BULETINUL INSTITUTULUI POLITEHNIC DIN IAŞI

Publicat de
Universitatea Tehnică „Gheorghe Asachi” din Iaşi
Volumul 63 (67), Numărul 2, 2017
Secţia
CONSTRUCŢII. ARHITECTURĂ

DEVELOPMENT OF BRIDGE STRUCTURAL HELTH

MONITORING
BY

MARIA-CRISTINA SCUTARU*, NICOLAE ŢĂRANU,

CRISTIAN-CLAUDIU COMISU and COSTEL CHINGĂLATĂ

“Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iaşi,

Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services,

Received: May 29, 2017

Accepted for publication: June 30, 2017

Abstract. Some essential issues about new technologies for monitoring

bridge structures are presented in this paper. Those technologies have been
brought together under the Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) name. As time
passes, older structures suffer degradations that affect the structural safety and
the traffic. With a system of this type, degradations are identified at the earliest
stages of their occurrence and the remediation costs required are much lower.
Another reason of SHM implementation is the interest of administrators to
maintain the structures into optimal conditions for the traffic safety, but at the
same time, to fit into their budgets. Because of the technology needs for
implementation, SHM is a relatively new field, the first documented attempt to
monitor a bridge dating from 1937. The advantages of using this type of system,
and also some examples of structures that have benefited from these features are
presented in this paper.
Keywords: Structural Health Monitoring; bridge; maintenance; durability;
service life.

*
Corresponding author: e-mail: [email protected]
106 Maria-Cristina Scutaru et al.

1. Introduction

Bridge Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) is a topic of great interest

for many researchers in the construction and maintenance of structures,
especially for road infrastructure managers. This interest can be explained by
the desire of companies responsible for managing the road network to maintain
structures at a safe level using the available budget. Those structures must allow
traffic to be carried out in optimal conditions. Another explanation for the
interest in SHM systems is the aging of the existing road network. This fact
leads to the exponential growth of necessary costs for inspecting, maintenance
and repairs of the structures. Once implemented such a system, degradations are
detected at an early stage, being easier to repair and at lower costs.
Inaudi (2009) stated that the main objective of implementing a SHM
system is the administration desire to provide as much information as possible
about the structure current condition. These observations are based on the
appearance and the evolution of degradations on new structures or on the
existing ones. Karbhari and Lee (2009) stated that the use of SHM systems
provide the equipment necessary to assess the technical condition of a structure
at any time of its life.
SHM systems can be used to discover and solve the deficiencies of
visual inspections and to complete data from them. Lately, in more developed
countries, managers of important bridges have chosen to implement monitoring
systems to evaluate the condition of the structures. This solution may lead to the
disappearance of visual inspections.
Döhler et al. (2014) said that the main objective of the research in this
field is to develop or improve existing automated monitoring methodologies.
They are used for an effective identification of degradations and for handling
those risks involving with the operation of dynamic systems.
Simeng et al. (2016) stated that the assessment of the structure
degradations is very important both economically and for safety reasons. This is
because structures, including bridges, must be operational for long periods,
despite live loads, the environmental impact and the potential for accumulation
of degradations.
Several systems for permanent monitoring the structures state of
degradation have been developed to solve the problems presented in recent
years by experts in the field.
Those systems were called SHM systems. The functional scheme of a
SHM system implementation is presented in Fig. 1.
 Bul. Inst. Polit. Iaşi, Vol. 63 (67), Nr. 2, 2017 107
Bridge
Structure Resistance and/or economic
justification to the implementation of
SHM systems

Operational Defining and identifying the degraded

evaluation subsystem and the causes of degradation

Operational and environmental conditions

and limitations

Implementation of the specially designed

SHM system for the structure Archiving the data necessary for future
evaluation of the structure

Data acquisation and removal of any

disturbance Identifying the measured characteristics,
comparing the data with the
non-degraded structure and condensing
them
Fig. 1 – Applying scheme of a SHM system.

