EE413

Sensors and Transducers

Lecture 1
2 Sensor
 Sensor: An element that senses a change in input energy to produce a variation
in same or different form of energy. Device that provides a usable output in
response to a specific measurand.

 Output: Electrical, mechanical, optical quantity, etc. E.g., Voltage, current,

 Measurand: Physical, chemical, biochemical quantity, property or condition,

etc. E.g., Light, heat, sound, motion, moisture, pressure, etc.

 Output signal of a sensor is not necessarily in a readable form.

 It is processed further such as amplify, attenuate or convert using an electronic

circuit into a readable signal.

 A sensor is a component itself and it does not have signal conditioning unit.
3 Sensor
 E.g., Mercury in a thermometer: Mercury is a liquid metal that expands with
increase in temperature. It can sense the temperature and any changes in
it. However, it is not readable unless it is placed in a specific scale.

 Potentiometer whose resistance varies with the position of its knob.

Resistance is not readable unless voltage is applied to it. The change in
resistance is visible in the form of a change in the electrical signal.

 Properly cut piezoelectric crystal is a sensor which converts pressure or strain

into electric charge.
4 Transducer
 Transducer: Device in conjunction with a sensor that uses a transduction
principle to convert one form of energy into another form

 Electrical transducer: Converts other form of energy to electrical signals

 A transducer is made of two parts; a sensor and a signal conditioning unit.

5 Transducer
 E.g., Sensor: Properly cut piezoelectric crystal is a sensor which converts pressure
or strain into electric charge. Transducer: Electrodes and input/output
mechanisms are attached to piezoelectric crystals

 Pressure transducer converts the pressure applied or stress into an electrical

signal. It is made of two plates where one of it is fixed and the other is movable.
When pressure is applied on the moving plate, the capacitance in-between
varies. The change in capacitance varies the applied voltage. Thus, the
pressure is converted into an electrical signal.

 Distinction between sensor and transducer usually ignored, Often used

interchangeably

 A device that responds to a physical stimulus and transmits a resulting signal

(readable output)
6 Transducer
Bourdon tube for pressure measurement

 Fluid enters the tube and pressure generated tends to straighten the bourdon tube

 Converts pressure → linear mechanical displacement → rotary displacement by mechanical

linkages for deflection of pointer

 Only primary transducer: Direct conversion of pressure (input) to displacement

(output), No secondary conversion needed

Cantilever

 Rigid structural element that extends horizontally and is supported at only one end.

 Force applied to the free end → deflection of the beam

 Force to displacement

x
7 Transducer
Intermediate
analogous
signal
Primary Output
Input Secondary
detector- signal
signal transducer
transducer

Block diagram of transducer-detector stage

Compressive pressure measurement

 Load cell is a short column used in conjunction with strain gauges

 Force (measurand) applied to the column producing strain (mechanical

displacement) – 1st process (Primary transducer)

 Strain changes the resistance of the strain gauges – 2nd process (Secondary
transducer)

 Output: Resistance change (electrical form)

 Input: Force (Physical quantity)

8 Transducer
Bourdon tube connected with LVDT

 No pressure applied – core of LVDT in central position, voltage induced

in two secondary coils equal, zero differential output voltage

 Pressure applied to BT → mechanical displacement → core of LVDT

moves → differential voltage generated

 Primary transducer: BT

 Secondary transducer: LVDT

9 Transducer
 In most systems, mechanical device as primary transducer and electrical
device as secondary transducer with mechanical displacement as
intermediate signal

 Mechanical devices as primary transducers

 Flat spiral springs – Produce controlling torque in analog electrical instruments

