture of refrigerant vapor and noncondensables from the
condenser, separating the refrigerant, and discharging the noncondensables. Ammonia
systems are commonly equipped with purgers, but the only other systems equipped with
purgers are the centrifugal-compressor systems, which use low pressure refrigerants such as
refrigerants 11 and 113

Evaporators
In most refrigerating evaporators the refrigerant boils in the tubes and cools the fluid that
passes over the outside of the tubes. Evaporators that boil refrigerant in the tubes are often
called direct-expansion evaporators, and Fig. 12-17 shows an air-cooling evaporator and Fig.
12-18 a liquid cooler. The tubes in the liquid chiller in Fig. 12-18 have fins inside the tubes in
order to increase the conductance on the refrigerant side .

Direct-expansion evaporators used for air-conditioning applications are usually fed by an

expansion valve that regulates the flow of liquid so that the refrigerant vapour leaves the
evaporator with some superheat, as shown in Fig. 12-19a. Another concept is the liquid-
recirculation or liquid-overfeed evaporator in Fig. 12-l 9b, in which excess liquid at low
pressure and temperature is pumped to the evaporator (see Chap. 16). Some liquid boils in
the evaporator, and the remainder floods out of the outlet. The liquid from the evaporator
is separated out, and the vapor flows on to the compressor. Low-temperature industrial -
refrigeration systems often use this type of evaporator, which has the advantage of wetting
all the interior surfaces of the evaporator and maintaining a high coefficient of heat transfer.
 67

While refrigerant boils inside the tubes of most commercial evaporators, in one important
class of liquid-chilling evaporator the refrigerant boils outside the tubes. This type of
evaporator is standard in centrifugal-compressor applications. Sometimes such an
evaporator is used in conjunction with reciprocating compressors, but in such applications
provision must be made for returning oil to the compressor. In the evaporators where
refrigerant boils in the tubes, the velocity of the refrigerant vapor is maintained high enough
to carry oil back to the compressor.

Boiling in the shell

It is difficult .to predict the boiling coefficient accurately because of the complexities
of the mechanisms. Furthermore, the coefficients follow some different rules when the
boiling takes place in the shell outside the tubes, in contrast to boiling inside the tubes.
Some trends that usually occur will be presented in this and the next section. The classic
prediction for the heat-transfer coefficient for pool boiling of water at atmospheric pressure
is shown in Fig. 12-20. The tests were conducted by immersing a heated wire in a container
 68

of water. In the boiling regime AB the boiling is called nucleate boiling, where bubbles form
on the surface and rise through the pool. The equation of the curve is approximately
 69

Boiling inside tubes

When refrigerant boils inside the tubes, the heat-transfer coefficient changes progressively
as the refrigerant flows through the tube. The refrigerant enters the evaporator tube with a
low fraction of vapor. As the refrigerant proceeds through the tube, the fraction of vapor
increases, intensifying the agitation and increasing the heat-transfer coefficient. When the
refrigerant is nearly all vaporized, the coefficient drops off to the magnitude applicable to
vapor transferring heat by forced convection. Figure 12-22 shows local coefficients
throughout a tube for three different levels of temperature. The heat-transfer coefficient is
highest for the high evaporating temperature, probably because at high evaporating
temperatures and pressures the vapor density is high, permitting a greater fraction of the
metal to be wetted with liquid.
 70

Evaporator performance
For a given temperature of entering water the lines on the capacity-versus-evaporating-
temperature graph would be straight if the U value remained constant. Instead, the lines are
curved upward, indicating an increase in U value at more intense loadings due to the
improved boiling heat-transfer coefficient.

Pressure drop in tubes

The pressure of the refrigerant drops as it flows through tube-type evaporators. The effect
of pressure drop on system performance is that the compressor must pump from a lower
suction pressure, which increases the power requirement. On the other hand a high
refrigerant velocity can be achieved if more pressure drop is permitted, and this high
velocity improves the heat-transfer coefficient.Typical pressure drops for air-conditioning
evaporators are 15 to 30 k.Pa.

Frost
When the surface temperatures of an air-cooling evaporator fall below Q°C frost will form.
Frost is detrimental to the operation of the refrigeration system for two reasons: (1) thick
layers of frost act as insulation, and (2) in forced convection coils the frost reduces the
airflow rate. With a reduced airflow rate the U value of the coil drops, and the mean
temperature difference between the air and refrigerant must increase in order to transfer
the same rate of heat flow. Both these factors penalize the system by requiring a lower
evaporating temperature.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS

1. An air-cooled condenser is to reject 70 kW of heat from a condensing refrigerant to air.

The condenser has an air-side area of 210 m2 and a U value based on this area of
0.037 kW/m2 • K; it is supplied with 6.6 m3/s of air, which has a density of 1.15 kg/m3 . If the
condensing temperature is to be limited to 55°C, what is the maximum
allowable temperature of inlet air?

2. An air-cooled condenser has an expected U value of 30 W /m2 • K based on the air-side

area. The condenser is to transfer 60 kW with an airflow rate of 15 kg/s entering at 35°C. If
the condensing temperature is to be 48°C, what is the required air-side area?

3. A shell-and-tube condenser has a U value of 800 W/m2 • K based on the waterside

area and a water pressure drop of 50 kPa. Under this operating condition 40 percent
of the heat-transfer resistance is on the water side. If the water-flow rate is
doubled, what will the new U value and the new pressure drop be?

4. Compute the fin effectiveness of an aluminum rectangular plate fin of a finned air-cooling
evaporator if the fins are 0.18 mm thick and mounted on 16-mm-OD tubes. The tube
spacing is 40 mm in the direction of airflow and 45 mm vertically. The airside coefficient is
55 W/m2 • K.

5. What is the UA value of a direct-expansion finned coil evaporator having the following
areas: refrigerant side, 15 m2 ; air-side prime, 13.5 m2 ; and air-side extended 144 m2 ? The
 71

refrigerant-side heat-transfer coefficient is 1300 W/m2 • K, and the airside coefficient is 48

W/m2 • K. The fin effectiveness is 0.64.

6. A refrigerant 22 system having a refrigerating capacity of 55 kW operates with an

evaporating temperature of 5°C and rejects heat to a water-cooled condenser. The
compressor is hermetically sealed. The condenser has a U value of 450 W/m2 • K and a heat-
transfer area of 18 m2 and receives a flow rate of cooling water of 3.2 kg/sat a temperature
of 30°C. What is the condensing temperature?

7. Calculate the mean condensing heat-transfer coefficient when refrigerant 12 condenses

on the outside of the horizontal tubes in a shell-and-tube condenser. The outside diameter
of the tubes is 19 mm, and in the vertical rows of tubes there are, respectively, two, three,
four, three, and two tubes. The refrigerant is condensing at a temperature of 52°C, and the
temperature of the tubes is 44°C.

8. A condenser manufacturer guarantees the U value under operating conditions to be 990

W /m2 • K based on the water-side area. In order to allow for fouling of the tubes, what is
the U value required when the condenser leaves the factory?
 72

EXPANSION DEVICES

Purpose and types of expansion devices

The last of the basic elements in the vapor-compression cycle, after the compressor,
condenser, and evaporator, is the expansion device. The purpose of the expansion device is
twofold: it must reduce the pressure of the liquid refrigerant, and it must regulate the flow
of refrigerant to the evaporator.
This chapter explains the operation of the common types of expansion devices,
the capillary tube, the superheat-controlled expansion valve, the float valve, and the
constant-pressure expansion valve. Operation of a refrigeration system using these devices
will be discussed, with special emphasis on balanced and unbalanced flow conditions
occurring between the expansion device and the compressor. The two most commonly used
expansion devices, the capillary tube and the superheat controlled
expansion valve, are singled out for a more thorough study of their operating
characteristics.

Capillary tubes
The capillary tube serves almost all small refrigeration systems, and its application extends
up to refrigerating capacities of the order of 10 kW. A capillary tube is 1 to 6 m long with an
inside diameter generally from 0.5 to 2 mm. The name is a misnomer, since the bore is too
large to permit capillary action. Liquid refrigerant enters the capillary tube, and as it flows
through the tube, the pressure drops because of friction and acceleration of the refrigerant.
Some of the liquid flashes into vapor as the refrigerant flows through the tube. Numerous
combinations of bore and length are available to obtain the desired restriction. Once the
capillary tube has been selected and installed, however, the tube cannot adjust to variations
in discharge pressure, suction pressure, or load. The compressor and expansion device must
arrive at suction and discharge conditions which allow the compressor to pump from the
evaporator the same flow rate of refrigerant that the expansion device feeds to the
evaporator. A condition of unbalanced flow between these two components must
necessarily be temporary.
 73

For a closer look at balance points the mass rate of flow fed by the capillary tube can
be plotted on the same graph as the mass rate of flow pumped by the compressor.
Figure 13-1 is such a plot with the flow through the capillary tube shown in dashed
lines and the pumping capacity of a reciprocating compressor shown in solid lines. At
high condensing pressures the capillary tube feeds more refrigerant to the evaporator
than it does at low condensing pressures because of the increase in pressure difference
across the tube. The compressor-capacity curves are the same as those explained in the
study of compressors. At a 30°C condensing temperature, for example, the compressor and
capillary tube must search for a suction pressure which allows them both to pass equal mass
rates of flow. This suction pressure is found at point 1, which is the balance point at a 30°C
condensing temperature. Points 2 and 3 are the balance points at 40°C and 50°C condensing
temperatures, respectively.
The compressor and capillary tube do not have complete liberty to fix the suction
pressure because the heat-transfer relationships of the evaporator must also be satisfied.
If the evaporator heat transfer is not satisfied at the compressor-capillary-tube balance
point, an unbalanced condition results which can starve the evaporator or overfeed
the evaporator.
Starving the evaporator results when the suction pressure rises and the capillary
does not feed sufficient refrigerant to refrigerate the evaporator surfaces adequately.
Figure 13-2 shows a balance point for a constant condensing pressure between the
compressor and the capillary tube at suction pressure A. A heavy heat load, when
received at the evaporator, manifests itself as a high temperature of the fluid to be chilled.
The suction temperature and pressure will rise to some point B. At suction pressure B the
compressor can draw more refrigerant out of the evaporator than the capillary tube can
supply, so the evaporator soon becomes short of refrigerant. Since the evaporator cannot
be emptied indefinitely, something must happen to restore the balance. The corrective
condition on most units without a receiver (vessel that stores liquid between the condenser
and expansion device) is that liquid backs up into the condenser. The condensing area is
thereby reduced and the condenser pressure raised. With the elevated condenser pressure,
the compressor capacity is reduced and the capillary-tube rate of feed is increased until
balance is restored. Another possibility for regaining a balanced flow rate is that the heat-
transfer coefficient in the starved evaporator decreases. A greater temperature difference
must develop between the fluid being chilled and the refrigerant in the evaporator, which
occurs by means of the suction pressure dropping back to pressure A and restoring balanced
flow.
 74

An opposite unbalanced condition results if the refrigeration load falls off to less
than the refrigeration capacity at the balance point. If the refrigeration load drops off,
the suction temperature and pressure drop to some point C At suction pressure C the
capillary tube can feed more refrigerant to the evaporator than the compressor can draw
out. The evaporator fills with liquid and would spill over into the compressor with disastrous
results were it not prevented. Slugging the compressor with liquid can be prevented by·
limiting the charge of refrigerant in the system. The charge is carefully measured so that
there is enough refrigerant to fill the evaporator but no more. Balance of flow is restored
when some gas enters the capillary tube, reducing the feed rate of the capillary tube
because of the high specific volume of the vapor. A new balance point is at point D in Fig.
13.2.
Although point D represents balanced flow, it is not a satisfactory condition. The
state of the refrigerant entering the capillary tube shown on the pressure-enthalpy diagram
in Fig. 13·3 is in the mixture region, which reduces the refrigerating effect compared with
that when saturated or subcooled liquid enters the capillary tube. Each kilogram of
refrigerant provides a reduced refrigerating effect in Fig. 13-3, but the work per kilogram
remains unchanged.

Many capillary tubes are installed so that they become a part of a heat exchanger·
The heat exchanger is constructed by attaching the suction line to the capillary tube. The
cold suction gas from the evaporator retards the flashing of the liquid flowing
through the capillary tube.
Capillary tubes have certain advantages and disadvantages. Their advantages are
predominant enough to give them universal acceptance in factory-seale.~ systems. They
are simple, have no moving parts, and are inexpensive. They also allow the pressures
in the system to equalize during the off cycle. The motor driving the compressor can
then be one of low starting torque.
The disadvantages of capillary tubes are that they are not adjustable to changing
load conditions, are susceptible to clogging by foreign matter, and require the mass of
refrigerant charge to be held within close limits. This last feature has dictated that the
capillary tube be used only on hermetically sealed systems, where there is less likelihood of
the refrigerant leaking out. The capillary tube is designed for one set of operating
conditions, and any change in the applied heat load or condensing temperature from design
conditions represents a decrease in operating efficiency
 75

Selection of a capillary tube.

