CHEMICAL FORMULAS

Chemical Formula is a shorthand way of describing the composition of a compound. When

symbols are grouped together, they represent the combination of the atoms in a particular
compound or the formula of the compound. The formula of a molecule simply lists the various
atoms present and gives the number of atoms in each element.

Kinds of Formulas
1. Empirical formula, also called the simplest formula – identifies the elements present in a
compound and describes the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of these
elements with subscripts.
Ex: CH2
2. Molecular formula – identifies the actual number of atoms in a molecule
Ex: C2H4
3. Structural formula – formulas that shows the relative arrangement of all the atoms in a
molecule. The interatomic bonds are represented by dashes.
Ex: H-C=C-H
| |
H H
4. Lewis structure – uses the symbol of an element with dots to represent the number of
electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom. A bond is represented by pair of
dots between adjacent atoms.
Ex: H:C::C:H
: :
H H

Oxidation Number
• The oxidation number of the oxidation state of an element is a number having a positive
or negative or zero value that may be assigned to an atom of the element in a
compound.
• It is the number of electrons gained or lost by an atom of that element when it forms an
ionic compound.
• For covalently bonded compounds, it is the positive or negative number which indicates
shifts (not transfer) of electron density from one atom to another.
• The less electronegative element is assigned a positive oxidation number and the more
electronegative element is assigned a negative oxidation number.

Rules in assigning the oxidation numbers in compounds

1. The oxidation number of any free or uncombined element is zero. For example, Na, Fe,
H, O, P, S have oxidation numbers of zero.
2. The algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers for all the atoms in a neutral compound is
zero.
3. The oxidation number of a monoatomic ion is the same as the charge on the ion. The
algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms in a polyatomic ion must equal
the charge on the ion.
 4. Some principal oxidation numbers of some elements in the combined state:
• Group 1A elements are always +1.
• Group IIA elements are always +2.
• Hydrogen is usually +1, except in hydrides (ionic compounds of hydrogen with IA or
IIA elements); then it is –1.
• Oxygen is usually –2, except in peroxides, such as H2O2 and Na2O2; then it is –1. (In
superoxides, such as KO2, it is –1/2.)
• Group VIIA elements are –1 when in binary compounds with less electronegative
elements.
• Sulfur in binary compounds with less electronegative elements is –2.
• Nitrogen in binary compounds with less electronegative elements is –3.
• Al (Group IIIA) is +3; Zn (Group IIB) is +2; Cd (Group IIB) is +2; Ag (Group IB) is +1.
• Many elements have more than one oxidation state or are said to have variable
oxidation numbers.

Rules in Writing Formulas

1. Active gaseous elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine
and iodine exist as diatomic molecules. Thus, their formulas are O2, N2, H2, F2, Cl2, Br2,
and I2 respectively.
2. In writing molecular formulas, the symbol of the positive element or formula of the
positive radical is written first, followed by the negative element or radical.
• Their corresponding oxidation numbers are written as superscripts.
• To determine the number of atoms for each (the subscripts), apply the criss-cross rule
so that the algebraic sum of the positive and negative oxidation number is equal to zero.
Ex: Ca+2 with Cl- = CaCl2 Al+3 with O-2 = Al2O3
• If the positive oxidation number of one atom or radical equals the negative oxidation
number of another, their ratio is 1:1.
Ex: Mg+2 with O-2 = MgO Al+3 with PO4-3 = AlPO4
• This does not hold true for Hg2Cl2, Hg2Br2, Hg2I2, H2O2 and metal peroxides.
• When a radical in a formula is taken more than once, enclose it in parentheses and write
the frequency of occurrence as a subscript.
Ex: Ca+2 with (NO3)-1 = Ca(NO3)2
NH4+1 with (CO3)-2 = (NH4)2CO3
Ca+2 with (PO4)-3 = Ca3(PO4)2
 NAMING OF COMPOUNDS

Binary Compounds - These are compounds containing different elements.

