B.A. (Hons.

) English Semester-IV

Generic Elective (Political Science)

United Nations and Global Conflicts
Study Material : Unit 1-3

SCHOOL OF OPEN LEARNING

UNIVERSITY OF DELHI

Editor : Dr. Mangal Deo

Dr. Shakti Pradayani Rout
Department of Political Science
 Graduate Course

Generic Elective (Political Science)

United Nations and Global Conflicts

Contents
Pg. No.
Unit-1 : The United Nations Dr. Shakti Pradayani Rout 01
Unit-2 : Major Global Conflicts since the Second World War
Dr. Shakti Pradayani Rout 21
Unit-3 : International Organization: Imperative of Reform
and the Process of Reform Ram Kishor 30

Edited by:
Dr. Mangal Deo
Dr. Shakti Pradayani Rout

SCHOOL OF OPEN LEARNING

UNIVERSITY OF DELHI
5, Cavalry Lane, Delhi-110007
 Unit-1

The United Nations

Dr. Shakti Pradayani Rout

(a) An Historical Overview of United Nations

The United Nation was established after World War II in line with the League of Nations.
The establishment of UN reflected an understanding that peace is the pressing need of the
hour. The progress of mankind can possible by establishing an institution of Collective
Security which will promote international cooperation and peace.The name was projected by
former United States (USA) President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the declaration by United
Nations on 1st of January 1942, during Second World War. During this time representative of
26 nations came collectively and pledged to fight a war against Axis power. UN has more
than 193 States as its member. The mission and work of the United Nations are guided by the
rationales and principles contained in its existing Charter as follows: a) to safe guard peace
and security in order to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war; b) to reaffirm
faith in fundamental human rights; c) to uphold respect for international law; d) to promote
social progress and better standards of life (Haywood: 442).
United Nations formally came into existence on 24th of October 1945. United Nations
Charterwas being formulated at San Francisco at the United Nations Conference on
International Organization in presence of representatives of 50 states across the globe. They
discussed on the ongoing situation of World War II and wanted to get rid of the scourge of it.
India had also delegated in the founding conference. The UN officially took shape, when the
Charter was being ratified by China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and
theUnited States along with other signatories. So we celebrate 24th of October as United
Nations Day each year. However, the establishment of United Nations recognized the role of
the major powers in maintaining peace and security.
The main features of the United Nation Organizations are a) They are composed of
sovereign states; b) all members are treated as equal; c) the organization has a no binding
authority over sovereign nation-states; d) the primary objective of the organization is to
establish peace and engineer collaboration to eradicate conflict of any kind. Thus the
principle and objective of the UN is designed to maintain global peace and enduring security.
It simply reflects a firm faith on men and governments to have the common sense to find out
solution of irreconcilable conflicts and problems.
(b) Principles and Objectives

The article 1 of the UN Charter talks about the purpose of the United Nations. Maintaining
peace and security in the world became the main objective of UN. It was established to take
valuable measures for the prevention and eliminate any threats to the peace. It was being

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created to end any kind of aggression that breaches world peace. It is an organization which
was created to resolve conflict in peaceful manner. Secondly, it was being created to establish
democratic parity among nations. To maintain friendly relations among nations based on self-
determination principle of equal rights and to obtain other appropriate measures to strengthen
world peace. Thirdly, it was being created to solve international problems through mutual co-
operation. The international problems are of any kind, economic, social, cultural and
humanitarian in nature. However, UN would try to promote and encourage peace, human
rights and brotherhood among free nations.
The objective of UN was very broad in scope. The manifestations of peace can be
certainly possible by keeping firm faith in it and governments which are responsible to
sustain relationship with each other; establish co operation to strengthen peace and security
all over the world. At present the UN is standing on three pillars consist of Human rights,
Sustainable Development and Collective Security aimed to establish world peace.
Principles of Work
The article 2 of UN Charter pronounces about the principle of United Nations. The
organization is based on the principle of the democratic equality of all the member nations. It
is being said that all the members shall settle their international disputes by peaceful
mediation in such a manner that international peace and security, and justice are to be
strengthened. It is being expected that all the members shall refrain from using force against
the territorial integrity and political independence of any state. All the member states are
supposed to give assistance to UN bodies in accordance with the existing Charter.This
significantly does not give UN any right to intervene in matters which are basically within the
domestic jurisdiction of any state. The prime objective of UN is of non-interference in the
internal matter of any states.
(c) Structures and Functions
General Assembly: (the main deliberative assembly)
Established in 1945 under the Charter of the United Nations, the General Assembly has a
central position to deliberate and formulate policy specified in the charter of UN. General
Assembly (GA) comprised of all 193 members of the UN; it provides a unique forum for
multilateral discussion forum for international issues covered by the Charter. It plays a
significant role in codifying of international lawand standard-setting of peace process.
The Assembly meets from twice in a year. In the main session commence in September
to December each year. The second session began in from January to September. During
those sessions Assembly discuss on issues of critical importance. For high-level thematic
debates the president of General Assembly, consult with the members. Along with it the
Assembly traditionally also conducts informal consultations on a wide range of substantive
topics as mandated by its resolutions.

