TOOLS AND RULES

01
U N I T

In this Unit you will ind a primary introduction to the Visual Arts: what an
artwork is, how it is composed, the main techniques and materials used and the
most important subjects represented during the centuries. By putting all of these
elements together, you will acquire the tools needed to analyse and understand
an artwork.

A. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE VISUAL ARTS

Sandro Botticelli, Venus and Mars, 1483 c.,
National Gallery, London.

“Visual Arts” is a term for a broad

category of art which includes a
number of artistic disciplines. In
general, this expression includes
those artworks created for both
aesthetic reasons (“art for art’s
sake”) and commercial or func-
tional use.
The Visual Arts include the traditional Fine Arts (Drawing, Painting, and Sculpture) as well as
new media and contemporary forms of expression, such as Assemblage, Collage, Conceptual,
Installation, Performance Art and Design (graphic, fashion, scenic, industrial, interior, etc.).
Also Photography and film-based disciplines, like Video Art and Animation, fall within this
broad category of art. Another type is the new Environmental Land Art; finally, Architecture
encompasses both aesthetic design and functional use.
Definitions of art vary over time and from one society to another. Much of what we now study as
Art (medieval manuscript decoration, for example) was not considered art at the time it was made.
The concept of an artist has also changed during the centuries: the idea of a “genius” developed only
during the 14th century; before that, artists were considered as artisans or craftsmen. Therefore, it
is important to underline
that the Visual Arts are
a wide field which is
difficult to reduce to one
definition.

Damien Hirst, The Physical

Impossibility of Death in the
Mind of Someone Living, 1991,
Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New York.

GLOSSARY

assemblage: the process in making objects value that something has, not
of joining or putting things to encompass: to include, because of the advantages it
together to embrace may bring
broad: very wide for something’s sake: media: the materials or the forms
craftsman: a person who is skilled because of the interest or that an artist uses.

12
 ???
Say something about your ideas and opinions of art,
by answering the following questions.
a. a. Do you find studying History of Art easy or difficult? Give reasons.
??????????????
b. How many kinds of art expression are you familiar with?
c. Do you visit art exhibitions? Do you think that it is important to visit
them, in order to learn about art?
d. What characteristics should a work of art have, in order for it to be
considered an artwork?

Auguste Rodin, The Thinker,

1902, Rodin Museum, Paris.

1A PET Decide if the following sentences are true or false.

T F
a. There are many possible definitions of the Visual Arts.
b. The term Visual Arts is especially related to useful objects.
c. Sculpture is one of the Fine Arts.
d. Architecture has only aesthetic reasons.
e. In the Medieval Age, illuminated manuscripts were not considered art.
f. Before the 14th century, an artist was synonymous of genius.

1B Now correct the false sentences.

2 Find and circle the art words hidden in the puzzle choosing from the ones listed below.

V E G N T V S Z L E
ART SHAPE
T Y L P T L R W K N
COLOR MOOD
N M O O D B B A H I PAINT TINT
I M O I L S L R D L DRAW OILS
A M N Q B M X D I G LINE FRAME
P O E J E C N P G T
D D P R O L O C O H
R C A T H C F E H B
A I H R F R A M E M
G H S A F T I N T N

3 Now use at least three of these words

to describe The Kiss by Gustave Klimt.

Gustav Klimt, The Kiss, 1908-1909.

Österreichische Galerie Belvedere, Vienna.

ONLINE RESOURCES
• Art for art’s sake

13
module 1

B. MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES

When you approach a work of art for the
first time, one of the most important aspects
to notice is the technique with which it has
been made; that means to recognize the
materials, the tools and the process used to
create the object you are looking at. There
are many reasons why artists choose certain
materials: for their formation, their wealth
and the message they want to transmit to
the onlookers. We can take as an example
the Ecstasy of Saint Teresa by Gian Lorenzo
Bernini, where gold rays and a metallic
arrow in the hand of the angel were added
to increase the drama and emphasis of the
episode. However, it is not just a matter of
style: the use of specific types of materials
changes according to the period and to the
geographic locations, for instance, the wood Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Ecstasy of Saint Teresa, 1647-52,
of altarpieces and crucifixes made in Italy Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome.
during the Middle Ages are different from
those used in Northern Europe. Identifying analyses, but they must be supported by a
the materials is also useful to distinguish false deep knowledge of the history of techniques.
from original, especially for painting, because For that reason, it is very helpful to study
modern colours and varnishes do not have the the books written by artists that record and
same chemical composition as the old ones. teach the secrets of their art, such as The
Nowadays, the most important instrument to Book of Art by Cennino Cennini (from the
recognize materials is represented by scientific first decade of the 15th century). In the past
for each technique there were strict rules
and a limited number of materials: wood,
bronze and marble for statues, metals, gold,
silver, precious stones for goldsmith art, etc.
Since the materials were expensive and the
compositions were very complex, artists used
to spend most time realizing preparatory
drawings before starting the final piece. On
the contrary, from late in the 19th century and
during the 20th century, a new idea of art and
technological development allowed the artists
to use a great variety of materials, including
industrial and ordinary ones.