2. Monitoring Systems Development for the Bridge Structures

2.1. The History of Research and Development of SHM Systems

Brownjohn (2007) presents a brief history about the development of

SHM systems used for different types of constructions. Thus, he states that the
most important development of SHM systems has its origin in major
construction projects such as dams, large span cable-stayed bridges, and in
offshore extraction platforms of oil or gas. The author believes that it is almost
impossible to determine the first form of a SHM system. In the second half of
the twenties century, registration and interpretation of changes in the physical
parameters of the structures began to be researched and used in determining the
degradation state. Those systems have experienced a high development in a
relatively short time because of the evolution of electronic devices, computer
acquisition and data storage capabilities.
The first programs for bridges monitoring were designed and
implemented to improve the knowledge of the structure behavior and to
calibrate the test-structure-response model. The first documented attempt to
monitor a bridge was carried out by Carder in 1937. He created a program
developed to measure different parameters during the construction of the
Golden Gate Bridge and the Bay Bridge in San Francisco. The main objective
was to investigate the dynamic behavior of structures and the consequences of a
possible earthquakes (Brownjohn, 2007).
According to the same author, in 1954, University of Washington
described the first monitoring of a bridge, namely Tacoma Narrows Bridge. Its
life was relatively short, its structure collapsing due to instability caused by the
108 Maria-Cristina Scutaru et al.

wind. The importance of this work is quite high because almost all monitoring
processes of large span suspension bridges made after the publication of this
paper examined the possibility of instability due to the wind effect.
One of the most utilized methods to assess the structural damage is the
method based on vibrations study of bridges and buildings structures. This
method has been used since 1980s. The modal properties and the quantities
derived from these properties were the first features analyzed for degradations
identification. In addition, in time, the researchers have studied environmental
and operational conditions of structures. They concluded that those parameters
had an unfavorable impact on structures (Farrar & Worden, 2007).
Some studies of the pioneering period of monitoring bridge structures
proposed a new technique to identify the progressive cracks in the structural
members. This technique was applied at that time (1981) on a bridge with three
spans subjected to fatigue. Other more recent studies, have focused on modal
parameters change. Thus, the quantification of changes represents the
degradation identification method. The conclusion of those research works was
the fact that the identification of higher modes of vibration is necessary for
identifying reliable damage of the structure. It is possible that the first mode of
vibration not to provide useful information about the presence of damages
(Alamdari et al., 2017).
In recent decades, permanent monitoring programs of bridges have been
frequently used for new structures or for the existing ones in countries such as
Japan, USA, Australia or European countries.
Many of the existing studies are based on short-term monitoring, but
more recent studies have focused their attention on the application of SHM
systems for the structures in service, recording data for a long periods of time.
These systems use different types of sensors for monitoring the variables and
responses of the structure, highlighting the need for statistical data analysis for
long periods of time to assess and quantify the uncertainties (Alamdari et al.,
2017).
The latest researches have focused their attention on the optimization of
conventional monitoring bridges with small opening, especially in Europe. This
is due to the large number of such structures in use and their importance. For
this type of bridges, the overall response of the structure is more sensitive to the
possible occurrences of defects. In those cases, the visual inspection is difficult
to be performed and SHM systems represent a very useful tool for
administrators.
In recent years, some researchers have developed an approach based on
indirect measurements. They found that changes in the bridge structure causes
changes in interaction between vehicle and bridge. Thus, they determine the
state of structure degradation based on the processing of data collected by the
 Bul. Inst. Polit. Iaşi, Vol. 63 (67), Nr. 2, 2017 109

sensors mounted on a vehicle that is crossing the structure (Alamdari et al.,

2017).
Some studies have developed new implementation of SHM systems.
Initially, these systems were designed to diagnose the degradation state of
existing bridges. With evolution of time, SHM systems were implemented in
the design stage, especially for bridges with large openings (e.g. Shanghai
Chongming Crossing which has central opening of 1.200 m or Messina Strait
Bridge with central span of 3.300 m). Another trend is the synchronization of
the implementation of SHM processes with the bridge construction. Thus,
certain types of sensors (e.g. sensors used to determine the occurrence of
corrosion or fiber optic sensors) can be mounted on the structure during the
construction stage. Some developments in technology have enabled the
utilization of sensors capable of monitoring the integrity, sustainability and
security of the structure (Ko & Ni, 2005).