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Power and Function of General assembly
a. Approve the United Nations Budget of the year and look into the way to appropriate the
contributions made by various members.
b. Elect non-permanent members of the Security Council.
c. Recommend General principles of Cooperation, development, codification of law and
realization of human rights and freedom for all.
d. Discuss any question related to international peace and security, including disarmament.
e. Make recommendations for the peaceful settlement of any situation that may infringe
friendly relationship with other countries.
It also, considers reports from the Security Council and other United Nations Organs.
The work of General assembly is carried on by various committees. Each Member State
should be represented by one person on each Main Committee. There are six in total and on
any other committee that may be established upon which all Member States have the right to
be represented. Advisers, technical advisers, experts or persons of similar status are being
assigned to Committees by Member states. The Rule 100, of the rules of procedure of the
General Assembly talks about committees. The core Committees are
1. Committee on International Security and Disarmament
2. Committee on Economic & Finance
3. Committee on Social, Humanitarian & Cultural issues
4. Committee on Decolonization
5. Committee on Administrative & Budgetary needs
6. Committee on Legal needs.
The sub-Committees are also appointed to expedite the work of main committee. The General
Assembly (GA) has used generously its authority under Article 22 of the Charter.The article
empowers GA to establish any subsidiary organs as it deems necessary for the performance
of its functions. There are more than fifty subsidiary bodies created by GA till date.
General Assembly, work as world forum for debate and discussion. It also works as the
only organ to which each body and organ report. It is the only organ where all the member
states are considered as equal. Each one has one vote and decisions are made on the majority
basis. All the third world countries considered this forum as major debating activities.
As a deliberative body GA is concerned mainly with aggregating interests and making
democratic debates possible. The General Assembly, like any other international
organizations, is one of the elements that influence the global politics by passing various
resolutions. At present UNGA is working in Africa on various issues like eradicate, Polio,
AIDs and epidemic like Swine Flu. The programme like ‘the Roll Back Malaria’ movement

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helps prevent diseases and improves lives. It is being estimated that Malaria kills more than 3
million persons in year. Children who are of younger age of five are most vulnerable.
Since 2000s, General Assembly also tookmany initiatives to reach the goal of
Millennium Development Goals which, would make the twenty first century a safer and
peaceful place to live in. However, we can conclude that, UNGA is a multilateral forum for
debate, discussion. It also works as a forum that codifies international law which set standard
to propagate peace. It also gives informal space for consultation on high level policy matters.
The Security Council (decides on main resolutions for peace and security)
The Security Council has major responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and
security. It has 15 Members, and each Member state has one vote. Under the Charter of the
United Nations, all Member States are obligated to conform to Council decisions.
The Security Council has a leading voice to determine the existence of a threat to the
peace or act of aggression. It calls upon the parties in conflict to settle the issue by peaceful
manners. It also recommends methods of adjustment or terms of settlement. In some cases,
the Security Council can suggest imposing sanctions or even canauthorize the use of force to
maintain or restore international peace and security. We can certainly say that this is the
executive branch of the UN.
Permanent Member and Non-Permanent Members, play a vital role in Security Council.
A decision on procedural matters could be reached by majority votes (9 out of 15). The
granting of the veto power to the largest states could be said to represent merely recognition
of the realities of power politics. The veto is being regarded as a safety valve measure served
to prevent dissension among its leading members. Without it, the organization, if urged to
take action against one of these powers, could have been paralyzed by different of opinion
(Basu, 2020:65).
Powers and Functions of Security Council is to
a. Maintain international peace and security in accordance with the principles and purposes
of the United Nations
b. Investigate any dispute or situation this might lead to international friction
c. Recommend way out to adjust with such disputes or enable terms of settlements
d. Formulate plans for the establishment of a system to regulate armaments
e. Determine the existence of a threat to the peace or act of aggression and to recommend
what action should be taken
f. Call on Members to apply economic sanctions and other measures not involving the use
of force to prevent or stop aggression
g. Take military action against any aggressive state
h. Recommend the admission of new states