The designer of a new refrigeration unit employing a capillary tube must select the
bore and length of the tube so that the compressor and tube fix a balance point at the
desired evaporating temperature. Final adjustment of the length is most often "cut and
try." A longer tube than desired is first installed in the system with the probable result that
the balance point will occur at too low an evaporating temperature. The tube is shortened
until the desired balance point is reached.

Analytical computation of pressure drop in a capillary tube The equations relating

states and conditions at points I and 2 in a very short length of capillary tube
in Fig. 13-4 will be written using the following notation:

The fundamental equations applicable to the control volume bounded by points I

and 2 in Fig. 134 are (I) conservation of mass, (2) conservation of energy, and (3)
conservation of momentum.
The equation for conservation of mass states that

and w/A will be constant throughout the length of the capillary tube.
 76

Calculating the length of an increment

The essence of the analytical calculation method is to determine the length of the
increment 1-2 in Fig. 13-4 for a given reduction in saturation temperature of the refrigerant.
The flow rate and all the conditions at point I are known, and for an arbitrarily selected
temperature at point 2 the remaining conditions at point 2 and the change in L will be
computed in the following specific steps:
 77

Example -1

What length of capillary tube (ID = 1.63 mm) will drop the pressure of saturated liquid
refrigerant 22 at 40°C to the saturation temperature of the evaporator of 5°C?The flow rate
is 0.010 kg/s.
Solution Since the calculation will be performed on a computer, to facilitate the
computation equations for properties of saturated refrigerant 22 applicable to a
temperature range of -20 to 50°C will be used.
 78

Continuation to succeeding increments The conditions at point 2 that have just been
computed are the entering conditions to the next increment of length, in which the
saturation temperature drops to 38°C. Table 13-1 presents a summary of the calculations
near the entrance to the tube and as the temperature approaches the evaporating
temperature of 5°C. The cumulative length of the capillary tube required for the specified
reduction in pressure is 2.118 m.
 79

Choked flow Table 13-1 shows that near the end of the capillary tube the increments of
length needed to drop the saturation temperature 1 °C become progressively smaller. It
might be interesting to ask what happens if the evaporating temperature is lowered, say, to
-10°C. Table 13-2 shows a continuation of Table 13-1. To drop the pressure from 434.7 to
420.4 kPa (saturation temperature from -4 to -5°C), a negative length of capillary tube is
required. Clearly an impossible situation has developed,called choked flow. The
phenomenon is similar to flow in a converging nozzle when the outlet pressure has been
reduced until sonic velocity occurs at the throat. Further reductions in the discharge
pressure fail to increase the flow rate through the nozzle. An occurrence of choked flow
more closely related to the flow in a capillary tube is in long gas pipelines where because of
the pressure drop due to friction the specific volume and velocity increase until sonic
velocity occurs. The thermodynamic conditions are represented by the Fanno line shown on
the enthalpy-entropy diagram of Fig. 13-5, where the enthalpy decreases while the entropy
increases as the fluid flows through the tube. At the sonic velocity the Fanno line demands a
decrease in entropy, which is forbidden by the second law of thermodynamics for this
adiabatic process. Nature adjusts the flow rate so that the sonic velocity occurs at the very
exit of the tube.
The implication of choked flow in a capillary tube of a refrigeration system is at some
suction pressure the flow-rate curves of the capillary tube shown in Fig. 13-1 may reach a
plateau, as shown in Fig. 13-6, where further decreases in suction pressure do not increase the
rate of flow through the capillary tube. For system performance this means that to achieve a
flow balance between the compressor and capillary tube the suction pressure must drop
until the flow rate through the compressor matches the flow rate through the capillary tube.
The result is a penalty in operating efficiency. Many appliance manufacturers bond the
suction line from the evaporator to the capillary tube to remove heat from the refrigerant in
the capillary tube, lowering the specific volume and thus retarding choking.
 80

Graphical method of capillary-tube selection

Graphs to facilitate the selection of capillary tubes are based on data by Hopkins and
revised with data by Whitesel. The first graph (Fig. 13-7) presents the refrigerant flow
rate as a function of the entering pressure to the capillary tube for a tube that is 1.63 mm
in diameter and 2.03 m long. The various curves in Fig. 13-7 represent performance at a
variety of inlet conditions-magnitudes of subcooling and fractions of vapor. The
companion graph to Fig. 13-7 is the one in Fig. 13-8, presenting correction factors to the
flow rate of Fig. 13-7 for other lengths and diameters.

Both Figs. 13-7 and 13-8 apply to choked-flow conditions, and the ASHRAE Handbook
contains further graphs to correct for non-choked-flow conditions. The length chosen that
is based on choked-flow conditions may be only slightly different from that needed for
the none choked condition. Example 13-1 indicates that for the evaporating temperature
of 5°C the required length of capillary tube is 2.118 m, while if the expansion proceeds to
the choked condition at -4°C, the length is 2.139 m. The data in Fig. 13-7 also provide a
check on the accuracy of the calculation method used in Example 13-1_. The diameter of
the tube in Example 13-1 is the same as that in Fig. 13-7, and the flow rate of saturated
liquid entering at t;t. pressure of 1536 kPa is 0.01 kg/sin both Example 13-1 and Fig. 13-7.
The comparison arises in the length of the capillary tube for choked-flow conditions: 2.03
 81

m in Fig. 13-7 and 2.14 m in Example· 13-1; therefore the calculation method shows a
length 5 percent greater than the graph.

Constant-pressure expansion valve

The constant-pressure expansion valve maintains a constant pressure at its outlet, the
entrance to the evaporator. It senses the evaporator pressure, and when that pressure
drops below the control point, the valve opens wider. When the evaporator pressure rises
above the control point, the valve partially closes.
The effect of the valve operation on the performance of the system is charted in
Fig. 13-9. At a constant condensing pressure the compressor capacity and the feeding
capacity of the expansion valve at several degrees of opening of the valve are shown.
Point A is the balance point, where the expansion valve feeds as much as the compressor
pumps from the evaporator. If the refrigeration load drops off, the suction temperature and
pressure attempt to drop but the valve resists the drop in pressure by opening wider. Under
the new condition the compressor capacity remains at A, but the feed rate of the valve
changes to B. The evaporator will then flood under this unbalanced-flow condition. Starving
of the evaporator can occur if the refrigeration load increased and the valve operated at
point C.
Use of the constant-pressure expansion valve has been limited to systems of
refrigerating capacity less than about 30 kW, in which a critical charge of refrigerant is
feasible to prevent liquid from flooding out of the evaporator. Its primary use is where the
evaporating temperature should be maintained at a certain point to control humidity or to
prevent freezing in water coolers. The pressure-limiting characteristic can be used to
advantage when protection is required against overload of the compressor due to high
suction pressure.
 82

Float valves
The float valve is a type of expansion valve which maintains the liquid at a constant
level in a vessel or an evaporator. A float switchwhich opens completely
when the liquid level drops below the control point and closes completely when the level
reaches the control point will give the same net performance as a modulating type of float
control.
By maintaining a constant liquid level in the evaporator the float valve always
establishes balanced conditions of flow between the compressor and itself. Figure 13-10
shows an original balance point at A. If the refrigeration load should increase, the
evaporating temperature and pressure rise, which momentarily allows the compressor
to pump a greater rate of flow than the valve is feeding. The valve reacts to keep the level
constant by widening its average opening. A new balance point occurs at point B. If the
refrigeration load decreases, the suction pressure drops and the level rises, prompting the
valve to close somewhat and give a balance point at C. Float valves and float-switch-
solenoid combinations are used primarily in large installations. They can regulate the flow to
flooded evaporators in response to the level of liquid refrigerant in the shell of the
evaporator or in a chamber connected to the evaporator. They should not be used in
continuous-tube evaporators, where it is impossible to establish a level of liquid refrigerant
by which they can be controlled.
 83

Superheat-controlled (thermostatic) expansion valve

The most popular type of expansion device for moderate-sized refrigeration systems
is the superheat-controlled valve, usually called a thermostatic expansion valve. The name
may be misleading because control is actuated not by the temperature in the evaporator
but by the magnitude of superheat of the suction gas leaving the evaporator. The superheat
expansion valve regulates the rate of flow of liquid refrigerant in proportion to the rate of
evaporation in the evaporator. The balances of the flow rate between the compressor and
superheat-controlled expansion valve are therefore practically identical to those shown for
the float valve in Fig. 13-10. Figure 13-11 is a photograph of a thermostatic expansion valve.
The superheat of the suction gas operates the thermostatic expansion valve as
follows. A feeler bulb (Fig. 13-12) is partially filled with liquid of the same,refrigerant as that
used in the system. The fluid in the bulb is called the power fluid. The feeler bulb is clamped
to the outlet of the evaporator so that the bulb and the power fluid closely assume the
temperature of the suction gas. The pressure of the power fluid bears on the top of the
diaphragm, and the evaporator pressure pushes on the bottom of the diaphragm. A slight
force exerted by the spring on the valve stem keeps the valve closed until the pressure
above the diaphragm overcomes the spring force plus the force of the evaporator pressure.
For the pressure above the diaphragm to be higher than the pressure below the diaphragm,
the power fluid must be at a tempera ture higher than the saturation temperature in the
evaporator. The suction gas must therefore be superheated in order to bring the power fluid
up to the pressure which opens the valve.
The operation of the valve maintains an approximately constant quantity of liquid in
the evaporator because if the amount of liquid decreases, more evaporator surface is
exposed for superheating the refrigerant, opening the valve farther.
 84

The expansion valve experiences a throttling range like that in the pneumatic controls. As
shown in Fig. 13-13, a certain amount of suction superheat is required to begin opening the
valve (4°C in Fig. 13-13). To overcome the force of the spring a progressively greater force
must be supplied by the power fluid to open the valve farther. This higher force is
developed by increasing the superheat, and Fig. 13-13 shows 7 K of superheat needed to
open the valve completely.
The operation of the valve maintains an approximately constant quantity of liquid in
the evaporator because if the amount of liquid decreases, more evaporator surface is
exposed for superheating the refrigerant, opening the valve farther.
The type of thermostatic expansion valve shown in Fig. 13-12 is of the internal
equalizer type, in which the evaporator pressure at the valve outlet is admitted internally
to the underneath side of the diaphragm. Some refrigerating systems have an appreciable
pressure drop in the evaporator or employ multiple refrigerant circuits in the evaporator,
necessitating a distributor {Fig. 12-17) with a resultant pressure drop. With the internal
equalizer, therefore, a higher refrigerant pressure is applied to the underside of the
diaphragm than actually exists in the suction line at the point where the bulb is attached.
This condition requires an increased amount of superheat to open the valve and reduces the
effectiveness of the evaporator. To eliminate this situation, an external equalizer is
employed, which applies beneath the diaphragm the pressure of the refrigerant at the
outlet of the evaporator. This process is accomplished by connecting a small tube from the
suction line to the chamber beneath the diaphragm, as shown in the cutaway view of Fig.
13-14.
 85

Manufacturers' ratings of thermostatic expansion valves

The catalogs of manufacturers of expansion valves usually show the refrigerating
capacity associated with the flow rate of which the valve is capable. In order to provide
some reserve capacity, most manufacturers show the refrigerating capacity at perhaps 75
percent of the full flow rate of the valve. The flow rate through the valve is a function of the
pressure difference across the. valve, and the velocity through the fully opened valve can be
computed from the hydraulic formula

where C is an experimentally determined constant and the pressure difference is in

kilopascals. Although the ·refrigerant following the throttling process in the valve is a
mixture of vapor and liquid, Equation {13-22) applies to liquid because the vaporiza tion
does not occur until after the fluid has passed through the valve. The liquid is momentarily
in a metastable condition.
The thermostatic expansion valve is frequently called upon to operate over a wide
range of evaporator temperatures. An expansion valve for a low-temperature system, for
example, not only must control the refrigerant flow at the d~sign temperature but must also
be able to feed the evaporator properly during the pulldown operation. A characteristic,of
the thermostatic expansion valve feeding a low-temperature evaporator is shown in Fig. 13-
15. If a pressure difference of 100 kPa between the power-fluid and the evaporator pressure
is required to open the valve fully, the superheat of the suction gas must be 5 K when the
evaporator is operating at 5°C. If the same valve feeds an evaporator operating at -30°C, the
superheat required to provide the 100-kPa pressure difference is 12 K. At the low
temperature condition, therefore, a considerable portion of the evaporator is not effective
because a large area is required for superheating the gas. Decreasing the superheat
adjustment on the valve may correct the low-temperature condition but may also reduce
the superheat at the high operating temperature to the point where liquid floods out of the
evaporator into the compressor during pulldown of temperature.
One solution to the operating problems at low temperature is to use a valve with a
cross charge, i.e., one having a power fluid different from the refrigerant in the system. The
power fluid is selected so that its properties are closely related to those of the refrigerant,
as shown in Fig. 13-16. The power-fluid characteristics are chosen so that the superheat
required to open the valve is nearly constant over the entire operating range.
 86

Electric expansion valves

The electric expansion valve, shown schematically in Fig. 13-17, uses a thermistor to
sense the presence of liquid in the outlet stream of the evaporator. When no liquid is
present, the temperature of the thermistor increases, which drops its resistance and
permits a greater current flow through the heater at the
 87

valve. The valve is thereby opened, allowing an increased refrigerant flow rate. One of the
applications of the electric expansion valve is for heat pumps, where the flow rate of
refrigerant is reversed in order to change from heating to cooling. Since its control is
independent of refrigerant pressures, the electric expansion valve can function with flow
through the valve in either direction.