Leonardo Da Vinci, Preparatory drawing for

the Last Supper, 1492, Academy of Venice.

GLOSSARY

altarpiece: a painting or other onlooker: someone who watches tool: a piece of equipment used
work of art designed to be set something that is happening in to make or repair something
above and behind an altar a public place but is not involved varnish: a liquid which protects
goldsmith art: the art of making with it the surface of wood or paintings
objects from gold and precious to record: to keep information for wealth: a large amount of money
metals the future, by writing it down or or valuable possessions that
to notice: to see or become aware storing it on a computer, etc. someone has
of something or someone

14
 TOOLS AND RULES
unit 0

4A PET Decide if the following sentences are true (T) of false (F).
T F
a. Materials and tools are part of an art technique.
b. To recognize a technique, it is only important to date an object.
c. Every historical period distinguished itself by the use of a particular art technique.
d. Scientific analyses are not enough to recognize a technique.
e. Since the late 19th century artists have stopped using traditional techniques.

4B Now correct the false sentences.

5 Match the tools and the materials in the list with the techniques they are used for. Then
decide whether they are two-dimensional or three-dimensional.

brush • paper • camera • mallet • chisel • egg tempera • marble •

stamp • canvas • pencil • plaster • palette • silver • film • wood

TWO- THREE-
TECHNIQUE TOOLS MATERIALS
DIMENSIONAL DIMENSIONAL

Drawing

Goldsmith Art

Mural Painting

Painting

Photography

Sculpture

Masaccio, The Tribute Money, 1425, Cappella Brancacci, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence.

15
module 1

C. COLOURS, SPACE, LIGHT AND SHADE

Colours have always been used both to reproduce realistic hues of objects and to suggest a
symbolic meaning. In religious art, for instance, gold represents Heaven, while red symbolizes
the sorrows of martyrs. Colours can also transmit specific states of mind: ‘cool’ colours are
normally associated with negative emotions, like melancholy or sadness, while ‘warm’ colours
with positive ones, like joy or passion.
The basic elements of every palette are primary colours, which are combined to create secondary
colours and tertiary colours (which are the result of the mixing of a primary and secondary
colour). Furthermore, hues can be modified by adding neutral colours.
The composition and the organization of space is an important theme for two-dimensional works. As
with colours, space is not always represented in a realistic way; it may happen for symbolic reasons,
as in religious or celebratory art, where the scale of objects and characters indicate their importance.
In the same way, in modern art, flat spaces are often used to suggest the impression of closure or
anxiety. On the contrary, to
create the illusion of depth,
artists employ mostly the
overlapping of planes and
vanishing points, which are
the points on the horizon
where parallel lines seem to
converge, as shown in the
illustration on the right.
The use of light and shade
is another important way
to define space and the
volume of things. The
position of the light in a
scene underlines the shape
of objects, and the shadow
projected indicates their
presence in space. The vanishing point in a painting (Piero della Francesca,
Furthermore, light colours The Flagellation of Christ, c.1453).
give the impression of
distance, while dark elements seem nearer. Look at the other two illustrations: in the first one,
the faces and the gestures of characters are defined by the light arriving from the left side;
in the second one, as in
most landscapes, we
can see how the closer
elements have more
intense colours, while
they become brighter
as they approach the
horizon.

Caravaggio, Supper at
Emmaus, 1601.

18
 TOOLS AND RULES
unit 0

Canaletto, The
Molo looking
West, 1730.