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i. Exercise the trusteeship functions of the United Nations in “trust areas”
j. Recommend to the General Assembly the appointment of the Secretary-General;
together with the Assembly, to elect the Judges of the International Court of Justice.
Thus, the main function of the UNSC is to find out the factors responsible for endangering
international peace and security. It can call members to solve their conflict or mediate it.
Conceptualizing Collective Security in Security Council
The UN operates on the basis of collective security ideals. Collective Security concept states
that world peace is collective responsibility of the member states of UN. Primarily, UNSC is
entitled to keep the peace and have monopoly to enforce its action to strengthen cooperation
amongst nation-states. The Security Council consists of 15 members and decides by
unanimous vote of its permanent members as specified in the Article 27 of the Charter.It
gives UNSC as sole enforcement capability. The General Assembly is an organ with
universal representation, but lacks enforcement powers. The UN Secretary General mostly
performed the role of implementing the decisions adopted by Council and the Assembly, and
of interpreting the decisions on the ground. The Article 39 to 51 talks about the power and
function of the Security Council are given underneath.
The article 39 illustrate that the Security Council shall decide the existence of any threat
to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression and shall make recommendations, or
decide what measures shall be taken in accordance with Articles 41 and 42, to maintain or
restore international peace and security.Therefore, Security Council is sole and prime
organization to determine the ‘breach of peace and act of aggression’ and prosecute the
aggressor.
However, the article 40 of the UN charter says that, in order to prevent an aggravation of
the situation, the Security Council may, before making the recommendations or deciding
upon the measures provided for in Article 39, call upon the parties concerned to observe with
such provisional measures as it deems necessary or desirable. It gives the power to enforce
peace negotiation. Such provisional measures shall be without any prejudice to the rights,
claims, or position of the parties concerned. The Security Council shall duly take account of
failure to comply with such provisional measures. In this situation Security Council can
propose trade embargo, sanctions etc. As article 41 illustrates, the Security Council may
decide what measures not involving the use of armed force are to be employed to give effect
to its decisions, and it may call upon the Members of the United Nations to apply such
measures. These may include complete or partial interruption of economic relations and
shutting of rail, sea, air, postal, telegraphic, radio, and other means of communication, and
the disconnection of diplomatic relations.
Likewise, the article 42 of UN charter gives the Security Council to consider that
measures provided for in Article 41 would be inadequate or have proved to be inadequate; it
may take such action by air, sea, or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore
international peace and security. Such measures may include demonstrations, blockade, and

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other operations by air, sea, or land forces of Members of the United Nations. This is how
UNSC is entitled with legitimate right to restore international peace and security.
The article 43 states about the cooperation required during implementation of UNSC
resolution, that all Members of the United Nations, in order to maintain peace and security in
international relations. And make them available for giving assistance, facilities, armed forces
and including prerogative of passage, necessary for the purpose of maintaining international
peace and security.These agreements shall govern the numbers and types of forces to be used,
their degree of readiness and general location, and the nature of the facilities and assistance to
be provided during crisis. During ‘war on terror’ both India and Pakistan had given such
assistance and passage to NATO led UN mandated initiatives. In the time of Balkans War,
Russia also cooperated to UNSC decision and became part of NATO’s mission in Kosovo.
The Security Council takes various initiatives to negotiate and establish possible
agreements among conflicting Members. The agreement or agreements shall be concluded
between the Security Council and Members or between the Security Council and groups of
Members and subject to ratification by the signatory states. They have to ratify the
agreements in their respective parliaments.
The article 45 of UN charter enables UNSC, to take urgent military measures, where
Members shall hold immediately available national air-force contingents for combined
international enforcement actions. The strength and degree of readiness of these plans for
their combined action shall be determined within the limits laid down in the special
agreement or agreements referred to in Article 43, by the Security Council with the assistance
of the Military Staff Committee. The blueprint for the appliance of armed force shall be made
by the Security Council with the assistance of the Military Staff Committee (Article 46).
However, the article 47, strengthen Military Staff Committee (MSC) as implementing
agency to execute the UNSC resolution on military front. It is the highest authority to assess
the ground situation of any conflict prone area and gives blueprint to sort out the situation. It
has both advisory and implementing power and function. Its functions are: a) to advise and
assist the Security Council on all questions relating to the Security Council’s military needs
for the maintenance of international peace and security. It works as the employment and
command of forces placed at its disposal, the regulation of armaments, and possible
disarmament. b) The MSC shall consist of the Chiefs of Staff of the permanent members of
the Security Council or their representatives. There will not be any permanent membership of
Member states, butshall represented when been invited by the Committee to be associated
with it. The efficient discharge of the Committee’s responsibilities requires the participation
of all perment members. c) It should be responsible under the Security Council for the
strategic courseof its action. d) It has full authority to consultwith regional agencies, may
establish regional subcommittees to solve the conflict between warring states. Thus, UNSC is
the main organ to implement measures of collective security through MSC. At last, article 50
and 51 also empowers UNSC to put economic sanction and give advisory help to states who
are in need; restoring peace after got reporting etc.