Application
While there is some latitude in selecting the size of an expansion device, faulty
operation results if the device is too large or too small for the installation. A valve that is too
large often overfeeds or "hunts" and may allow some liquid to flood out of the evaporator
to the compressor. A valve that is too small passes insufficient liquid so that a balance point
occurs at a low suction pressure, reducing the capacity of the system.
During winter operation the condensing pressure drops on systems that use a
cooling tower, an evaporative condenser, or an air-cooled condenser, and the pressure
differential across the valve may become inadequate. To establish a balance of flow, the
suction pressure must drop in order to develop the required pressure differential. Instead of
achieving the higher capacity normally. associated with a low condensing pressure, the low
suction pressure causes a reduced capacity. Sometimes the condensing pressure must be
kept artificially high during the winter so that the expansion valve can feed properly.
Another danger in operating a hermetically sealed motor at low suction pressures and mass
flow rates is that the motor will not be cooled sufficiently and will burn out.

In a not uncommon operating problem the valve passes insufficient refrigerant because vapor
is mixed with the liquid entering t~e valve. The high specific volume of the vapor compared
with that of the liquid means that the valve can pass as a vapor only a fraction of the mass
flow of refrigerant it can pass as a liquid. Two frequent causes af losing the liquid seal to the
valve are (1) an insufficient charge of refrigerant and (2)a high elevation of the expansion
valve above the condenser or receiver. If the valve is higher than the condenser or receiver,
the difference in static head may make the pressure low enough at the valve to flash some
liquid into vapor. A liquid-to-suction heat exchanger (Sec. 10-15) sometimes corrects this
situation.
 88

PRACTICE PROBLEMS

1. A capillary tube is to be selected to throttle 0.011 kg/s of refrigerant 12 from a

condensing pressure of 960 kPa and a temperature of 35°C to an evaporator operating
at -20°C.
(a) Using Figs. 13-7 and 13-8, select the bore and length of a capillary tube for this
assignment. Ans. For example, 1.63 mm diameter and 1.2 m long.
(b) If the evaporating temperature had been 5°C rather than -20°C, would the selection of
part (a) be suitable? Discuss assumptions that have been made.

2. A refrigerant 22 refrigerating system operates with a condensing temperature of 35°C and

an evaporating temperature of -10°C. If the vapor leaves the evaporator saturated and is
compressed isentropically, what is the COP of the cycle (a) if saturated liquid enters the
expansion device and (b) if the refrigerant entering the expansion device is 10 percent vapor
as in Fig. 13-3?

3. Refrigerant 22 at a pressure of 1500 kPa leaves the condenser and rises vertically IO m to
the expansion valve. The pressure drop due to friction in the liquid line is 20 kPa. In order to
have no vapor in the refrigerant entering the expansion valve, whatis the maximum
allowable temperature at that point?

4. The catalog of an expansion-valve manufacturer specifies a refrigerating capacity of 45

kW for a certain valve when the pressure difference across the valve is 500 kPa. The catalog
ratings apply when vapor-free liquid at 3 7 .8° Centers the expansion valve and the
evaporating temperature is 4.4°C. What is the expected rating of the valve when the -
pressure difference across it is 1200 kPa? Ans. Catalog specifies 69.4 Kw
 89

REFRIGERANTS
This chapter studies the properties of substances used as working fluids in
compression cycles, and discusses the classification of refrigerants. Some of the most
common refrigerants are presented, as well as the special phenomena occurring with the
use of zeotropic refrigerant mixtures. Finally, the use of secondary refrigerants and oil in
refrigerant are discussed.

REFRIGERANT CRITERIA

A working fluid in a compression refrigeration system must satisfy a number of

requirements that can be divided into two groups:

1. The refrigerant should not cause any risk of injuries, fire or property damage in case
of leakage.
2. The chemical, physical and thermodynamic properties of the refrigerant must suit the
system and the working conditions at a reasonable cost.

The criteria can be specified more precisely as follows:

It is not possible to fulfill all the requirements above at the same time. The most
important criterion is chemical stability within the refrigeration system. All the other criteria
are meaningless if the refrigerant decomposes or reacts with the materials used in the
system. However, the chemical criterion can also be a problem. When a refrigerant is
emitted to the atmosphere, it should not be so stable that it can exist indefinitely. The ideal
refrigerant would be totally stable in use within the system, but would decompose easily in
the atmosphere without the formation of any harmful substances.
 90

The thermodynamic and transport properties determine the performance of the

refrigeration system. The pressure should be neither too high nor too low. A pressure below
atmospheric is undesirable, because air can then be sucked into the system, resulting in
problems such as inert gases in the condenser or ice plugs in the expansion valve. The latent
heat multiplied by the vapor density gives an estimate of the capacity of a refrigeration
system. A refrigerant with a high pressure gives a higher capacity, but a refrigerant with a
low critical pressure compared with the pressure in the system leads to a low coefficient of
performance (COP). This tradeoff between high capacity and high efficiency must be
considered when choosing the refrigerant. Another desired criterion is that the specific heat
should be small compared to the latent heat of vaporization, in order to achieve small losses
in the expansion device.

Oil is normally present in a refrigeration system, and the interaction between the oil
and the refrigerant must be considered. High oil solubility is used in hermetic compressors,
but immiscible oils are normally used when the working fluid is ammonia.

DESIGNATION OF REFRIGERANTS

According to an international agreement, refrigerants are represented by the letter R

(as in Refrigerants) followed by a two- or three-digit number and, in some cases, one or two
letters. The designation Rxyz is determined by the chemical composition of the molecule, as
described below.

The methane, ethane and propane series:

Here, (x) gives the number of carbon atoms in the chemical formula, minus one.

 (x) = 0 is the methane series, but the 0 is ignored for these compounds. Examples are R12 and R22.
 (x) = 1 is the members of the ethane series, such as R114, R124 and R134a.
 (x) = 2 is the propane series, e.g. R290 (propane).

For these groups, (y) describes the number of hydrogen atoms plus one and (z) describes the
number of fluorine atoms.

Zeotropic and azeotropic mixtures

 (x) = 4 refers to zeotropic mixtures. The components in the mixture have different boiling
points, and thus the refrigerant mixture has a temperature glide. R407A and R407C are
examples of such refrigerants (see section 5.7).
 (x) = 5 refers to azeotropic mixtures. These act like homogeneous substances with one
specific boiling point, and therefore they have no glide. R502 and R507 are examples of
azeotropic mixtures (see section 5.7).

Here, (y) and (z) are ordinal numbers.

 91

High organic compounds

 (x) = 6 means that the composition is organic, e.g. butane, R600, and isobutene, R600a. This group
has several subgroups, for example hydrocarbons, oxygen compounds, sulfuric compounds and
nitrogen compounds.

The subgroups have been assigned different number series within the main group, so (y)
and (z) describe the subgroup and order within the subgroup.

Inorganic compounds

 (x) = 7 refers to inorganic compounds, such as ammonia, R717, water, R718, and carbon dioxide,
R744.

In this group, (y) and (z) are the molar mass.

Unsaturated organic compounds

 (x) = 11 stands for unsaturated ethane compounds, such as R1150 (ethylene).

 (x) = 12 stands for unsaturated propane compounds, such as R1270(propylene). The (y) and
(z) are the same as for the ethane and propane series.

The last letter, if any, in the designation number means different things:

 Lower-case letters describe the structure of the molecule. For example, R600 is butane and
R600a is isobutane. These two compounds have the same chemical formula, but different
spatial arrangements, and they therefore have slightly different properties.
 Capital letters describe specific mixing proportions of different components. For example,
R407 A-E are mixtures of the refrigerants R32, R125 and R134a. R407A has the following
mixing proportions: 20% R32, 40% R125 and 40% R134a, while R407C consists of 23% R32,
25% R125 and 52% R134a.

ENVIRONMENT IMPACT OF REFRIGERANT

Ozone Depletion Potential, ODP

Refrigerants containing chlorine or bromine contribute to the breakdown of the ozone layer
(see Figure 5.1). The reaction is as follows:
 92

However, the CIO molecule is unstable. It breaks down and reacts with ozone molecules (in
accordance with the equation above) repeatedly until a more stable compound is created.

The ODP is the ratio of the impact on ozone of a chemical compared with the impact of a
similar mass of CFC-11 (R11). Thus, the ODP of CFC-11 is 1.0 by definition. Other CFCs and
HCFCs have ODPs ranging from 0.01 to 1.0. The halons have ODPs ranging up to 10. Carbon
tetrachloride has an ODP of 1.2, and methyl chloroform's ODP is 0.11. HFCs have zero ODP
because they do not contain chlorine.

Global Warming Potential, GWP

Due to their stability in the atmosphere, CFCs as well as HCFCs and HFCs are often very
effective greenhouse gases. The GWP factor is used to reflect their impact on global
warming.

The GWP is the ratio of the warming caused by a substance to the warming caused by a
similar mass of carbon dioxide. Thus, the GWP of CO2 is 1.0 by definition. CFC-12 has a GWP
of 8500, while CFC-11 has a GWP of 5000. Various HCFCs and HFCs have GWPs ranging from
93 to 12100. Water, a substitute in numerous end-uses, has a GWP of 0.

When using GWP values from different sources, it is important to consider that the values
may differ due to different integration times or calculation models.

Another measurement of the impact on global warming is the TEWI value (Total
Environmental Warming Impact). This includes not only the direct impact of any release of
the refrigerant (GWP), but also the impact during the generation and use of primary energy
in the system.
 93

REFRIGERANT TYPES

Refrigerants are divided into groups according to their chemical composition. Following the
discovery that some of these chemical compounds may be harmful to the environment,
they are being replaced with more environmentally friendly alternatives (see Figure 5.2).
The process is not easy, and although there are alternatives to old refrigerants, the new
ones are usually not flawless.

In the following section, different groups of refrigerants are discussed, some examples are
given and their fields of application are described.

CFC = ChloroFluoroCarbons
Chlorofluorocarbons are refrigerants that contain chlorine. They have been banned
since the beginning of the 90's because of their negative environmental impacts.
Examples of CFCs are R11, R12 and R115. The conversion of equipment and
systems using CFCs has not yet been completed. On the contrary, the illegal market
for this type of refrigerants flourishes worldwide, and it is estimated that no more
than 50% of CFC systems worldwide have been upgraded.

HCFC = HydroChloroFluoroCarbons
The slow phase-out of CFCs shows it is a costly process. However, and more
importantly, it also shows the problems and indecisiveness surrounding the
availability of HCFCs, which were officially indicated as temporary (until 2030)
substitutes for CFCs. The hasty actions of the European Union that culminated in the
ban of HCFCs, immediately for refrigeration and soon (2004 at the latest) for air
conditioning, has upset the industry's programs and plans.
 94

The HCFCs contain less chlorine than CFCs, which means a lower ODP
(see section 5.3). Examples of hydrochlorofluorocarbons include R22, R123 and
R124 (see Figure 5.3).

HFC = HydroFluoroCarbons
The hydrofluorocarbons are refrigerants that contain no chlorine and are not harmful
to the ozone layer (ODP = 0, see section 5.3). However, their impact on global
warming is very large compared with traditional refrigerants. The most common HFC
refrigerants available since the ban on HCFCs are presented in Table 5.1 (see
also Figure 5.4):
 95

Some comments on the refrigerants presented in the table are given below:

 R32 and R125 are seldom used as single refrigerants, but only in mixtures with
particularly favorable thermodynamic properties.
 R245c and R245fa are used almost exclusively in the United States and in a rather
experimental way.
 R404A has been developed as an alternative to R502 for refrigerators and freezers.
 R134a was the first HFC introduced in refrigeration and air conditioning with great
success, because it requires almost no changes in the equipment designed for R22.
However, it offers a very limited efficiency, about 40% lower than that obtained with
R22. Consequently, the manufacturer has two choices: either to accept a substantial
reduction in the thermal capacity in a given system, or to increase its dimensions
(and cost) to achieve the same capacity. For this reason, R134a is used mainly in
large systems (over 250 kW) that can afford the higher costs.
 R407C is, like R134a, thermodynamically similar to R22 and works as a "drop in"
refrigerant. However, unlike R134a, which is a pure compound, R407C has a glide of
7 K, making it barely usable in small residential (household) equipment. There are
two reasons to justify such a limitation: residential equipment is more subject than
other equipment to sudden accidental losses, and it is usually serviced on site. In the
event of a sudden leakage, a 7K glide may result in changes in the proportions of the
mixture, because the relative losses of its most volatile components will be
disproportionately high. If a standard refill is used, there is no guarantee that the new
refrigerant mixture has the same proportions as it had before the leakage. Due to its
high glide, this refrigerant is used only in medium-capacity systems (50-250 kW),
which are usually serviced by skilled personnel.
 96

 R410A has very attractive thermodynamic properties, higher energy efficiency than
R22, no glide and hence no problem with the mixture remaining after charge loss
and refill. However, it has an operating pressure almost double that of R22, and
therefore requires a redesign of the whole system with larger compressors,
expansion valves, etc.
 R507A is used successfully in industrial and commercial refrigeration.
 R508B is less frequently used in low temperature cycles. R507A and R508B have
favorable thermodynamic properties and no problems with temperature glides,
because they are azeotropic mixtures.