 Torsion bars of shafts – Used in torque meters, Deflection/twist of bar

proportional to applied torque

 Proving rings – Measurement of force, weight or load, applied force causes

deflection measured by electrical transducers (LVDT)
10 Sensors and Transducers: Difference
Sensor Transducer
Device that detects a change in a physical Device that converts one form of energy into
environment. another.
Every transducer includes a sensor as a
A sensor is not necessarily a transducer.
component.
Transducer is made of a sensor and a signal
A sensor itself is a component.
conditioning circuit.
Sensor converts physical quantities or energy into A transducer converts physical quantity or energy
non-electrical signal. into an electrical signal.
A transducer does not require any processing
A sensor requires an additional circuit to process
circuit. Its output is directly interfaced with a
its output signal into a readable form.
device or display.
A transducer can generate analog as well as a
A sensor’s output is analog in nature.
digital output.
A sensor’s output cannot be directly applied to A transducer’s output can be directly connected
any other system. to another system.
Passive transducer requires an external power
Does not require external power to operate.
source to operate.
A transducer is bidirectional. Can convert
A sensor cannot be bidirectional i.e., it only
electrical signal into physical quantities called an
converts physical quantities into some other form.
inverse transducer.
11 Types of inputs/outputs
Energy Measurands

Mechanical Length, area, volume, force, pressure, acceleration, torque, mass flow,
acoustic intensity

Thermal Temperature, heat flow, entropy

Electrical Charge, current, voltage, resistance, inductance, capacitance,

dielectric constant, frequency, electric field

Magnetic Field intensity, flux density, permeability, magnetic moment

Radiation Intensity, phase, refractive index, reflectance, transmittance,

absorbance, wavelength, polarization

Chemical Concentration, composition, oxidation/reduction potential, reaction

rate, pH
12 Principles of operation
Output Mechanical Thermal Electrical Magnetic Radiation Chemical
Input

Mechanical Mechanical Friction, Piezo- Piezo- Photoelasticity, -

effects cooling electricity, magnetic interferometry,
including E.g., piezo-resistivity doppler effect
acoustic Thermal
effects. E.g., flowmeter
Diaphragm

Thermal Thermal - Seebeck - Thermo-optical Thermal

expansion effect, effects dissociation,
pyroelectricity, thermally
thermo- induced
resistance reactions
13 Principles of operation
Output Mechanical Thermal Electrical Magnetic Radiation Chemical
Input

Electrical Electrokinetic Peltier Charge Biot-Savart’s Electro- Electrolysis,

effect. E.g., effect, controlled electro- luminescence, Electrically
Inverse piezo- Joule devices, magnetic Kerr effect induced
electricity heating Langmuir law reaction
probe

Magnetic Magneto- Magneto- Galvano- - Magneto- -

striction, thermal magnetic optical effects,
magneto- effects effect, Hall Faraday effect
meters effect,
Magneto-
resistance
14 Principles of operation
Output Mechanical Thermal Electrical Magnetic Radiation Chemical
Input

Radiation Radiation Bolometer, Photoelectric - Photo- Photo-

pressure Thermopile effects, refractivity, dissociation,
Photovoltaic photon Photo-
cell, LDR induced light synthesis
emission

Chemical Photo- Thermal Conductimetry, Nuclear Spectroscopy, -

acoustic conductivity potentiometry, magnetic chemi-
effect, cell, voltammetry resonance luminescence
hygrometry calorimetry
15 Classification of sensors
 Transduction principles
 Resistive, Inductive, Capacitive, Electromagnetic, Piezoelectric, Photoelectric,
Photoresistive, Thermo-electric

 Primary input quantity i.e., measurand

 Material and technology
 MEMS, CMOS image sensors, displacement and motion detectors, biosensors

 Application
 Property
 Energy or power requirements
 Active sensor: Self generating, energy required for generation of output signal is
extracted from the physical phenomenon itself. E.g., Piezoelectric transducers
(emf generated upon application of external force to quartz)
 Passive sensor: Power required for energy conversion is derived from an external
source, E.g., Potentiometer, Resistance thermometer
16 Classification of sensors

Flow Level Temperature Pressure Proximity and

displacement

Differential Mechanical, RTDs, thermistors, Elastic, liquid- Potentiometric,

pressure, magnetic, thermocouples, based inductive/LVDT,
positional differential inductively manometer, capacitive,
displacement, pressure, thermal coupled, inductive/LVDT, magnetic,
Technology

vortex, displacement, radiation (IR) piezoelectric, photoelectric,

thermal mass, vibrating rod, electronic, magnetostrictive,
ultrasonic, magnetostrictive, MEMS, fiber ultrasonic
Coriolis, ultrasonic, optic
anemometer, capacitive,
open channel microwave/radar
17 Classification of sensors