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 However, the Security Council establishes a peace-keeping operation by adopting a
Security Council resolution. The resolution sets out that mission’s mandate and size. As we
have discussed in Article 25, it obliges all UN members to agree to carry out any decision.
Further, the Council may impose sanctions; arms embargoes, financial sanctions and travel
bans-designed to eliminate or minimize unintended effects by focusing on those responsible
for policies condemned by the international community, while leaving other parts of the
population and international trade relations unaffected (Gupta and Kumar: 67).
The use of force and military actions against belligerent states is employed as the last
resort for enforcement of peace by the Security Council. In all these measures undertaken by
the Council the entire membership of United Nations is bound to assist the Council the entire
membership of UN is to bind to assist then Council. Under article 2(4) all the members of the
UN have been advised to refrain from the use of force against any other state. Refraining
from aggressive action by states and entrusting their security in the hands of Security Council
collective security system is the key to the maintenance of global peace under the aegis of the
UN (ibid).
The most critical issue of Security Council is of veto system. The mechanism has been
used in a selective manner in the time of Cold War. This mechanism restricted the efficient
working of UN as independent and powerful entity over ‘state sovereignty’ or monopoly of
superpowers.
Power of Veto: the search for consensus
The veto system was agreed upon in 1945 at Yalta Conference by Roosevelt, Churchill and
Stalin, and though it was hotly debated by small power as undemocratic mechanism. But it
work as legitimate mechanism till date. The basic logic to adopt veto system is to bring
consensus among powerful nations on any issue and action. The procedure of veto gives
voice to the dissenting nation to disagree. Here, the permanent member can take up an
independent course of action. In such a situation the possibility of another world war cannot
be denied. Therefore, veto was seen as an ‘inside room’ solution to such dooming threats
(ibid). In the beginning newly independent and developing or small nations complained
against such discriminatory device. During cold war time both USA and USSR very often
used this device.
However, according to Inis L. Claude “the veto is deliberately contrived circuit breaker
in the decision making process of Security Council, designed to prevent the commitment of
the Council to a position or a course of action in opposition to expressed will of a great
power. The rationale is obvious: great power opposition is dangerous, and it is better for the
Council to be reduced to inactivity than for risk a showdown by pressing ahead in the face of
determined hostility on the part of major state. A stalemate is an in convenience; a showdown
would be disaster”. Thus, the veto was being misused by both the superpowers in the cold
war days. Hereafter, Security Council has brought unified decision in September 11 terrorist
attack on World Trade Center in 2001.

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 After September 11, the USA led ‘war on terror’ had received unprecedented support
from world community. Consequently, the Security Council had passed the resolution of
1373 against terrorism. Under this resolution, the council unanimously decided that all States
should prevent and suppress the financing of terrorism. However, we can conclude that veto
is a safety valve measure in UN which alerts permanent members and warring nation-states
regarding the consequence of not resolving any issue peacefully may lead to unprecedented
consequence.
UN and Disarmament
Since its inception, The UN is actively encouraging disarmament and regulation of armament
regimes. In the post 1945 world scenario had seen the cold war, as both USA and USSR
indulged in nuclear arms race mode. So, all the initiative under the banner of UN had shown
only formal adherence to the disarmament regime. However, with all its limitations UN had
taken various steps to control arms. In the year 1961 UNGA had adopted a resolution
declaring the using of nuclear weapons or thermonuclear weapons to be against the
international laws of humanity. The nuclear weapons Test-Ban Treaty was being signed on
August 5 of 1963, in the presence of United Kingdom, the USA and USSR. This agreement
has prohibited nuclear tests, explosions in the atmosphere, in outer space, and underwater. In
1966 the General assembly unanimously approved a treaty which prohibited placement of
weapons of mass destruction (WMD) in the orbit of Earth orbit, on the moon, or on other
celestial bodies and recognizing the use of outer space.
In the year 1968 the UNGA approved the treaty on Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) of
nuclear weapons. This has banned the spreading of nuclear weapons from nuclear powered
states to non-nucleated states. This treaty has also stated that signatory nonnuclear power not
to develop ordeploy nuclear weapons, in exchange for technical assistance in developing
nuclear power for ‘peaceful purposes’ or of civilian uses. However, India has not yet signed
the treaty saying as it is discriminatory. Time to time UN had discussed and created
commissions on disbarment. In the year 1975, the International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA) was established to promote the peaceful uses of atomic energy.
The primary bodies which are working on disarmament are of:
a. Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, (1997)
b. The United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR)(1980)
c. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)(1975)
d. The Disarmament Commission (1952)
e. The United Nations Mine Action Service. (UNMAS)
In sum, we can assume that the UN has provided the institutional mechanism to facilitate
disarmament all over world. But the rapid growing arms trade and proliferation of nuclear
states showcase that UN as collective security regime to produce peace is partially successful.