FC = FluoroCarbons
Fluorocarbons (Figure 5.5) contain no chlorine and are not harmful to the ozone
layer. However, they are extremely stable, and they have a high GWP (cf. section
5.3). R218 is an example of a fluorocarbon, and FCs are also present in the mixtures
R403 and R408.

HC = HydroCarbons

Hydrocarbons are a very limited solution to the environmental problems associated

with refrigerants. They are harmless to the ozone layer (ODP = 0) and have hardly
any direct green house effect (GWP<5), but they are highly flammable. The use of
HCs as refrigerants is confined to Europe, because many other countries elsewhere
have banned the use of flammable gas in the presence of the public. According to
the standards ISO 55149 and EN 378.2000, this should apply also in Europe.
 97

However, the standard IEC 355.2.20 allows the use of HCs in household
refrigerators with refrigerant charges up to 150 g.

This standard has opened the way for some European refrigerator manufacturers to
produce household refrigerators with flammable isobutene, R600a.

These have been accepted enthusiastically by environmentalists, and have achieved

great success in the market.

NH3 = Ammonia
Ammonia, R717, is an attractive refrigerant alternative. It has been used in
refrigeration systems since 1840 and in vapor compression since 1860. In terms of
its properties, it should be considered a high-class refrigerant. Furthermore, its ODP
and GWP are 0. However, although it is a selfalerting gas, i.e. leaks can easily be
detected by the smell, ammonia is very hazardous even at low concentrations
because the smell often causes panic. This is the main reason why ammonia was
withdrawn from applications for use by unskilled people and retained only for
industrial applications.

It is also quite common in commercial refrigeration, although safety regulations

require that it be used with a secondary distribution loop. Obviously, this secondary
loop reduces the efficiency.

CO2 = Carbon Dioxide

R744, carbon dioxide, has several attractive characteristics: non-flammable, does
not cause ozone depletion, very low toxicity index (safety A1), available in large
quantities, and low cost. However, it also has a low efficiency and a high operating
pressure (approximately 10 times higher than R134a). For the two latter reasons,
efforts are needed to improve its refrigeration cycle and related technology,
particularly heat exchangers and expansion devices. A major forthcoming
CO2 application seems to be air conditioning in the automotive industry. Heat pumps
could also benefit from CO2 due to the higher temperature that can be obtained even
at very low ambient temperatures.

Summary Table

Table 5.2 Summary table of the different types of refrigerants.

 98

Health and Safety Classification of Refrigerants

The health and safety classification of refrigerants affects the field of application,
system construction, etc. The classification, by ASHRAE (standard 34), uses two
classes (A and B) and three groups (1, 2 and 3) according to their health hazards
and flammability, as shown in Table 5.2.

Oil and refrigerants

Mineral oil is the compressor lubricant used with CFCs and HCFCs. Due to the
different properties of HFCs, mineral oil cannot be used as a lubricant for HFC
systems. For example, the miscibility and solubility of HFC and mineral oil differ from
those of mineral oil and CFCs or HCFCs. If HFCs and mineral oils were used
together, both the oil return to the compressor and the heat transfer in the evaporator
and condenser would be impaired.

To achieve an acceptable miscibility between the refrigerant and the lubricant,

polyolester oils (POEs) are normally used with HFCs. Polyvinyl ethers are also being
introduced in some applications. In automotive air conditioning systems, polyglycol
 99

(PAG) is used by most manufacturers, but some manufacturers recommend POE for
retrofits. POEs are very hygroscopic, and will therefore absorb water if given the
chance. If too much humidity enters the oil, there is a risk of acid formation, which
could attack the components of the system. Polyolester oils used with the new
refrigerant alternatives also seem to have a cleaning effect. This could lead to a
possible problem in converted (retrofitted) systems. Deposits are dissolved and
collect in the expansion valve, with consequent blocking of the refrigerant flow.
Installing a proper and efficient filter drier in the liquid line can prevent both the
humidity and the blocking problem.

When converting an existing system to HFCs, the mineral oil is removed and
replaced by polyolester oil. If too much mineral oil is left in the system after
converting, it may be deposited in the evaporator and impair the boiling heat transfer.

A refrigerant mixture consists of two or more components. The extent to which these
dissolve in the compressor oil varies for the different components. In systems where
the refrigerant charge is small in comparison to the oil volume, this difference in
solubility may lead to problems. For example, if a mixture has a small percentage of
one component that dissolves more readily in the oil than the other components, this
will influence the physical properties and thereby the system performance .

Azeotropic/Zeotropic refrigerants
A refrigerant may be either a pure compound or a mixture (blend) of two or more
refrigerants. Examples of pure refrigerants are R12, R22 and R134a. Examples of
mixtures are R502, R404A and R407C. A mixture can behave either as a pure
refrigerant (azeotropic mixtures), or differently (non-azeotropic, or zeotropic,
mixtures).

Azeotropic mixtures
Although it contains two or more refrigerants, at a certain pressure an azeotropic
mixture evaporates and condenses at a constant temperature. Because of this,
azeotropic mixtures behave like pure refrigerants in all practical aspects. Figure
5.8 shows that the temperature is constant in the liquid-vapor mixture region for a
given pressure.
 100

Non-azeotropic/Zeotropic mixtures
Zeotropic mixtures have a gliding evaporation and condensing temperature
(see Figures 5.9 and 5.10). When evaporating, the most volatile component will boil
off first and the least volatile component will boil off last. The opposite happens when
gas condenses into liquid. Figure 5.8 shows that for a given pressure, the
temperature will change in the liquid-vapor mixture region. This results in a gliding
evaporation and condensing temperature along the heat transfer surface. In practice,
the saturation temperature at the inlet of the evaporator will be lower than at the
outlet. In the condenser, the saturation temperature at the inlet will be higher than at
the outlet.
 101

FIG. 5.9 Condenser and evaporator temperature program, counter-current flow.

FIG. 5.10 Condenser and evaporator temperature program, co-current flow.

Heat exchangers and refrigerants with glide

To exploit the temperature glide optimally, it is necessary for the heat exchanger to
operate with a counter-current flow. This gives an advantage for BPHE heat
exchangers compared with Shell & Tube (S&T) heat exchangers. S&Ts do not
operate with a truly counter-current flow, and test results have shown a decrease in
capacity for this type of heat exchanger that is not experienced with BPHEs.

For refrigerants with glide, e.g. R407C, it has been indicated that a substantial sub-
cooling is required to receive pure liquid from the condenser. Thus, if the condenser
is operating with co-current flow, an increased condensing temperature could be the
result.

During the evaporation and condensation of zeotropics, there is a negative effect on

the heat transfer coefficient due to mass transport phenomena in the refrigerant.
High turbulence and good mixing in the heat exchanger neutralizes this negative
effect, which also suggests that BPHEs have an advantage over S&Ts.
 102

Another problem with zeotropics can occur if refrigerant liquid is allowed to collect
somewhere in the circuit, e.g. in suction line accumulators, flash tanks, receivers or
pool boiling/flooded evaporators (often S&T). A change in the composition of the
refrigerant circulating through the system could follow from this, resulting in
unpredictable performance. To avoid this, all components should have a continuous
flow of refrigerant without the opportunity to collect any liquid. Hence, flooded
evaporators will probably disappear from systems containing mixtures with glide.

A considerable leak of refrigerant in the liquid-vapor region can lead to the same
problems, i.e. changed composition of the remaining refrigerant charge, giving
unpredictable system performance.

Secondary refrigerants
Secondary refrigerants allow the amounts of environmentally harmful primary
refrigerants to be minimized and contained in a restricted area. Examples of
secondary refrigerants include water, air, hydrocarbons, ammonia and carbon
dioxide, which are more environmentally benign than traditional refrigerants such as
HCFCs. They are safer (some are even incombustible and non-toxic) and generally
suitable for refrigeration systems. Brines are often chosen as secondary refrigerants
for large refrigeration systems, such as those supplying supermarkets, the most
common brines being water-glycol solutions, water-ethanol solutions and acetate
solutions.

The traditional method of refrigeration for medium- and low-temperature display

cases in supermarkets is to circulate primary refrigerants (CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs)
from a centrally located plant room. The charges of primary refrigerants for such
systems are large, and they are contained in extensive ducts with many potential
sources of leakage. The refrigerants are expensive and have negative environmental
impacts when released to the atmosphere. One way of reducing the amount of these
refrigerants and the risk of leakage is to chill a secondary refrigerant, such as glycol
or brine, in a centralized plant room and circulate this rather than the primary
refrigerant.

Secondary loop systems thus employ two separate heat transfer loops: one for the
primary refrigerant and one for the secondary refrigerant (see Figure 5.11). The
secondary refrigerant is circulated through the display cases in the supermarket
using a pump. The primary refrigerant is contained within the primary loop in the
machine room and does not enter the retail sales floor. A heat exchanger is required
to cool the secondary refrigerant with the primary refrigerant. Because the primary
refrigerant is no longer in close proximity to the customers, it is possible to use
alternative fluids, such as ammonia. A number of supermarket installations with
CO2 as the secondary refrigerant have been installed with good results. Supermarket
systems using ice slurry (a mixture of water, ice and ethanol) have also been
evaluated in some European countries.
 103

FIG. 5.11 A secondary refrigerant used in a secondary loop.

The disadvantage of this kind of system is the thermodynamic penalty from using an
extra heat exchanger and a pump for the secondary loop, both of which add to the
system's power consumption. This penalty may be reduced by new developments in
refrigeration technology.

EXTRACTED FROM: https://www.swep.net/refrigerant-handbook/5.-refrigerants/sd/

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the most common refrigerant?

2. What is the effect of refrigerant in the environment?

3. What is used as refrigerant?

4. Where is refrigerant used?

 104

ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION CYCLE

This article introduces the reader to an alternative cooling cycle to the familiar vapour
compression cycle, in the form of the absorption cycle. The article will explain the basic
principles of the cycle and applications for its use. In fact, the absorption cooling cycle was
invented before the vapour compression system in the 1850s, but for various reasons,
including cost and low efficiency, did not capture the refrigeration market.

Looking at Figure 1, the absorption cycle is very similar to the vapour compression cycle, in
that it uses a circulating refrigerant, an evaporator, a condenser and an expansion device.
The difference is that the compressor of the vapour compression cycle is replaced by a
chemical absorption process and generator, with a pump to provide the circulation and
pressure change.

The vapour compression cycle is described as a work-operated cycle because it

uses a compressor that requires work in the form of electrical energy to operate. The
absorption cycle is referred to as a heat-operated cycle because most of the energy
required to operate the cycle is heat energy. This immediately opens up options for
its application and use, over an electrically driven cooling cycle. Absorption cooling is
worth considering if any of the following factors apply:
 105

 For a CHP unit where there is spare heat available, or when a new CHP plant
is being considered;
 Waste heat is available (eg, exhaust steam);
 A low cost source of heat is available (eg, landfill gas, geothermal);
 An existing site has an electrical load limit that would be expensive to
upgrade;
 A site is particularly sensitive to noise and/or vibration;
 Solar energy can be harnessed.

Absorption cycle theory

As well as a refrigerant, an absorption system needs an absorbent solution and various pairs
of fluids are available. For air conditioning applications operating with evaporating
temperatures above 0ºC, lithium bromide solution is the absorbent, while water is the
refrigerant. Below 0ºC, the most common pairing is water as the absorbent and ammonia as
the refrigerant. In this article, only the air conditioning case is considered.

Lithium bromide is a solid salt crystal that readily absorbs water vapour (it is used to
keep electronic equipment like cameras free of moisture), eventually becoming a
liquid solution of lithium bromide and water. This solution exerts a water vapour
pressure that is a function of the solution temperature and concentration. These
temperature/pressure/ concentration properties are shown in Figure 2 for lithium
bromide/water solutions.