1. Binary Compounds Containing a Metal and a Non-metal

a. Binary Compounds Containing a Metal with Fixed Oxidation Number

Rule: name of metal + stem name of nonmetal + ide
Ex: KCl - potassium chlorIDE
Na2S - sodium sulfIDE
b. Binary Compounds Containing a Metal of Variable Oxidation Number
(Two systems are usually used in this category)
• Stock Method
Rule: Name of metal (oxidation number in Roman numerals) + stem name of
nonmetal + ide
Ex: CuCl - copper(I) chlorIDE FeBr2 - iron(II) bromIDE
CuCl2 - copper(II) chlorIDE FeBr3 - iron(III) bromIDE

• Classical Method
This method is used when the metallic ion has only two oxidation
numbers. In this system, the name of the metal is modified by adding suffixes –
ous when the ion is in its lower oxidation state and –ic when it is in its higher
oxidation state.
Ex: CuCl - cuprOUS chlorIDE FeCl2 - ferrOUS chlorIDE
CuCl2 - cuprIC chlorIDE FeCl3 - ferrIC chlorIDE

2. Binary Compounds Containing Two nonMetals

Rule: prefix (except mono) + name of more electropositive element + prefix + stem
name of more electronegative element + ide.
The prefix attached to each element indicates the number of atoms of the
element in the molecule.
mono (o) = 1 tetr(a) = 4 hept(a)= 7 dec(a) = 10
di = 2 pent(a)= 5 oct(a) = 8
tri = 3 hex(a)= 6 non(a) = 9

For two nonmetals forming more than one compound, the prefix mono- is
omitted for the more electropositive nonmetal but is retained for the second nonmetal.
For nonmetals forming only one compound, prefixes are omitted.
Ex: N2O - DInitrogen MONoxide HBr - hydrogen bromIDE
NO2 - nitrogen DIoxide H2S - hydrogen sulfIDE
N2O4 - DInitrogen TETRoxide

3. Binary Acids – compounds composed of hydrogen and another nonmetallic element

which when dissolved in water, produce hydrogen ions.
Rule: hydro + stem name of nonmetal + ic acid
 Ex: HBr - HYDRObromic ACID H2Se - HYDROselenic ACID
HF - HYDROflouric ACID

Ternary Compounds - These compounds containing three different elements – an

electropositive element, which is either a metal or hydrogen, and a polyatomic negative ion. In
the discussion that follows, only the naming of compounds in which one of the three elements
is oxygen will be considered.

1. Oxyacids – compounds containing hydrogen and an oxyanion. Oxyanions are composed

of oxygen and one other element which is usually a non metal.
Rule: name or stem name of the element other than hydrogen and oxygen + ous or ic
acid.
The suffix – ous is used when the element other than hydrogen and oxygen is in
its lower oxidation state and –ic when it is in its higher oxidation state.
Ex: HNO2 – nitrOUS ACID
HNO3 – nitrIC ACID
H2CO3 – carbonIC ACID
In cases where there are more than two oxyacids in a series, prefixes per- and
hypo- are added to the –ous of –ic names.
Ex: HClO (Cl = +1) - HYPOchlorOUS ACID
HClO2 (Cl = +3) - chlorOUS ACID
HClO3 (Cl = +5) - chlorIC ACID
HClO4 (Cl) = +7) - PERchlorIC ACID

2. Salts of Oxyacids – compounds containing a metal and an oxyanion

Rule: name of metal + name of oxyanion (i.e., stem name of the element other than
oxygen + ite or ate)
The suffix –ite is used when the element other than oxygen in the oxyanion is in
its lower oxidation state and –ate when it is in its higher state.
Ex: CaSO3 - calcium sulfITE
CaSO4 - calcium sulfATE
There are definite patterns in naming oxyacids and their salts. The –ous and –ic
endings of the acid names become –ite and –ate in the salt names respectively, but the
stem name remains the same.
Ex: Oxyacids:
HClO - HYPOchlorOUS ACID
HClO4 - PERchlorIC ACID
H2SO3 - sulfurOUS ACID
H2SO4 - sulfurIC ACID
Salt of Oxyacids:
NaClO - sodium HYPOchlorITE
LiClO4 - lithium PERchlorATE
Na2SO3 - sodium sulfITE
MgSO4 - magnesium sulfATE
Compounds Higher Than Ternary