Acceleration Image Gas and chemical Biosensors Others

Accelerometer, CMOS Chemical bead, Electrochemical, Mass,

gyroscope (complementary electrochemical, absorbance, force,
Technology

metal-oxide thermal, surface plasmon humidity,

semiconductor), conductance, resonance (SPR) moisture,
CCDs (charge paramagnetic, viscosity
coupled devices) ionization, infrared,
semiconductor
18 Passive Transducer
Transducer Principle of operation Application

Potentiometer Positioning of slider by external force varies the resistance Pressure,

displacement
Strain gauge Resistance of wire/semiconductor changes due to Force, torque,
elongation/compression by externally applied stress displacement
Pirani gauge Resistance of a heating element varied by convection cooling Gas flow, gas
of a gas stream pressure
Resistance Resistance of a pure metal with +ve temp. coeff. changes with Temperature,
thermometer temperature radiant heat
Thermistor Resistance of certain metal oxide (-ve temp. coeff.) changes Temperature, flow
with temperature
Variable capacitance Distance between parallel plates changed by external force Displacement,
pressure gauge pressure
Dielectric gauge Variation of capacitance by change in dielectric Liquid level,
thickness
Differential transformer Differential voltage between two secondary windings Pressure, force,
changed by varying the position of the magnetic core due to displacement,
externally applied force position
Hall effect transducer Potential difference generated across a semiconductor plate Magnetic flux,
when magnetic flux interacts with current current
19 Active Transducer
Transducer Principle of operation Application
Thermocouple and Emf generated across the junction of Temperature, heat flow,
thermopile different metals/semiconductors when radiation
a junction is heated

Moving coil generator Movement of a coil in magnetic field Velocity, vibration

produces voltage

Piezoelectric pickup Emf is generated when external force Sound, vibration,

is applied to certain crystalline acceleration
materials (quartz)

Photovoltaic Voltage generated in semiconductor Light meter, solar cell

junction device when radiant energy
stimulates the cell
20 Classification of sensors

Emerging sensor technologies

Image sensors Motion detectors Biosensors Accelerometers

Technology CMOS based IR, ultrasonic, Electrochemical, MEMS based

microwave/radar optical

Applications Traffic and security Obstruction Water and food Vehicle dynamic
surveillance, blind- detection (robots, testing, system
spot detection, vehicles), security healthcare (automatic),
video conferencing, detection, light devices, patient
biometric, imaging activation biological monitoring
warfare agent (pacemaker)
detection
21 Static Characteristics of sensors
 Accuracy: Accuracy of a sensor is usually specified by error. It tells how closely
the measured value matches the true value.

εa % = (xm - xt)/xt × 100

 t: True value, m: Measured value, x: Measurand

 Accuracy in terms of full-scale output (fso)

εfso % = (xm - xt)/xfso × 100

 |εfso| ≤ |εa|

 Systems with multiple errors

 Overall error assessed through root mean square approach as a summation over i

εo = [Σ (εi)2]1/2
22 Static Characteristics of sensors
 Precision: Precision describes how close a set of measured value is relative to
each other, rather than the actual value.

 Repeatability: Defined as the capability of a sensor to produce same output

every time when the same input is applied and all the physical and
measurement conditions are kept the same including the operator, instrument,
ambient conditions etc. Difference in output y for a given value of input x for
multiple measurements. Can be expressed as % FSO, also in terms of standard
deviation or standard errors.
23 Static Characteristics of sensors
 Reproducibility: It is defined as the ability of sensor to produce the same output
when same input is applied under different conditions i.e., over longer time
periods with different instruments and different operators.

 Resolution: Resolution is the smallest change in the input ((Δx)min) that is needed
to produce a detectable change in output (Δy). Expressed as a percentage of
the measured range (MR).

 MR = Maximum input – minimum input = xmax - xmin

 Maximum resolution, Rmax (%) = 100(Δx)min/MR

 Over the range of operation, an average resolution can be defined as a

summation over i

Rav (%) = (100/n)(ΣΔxi)/MR