For example, a lithium bromide solution at 50% concentration and 25ºC would have
a vapour pressure of 0.87kPa. This is a typical condition for the solution in the
absorber vessel in Figure 1. Connected to the absorber is the evaporator, containing
water as refrigerant, which we would like to be at a saturation temperature of 5ºC for
producing chilled water at say 7ºC. If the evaporator temperature starts at 7ºC, its
vapour pressure as pure water is 1.0kPa and for equilibrium between the evaporator
and absorber to be achieved, water would have to evaporate in the evaporator and
condense into the solution in the absorber. Provided that a fresh supply of lithium
 106

bromide solution at 25ºC is continuously available, the process could go on

indefinitely and the water in the evaporator would evaporate until its vapour pressure
drops to about 0.87kPa, and a temperature of 5ºC, cooling the chilled water. The
lithium bromide solution acts like a compressor in drawing off “refrigerant vapour”, in
this case water, from the evaporator, causing the pressure and saturation
temperature to reduce to the required cooling temperature. This process is the basic
principle by which the absorption cycle operates.

To complete the cycle shown in Figure 1, the ‘weak’ solution in the absorber is
pumped to a generator, where external heat is applied to boil off or vaporise the
water from the solution. This results in the water (refrigerant) vapour leaving the
generator and being condensed in a water or air cooled condenser, back to a liquid.
Its pressure is then reduced before feeding back into the evaporator to continue the
cooling process. Meanwhile, the now ‘strong’ solution in the generator is fed back to
the absorber, also reducing in pressure as it goes and continuing the absorption
process.

The energy flows in Figure 1 indicate:

 The cooling duty heat input is to the evaporator; and

 Heat is generated by the absorption process and this heat has to be removed;
 The heat input at the generator will be the heat source selected; and
 The heat rejected from the condenser produces the condensation of the
refrigerant (water).

The only electrical input is for circulating pumps (see figure 3) and control valves.
Note that the removal of heat from the absorber and condenser can be by ambient
air in small absorption units and are available as air cooled, air cooling units up to
about 80kW cooling duty. Perhaps the most common absorption application since its
conception has been in domestic refrigeration, where a system has been developed
that has no electrical requirement and the system is driven by gas. In building
services applications it is more common to find large capacity absorption plant,
chilling water and rejecting heat through water cooled condensers and absorbers by
cooling tower/ dry cooler water, passing through the absorber first, then the
condenser.

For maximum heat exchange contact in the evaporator, the refrigerant pump sprays
refrigerant water over the chilled water tubing – similarly in the absorber, where
solution is sprayed over the heat rejection tubing. The heat exchanger improves the
efficiency between absorption and generation.

It should be noted that heat rejection from absorption systems will be greater than
that for an equivalent vapour compression system, because of the cooling required
in the absorber – about 2.5 times the cooling capacity, for air conditioning
applications, which means larger heat rejection equipment.
 107

Operation and performance

In a typical absorption system producing chilled water, the evaporating temperature

might be 5ºC, chilling water to about 7ºC, and a condensing temperature of 40ºC.
The absorber will be at a temperature of about 25ºC. The solution is pumped to the
generator, where heat is supplied at a temperature ranging from 80ºC to 140ºC, say
100ºC, driving the refrigerant from the solution to the condenser. The interesting
feature of using water as the refrigerant is the low pressures within the system. In the
evaporator and absorber the pressure will be 0.87kPa for an evaporating
temperature of 5ºC. In the condenser and generator the pressure will be 7.38kPa
corresponding to a condensing temperature of 40C. In other words the whole system
operates well below atmospheric pressure. This means that any point of leakage in
the components will result in air being drawn into the absorption system, which will
reduce cooling capacity or at worst stop the process altogether.

The Coefficient of Performance (COP) for an absorption system is defined as:-

COPc = Cooling Duty(kW)/Generator Heating Duty(kW)

The ideal, theoretical Carnot COPc is:

Tr(Ts – Ta)/Ts(Ta – Tr),

where:

 Tr is the evaporator refrigerant temperature;

 Ts is the generator temperature;
 Ta is the absorber temperature.

From the above example the ideal COP is 2.8. Compare this with the Ideal Vapour
Compression COP, operating at the same temperature difference, of 7.9.

In practice a typical COP for an absorption cycle in air conditioning would be about
0.7, compared to about 3.5 for a vapour compression system. It appears that
absorption systems require about five times more energy than vapour compression,
but of course, the energy for absorption is heat energy, not work (electrical) energy.
Heat energy is cheaper than electrical energy and in some applications this heat
energy is free, or is waste heat from another use, such as waste steam, hot water,
gas, solar energy etc., which makes it advantageous to use absorption

Note the performance characteristics of absorption systems:

 The higher the heat supply temperature to the generator, the greater the
COP.
 The higher the refrigerant evaporating temperature, the greater the COP.
 108

 The lower the ambient temperature (air or water) for heat rejection, the
greater the COP.
 Enhanced absorption systems that use double and triple effect generators
have improved COPs of 1.2 and 1.7.

With regard to capital and running cost comparison between absorption and vapour
compression, as a very general estimate, figures for a 800 kW cooling plant showed
that absorption plant capital cost was 30% higher than, but annual running costs
were 10-15% lower than vapour compression plant.

A potential selling point for absorption chillers is that they do not use global warming
fluids such as HCFC, or HFC refrigerant fluids found in vapour compression
systems. This is an important advantage of absorption units, but it is clear that the
environmental effects of refrigerant leakage on ozone depletion and global warming
is minimal compared to the effect on global warming of CO 2 generation from the
energy production required to operate the system. Absorption chillers are also
marketed as environmentally friendly because their power input is not primarily
electricity, but a heat source. This would appear to produce lower CO 2 emissions
than vapour compression systems, but this will depend on the energy source for
 109

generating the electricity used in vapour compression systems. If the electricity

generation for vapour compression is from fossil fuel, then overall CO 2 emissions
may be lower from a gas powered absorption system. However, if greener electricity
is produced, say from hydropower plants, then vapour compression systems will
have lower CO2 emissions than gas fired absorption. The situation is fairly complex
and each application would need to be considered with all the relevant data.

From an environmental position, considering primary energy requirements only,

today’s absorption systems can be effectively applied for use with integrated energy
systems such as waste heat or Combined Heat and Power(CHP)

Extracted from: https://www.cibsejournal.com/cpd/modules/2009-11/

The absorption cycle

The basic absorption cycle is shown in Fig. 17-2. The condenser and evaporator are as
shown in Fig. 17-1, and the compression operation is provided by the assembly in the left
half of the diagram. Low-pressure vapor from the evaporator is absorbed by the liquid
solution in the absorber. If this absorption process were executed adiabatically, the
temperature of the solution would rise and eventually the absorption of vapor would cease.
To perpetuate the absorption process the absorber is cooled by water or air that ultimately
rejects this heat to the atmosphere. The pump receives low-pressure liquid from the
absorber, elevates the pressure of the liquid, and delivers the liquid to the generator. In the
generator, heat from a high-temperature source drives off the vapor that had been
absorbed by the solution. The liquid solution returns to the absorber through a throttling
valve whose purpose is to provide a pressure drop to maintain the pressure difference
between the generator and absorber.

The pattern for the flow of heat to and from the four heat-exchange components
in the absorption cycle is that high-temperature heat enters the generator while low
temperature heat from the substance being refrigerated enters the evaporator. The heat
rejection from the cycle occurs at the absorber and condenser at temperatures such
that the heat can be rejected to atmosphere.
 110

Coefficient of performance of the ideal absorption cycle

The coefficient of performance of the absorption cycle COP abs is defined as

In certain respects applying the term COP to the absorption system is unfortunate
because the value is appreciably lower than that of the vapor-compression cycle (0.6
versus 3, for example). The comparatively low value of COP abs should not be
considered prejudicial to the absorption system, because the COPs of the two cycles
are defined differently. The COP of the vapor-compression cycle is the ratio of the
refrigeration rate to the power in the form of work supplied to operate the cycle.
Energy in the form of work is normally much more valuable and expensive than
energy in the form of heat.

Further insight into the distinction of the effectiveness of the absorption and,
vapor-compression cycles is provided by the exercise of determining the COP of the
ideal absorption cycle. Stated more precisely, the COP of an ideal heat-operated
refrigeration cycle will be evaluated. Figure 17-3 suggests how to proceed with the
analysis, because the processes in the box on the left consist of a power cycle that
develops work needed to perform the compression of the vapor from the evaporator
to the condenser. These two cycles are shown schematically in Fig. 17-3. The power
cycle receives energy in the form of heat qg at an absolute temperature Ts, delivers
some energy Win the form of work to the refrigeration cycle, and rejects a quantity
of energy qa in the form of heat at a temperature Ta. The refrigeration cycle receives
the work W and with it pumps hea~ qe at the refrigerating temperature of T, to a
temperature Ta, where the quantity qc is rejected.

The ideal cycle operating with thermodynamically reversible processes between

two temperatures is a Carnot cycle, which appears as a rectangle on the temperature

entropy diagram. For the power cycle on the left side of Fig. 17-3
 111

Example-1 What is the COP of an ideal heat-operated refrigeration system that

has a source temperature of heat of 100°C, a refrigerating temperature of 5°C, and an
ambient temperature of 30°C?

Temperature-pressure-concentration properties of LiBr-water solutions

Lithium bromide is a solid salt crystal; in the presence of water vapor it will absorb the
vapour and become a liquid solution. The liquid solution exerts a water-vapor pressure
that is a function of the solution temperature and the concentration of the solution. If
twovessels were connected as in Fig. 174, one vessel containing LlBr-water solution and

the other pure water, each liquid would exert a water-vapor pressure. At equilibrium
the water-vapor pressures exerted by the two liquids would be equal. An example of
one equilibrium condition is noted in Fig. 174. If the temperature of pure water is
40°C, its vapor pressure is 7.38 kPa. That same vapor pressure would be developed by
a LiBr-water solution at a temperature of 80°C and a concentration x = 59% LiBr on
a mass basis. Many other combinations of temperatures and concentrations of solution
also provide a vapor pressure of 7 38 kPa.
 112

Figure 17-5 is a temperature-pressure-concentration diagram for LlBr-water solutions.

Concentration is the abscissa of the graph and water-vapor pressure could be
considered the ordinate, as shown on the vertical scale on the right. For convenience
the saturation temperature of pure water corresponding to these vapor pressures is
shown as the ordinate on the left. The chart applies to saturated conditions where the
solution is in equilibrium with the water vapor, as in the vessel on the right in Fig.
174.
The pressures, temperatures, and concentrations chosen as example conditions in
Fig. 174 can now be verified. If the temperature of pure water is 40°C, the vapor
pressure the liquid exerts is 7 .38 kPa, which can be determined from the opposite
vertical scale in Fig. 17-5. A LiBr-water solution with a concentration x of 59% and
a temperature of 80°C also develops a water-vapor pressure of 7.38 kPa. If the
solution had a concentration x of 54% and temperature of 70°C, the water-vapor
pressurewould likewise be 7.38 kPa.

Example 2
Compute the rate flow of refrigerant (water) through the condenser and evaporator in
the cycle shown in Fig. 17-6 if the pump delivers 0.6 kg/s and the following
temperatures prevail: generator, 100°C; condenser, 40°C; evaporator, 10°C; and
absorber, 30°C.
 113

Solution
The computation of the mass flow rate incorporates material balances using applicable
concentrations of the LiBr in the solution. Two different pressures exist in the system: a
high pressure prevails in the generator and condenser, while the low pressure prevails in
the absorber and evaporator. Since a saturated condition of pure water prevails in the
condenser due to simultaneous existence of liquid and vapor, the condensing temperature
of 40°C fixes the pressure in the condenser (and thus in the generator) of 7.38 kPa. From
similar reasoning, the evaporator temperature of 10°C establishes the low pressure at 1.23
kPa. Figure 17-7 is a skeleton p-x-t diagram extracted from Fig. 17-5 to display the state
points of the LiBr solution. The solution leaving a component is representative of the
solution in the component, so the state point of the solution at point 2 leaving the
generator is found from Fig. 17-7 at the intersection of the solution temperature of 100°C
and the pressure of 7.38 kPa. This concentration is x 2 =
0.664 = 66.4%. Leaving the absorber at a solution temperature of 30°C and a pressure of
1.23 kPa, x 1 = 0.50 = 50%. Two mass-flow balances can be written about the generator:
 114

Example -3
For the absorption system of Example 17-2 shown in Fig. 17-6 compute qg, q0 , qc, qe,
and the COP.
 115

Practice Problems

1. What is the COP of an ideal heat-operated refrigeration cycle that receives the energizing
heat from a solar collector at a temperature of 70°C, performs refrigeration at 15°C, and
rejects heat to atmosphere at a temperature of 35°C ?

2. The LiBr-water absorption cycle shown in Fig. 17-2 operates at the following
temperatures: generator, 105 C; condenser, 35 C; evaporator, 5 C; and absorber, 30°C. The
flow rate of solution delivered by the pump is 0.4 kg/s.
(a) What are the mass flow rates of solution returning from the generator to the absorber and
of the refrigerant?
(b) What are the rates of heat transfer at each of the components, and the COP abs ?