1. Acid Salts – compounds containing a metal, hydrogen and an oxyanion

Rule: name of metal + prefix (except mono) + hydrogen + name of oxyanion
The name hydrogen may be substituted with bi- for acid salts of acids containing two
hydrogen atoms. In some cases, the numerical prefixes are used with metal atoms to
remove ambiguity as to the number of metal and hydrogen atoms.
Ex: NaHSO4 - sodium hydrogen sulfATE or sodium BIsulfATE
Na2HPO4 - sodium hydrogen phosphATE or Disodium hydrogen phosphATE
NaH2PO4 - sodium DIhydrogen phosphate

2. Mixed or Double Salts – compounds containing two metals and an oxyanion

Rule: prefix (except mono) + name of metal with lower oxidation number + prefix
(except mono) + name of metal with higher oxidation number + name of oxyanion.
Ex: KCaPO4 - potassium calcium phosphATE
Na2Ca(SO4) - DIsodium calcium sulfATE

EXCEPTIONS
1. For Compounds Containing cyanide (CN) and hydroxide (OH-):
use the suffix –ide instead of –ite or –ate.
Ex: NaCN - sodium cyanIDE
Ca(OH)2 - calcium hydroxide

2. For ammonium (NH+) Compounds: ammonium is always named as a unit.

Ex: (NH4)2S - ammonium sulfIDE
NH4NO3 - ammonium nitrATE
MgNH4PO4 - magnesium ammonium phosphATE
 SOME COMMON NAMES, SYSTEMATIC NAMES, THEIR FORMULAS,
AND SOME OF THEIR USES

Common Name Systematic Name Formula Uses

Ammonia Hydrogen nitride NH3 Cleaner, commercial

(trihydrogen nitride) refrigerant, fertilizer

Baking soda, Sodium hydrogen carbonate NaHCO3 In baking powder, some

bicarbonate fire extinguishers, antacid

Dry ice (solid) (carbonic Carbon dioxide CO2 Fire extinguishers, freezing
gas) substances

Epsom salts Magnesium sulfate MgSO4•7H2O Strong laxative, bathing,

Infective tissue

Laughing gas Dinitrogen oxide N2O Anesthetic

Marble, chalk, Calcium carbonate CaCO3 Make cement, antacid, and

limestone prevent diarrhea

Milk of Magnesia Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 Antacid and laxative

Muriatic acid Hydrochloric acid HCl Cleaning metals such as

iron before galvanizing,
stomach (digestive) acid

Oil of Vitriol Sulfuric acid H2SO4 Battery acid (dilute)