2.2. Application of SHM Systems on New Structures or on Those under

Construction

Catbas (2009), states that the main objective of the SHM systems
application on structures in the construction phase, is the need to accumulate
data about the forces inherent of the system and possible distortions due to
tensions arising at this stage. Many structures built in recent years incorporate
monitoring systems specially designed to determinate any possible modification
in the building materials parameters or to verify the accuracy of the construction
works. Monitoring at this stage is especially needed for large structures, with a
special design. This type of monitoring demonstrates its effectiveness,
especially in installation errors and/or environmental monitoring aimed at
preventing any degradation of it. SHM systems are useful tools for risk
management that may arise during the construction phase, when the framing
system is structurally incomplete. In that stage, the system is vulnerable to
accidents or disasters.
The design of monitoring and data acquisition systems used during the
construction phase or that will be installed on the new structure is performed
before or through the bridge conception. It is preferable to integrate the SHM
system design directly into the technical project. This is because those systems
can perform assumptions validation made by the designer during the
calculations in terms of forces and reactions of the bridge structure. If in this
stage, the monitoring system indicates the need of changes to certain
parameters, the necessary measures it can be quickly taken to remedy them and
to control the risk of the structure to undergo some deformations or defects. In
addition, designing the structure control system can serve as a tool for
110 Maria-Cristina Scutaru et al.

controlling and mitigation potential design and execution errors. This can lead
to the significant delays if problems are discovered in the construction phase
(Catbas, 2009).

2.3. Application of SHM Systems on Existing Structures

Bridges are designed to cross obstacles, to achieve new economic

relations and contribute to the possibility of more rapid goods and people
movements. However, due to limited budgets of administrators, designers’
engineers and builders are trying to develop new ways to reduce costs as much
as possible and, at the same time, to increase sustainability. Today, in almost all
countries where the largest part of the road infrastructure is already built, a
major challenge is to manage network maintenance and to make it work
smoothly and safely. Sometimes this challenge is even more costly than
replacing the whole structure (Inaudi, 2009).
Liu et al. (2014) present the idea that a bridge in operation subjected to
live load and environmental conditions will suffer degradation and erosion. This
will result in variation of the degradation index of the structure, its safety and
sustainability. Therefore, the authors recommend regular tests both during
bridge construction and in operation to control the structure and ensure a high
level of safety in social, economic and scientific terms. To assess the state of
structure degradation is necessary to carry out a dynamic test, which is
considered the most effective method used in this case.
In time, structures are subject to aging, they becoming more and more
degraded. Given this, a SHM system can be implemented to identify
degradation processes, to forecast their development and for a better
understanding of their causes. Data from the implemented systems are used to
make decisions about structural safety, maintenance schedule, repair or
rehabilitation or, in extreme cases, the structure demolition. For bridges, SHM
systems are mounted for solving problems related to performance, changes in
geometry, displacements, vibration, damage or visible signs of aging. For
structures that have exceeded the projected lifespan, monitoring is used to
identify degradation developments (Catbas, 2009).
The authors Yu et al. (2013) present a system for monitoring the
structures loadbearing capacities during their lifetime. The experimental results
showed the degradations produced by the structure by passing a vehicle that
exceeds 100% the maximum allowable load. Thus, it was found that the single
passage of this type of vehicle on a bridge with asphaltic bitumen pavement is
equivalent with 256 passes of one with the legal weight. In the case of concrete
pavement, the passage of the same vehicle is equivalent to 65.500 passes of a
standard vehicle. Because avoiding these exceedances axle load is impossible to
 Bul. Inst. Polit. Iaşi, Vol. 63 (67), Nr. 2, 2017 111

be achieved by the administrator, it requires ongoing assessment of structures to

prevent their collapse and to take early remedial measures.