3. Inthe absorption cycle shown in Fig. 17-9 the solution temperature leaving the
heat exchanger and entering the generator is 48°C. All other temperatures and the
flow rate are as shown in Fig. 17-9. What are the rates of heat transfer at the generator
and the temperature at point 4?
 116

AIR CYCLE REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

Air cycle is not a new technology. Air cycle or ‘cold air machines’ were available from
companies such as J & E Hall (see picture) in the early 1900s. These were used on board ships and by
food producers and retailers to provide cooling for their food stores.
However, the development of vapour compression cycles, based initially on ethyl ether,
ammonia or sulphur dioxide, but superseded by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) led to the gradual
replacement of the majority of air cycle systems, except in the field of aircraft air conditioning.
Environmental concerns about CFCs, ozone depletion, global warming and the resulting
increasingly stringent legislation have renewed interest in alternatives to the current standard of
vapour-compression refrigeration technologies.
The use of air cycle is one of these, offering a benign substitute for CFC refrigerants as well
as reduced energy consumption and capital costs for targeted applications.

Air cycle systems have specific advantages that apply to all potential applications:
• The working fluid (air) is free, environmentally benign, safe and non-toxic
• Air cycle equipment is extremely reliable, reducing maintenance costs and system down
time
• The performance of an air cycle unit does not deteriorate as much as that of a vapour-
compression unit when operating away from its design point
• When operating in a refrigeration cycle, an air cycle unit can also produce heat at a useful
temperature. If this is used together with the cooling, highly efficient, low energy processes are
possible
Air cycle units can produce a much higher temperature difference between the hot and cold
sides compared to vapour-compression units. This means that:
Very cold air can be produced for near-cryogenic processes
Heat can be produced at a useful temperature, which, if used together with the cooling, can
result in highly efficient, low energy processes

Air-cycle Refrigeration System

Air cycle refrigeration works on the reverse Brayton or Joule cycle. Air is compressed and then heat
removed, this air is then expanded to a lower temperature than before it was compressed. Work
must be taken out of the air during the expansion, otherwise the entropy would increase. Work is
taken out of the air by an expansion turbine, which removes energy as the blades are driven round
by the expanding air. This work can be usefully employed to run other devices, such as generators or
fans. Often, though, it is used to power a directly connected (bootstrap) compressor, which elevates
the compressed (hot) side pressure further without added external energy input, essentially
recycling the energy removed from the expanding air to compress the high pressure air further. The
increase in pressure on the hot side further elevates the temperature and makes the air cycle system
produce more useable heat (at a higher temperature). The cold air after the turbine can be used as a
refrigerant either directly in an open system, or indirectly by means of a heat exchanger in a closed
system. The efficiency of such systems is limited to a great extent by the efficiencies of compression
and expansion, as well as those of the heat exchangers employed.

Originally, slow speed reciprocating compressors and expanders were used. The poor efficiency and
reliability of such machinery were major factors in the replacement of such systems with vapour
compression equipment. However, the development of rotary compressors and expanders (such as
in car turbochargers) greatly improved the isentropic efficiency and reliability of the air cycle.
 117

Advances in turbine technology, together with the development of air bearings and ceramic
components offer further efficiency improvements.

Combining these advances with newly available, compact heat exchangers, which have greatly
improved heat transfer characteristics, makes competition with many existing vapour compression
quite feasible.
 118

Analysis of the Air- Refrigeration Cycle

1. Refrigerator

Refrigerating Effect = (m) CP ( T2 – T1), KW

Where m = mass flow rate of air, kg/s

Cp = 1.0062 kJ/kg-K, specific heat of air at constant pressure

 119

2. Cooler

Heat Rejected = (m) Cp (T5- T3), KW

3. Compressor

Isentropic Compression

Wc= (kp2V2/(1-k)) ((p3/p2)k-1/k – 1) = (kmRT2/(1-k)) ((p3/p2)k-1/k – 1)

Polytropic Compression

Wc= (np2V2/(1-n)) ((p3/p2)n-1/n – 1) = (nmRT2/(1-n)) ((p3/p2)n-1/n – 1)

4. Expander

Isentropic Expansion

WE = (kp5V5/(1-k)) ((p1/p5)k-1/k – 1)

Polytropic Expansion

WE = (np5V5/(1-n)) ((p1/p5)n-1/n – 1)

5. Net Work

WN = W c - WE

6. Coefficient of Perpormance

COP = Refrigerating Effect/ Net Work

120
121
122
 123

Extracted from https://www.slideshare.net/naphisahamad/air-refrigerationsystem

Practice Problems

1. An open air refrigeration system carries a load of 35 kW with a suction pressure of 103
kPa and a discharge pressure of 690 kPa. The temperature leaving the refrigerator is 5 C and
that leaving the cooler is 30 C. The compression is polytropic with n = 1.33 and the
expansion is also polytropic but with n = 1.35. Determine the power required and the COP.

2. An air refrigeration system is required to produce 52.5 kW of refrigeration with a cooler

pressure of 1448 kPa and a refrigerator pressure of 207 kPa. Leaving air temperature are 29
C for cooler and 5 C for refrigerator. Expansion is isentropic and compression is polytropic
with n = 1.34. Determine the COP.
 124

STEAM-JET REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

In steam jet refrigeration systems, water can be used as the refrigerant. Like air, it is
perfectly safe. These systems were applied successfully to refrigeration in the early years of
this century. At low temperatures the saturation pressures are low (0.008129 bar at 4°C)
and the specific volumes are high (157.3 m3/kg at 4°C). The temperatures that can be
attained using water as a refrigerant are not low enough for most refrigeration applications
but are in the range which may satisfy air conditioning, cooling, or chilling requirements.
Also, these systems are used in some chemical industries for several processes, e.g. the
removal of paraffin wax from lubricating oils. Note that steam jet refrigeration systems are
not used when temperatures below 5°C are required. The main advantages of this system
are the utilization of mostly low-grade energy and relatively small amounts of shaft work.

Steam jet refrigeration systems use steam ejectors to reduce the pressure in a tank
containing the return water from a chilled water system. The steam jet ejector utilizes the
energy of a fast-moving jet of steam to capture the flash tank vapor and compress it.
Flashing a portion of the water in the tank reduces the liquid temperature. Figure 3.66
presents a schematic arrangement of a steam jet refrigeration system for water cooling. In
the system shown, high-pressure steam expands while flowing through the nozzle 1. The
expansion causes a drop in pressure and an enormous increase in velocity. Due to the high
velocity, flash vapor from the tank 2 is drawn into the swiftly moving steam and the mixture
enters the diffuser 3. The velocity is gradually reduced in the diffuser but the pressure of the
steam at the condenser 4 is increased 5-10 times more than that at the entrance of the
diffuser (e.g. from 0.01 bar to 0.07 bar).
 125

An ejector was invented by Sir Charles Parsons around 1901 for removing air from steam
engine condensers. In about 1910, the ejector was used by Maurice Leblanc in the steam
ejector refrigeration system It experienced a wave of popularity during the early 1930s for
air conditioning large buildings. Steam ejector refrigeration cycles were later supplanted by
systems using mechanical compressors. Since that time, development and refinement of
ejector refrigeration systems have been almost at a standstill as most efforts have been
concentrated on improving vapor compression cycles (Aphornratana et al., 2001).

Furthermore, another typical gas-driven ejector is shown schematically in Figure 3.67a.

High-pressure primary fluid (P) enters the primary nozzle, through which it expands to
produce a low-pressure region at the exit plane (1). The high-velocity primary stream draws
and entrains the secondary fluid (S) into the mixing chamber. The combined streams are
assumed to be completely mixed at the end of the mixing chamber (2) and the flow speed is
supersonic. A normal shock wave is then produced within the mixing chamber’s throat (3),
creating a compression effect, and the flow speed is reduced to a subsonic value. Further
compression of the fluid is achieved as the mixed stream flows through the subsonic
diffuser section (b).

Figure 3.67b shows a schematic diagram of an ejector refrigeration cycle. It can be seen that
a boiler, an ejector and a pump are used to replace the mechanical compressor of a
conventional system. High-pressure and high-temperature refrigerant vapor is evolved in a
boiler to produce the primary fluid for the ejector. The ejector draws vapor refrigerant from
the evaporator as its secondary. This causes the refrigerant to evaporate at low pressure
and produce useful refrigeration. The ejector exhausts the refrigerant vapor to the
condenser where it is liquefied. The liquid refrigerant accumulated in the condenser is
returned to the boiler via a pump whilst the remainder is expanded through a throttling
valve to the evaporator, thus completing the cycle. As the working input required to
circulate the fluid is typically less than 1 % of the heat supplied to the boiler, the COP may
be defined as the ratio of evaporator refrigeration load to heat input to the boiler as
follows:
 126

Recently, Aphornratana et al. (2001) have developed a new jet ejector refrigeration system
using R-ll as the refrigerant as shown in Figure 3.68. All vessels in the systems were
constructed from galvanized steel. The boiler was designed to be electrically heated, two 4
kW electric heaters being located at the lower end. At its upper end, three baffle plates were
welded to the vessel to prevent liquid droplets being carried over with the refrigerant vapor.
The evaporator design was similar to that of the boiler. A single 3 kW electric heater was
used to simulate a cooling load. A water-cooled plate type heat exchanger was used as a
condenser. Cooling water was supplied at 32°C. The boiler was covered with a 40 mm
thickness of glass wool with aluminum foil backing. The evaporator was covered with a 30
mm thickness of neoprene foam rubber. A diaphragm pump was used to circulate liquid
refrigerant from the receiver tank to the boiler and the evaporator. The pump was driven by
a variable speed 1/4 hp motor. One drawback of using the diaphragm pump is cavitation of
the liquid refrigerant in the suction line due to pressure drop through an inlet check-valve.
Therefore a small chiller was used to sub-cool the liquid R-11 before entering the pump.
Figure 3.68c shows a detailed schematic diagram of the experimental ejector. The nozzle
was mounted on a threaded shaft, which allowed the position of the nozzle to be adjusted.
Two different mixing chambers with throat diameter of 8 mm were used: in mixing chamber
no.l, the mixing section is constant area duct: in mixing chamber no.2, the mixing section is
convergent duct.

From http://www.refrigeratordiagrams.com/refrigeration-systems-and-
applications/refrigeration-cycles-and-systems/steam-jet-refrigeration-systems.html

Sample Problem

A steam jet pump maintains a temperature of 5 C in the evaporator. The cooled water
leaves at the same temperature and warms to 10 C as it does its refrigeration. Make-up
water is available at 21 C. There are required 1.27 kg of nozzle steam per kg vapour
removed from the evaporator. For a 175 kW plant, compute the volume of vapour handled,
the quantity of steam needed, and the quantity of chilled water.

Nozzle steam 3 10 C

21 C 4 5C cooled area 2

make-up water evaporator

pump 1 175 kW
 127

Solution: From the steam table

h1 = hf at 5 C = 20.98 kJ/kg

h2 = hf at 10 C = 42.01 kJ/kg

h3 = hg at 5 C = 2510.6 kJ/kg

v3 = vg at 5 C = 147.12 m3/kg

h4 = hf at 21 C = 88.14 kJ/kg

Let z = vapour removed from the evaporator, carried by nozzle steam

m = mass flow rate of chilled water

Energy balance about the whole system, neglecting pump work,

zh4 + 175 = zh3

88.14z + 175 = 2510.6z

z = 0.07224 kg vapour/s

Volume of vapour removed = zv3 = 0.07224( 147.12) = 10.63 m 3/s

Quantity of nozzle steam = 1.27 (0.07224) = 0.0917 kg/s s

Energy balance about the cooled area,

mh1 + 175 = mh2

20.98m + 175 = 42.01 m

m = 8.32 kg/s

PRACTICE PROBLEMS

1. There are removed 3.06 m3/s of vapour from the water evaporator of a vacuum
refrigeration system; the warm water enters the evaporator at 18 C and chilled water leaves
at 10 C, make-up water enters at 29 C. Determine the refrigerating capacity.

2. In a steam jet refrigeration system, the evaporator is maintained at 6 C. The chilled water
leaves at the same temperature and warms to 11 C as it absorbs the load. Make-up water is
available at 25 C. For a capacity of 50 tons, determine a) the quantity of chilled water
required, and b) the volume of vapour removed.
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SOLAR POWERED REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

From: file:///C:/Users/USER/Downloads/ASHRAEJournal-SolarRefrigeration-KleinReindl2005.pdf

Photovoltaic Operated Refrigeration Cycle

Photovoltaics (PV) involve the direct conversion of solar radiation to direct current (dc) electricity
using semiconducting materials. In concept, the operation of a PV-powered solar refrigeration cycle
is simple. Solar photovoltaic panels produce dc electrical power that can be used to operate a dc
motor, which is coupled to the compressor of a vapor compression refrigeration system. The major
considerations in designing a PV-refrigeration cycle involve appropriately matching the electrical
characteristics of the motor driving the compressor with the available current and voltage being
produced by the PV array.