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The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
ECOSOC supports the General Assembly in promoting international economic and social
cooperation and development. At present it has 54 member states. Under the UN Charter,
ECOSOC is accountable for promoting higher standards of living, full employment, and
economic and social progress; identifying solutions to international economic, social and
health problems; facilitating international cultural and educational cooperation; and
encouraging universal respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. The president is
elected for one-year term and chosen amongst the small or middle powers represented on
ECOSOC. ECOSOC meets once a year in July for a four-week session. Since 1998, it has
held another meeting each April with finance ministers heading key committees of the World
Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Viewed separate from the specialized
bodies it coordinates, ECOSOC’s functions include information gathering, advising member
nations, and making recommendations. In addition, it is well placed to provide policy
coherence and coordinate the overlapping functions of the UN’s subsidiary bodies like ILO,
UNESCO, WHO and World Bank.
The Economic and Social Council was established to co-ordinate the economic and
social work of the UN and its specialized institutions. The council has 54 member statesthat
are serving for three years. Eighteen members are elected each year for a three-year team to
replace 18 members whose three-year term has expired. Voting procedure in the ECOSOC is
by simple majority and each member has one vote. The power and functions are:
Functions and Powers
a. It serve as the central forum for the discussion of international economic and social
issues and formulation of policy recommendations on those issues and formulation of
policy recommendations on those issues addressed to Member States and to the UN
system as a whole.
b. To make or initiate studies and reports, recommendations on international economic,
social, cultural, educational, health and related matters and to promote respect for and
execution of human rights and elementary freedoms for all.
c. To call international conferences and prepare draft conventions for submission to
General Assembly on matters falling within its competence, to negotiate agreements
with the specialized agencies defining their relationship with UN and to co-operate the
activities of the specialized agencies; tocarry out services, approved by Assembly, for
members of the United Nations and upon request, for the specialized agencies
(www.un.org/ecosoc).
Sessions: The Economic and Social Council generally meet twice; one is of an organizational
session and a substantive session in each year, one in New York and other at Geneva.
Throughout the year work of Council is carried out in its subsidiary bodies consist of
commissions and committees, which meet at usual intervals and report back to Council. In

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carrying out its mandate, ECOSOC consults with academics, business representatives and
more than 3,200 registered non-governmental bodies.
There are few functional Commissions to expatiate the advisory work of ECOSOC like :
Commission for Social Development, Commission on Narcotics Drugs, Commission on
Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, Commission on Science and Technology for
Development, Commission on Sustainable Development, Commission on Status of Women,
Commission on Population and Development, Statistical Commission, United Nations Forum
on Forest, Regional Commissions etc.
The main thrust of the ECOSOC has become the economic and social development of
the developing countries. ECOSOC discharges and gets its jurisdiction under the authority of
General Assembly (Article 60). Through its policy recommendations, ECOSOC plays a vital
role in fostering international cooperation for development and fulfilling the priorities of
Millennium Development Goals and later Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Thus,
ECOSOC plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation for sustainable
development and cooperation for economic issues which are the core area to combat poverty
and inequality in the globe.
The International Court of Justice
The international Court of Justice is the principal organ entitled to provide justice through the
United Nations. Its statues are essential part of the UN charter. Both the General Assembly
and the Security Council as well as the other UN organized specialized agencies can ask the
Court for an advisory opinion on any legal question. The article 38 of UN charter says that
a. international convention establishing rules recognized by the conflicting States;
b. international custom as indication of general practice accepted by international law;
c. the general principles of law recognized by nations; and
d. Judicial decisions and teaching of the most highly qualified legal and continual experts
of various nations, as a subsidiary means for determining the rule of law.
Membership
The International Court of Justice is composed of 15 judges elected to nine years terms of
office by the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council. The Court suggests
one nation to be represented as judge. The judges serve for a term of nine years and possibly
reelected. They cannot hold in any other occupation during their term at The Hague,
Netherlands. However, the Court as a whole must represent as the principal legal systems of
the world. A candidate needs to receive an absolute majority of the votes in both bodies, then
only can be considered as elected. It sometimes makes necessary for a number of rounds of
voting to be carried out. In order to ensure continuity, one third of the Court is elected every
three years. Its official working languages are English and French.