2.4. The Motivation of Developing SHM Systems

All industries want to identify defects and damages to their products in

the shortest possible time. This identification requires implementation of
specific forms of SHM, motivated by the economic impact on the structure
safety. Until SHM systems implementation, there were no other methods other
than visual inspections to assess the safety of the structure after an event. Thus,
SHM has proven to be a reliable tool that leads to minimizing uncertainty
related to the events. With this instrument, the material damages are reduced.
The use of the appropriate devices leads to the extension of the predicted
lifetime for the monitored structure due to timely interventions on early-stage of
degradation (Farrar & Worden, 2007).
SHM systems are designed specially to help structural administrators.
This system is an important tool used in evaluation programs to the degradation
of bridge structures, along with visual inspection. Administration engineers
need access to a wide range of knowledge about the integrity and safety of a
transport network, the hole structural system or even a single element of that
system. Data should be able to be collected and accessed in real time to assess
not only the derelict structures, but also to specify when necessary preventive
measures need to be taken. Thus, there has been a need for an efficient method
of collecting data from a structure or network in exploitation and their
processing to assess the key performances of the structure such as reliability,
sustainability and serviceability (Karbhari, 2009).
Brownjohn (2007) present several cases where SHM system
implementation is necessary:
a) modification of an existing structure;
b) structures that may be affected by external works;
c) structures during demolition;
d) significant possibilities of the structure movements over time or
materials degradation;
e) extracting information through the structure feedback (this
information is used to improve future projects based on experience);
f) assessment of damages caused by fatigue;
g) monitoring the innovative systems behave;
h) assessing structural integrity because of a natural disaster or accident;
i) decreased costs necessary for construction and increased maintenance
needs;
j) implementing the concept of performance-based design.
112 Maria-Cristina Scutaru et al.

3. Benefits of SHM Systems Implementation

Karbhari (2009) presents some advantages of using SHM systems and

several stages of development through which they have passed over time. Thus,
these systems have become an important tool used by their managers for bridges
monitoring. In that article, the author makes a comparison between a structure
and a patient. In the early stages of this branch development, systems could only
say that the “patient” is ill. With the development of technologies, the SHM
system has managed to find the “disease” location, to state the reasons for its
occurrence and the effects of disease incapacity.
The basic steps of a SHM system (Fig. 1) are data acquisition,
transmission of data to a central computer, query and making decisions based
on comparison of datasets accumulated over time. For this reason, SHM is an
essential decision-making system based on concrete information from the main
structure. It is composed mainly of sensors and databases and, like any system,
it has many critical elements. Another advantage of the SHM system is
represented by the fact that traditional inspection leads to significant losses,
especially for road users. Those losses can be translated into delivery delays of
goods and services, but also in long waiting times in traffic.
SHM systems can be effectively used to provide objective data of the
structure for management and decision-making that are necessary to implement
the optimal maintenance scenario. This scenario considers both the needs and
the costs to achieve those works. SHM systems can be designed to obtain data
on global structural properties. With the implementation of this system, it can be
designed and fitted a local monitoring system to determine the performance of
the metric and how they have evolved under the possible degradation (Catbas,
2009).
With the implementation of SHM systems, the data collected from
different structures can be used to gain a better understanding of the structure
response, mechanisms of occurrence and evolution of degradation. Those are
very important information for designing other structures.
In his article, Inaudi (2009) presents many benefits of SHM systems.
He said that those benefits depend on the specific application of the system.
Thus, the most important advantages mentioned by the author are presented
below:
1º Monitoring results in reducing the uncertainties – The structure
administrators must deal with many uncertainties, such as the actual condition
of the materials, the actions to which the structure is subjected or the system
age. These uncertainties should be considered in the decision phase to keep the
structure safe. Monitoring systems are a useful tool in making decisions taking
 Bul. Inst. Polit. Iaşi, Vol. 63 (67), Nr. 2, 2017 113

into account all data provided by the structure and lead to a considerable
reduction of uncertainties. Applying these systems also leads to lower costs to
ensure the structure due to the decrease of the risk.
2º Monitoring reveals faults and degradations in real time and increase
the safety of the structure – Some problems cannot be identified through visual
inspections or numerical modelling. These problems can become very
dangerous for the structure if they are not resolved on time. If the necessary
decisions are not taken in time to remedy or prevent defects or degradations,
they can even lead to the collapse of the structure or the affected element. It is
well known that repair is much cheaper than total replacement of the structure
or element, and causing less disturbance of the road users, when it is done at the
right time. Consequently, continuous monitoring of the structure and unlimited
access to the resulting data have led to a considerable improvement in the safety
of the structure and its users.
3º The discovery of the structure hidden resources through monitoring –
Due to safety margins provided by the designer and existing in construction
materials, structures are sometimes better than expected. In these cases,
monitoring leads to an increase in safety margins, even without the intervention
work being done. This fact can lead to reducing the costs necessary to repair
and replacement of the affected elements.
4º Monitoring leads to enhancing knowledge of structure – Gaining
knowledge of the structures behaviour under real conditions improve the future
design concepts. This will lead to the development of safer and more
sustainable structures, increasing the performance of the entire infrastructure.
Although it is an important investment in project implementation, it leads to
cost saving by optimizing design and discovery of defects and degradations at
an early stage.
5º Long-term quality assurance– The structure of the monitoring system
ensures the continuous flow of data, contributing to the qualitative assessment
of the construction during the execution phase, during the operation and the
maintenance or repairs execution. This eliminates hidden costs related to the
poor works quality. Researchers have shown that most defects and degradations
occur during the construction period. However, many defects will only be
discovered after many years. In that stage, the repair costs are higher and the
structure is no longer under warranty.
6º Structural monitoring helps bridge management – Monitoring data is
used to perform on-demand maintenance, to optimize maintenance works,
repair or replace of degraded structural elements. The monitoring can be
integrated in the management structures to increase the decisions quality
through access to reliable and impartial information. The main benefit at this
stage is the ability of administrators to perform maintenance and reconstruction
114 Maria-Cristina Scutaru et al.