The rate of electrical power capable of being generated by a PV system is typically provided by
manufacturers of PV modules for standard rating conditions, i.e., incident solar radiation of 1,000
W/m2 (10 800 W/ft2) and a module temperature of 25°C (77°F). Unfortunately, PV modules will
operate over a wide range of conditions that are rarely as favorable as the rating condition. In
addition, the power produced by a PV array is as variable as the solar resource from which it is
derived. The performance of a PV module, expressed in terms of its currentvoltage and power-
voltage characteristics, principally depends on the solar radiation and module temperature. Figure 2
shows current (solid lines) and power (dotted lines) vs. voltage for a 1.32 m2 (14 ft2) single
crystalline PV module at the reference condition and four operating conditions.

At any level of solar radiation and module temperature, a single operating voltage will result in
maximum electrical power production from the module. The module represented in Figure 2 shows
the voltage that yields maximum power ranges between 30 and 35 volts for this PV array.
 129

The effi ciency of the solar panels, defi ned as the ratio of the electrical power produced to the
incident radiation is between 8% to 10% at maximum power conditions for the PV array represented
in Figure 2. If the PV refrigeration system is to operate at high effi ciency, it is essential that the
voltage imposed on the PV array be close to the voltage that provides maximum power.

This requirement can be met in several ways. First, a maximum power tracker can be used which, in
effect, continuously transforms the voltage required by the load to the maximum power voltage. If
the system includes a battery, the battery voltage will control the operating voltage of the PV
module. PV panels can then be chosen so that their maximum power voltage is close to the voltage
for the battery system.

The battery also provides electrical storage so that the system can operate at times when solar
radiation is unavailable. However, the addition of a battery increases the weight of the system and
reduces its steady-state effi ciency. Electrical storage may not be needed in a solar refrigeration
system as thermal storage, e.g., ice or other low temperature phase storage medium, may be more
effi cient and less expensive.

A final option for systems that do not use a maximum power tracker or a battery is to select an
electric motor having current-voltage characteristics closely matched to the maximum power output
of the module.

Figure 3 superimposes the current-voltage characteristics of a series dc motor and separately excited
motor on the photovoltaic module. In this case, the separately excited motor would provide more
effi cient operation because it more closely matches the maximum power curve for the photovoltaic
module. However, neither motor type represented in Figure 3 is well-matched to the characteristics
of the PV module over the entire range of incident solar radiation. Studies of solar-powered motors
have shown that permanent magnet or separately excited dc motors are always a better choice than
series excited dc motors in direct-coupled systems that are not equipped with a maximum power
tracker.
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Solar Mechanical Refrigeration

Solar mechanical refrigeration uses a conventional vapor compression system driven by mechanical
power that is produced with a solar-driven heat power cycle. The heat power cycle usually
considered for this application is a Rankine cycle in which a fl uid is vaporized at an elevated
pressure by heat exchange with a fl uid heated by solar collectors. A storage tank can be included to
provide some high temperature thermal storage. The vapor fl ows through a turbine or piston
expander to produce mechanical power, as shown in Figure 4. The fl uid exiting the expander is
condensed and pumped back to the boiler pressure where it is again vaporized.

The effi ciency of the Rankine cycle increases with increasing temperature of the vaporized fluid
entering the expander, as shown in Figure 5 (bold line). The Rankine cycle effi ciency in Figure 5 was
estimated for a high-temperature organic fluid assuming that saturated vapor is provided to a 70%
effi cient expander and condensation occurs at 35°C (95°F). The effi ciency of a solar collector,
however, decreases with increasing temperature of the delivered energy. High temperatures can be
obtained from concentrating solar collectors that track the sun’s position in one or two dimensions.
Tracking systems add cost, weight and complexity to the system. If tracking is to be avoided,
evacuated tubular, compound parabolic or advanced multi-cover fl at plate collectors can be used to
produce fl uid temperatures ranging between 100°C – 200°C (212°F – 392°F).

The efficiency of solar collectors depends on both solar radiation and the difference in temperature
between the entering fluid and ambient. Figure 5 also shows approximate solar collector efficiencies
as a function of fluid delivery temperature for a range of solar radiation values. The overall efficiency
 131

of solar mechanical refrigeration, defi ned as the ratio of mechanical energy produced to the
incident solar radiation, is the product of the effi ciencies of the solar collector and the power cycle.
Because of the competing effects with temperature, there is an optimum efficiency at any solar
radiation. However, the optimum effi ciency would be a maximum of 4.5% for the conditions
assumed in Figure 5.

This effi ciency is significantly lower than that which can be achieved with non-concentrating PV
modules. Solar mechanical systems are competitive only at higher temperatures for which tracking
solar collectors are required. Because of its economy-of-scale, this option would only be applicable
for large refrigeration systems (e.g., 1,000 tons or 3,517 kWT).

Absorption Refrigeration

Absorption refrigeration is the least intuitive of the solar refrigeration alternatives. Unlike the PV and
solar mechanical refrigeration options, the absorption refrigeration system is considered a
“heatdriven” system that requires minimal mechanical power for the compression process. It
replaces the energy-intensive compression in a vapor compression system with a heatactivated
“thermal compression system.” A schematic of a single-stage absorption system using ammonia as
the refrigerant and ammonia-water as the absorbent is shown in Figure 6. Absorption cooling
systems that use lithium bromide-water absorption-refrigerant working fl uids can not be used at
temperatures below 0°C (32°F).

The condenser, throttle and evaporator operate in the exactly the same manner as for the vapor
compression system. In place of the compressor, however, the absorption system uses a series of
three heat exchangers (absorber, regenerating intermediate heat exchanger and a generator) and a
small solution pump. Ammonia vapor exiting the evaporator (State 6) is absorbed in a liquid solution
of water-ammonia in the absorber. The absorption of ammonia vapor into the water-ammonia
solution is analogous to a condensation process. The process is exothermic and so cooling water is
required to carry away the heat of absorption. The principle governing this phase of the operation is
 132

that a vapor is more readily absorbed into a liquid solution as the temperature of the liquid solution
is reduced.

The ammonia-rich liquid solution leaving the absorber (State 7) is pumped to a higher pressure,
passed through a heat exchanger and delivered to the generator (State 1). The minimum mechanical
power needed to operate the pump is given by Equation 1, the same equation that applies to the
minimum power needed by a compressor. However, the power requirement for the pump ismuch
smaller than that for the compressor since v, the specific volume of the liquid solution, is much
smaller than the specifi c volume of a refrigerant vapor. It is, in fact, possible to design an absorption
system that does not require any mechanical power input relying instead on gravity. However, grid-
connected systems usually rely on the use of a small pump.

In the generator, the liquid solution is heated, which promotes desorption of the refrigerant
(ammonia) from the solution. Unfortunately, some water also is desorbed with the ammonia, and it
must be separated from the ammonia using the rectifi er. Without the use of a rectifi er, water exits
at State 2 with the ammonia and travels to the evaporator, where it increases the temperature at
which refrigeration can be provided.

This solution temperature needed to drive the desorption process with ammonia-water is in the
range between 120°C to 130°C (248°F to 266°F). Temperatures in this range can be obtained using
low cost non-tracking solar collectors. At these temperatures, evacuated tubular collectors may be
more suitable than fl at-plate collectors as their effi ciency is less sensitive to operating temperature.

The overall effi ciency of a solar refrigeration system is the product of the solar collection effi ciency
and the coeffi cient of performance of the absorption system. The effi ciency of an evacuated
tubular collector for different levels of solar radiation and energy delivery temperatures is given in
Figure 5.

The COP for a single-stage ammonia-water system depends on the evaporator and condenser
temperatures. The COP for providing refrigeration at –10°C (14°F) with a 35°C (95°F) condensing
temperature is approximately 0.50. Advanced absorption cycle confi gurations have been developed
that could achieve higher COP values. The absorption cycle will operate with lower temperatures of
thermal energy supplied from the solar collectors with little penalty to the COP, although the
capacity will be significantly reduced.

Conclusions

An overall system coeffi cient of performance (COPsys) can be defi ned as the ratio of refrigeration
capacity to input solar energy. The COPsys is low for all three types of solar refrigeration systems.
However, this defi nition of effi ciency may not be the most relevant metric for a solar refrigeration
system because the fuel that drives the system during operation, solar energy, is free. Other system
metrics that are more important are the specifi c size, weight, and, of course, the cost.

A number of barriers have prevented more widespread use of solar refrigeration systems.

First, solar refrigeration systems necessarily are more complicated, costly, and bulky than
conventional vapor compression systems because of the necessity to locally generate the power
needed to operate the refrigeration cycle.
 133

Second, the ability of a solar refrigeration system to function is driven by the availability of solar
radiation. Because this energy resource is variable, some form of redundancy or energy storage
(electrical or thermal) is required for most applications, which further adds to the system size and
cost. The advantage of solar refrigeration systems is that they displace some or all of the
conventional fuel use. The operating costs of a solar refrigeration system should be lower than that
of conventional systems, but at current and projected fuel costs, this operating cost savings would
not likely compensate for their additional capital costs, even in a longterm life-cycle analysis

The major advantage of solar refrigeration is that it can be designed to operate independent of a
utility grid. Applications exist in which this capability is essential, such as storing medicines in remote
areas. Of the three solar refrigeration concepts presented here, the photovoltaic system is most
appropriate for small capacity portable systems located in areas not near conventional energy
sources (electricity or gas). Absorption and solar mechanical systems are necessarily larger and
bulkier and require extensive plumbing as well as electrical connections. In situations where the cost
of thermal energy is high, absorption systems may be viable for larger stationary refrigeration
systems. The solar mechanical refrigeration systems would require tracking solar collectors to
produce high temperatures at which the heat power cycle effi ciency becomes competitive.

If the capital cost and effi ciency of tracking solar collectors can be significantly reduced, this
refrigeration system option could be effective in larger scale refrigeration applications.

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. How do solar refrigerators work?

2. What are the refrigeration system that has a potential to use solar power?

3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of refrigeration system that utilize solar
energy?
 134

THERMOELECTRIC REFRIGERATION

Thermoelectric refrigeration is the process of pumping heat energy out of an insulated

chamber in order to reduce the temperature of the chamber below that of the surrounding
air. Thermoelectric refrigeration uses a principle called the "PELTIER" effect to pump heat
electronically. The Peltier effect is named after a French scientist who discovered it in 1834.

In 1834 Jean Peltier noted that when an electrical current is applied across the junction of
two dissimilar metals, heat is removed from one of the metals and transferred to the other.
This is the basis of thermoelectric refrigeration. Thermoelectric modules are constructed
from a series of tiny metal cubes of dissimilar exotic metals which are physically bonded
together and connected electrically. When electrical current passes through the cube
junctions, heat is transferred from one metal to the other. Solid-state thermoelectric
modules are capable of transferring large quantities of heat when connected to a heat
absorbing device on one side and a heat dissipating device on the other. The Koolatron's
internal aluminium cold plate fins absorb heat from the contents, (food and beverages), and
the thermoelectric modules transfer it to heat dissipating fins under the control panel. Here,
a small fan helps to disperse the heat into the air. The system is totally environmentally
friendly and contains no hazardous gases, nor pipes nor coils and no compressor. The only
moving part is the small 12-volt fan. Thermoelectric modules are too expensive for normal
domestic and commercial applications which run only on regular household current. They
are ideally suited to recreational applications because they are lightweight, compact,
insensitive to motion or tilting, have no moving parts, and can operate directly from 12-volt
batteries.

ADVANTAGES OF THERMOELECTRIC REFRIGERATION

1. COMPACT SIZE Very little space is required by the cooling system. The
thermoelectric module is the size of a matchbook.

2. LIGHTWEIGHT & PORTABLE Carries with one hand and is unaffected

by motion or tilting.

3. LOWER PRICED 20% to 40% less expensive than compressor or

absorption units.

4. LOW BATTERY Averages approximately 4.5 amps - less than your cars
headlights.
 135

COOLING TECHNOLOGY COMPARISON

THERMOELECTRIC: Cooling is achieved electronically using the "Peltier"
effect - heat is pumped with electrical energy.
COMPRESSOR: Cooling is achieved by vaporising a refrigerant (such as
freon) inside the refrigerator - heat is absorbed by the refrigerant through
the principle of the "latent heat of vaporisation" and released outside the
refrigerator where the vapour is condensed and compressed into a liquid
again. Uses mechanical energy.

Thermoelectric Devices
As discussed in the previous section, the Seebeck and Peltier effects are cross-correlations
between electricity and heat carried by an electron in solids. When the Seebeck coefficient
and the electrical conductivity are large in a material, such a material can convert electric
energy into heat and vice versa. This is schematically illustrated in Figure 20. A rod of a
material subject to the temperature gradient causes
the thermoelectric voltage V=SΔT across the sample, where ΔT is the temperature
difference between the edges of the sample, and S is the Seebeck coefficient. If the
voltage V is sufficiently high, the rod works as a battery, and generates electricity at an
external load connected to the rod. In this situation, the thermoelectric voltage corresponds
to the open-circuit voltage of the battery, and the resistance of the rod corresponds to the
internal resistance of the battery. Such a material is called a thermoelectric material, and the
device made from is called a thermoelectric device.
 136

Figure 20. A schematic picture of thermoelectric power generation. Reprinted from Narlikar, A.V.
(Ed.), 2005. Layered Cobalt Oxides as a Thermoelectric Material in Frontiers in Magnetic Materials,
pp. 327–346. Springer: Berlin: Figure 1.