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 ICJ has both contentious and advisory jurisdiction. It settles disputes summated to it by
the states. In this case countries can approach and appear before ICJ. Here, party to dispute
should recognize the jurisdiction of the court. Then only court can have work as judge. The
judgment would be final and binding upon the state afterwards. The court won’t have binding
effecton advisory jurisdiction of the judgment. Parties to the dispute have full right not to
obey the advisory given by it. But it has many other political consequences. In 1992 Libya
brought two cases against United Kingdom and USA. The case is still pending (Basu: 111).
In 1993, Bosnia and Herzegovina brought a case against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
concerning the application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of crime of
genocide. The court had redefined the definition of genocide and established a Tribunal over
it. But the case is still pending (ibid).
ICJ had given its advisory direction many times over various disputes. In 2003, the
General Assembly had asked ICJ regarding the construction of a wall in the occupied
Palestinian territory by Israel. The court had delivered the advisory opinion on 9th July 2004.
The key point of the opinion was that theconstruction of the wall and its associated regime
are contrary to the international law (Kumar & Gupta: 147).
Thus, the work and success of ICJ is of mixed outcome. It has partially successful to
delivering on various international disputes. But the case brought before it gives rich
experience of judicial discourses and set precedent for future judgments.
International Labor Organization (ILO)
The International Labor Organizations (ILO) was founded in1919, in the post World War I,
to bring about changes among various working classes in Europe. The ILO was the first
specialized agency of United Nations to maintain the labor standard.
The objective of the ILO is to promote opportunities for women and men to obtain
decent and productive work and maintain a healthy working atmosphere with basic recreation
time. The main function of the organization is to address a) Global Job Crisis; b) Promote
social justice; c) Recognize human and labor rights around the globe; d) take initiatives to
realize Millennium Development Goals. However, the main aims are to promote rights at
work, encourage decent employment opportunities, enhance social protection of worker, and
strengthen the relationship between workers and management.
In consequence, the ILO has four Strategic Objectives:
1. Promote and realize standards and fundamental principles and right at work.
2. Create greater opportunities for women and men to decent employment and income.
3. Enhance the coverage and effectiveness of social protection for all.
4. Strengthen tripartism and social dialogue (Kumar & Gupta : 446)
In support of this, the ILO offers unmatched expertise and knowledge about the world of
work. It serves its tripartite constituents and society as a whole-in a verity of ways, including:

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a) formulation of international policies and programmes to promote basic human rights,
improve working and living conditions, and enhance employment opportunities; b) creation
of international labor standards backed by a unique system to supervise their application; c)
an expensive program of international technical cooperation formulated and implemented in
an active partnership with constituents’, to help countries put these policies into practice in an
effective manner; d) training, education and research activities to help advance all of these
efforts (ibid). ILO had been given with Nobel Peace prize in the year 1969 for its contribution
to strengthen labor laws across the world.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) took shape
in 1945. UNESCO has 195 members and 8 associated members. This unit is governed by the
General Conference and the Executive Board. The Secretariat, headed by the Director-
General, implements the decisions of these two bodies. The organization has more than 50
field offices around the world and its headquarters are located in Paris.
The mission of UNESCO is to contribute to the building of a culture of peace. The main
objective is to eradication of poverty, acknowledge sustainable development; reiterate
intercultural dialogue through education, the sciences, culture, communication and
information.
It works to create the conditions for exchange of ideas among civilizations, cultures and
people, based upon respect for commonly shared values. It is through this dialogue that world
can achieve global visions of sustainable development encompassing observance of human
rights, mutual respects for commonly shared values. It also, spread the idea of pacifism and
shared values based on mutual cooperation and empathy among nations. Presently, it focuses
on development in Africa and Gender equality. These two areas are global priority. Main
objectives are of:
a. attaining quality educations for all and consider education as lifelong learning process
b. mobilizing science knowledge and policy for sustainable development
c. addressing various socio-ethical challenges
d. fostering cultural diversity, intercultural dialogue and a culture of peace
e. building inclusive knowledge society
World Health Organization (WHO)
WHO was been established in 1948. It is an institution to UN in the field of health. Its
objective is to attain and build a better, healthier future for people all over the world. It is
working with 194 Statesacross six regions. It has more than 150 offices, where WHO staff
are united in a shared commitment to achieve better health for everyone. Together they strive
to combat diseases, like communicable diseases like influenza and HIV; and non
communicable diseases like cancer and heart disease. They work on mothersand children