work when needed. Another advantage is the planning of necessary funds based
on actual data from the source.
Comisu (2008a) provided an economical estimate that shows that the
integrated monitoring system implementation offers the following benefits:
a) reduce the necessary costs from carrying out inspections and
maintenance by 25%;
b) reduced costs resulting from traffic with 30% that occurs due to the
decreasing number of inspection points;
c) 10% reduction of the total lifecycle costs of the structure by applying
the remaining lifetime predictors;
d) assisting operators responsible during the decision-making process
necessary to intervene in the earliest stages of degradation development for
keeping the structure in optimal conditions.
The first disadvantage, and the most important, of SHM implementation
established by Karbhari (2009) is that the transition to maintenance based on
unplanned works resulting from changes in computational systems is quite
expensive. Implementing such a system, although effective, requires high costs
due to the components multitude and their high performance.

4. Application of SHM Systems

Over time, more and more bridge managers in developed countries have
chosen to implement this type of monitoring system due to the many advantages
they offer. Thus, the iconic structures of these countries were initially
monitored, after which the implementation of these systems extended to the
usual structures.
Since bridges in operation are of different construction dimensions and
are built using a variety of materials, many bridge structures already built can
become candidates for monitoring using SHM. Several old bridges have
historical significance and their preservation becomes more important than
optimizing functional values (Inaudi, 2009).
For this work four structures monitored using SHM system were chosen
as examples:
i) The above mentioned author (Inaudi, 2009) presents a series of
bridges that are successfully monitored through SHM technology.
ii) The first example of this work is the I-35W Bridge St. Anthony Falls
Bridge (USA, Fig. 2). Due to failure of old structure in 2007, the administrators
decided to install a complete monitoring system on the new structure to avoid
another tragedy, but especially to increase public confidence in the new one.
The primary objective of SHM system was to support construction processes, to
register the structural behavior of the bridge and to contribute to an intelligent
 Bul. Inst. Polit. Iaşi, Vol. 63 (67), Nr. 2, 2017 115

transport and security system. Monitoring instruments recorded static and

dynamic parameters in essential points of the structure. This bridge can be
considered one of the first “smart” bridges in the USA.

Fig. 2 – I-35W St. Anthony Falls Bridge (USA) (https://www.gti-usa.net/Saint-

Anthony-Falls-Replacement-Bridge.shtml).

Habel (2009) describes one of the first challenges in SHM projects in

Europe, namely monitoring the performance of the Great Belt Link Bridge
(Storebælt Bridge, Denmark, Fig. 3) built between 1989 and 1998. Due to the
environment and aggressive concentrations of chloride contained in seawater,
concrete durability had monitored continuously using 446 specialized corrosion
monitoring sensors.

Fig. 3 – Great Belt Link (Storebælt Bridge)

(http://footage.framepool.com/en/bin/426741,great+belt+bridge,great+belt,denmark/).
116 Maria-Cristina Scutaru et al.

Another example is the bridge Ali Çetinkaya (Turkey, Fig. 4) located in

Bafra, Samsun on Kızılırmak River. The total length of the bridge is 250 m,
with 7 spans consisting of 7 arcs. Each span has 36 m and the height of an arch
is 6.20 m. The bridge is the longest bridge built with Bowstring technology in
Turkey. The dynamic characteristics of the structure have been identified by
ambient vibration measurements while the structural response to seismic actions
was recorded via 11 uniaxial accelerometers located on the vertical and
transverse directions. The measurements were conducted for 6 minutes using
environmental loads (Türker & Bayraktar, 2014).