9 Look at the colour wheel: define each colour and then group them in primary, secondary,
tertiary, cool and warm colours.
1. .......................... 7. ..........................
1 2. .......................... 8. ..........................
12 2
3. .......................... 9. ..........................
4. .......................... 10. ..........................
11 3
5. .......................... 11. ..........................
6. .......................... 12. ..........................
10 4 GLOSSARY

bright: full of light, luminous

depth: the distance from the top to the bottom
9 5 of something
flat: level and smooth, with no curved, high, or
hollow parts
8 6
hue: a particular shade of a colour
7
overlap: to cover something partly, by going over
its edge

PRIMARY: .................................................., .................................................., .................................................. .

SECONDARY: .................................................., .................................................., .................................................. .

TERTIARY: .................................................., .................................................., .................................................. ,

.................................................., .................................................., .................................................. .

WARM: .................................................., .................................................., .................................................. ,

.................................................., .................................................., .................................................. .

COOL: .................................................., .................................................., .................................................. ,

.................................................., .................................................., .................................................. .

10 Answer the following questions.

a. Which neutral colours are not represented in the wheel?

b. Between violet and yellow, which colour is more appropriate for the dress of a happy girl,
and why?
c. In religious art, why is space often represented in a non-realistic way?
d. What techniques can be used to represent depth in a two-dimensional piece of art?
e. In a landscape, why are elements on the horizon normally lighter?

19
module 1

D. SUBJECT AND REPRESENTATION

The term subject in Visual Arts refers to the main idea represented in the artwork. Subjects in
History of Art can be divided essentially into four macro-categories:
• still life – a collection of inanimate objects arranged together in a specific way;
• landscape – natural scenery such as mountains, cliffs, rivers, views, panoramas, etc.;
• portrait – an image of a particular person, animal, or group;
• abstract – a non-representational, non-figurative work of art.
However, from the 20th century on, the idea of the subject itself changes and evolves, but this
will be thoroughly dealt with in Unit 5.

11 Match each macro-category to the right image.

abstract • landscape • portrait • still life

1. .................................................................................................. 2. .....................................................................

3. ............................................................... 4. .........................................................................................................

12 Now connect each picture to the right author and title.

a. Caravaggio, Basket of fruit, c. 1599

b. Wassily Kandinsky, On White II, 1923
c. Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, Ville d’Avray, 1867
d. Gilbert Stuart Williamstown, Portrait of George Washington, 1797

20
module 1

E. HOW TO READ AN ARTWORK

Formal art analysis involves several steps.
1) Description. A technical description should include:
• artist’s name
• title of work
• type of artwork
• date the artwork was produced
• size and scale of the painting
• subject of the painting (scene)
• objects in the painting
• first impression – the characteristics of the artwork
that first strike you
• art elements: colours, shapes, lines, texture, form,
space, composition
2) Analysis. A deeper examination of how
• technical elements are utilized by the artist
• subject and art elements work together
3) Interpretation. This part is more subjective than the
others. It includes:
• description of what you think the artist is trying to
say through the work of art, its “message”
• description of what the artwork means to you
personally and why
• examination of the reasons why the artist chose
Leonardo Da Vinci, The Lady with
certain techniques, materials and subject matter an Ermine, 1489-1490, Czartoryski
• identification of symbols in the artwork. Museum, Kraków, Poland.

4) Evaluation. This is a summary to draw conclusions and reach judgments about the artwork.
In this phase it is necessary to evaluate:
• how well the medium relates to the subject matter and purpose of the artwork
• the design quality
• how well the work expresses its subject, idea, or theme
• originality
• comparison – how the work compares with other artworks of a similar kind
• the personal and community response.

In short, these are the questions you have to ask yourself and the actions you have to perform
in order to read an artwork:
1) Description: What objects/characters are in the artwork? How are they placed? What colours
are used? What techniques, medium or media is utilized by the artist?
2) Analysis: Explain what art elements the artist employed in their artwork and then decide
why they used these particular elements. How does the artwork communicate its meaning?
3) Interpretation: Using the information from Description and Analysis, consider the artist’s
intention and the message within their work. How GLOSSARY
did they achieve this? achieve: to succeed in finishing
something or reaching an aim
4) Evaluation: In this step you decide if the previous
strike: to cause someone to have
three steps were used appropriately, creatively, a feeling or idea about something
intelligently, etc. This is where you can make a final texture: the characteristic visual
evaluation of the artwork. and tactile quality of a surface

22