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morbidity and thrive have healthy maternity. They also, ensure the safety of the air people
breathe, the food they eat, the water they drink along with supplying of the medicines and
vaccines as needed. Itwas being createdin 1948, 7th of April. Thus, 7th of April is now
celebrated every year as World Health Day. There are now more than 7000 people working in
150 country offices, in six regional offices. Its headquarteris in Geneva, Switzerland.
The primary role of WHO is to direct and co-ordinate international health within the
United Nations system. The main areas of work are to strengthen health systems of both
developed and developing nations. It work to eradicate non communicable and
communicable diseases; preparedness, surveillance and response of such; and also provide
corporate services. The WHO works worldwide to promote safety and health. The goal is to
ensure that more people have universal health coverage. It wants to protect, people from any
kind of health emergencies like Polio, AIDs, Swine Flu, Malaria etc. The collective health
coverage emphasizes on and works to
a. improve access to essential servicesto strengthen primary health care all over the world
b. work towards sustainable financing and financial protection for people
c. improve access to health products andessential medicines
d. train the health workforce and advise on labor policies
e. support people’s participation in national health policies and family welfare
f. Improve monitoring, data and information all over the world.
During global pandemic, the WHO is directing every nation to cooperate and promising to
provide vaccine available for all people across globe. Time to time it is issuing various
directives to mange Covid 19 pandemic.
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)
UNICEF was established in the first session of the General Assembly in 1946. It works for
the uplifttment of children worldwide. It has extensive network around the globe. UNICEF
works with governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and local communities.
This program is now supporting various programs like sanitation, water, health, nutrition of
children, education, environment to ‘women as mother’ and ‘families as nurseries for
children’. It places emphasis on need based programmes and has an extensive program for
the training of personnel needed for these various services (Basu: 273).
More than the programmes, it also assists government with recommendations, personnel,
materials and equipments. It has an extraordinary record in 1990s to uplift children’s health
and education. Thus in the year 1995 it has been awarded with Nobel peace prize for its
monumental work. For instance, in 1991 more than a quarter of its total income of over US
$800 million came in the form of voluntary donations. With this it supports programmes for
children in 128 countries (ibid).

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 In the year 2000, UNICEF had decided to work on various goals like a) reduce the infant
mortality rate and morbidity among the children who are less than five years; b) it also
worked for the malnutrition among children under five and maternal health; c) it has also
tried to improve drinking water to accessible to all; and it also co-sponsored with UNESCO
on the program on ‘education for all’ since 1990s. However, India is deeply involved in all
the programmes of UNICEF. With the leadership of UNICEF the Convention on the Rights
of Child had been ratified universally amongst all the member nations. It works to assure
equality for those who discriminate against girls or women. It also tries to fulfill the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) promised byUN. It works to hold every government
accountable for the growth and security of children.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
UNDP in its flagship program has a mission to eradicate poverty and inequality. They help
countries to develop policies with the ethos and spirit of Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs). There are three thrust areas of its function a) sustainable development b) democratic
government and peace building c) climate change and disaster management. The vision and
mission of it is to end the poverty, build democratic and decentralized governance, advocate
change in connection to establish rule of law and organize resources to build better life of
people all over the world.
UNDP helps developing countries to generate and use aid carefully or prudently. In its
activities it always wants protect human rights and tries to establish gender equality.
Developing countries including India are working to create their own national strategies to
eradicate poverty and help poor who have less income. Every year they publish Human
Development Reportswhere they rank states according to the performance initiated to achieve
SDGs (See more, www.undp.org).
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
UNEP was established by General Assembly in the year1972, in Stockholm Conference. It
was being created to give leadership and encourage partnership to inspire and enable nations
to think sustainable development and initiate cooperation to strengthen ecological or
environmental balance.
The main objective of UNEP is to a) Promote international cooperation to protect
environment; b) give policy directives and coordinate environmental programmes with in UN
system; c) receive and review periodical report of the Executive Director on implementation
of various environmental projects; d) provide leadership to contribute and coordinate
scientific knowledge on environment; give technical support to implement the same; e)
suggest to tackle environmental disasters and conflicts.
With the leadership of UN, UNEP has initiated many Conventions to climate change.
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) had organized a
conference on environment and development, informally known as Earth Summit, held at Rio
de Janeiro from 3rd to 14 June 1992 became a milestone. It had discussed to gather and share