Actually, Figure 20 is an oversimplified picture for the thermoelectric device. Since the
current lead is usually a good conductor of heat, the heat applied at the left edge will flow
through the lead, and will not generate sufficient temperature difference and, in the worst
case, may damage the load. To avoid this, one should make a pair of rods as shown
in Figure 21. This structure is nothing but a thermocouple, and the heat applied at the
junction now flows through the pair of thermoelectric legs. In this respect, the thermoelectric
device is a thermocouple with an ability to generate electricity, as shown in Figure 21(b).
Obviously, the pair should be a pair of n- and p-type materials to maximize the
thermoelectric voltage. Another requirement is that the thermal conductivity should be as low
as possible to maximize the temperature difference across the legs.

Figure 21. A schematic picture of thermoelectric devices: (a) thermoelectric refrigerator and (b)
thermoelectric power generator. Reprinted from Sorell, C.C., Sugihara, S., Nowotny, J. (Eds.), 2005.
Materials for Energy Conversion Devices. Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing: Figure 13.2.
 137

The thermoelectric device does not only generate electric power

from heat, but also converts electric power into heat through the
Peltier effect, that is, it cools the junction with external current, as
shown in Figure 21(a). This is known as thermoelectric
refrigeration or Peltier cooling. Thanks to the Onsager relation of
eqn [65], the Peltier coefficient ∏ is equal to the Seebeck coefficient
multiplied by absolute temperature. Thus, materials with the large
Seebeck coefficient near or below room temperature can be used
for thermoelectric refrigeration.
We begin with the heat balance of the thermoelectric cooling device
shown in Figure 21(a). Let R, S, and K be the net resistance, the
net Seebeck coefficient, and the net thermal conductance of the
device, respectively. For the sake of simplicity, we assume that all
the parameters of the device are independent of temperature. At
the junction (cold side), the pumped heat per unit time QC is given
by

where the second term is the Joule heat in the sample (we assume
that a half of the heat goes to each side) and the third term is the
back flow of the thermal current by the temperature difference.
Similarly, at the hot side, the emitted heat per unit time QH is given
by

Thus, the total work per unit time is given by

Equation [74] means that the work to refrigerate is equal to the

voltage drop of the device in addition to the thermoelectric voltage.
The heat balance at the hot and cold sides in the thermoelectric
power generator shown in Figure 21(b) is similarly given by
 138

By connecting an external load Rext=xR, we find the

current I=SΔT/(1+x)R. Then, the output power P is equal to

which takes a maximum Pmax=(SΔT)2/4R at x=1, that

is, Rext=R. Pmax is determined by the following material parameter:
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140
 141

Figure 22. The conversion efficiency plotted as a function of temperature difference. The cold temperature is set to
300 K. Reprinted from Sorell, C.C., Sugihara, S., Nowotny, J. (Eds.), 2005. Materials for Energy Conversion Devices.
Cambridge, UK: Woodhead Publishing: Figure 13.2
 142

Thermoelectric refrigeration is a proven technology, where small

refrigeration systems are already commercially available. However,
current state-of-the-art thermoelectric refrigeration technology is
much less efficient than conventional vapor compression
equipment. Significant breakthroughs in materials are needed to
boost efficiency to broaden its application. Thermoelectric cooling is
being promoted both for automobile air conditioning and household
refrigeration
Present thermoelectric devices operate at about 10% of Carnot
efficiency for domestic refrigerator applications, whereas vapor
compression refrigerators usually operate at about 30% of Carnot
efficiency. Thermoelectric devices are used in situations where heat
loads are small (<25 W), the required temperature lift is small
(<10 °C) or the variation of the heat load is large. The COP
increases significantly with decreasing temperature lifts. [87] built a
thermoelectric domestic refrigerator with a single food compartment
(of 0.225 m3) to be maintained at 5 °C (41 °F), and demonstrated a
COP of 0.45 at a temperature lift of 19 °C (34.2 °F). Such
performance is much below that of conventional vapor compression
technology. [93] suggested the use of a hybrid thermoelectric
system to provide additional liquid subcooling to improve the
performance of a conventional vapor compression system.
Although the “figure of merit ZT” has increased slowly in recent
years due to advancement in nanoscale science, practical
 143

applications for thermoelectric devices are still limited. Despite

numerous advantages of thermoelectric refrigeration, an order of
magnitude increase in figure of merit is required for thermoelectric
refrigeration to match the energy efficiency of state of the art vapor
compression technologies. They are, however, becoming popular
for cooling applications in several niche markets where size and
convenience make them attractive such as wine cabinets, mini-
refrigerators, and water coolers [64]. Thermoelectric technology is
showing promise to compete with conventional refrigeration
systems in the foreseeable future..

Self Assessment Questions

1. How does a thermoelectric refrigerator work?

2. Are thermoelectric fridges good?

3. How cold can a thermoelectric cooler get?

4. How does the thermoelectric effect work?

 144

CRYOGENIC

P.V.E. McClintock, in Encyclopedia of Physical Science and

Technology (Third Edition), 2003
V Cryogenic Applications
Cryogenics is finding useful applications over an extraordinarily diverse range of engineering
and technology. One of the most important and most widely exploited of all low-temperature
phenomena is that of superconductivity, which is being applied to the construction of
powerful magnets used for particle accelerators, for power storage, in medicine, and in
superconducting motors and generators. It also holds out the promise of loss-free power
transmission along superconducting cables. Superconducting instrumentation based on
SQUIDs enables extraordinarily sensitive measurements to be made of very weak magnetic
fields and is being widely used in archaeology, geology, and medicine.

The reduction of thermal (Johnson) noise in electronic circuits by cooling

to cryogenic temperatures can yield extremely valuable improvements in signal/noise, thus
facilitating the detection of very weak signals. Cooled infrared detectors are regularly used in
astronomy, particularly for space and upper-atmosphere experiments.

The liquid heliums are being used to model phenomena that occurred in the very early
universe, 10 35 s after the “big bang.” There are theoretical reasons to expect that topological
defects in space–time (e.g., cosmic strings) were formed as the universe fell through the
critical temperature of 1027 Kat which the GUT (grand unified theory) phase transition
occurred. Cosmic strings are of particular interest and importance because, in some
cosmologies, they are believed to have provided the primordial density inhomogeneities on
which the galaxies later condensed. Unfortunately, defect formation at the GUT transition
cannot be studied experimentally on account of the enormous energies involved, many orders
of magnitude larger than available in even the most powerful particle acclerators, but the
physics of the process can be studied by exploiting the close mathematical analogy that exists
between the GUT and superfluid transitions. In practice, liquid helium is taken through the
transition quickly and evidence is sought for the production of quantized vortices, which are
the superfluid analogues of cosmic strings. At the time of writing, this process seems to have
been reliably confirmed at the superfluid transition in3He but, surprisingly, not yet at the
lambda transition in 4He.

Isotopically pure liquid 4He is being used as a down-scattering medium for the production
and storage of ultra-cold neutrons (UCN)—neutrons of such low energy (and thus long de
Broglie wavelength) that they can be totally reflected from certain materials. UCN can be
held inside a neutrons, bottle and a range of experiments conducted on them. Because 3He is
a strong absorber of neutrons, the required isotopic ratio is extremely demanding,
being < 10−12 compared with the ∼10−7 ratio typically found in natural well helium.
Fortunately, purities of this order and better are readily achieved through use of superfluid
heat flush to sweep away the 3He atoms, which move with the normal fluid component.
Liquefied gases (O2, N2, H2, He) find a wide range of applications in the steel industry,
biology and medicine, the space program, and the food industry.

An interesting phenomenon known as the quantum Hall effect, which occurs in the two-
dimensional electron gas in, for example, MOSFETs (metal-oxide-semiconductor-field-
effect transistors), is becoming extremely valuable in metrology. At very low temperatures
 145

and strong magnetic fields, it is possible to exploit the effect to make absolute measurements
of e2/h (in effect, the atomic fine-structure constant) to very high precision.

The Beginning and Concept of Cryogenics, Basic Principles

Bahman Zohuri, in Physics of Cryogenics, 2018

14.11.4 Pressurization and Explosion

Cryogenic liquids vaporize with a volume change ratio of 700–900 and can cause violent
changes in pressure, particularly if this occurs in a confined space. This in turn can result in
an explosion. Vent systems must be in place to allow gas to escape from confined spaces.

Pressurization can occur due to the following:

1. Ice forming on the venting tube, plugging it and preventing gas release;

2. Damaged equipment resulting in cryogenic fluids leaking into small areas, upon vaporization the
cryogenic liquid vaporizes and causes pressure build up;

3. Loss of vacuum inside a cryostat or Dewar;

4. If a liquid, helium-cooled superconducting magnet “quenches” (changes spontaneously from a

superconducting state to a normal state);

5. Liquid nitrogen having permeated through sealed cryotubes containing samples which then return
to room temperature;

6. Direct contact of the cryogenic liquid with water in a tube results in rapid vaporization of the
cryogenic liquid and can cause the tube to explode.

Special Flow Meters, Flow Gages, and Switches

Swapan Basu, in Plant Flow Measurement and Control Handbook, 2019
4.2.2 DP Type Flow Metering and Cryogenic Applications
Cryogenic plants in earlier days used to have DP type meters installed at room temperature
connected through long impulse lines. In such cases the accuracies suffer due to the
following reasons:
1. Lack of proper calibrating equipment operating at cryogenic temperature, the calibrations
are done at room temperature and then calculated/estimated by extrapolating for cryogenic
conditions from reading at room temperature.

2. As stated during the initial discussions, there can be a two-phase issue, as a result liquid
vapor interfaces inside the impulse lines and they may be changing states, giving rise to
fluctuation in reading, especially because liquid vapor interfaces in two tubes will not be the
same.

Modern transmitters are available to withstand cryogenic temperature and most of these
are tested at NIST using liquid nitrogen (LN2) as a flowing media, with a boiling point of 77K
(−321°F/−196°C). This is especially so when an integral orifice is used, e.g., 3051SFC Compact
 146

Conditioning Flow meter of Emerson (Rosemount). Large temperature gradients present

concerns when O-rings, glands, welds, or dissimilar metals are present in the flow stream.
Therefore, suitable care should be applied. At cryogenic conditions, liquids lose lubrication
property for moving parts and this is another challenge for instruments with moving parts,
such as turbine and positive displacement flow meters. It is important that the
measurement does not have any moving parts, and hence it should be inherently reliable
and often can be used in space applications (without manning). Venturi in liquefied helium
(LHe) is common. However, on account of the sharp restriction, a Venturi is always
preferred because of the larger pressure drop which can locally trigger flashing of
liquid and/or give rise to cavitations to reduce accuracy and bring in instability into the
measurement. As a corollary to this it could be argued that the inner surface of the flow
element must be highly polished.

Standard wrought austenitic stainless steels are used extensively for cryogenic applications,
even for temperatures as low as the boiling point of liquid helium (−269°C). Depending on
the availability in the particular form or size required, the most widely used wrought
stainless steels for cryogenic service are AISI types 304 and 304L, while types 316, 316L, 321,
and 347 are also used. These materials are used for flow elements and impulse lines, as well
as transmitter wetted parts. This is applicable for other instrument types also.

When instruments are tested individually, an accuracy of ≤±1.5% is achievable [6]. This will
also ensure better repeatability. Testing of the meter and straight length in operating
conditions is extremely important.

Transport Properties of Solid at Cryogenic State

Bahman Zohuri, in Physics of Cryogenics, 2018
15.12 Terms Used in the Cryogenic Field
Some terms and their use in cryogenic are listed here:
Cryogenics: Branches of physics and engineering that involve the study of very, or
ultralow temperatures, how to produce them and, how materials behave at these
temperatures.

Cryobiology: Branch of biology involving the study of the effects of low temperatures
on organisms (most often for the purpose of achieving cryopreservation).

Cryosurgery: Branch of surgery applying very low temperatures down to −196°C to

destroy malignant tissue, such as cancer cells. Cryogenics, theology, emergency
medicine, etc. “Cryogenics” is sometimes erroneously used to mean “cryonics” in
popular culture and the press
.
Cryoelectronics: Field of research regarding superconductivity at low temperatures.

Cryotronics: Practical application of cryoelectronics.

Cryoethics: Study of the ethical implications surrounding cryonics. Focuses on the

reasoning behind, which one would want to preserve their body at below freezing
 147

temperatures due to life-threatening conditions that may be cured or prevented in the

future.

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is cryogenics used for?

2. What is a cryogenic liquid?

3. What is cryogenic condition?

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REFERENCES
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