Fig. 4 – Ali Çetinkaya Bridge

(https://www.researchgate.net/figure/265415594_fig1_Fig-1-Views-from-Ali-
Cetinkaya-Bridge)

In our country, an example of a structure that benefited from the

implementation of a performance monitoring system is the Agigea Bridge
Romania, (Fig. 5). It is located on the national road DN 39, near Agigea, linking
Constanta and Vama Veche. The bridge is the first cable-stayed structure in
Romania. The total length of the bridge is 267 m (2  40.5 m + 162.5 m + 23.5 m).
The rehabilitation works were finalized in August 2015, when administrators
decided to install a degradation monitoring system due to the importance of the
structure. The monitoring system consists of 8 strain gauges placed in pairs in 4
characteristic section (Fig. 6). The sensors are installed at the bottom of the steel
girder web, the main purpose of which is to monitor the stress state of the
analysed structure. The SHM system is also completed by an alarm system,
which is responsible for alerting administrators and users to the extent of certain
degradation and threshold levels, which endangers trafficking in optimum
conditions. (Romanescu, 2014).
 Bul. Inst. Polit. Iaşi, Vol. 63 (67), Nr. 2, 2017 117

Fig. 5 – Agigea Bridge (http://www.puterea.ro/).

Fig. 6 – The location of the strain gauges in the Agigea Bridge (Romanescu, 2014).

5. Conclusions

This paper offers a review about important data for SHM technology.
Thus, it was presented a brief overview of the system’s history and the benefits
of its development, both in design and construction phases as well as in the
structures in operation.
SHM systems have been used in recent years mainly to implement and
verify new technologies for the construction of some parts of the structure.
Another application is the data collection. Those data are necessary for
diagnosis and prognosis of the structural technical state evolution. This system
can be an important aid to structural managers, especially when the desired
budget planning is based on the concrete needs of the road network and for
making the best decisions on structures that require repair works. SHM is a
useful tool because it leads to the decrease, until the visual inspections are
eliminated, providing more accurate data than these.
118 Maria-Cristina Scutaru et al.

This work represents one of the first steps of a complex research

program regarding SHM systems of bridges under development at The Faculty
of Civil Engineering and Building Services Iaşi.
Acknowledgements. The authors would like to express their appreciation to
the organization committee of the Conference for PHD Students of Tehnical University
of Jassy. The outcomes displayed in this papper were presented to the above mention
conference wich took place on May 29 – 30, 2017.

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*
* * https://www.gti-usa.net/Saint-Anthony-Falls-Replacement-Bridge.shtml.
*
* * http://footage.framepool.com/en/bin/426741,great+belt+bridge,great+belt,den
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*
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*
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DEZVOLTAREA SISTEMELOR DE MONITORIZARE A STĂRII DE

DEGRADARE A PODURILOR

(Rezumat)

Sunt prezentate unele aspecte esenţiale privind noile tehnologii de monitorizare

a structurilor de poduri. Aceste tehnologii au fost reunite de către specialişti sub
denumirea de Structural Health Monitoring (SHM). Odată cu trecerea timpului,
structurile aflate în exploatare suferă degradări care conduc atât la afectarea siguranţei
structurale, cât şi a traficului. Cu ajutorului unui sistem de acest tip, degradările sunt
identificate încă din primele etape ale dezvoltării lor, costurile de remediere necesare
fiind mult mai mici. Un alt motiv al implementării sistemelor SHM este reprezentat de
interesul administratorilor de a menţine structurile în condiţii optime de exploatare
pentru siguranţa traficului, încadrându-se în acelaşi timp în bugetele avute la dispoziţie.
Datorită necesităţilor tehnologie, SHM este un domeniu relativ nou, prima încercare
120 Maria-Cristina Scutaru et al.

documentată de monitorizare a unei structuri datând din anul 1937. În acest articol sunt
prezentate avantajele utilizării acestui tip de sistem de monitorizare, precum şi câteva
exemple de structuri care au beneficiat de-a lungul timpului de caracteristicile sale.