cleaning metals

Quicklime, lime Calcium oxide CaO Make slaked lime

Slaked lime Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 Mortar, plaster

Soda lye, caustic soda Sodium hydroxide NaOH Make soap

Table salt Sodium chloride NaCl Seasoning

Table sugar β-D-fructofuranosyl C12H22O11 Sweetener

Vinegar (dilute) Acetic acid CH3COOH Salad dressing, pickling of

solution, about 5% some foods

Water Hydrogen oxide H2O Drinking, washing

(dihydrogen oxide)
 VALENCES OF COMMON ELEMENTS AND RADICALS

Group IA GROUP VA NH4 + Ammonium

Li + N–3 OH – Hydroxide
Na + P –3 NO3 – Nitrate
K+ NO2 – Nitrite
Rb + SO4 –2 Sulfate
SO3 – 2 Sulfite
Group IIA Group VIA N3 – Azide
Mg +2 O–2 O2 – 2 Peroxide
Ca +2 S– 2 CN – Cyanide
Sr +2 Se – 2 C2H3O2 – Acetate
Ba +2 Te – 2 SCN – Thiocyanate
AlO2 – Aluminite
Group IIIA Group VIIA AlO3 – 3 Aluminate
Al +3 F– BO3 – 3 Borate
Cl – PO4 – 3 Phosphate
Group IA Br – PO3 – 3 Phosphite
Ag + I– CO3 – 2 Carbonate
CO2 – 2 Carbonite
Group IIB CrO4 – 2 Chromate
Zn +2 Cr2O7 – 2 Dichromate
Cd +2 CH3COO – Acetate
MnO4 – Permanganate
C2O4 – 2 Oxalate
Metals with Variable Oxidation No. CNS – Thiocyanate
Fe(CN)6 – 3 Ferricyanide
Cr +2 Sn +2 Fe(CN)6 – 4 Ferrocyanide
Cr +3 Sn +4 ClO3 – Chlorate
Mn +2 Pb +2 ClO2 – Chlorite
Mn +3 Pb +4 ClO – Hypochlorite
Fe +2 Au + HCO3 – Hydrogen Carbonate or Bicarbonate
Fe +3 Au +3 BrO3 – Bromate
Co +2 Cu + BrO2 – Bromite
Co +3 Cu +2 BrO4 – Perbromate
Hg2 +1 BrO – Hypobromite
Hg2 +2 IO4 – Periodate
IO3 – Iodate
IO2 – Iodite
IO – Hypoiodite
HPO4 – 2 Hydrogen Phosphate
SiO4 – 4 Silicate
S2O3 – 2 Thiosulfate
Exercises:

1. Name the following ionic compounds:

a. PbCl2 –
b. Fe2O3 –
c. CrO –
d. CuS –
e. PbO –

2. Name the following covalent compounds:

a. CO –
b. CS2 –
c. P4S3 –
d. SO2 –
e. PF5 –

3. Use the crossover technique to write the formulas for the following compounds:
a. Iron (III) hydroxide –
b. Lead (II) phosphate –
c. Sodium hydrogen carbonate–
d. Ammonium nitrate –
e. Potassium sulfite –

4. Write the formulas for the following covalent compounds:

a. Carbon tetrachloride –
b. Dihydrogen monoxide –
c. Boron triflouride –
d. Dinitrogen pentoxide –
e. Nitrogen trihydride –
 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

An equation is a shorthand statement that expresses a chemical reaction in terms of

symbols of elements and formulas of compounds involved. In writing equations, the reactants
are always written on the left and the products on the right. They are separated by an arrow,
an equal sign or double headed arrow. Since reactions follow the Law of Conservation of Mass,
which states that matter cannot be created nor destroyed, the equations must be balanced.

Balancing Chemical Equations

The equations that will be considered will be balanced by inspection, i.e., by simply
putting coefficients before any of the formulas until there are exactly the same number of each
atom on both sides of the equation.

Guidelines in balancing equation:

a. Write the correct formulas for the reactants and the products. Once the correct
formula is written, it must never be changed during the subsequent balancing
operation.
b. Start with the more complex parts, i.e., the compounds that have several elements in
them. In some cases, it is just a matter of balancing all atoms other than hydrogen and
oxygen first.
c. Leave any elements in the free state for the last, since changing their coefficients only
affects one kind of atom.
d. For reactions involving polyatomic ions, balance the ion as a group. For example, with
SO4-, balance as sulfate, not as sulfur atoms and oxygen atoms.
e. Generally, if fractions appear in an equation, multiply everything by the smallest
number that will eliminate the fraction. It is not essential to get rid of fractions; it is just
more simple in most cases. Also, make sure that all coefficients are in the lowest
possible ratio if they are not, simplify to make them so.

Ca(OH)2 + H3PO4 Ca3(PO4)2 + H2O (unbalanced)

3Ca(OH)2 + 2H3PO4 Ca3(PO4)2 + 6H2O (balanced)

To check this, add up all the Ca, O, H and the P atoms on each side of the equation.
Left Right
Ca (3x1) = 3 Ca (1x3) = 3
O (3x2) + (2x4) = 14 O (4x2) + (6x1) = 14
H (3x2) + (2x3) = 12 H (6x2) = 12
P (2x1) = 2 P (2x1) = 2
The equation is balanced, and all coefficients are whole numbers in the smallest
possible ratio.
 TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

1. Simple Union or Combination Reaction - occurs when two or more substances (either
elements or compounds) react to form one product.

General Types:
a. Metal + nonmetal binary compound
4Al(s) + 3O2(g) 2Al2O3(s)

b. Non metal + oxygen nonmetal oxide

S(s) + O2(g) SO2

c. Metal oxide + water metal hydroxide (base)

CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq)

d. Nonmetal oxide + water oxyacid

CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)

2. Simple Decomposition Reaction - one compound decomposes to form two or more

other substances. The products are either elements or compounds. Often heat is
necessary to cause those reactions to take place. The symbol ∆ is written above or
below the arrow or equal sign to designate heating.

a. Hydrates, which are salts that contain one or more molecule(s) of water for each
formula unit of salt, decomposes to yield water and the anhydrous salt.
CuSO4 • 5H2O(s) ∆ CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(s)

b. Chlorates decompose to form chlorides and oxygen gas.

2KClO3(s) ∆ 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

c. Most carbonates decompose to form an oxide and carbon dioxide

CaCO3 ∆ CaO + CO2

d. Most bicarbonates (hydrogen carbonates) decompose to form an oxide, water

and carbon dioxide.
Ca(HCO3)2 ∆ CaO + CO2 + H2O

3. Single Displacement or Substitution Reaction – is one in which metal replaces another

metal in solution.
• The activity of the metals can be determined using the activity series or the
electromotive series.

Rb Li K Ba Ca Na Mg Al Zn Fe Cd Ni Sn Pb H* Cu Bi Hg Ag Pt Au
Most Active Least Active
* Hydrogen is also included in this series as a point of reference, although it is not a metal.
 In using this series, any free metal will replace another metal in the solution to its right.
This also applies to hydrogen.

Fe + CuSO4 FeSO4 + Cu
Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2
Ni + Al2(SO4)3 no reaction

4. Double Decomposition (Double Displacement or Double Substitution) Reaction - two

compounds react to form two new compounds. These involve ions, and the positive
ions of the reactants displace one another to form the new compounds.

AgNO3(aq) + HCl(aq) AgCl(s) + HNO3(aq)

In this reaction an insoluble compound is formed and silver chloride is an insoluble product.

5. Neutralization Reaction (also Double Displacement Reaction) – an acid or acid oxide

(nonmetal oxide) reacts with a base or basic oxide (metal oxide) salt is formed in the
reaction and most of this, water is formed.

HCl + NaOH H2O + NaCl (acid + base salt + water)

CaO + 2HCl H2O + CaCl2 (metal oxide + acid water + salt)
MgO + SO3 MgSO4 (metal oxide + nonmetal oxide salt)
SO2 + NaOH H2O + Na2SO4 (water + salt)
Exercises:
1. Write balanced chemical equations for each of the following unbalanced reactions and
identify the type of reaction:
_________________a. SO2 + O2 SO3

_________________b. Mg(OH)2 + H3PO4 Mg3(PO4)2 + H2O

_________________c. KClO3 KCl + O2

_________________d. Al + HCl AlCl3 + H2

_________________e. KOH + H2SO4 K2SO4 + H2O

2. Write complete, balanced equations for each of the following reactions:

a. Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq)

b. NaOH(aq) + Al(NO3)3(aq)

c. Liquid hydrogen peroxide decomposes to liquid water and oxygen gas.

d. Solid potassium chloride and oxygen gas are formed when solid potassium chlorate is
heated.

e. Upon heating, solid calcium carbonate yields solid calcium oxide and carbon dioxide
gas.