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green house gas (GHG) emissions, national policies and strategies to eradicate it, providing
financial and technological support to establish eco-friendly norms etc. UNFCC had adopted
another convention named Kyoto Protocol in 1997. This protocol has targeted 37
industrialized nations to reduce their carbon emission. The protocol had adopted the policy of
reduce carbon emission, deforestation and green technology transfer to developing nations.
Kyoto Protocol remains as redundant as many industrialized states have not signed it. In the
year 2000, UN adopted its Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) which had targeted to
give people access to safe water and sanitation by 2015.
UNEP also monitor various environmental issues like a) it maintains a catalog on GHG
and its mitigation; b) it provide guidance of water management and waste management; c) it
also shares knowledge to sustainable use of paper and paper usages: d) it also sensitize and
bring awareness about biosafety and diversity; e) it works with the partnership with
nongovernmental organizations, schools and institutions. (See more www.unep.org).
UN WOMEN
Since 1945, UN has actively engaged in empowering the women around the world. The
preamble of UN tries to reaffirm faith that all Women’s right are of human rights, and UN
always tries to keep faith in the dignity of men and women both. UN has established many
institutions and formulated many plan to foster gender equality. It had established, a Division
for the Advancement of Women (DAW), International Research and Training Institute for the
Advancement of Women (INSTRAW), Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and
Advancement of Women (OSAGI), United Nations Development Fund for Women
(UNIFEM). The World Conference on Women in Beijing China in the year 1995 had
identified 12 critical areas related to women. The concerns are as follows:
a) the persistent and increasing burden of poverty on women; b) Unequal access to and
inadequate educational opportunities; c) In equalities in health status, and unequal access to
an inadequate health-care services; d) violence against women; e) effects of conflict on
women; f) inequality in women’s participation in the definition of economic structures and
policies and in production process itself; g) inequality in the sharing of power and decision
making; h) insufficient mechanisms to promote the advancement of women; i) lack of
awareness of, and commitment to, internationally and nationally recognized women’s human
rights; j) insufficient mobilization of mass media to promote women’s contribution to society;
k) lack of adequate recognition and support for women’s contribution to managing natural
resources and safeguarding the environment; l) the protecting and saving life of girl child.
(Basu: 272)
Afterwards, the special session of the General Assembly in 2000 to follow up on the
conference, countries pledged additional initiatives such as strengthening legislation against
all forms of domestic violence, and enacting laws and policies to eradicate practices such as
early and forced marriage and female genital mutilation etc. Targets were set to ensure free
compulsory primary education for both girls and boys, and to improve women’s health

15
through wider access to health care and prevention of maternal mortality rate etc. (ibid).
However, gender equality remains the main thrust area of Millennium Development Goals
and later remains the crux of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
The UNHCR has objective to protect the rights of refugees, and asylum seekers across the
globe. It ensures their human rights, and looks into the matters that force refugees to the
countries they left in fear of prosecution and danger of life and liberty. Refugees like women
and young children are easily being targeted and abused while crossing borders. The human
trafficking remains the major issue of concern for them. So, UNHCR often provide them to
live in camps and provide them with basic amenities like food, water and sanitization.
UNHCR has been working as leading humanitarian agency during various conflicts in
Balkans, Afghanistan and Iraq war. It had worked with other UN agencies like UNICEF,
UNDP and other NGOs to repatriate refugees who had fled during Kosovo crisis to Europe. It
has very recently worked for the uplifttment of Rohingya who fled Myanmar and approached
India and Bangladesh border.
UNHCR has been called to assist an estimated 4.6 million displaced persons in various
regions. Increasingly in former Yugoslavia, East Timor, Cambodia and Chechnya and
assisted them on humanitarian ground. Primarily helping refugees, UNHCR also work to
provide them education, health and shelter. The refuges are being promoted to get
employment and integrate to the culture of host countries. That means UNHCR works for the
resettlement of refugees and provided with aid to sustain their life.
Critical Assessment of General Secretary
The secretariat is the one of the core institution of the United Nations. It is headed by the
position of General Secretary. He is being considered as Chief Administrative Officer of the
UN. He is being assisted by a group of talented international bureaucracy consist of
economist, administrators, environmental experts, legal advisors, statisticians’, media
persons, ecologist etc. All the staffs are appointed by him in consultation with General
Assembly. The staffs are directly responsible to United Nations and cannot receive any
instruction from any government or authority outside the United Nations.
The staffs of the Secretariat are appointed from the member states considering their
efficiency, competence and integrity. As UN has to serve different geographical location so
they need expertise to particular field and location. In order to assist in such recruitment, the
General Assembly established a United Nations Administrative Tribunal in 1949. Apart, from
this, in 1974 it also established a fifteen member International Civil Service Commission to
make recommendations and decide on matters that affect the salary and personal system of
the United Nations and other related agencies.
The methods of recruitment of staffs of Secretariat have changed significantly. For
instance, in order to ensure uniformity and timely delivery of services, Dag Hammarskjold

16
made the Office of Human Resource Management (OHRM) directly responsible to him. A
new selection system was introduced by the Secretary-General in 2002. The responsibility of
selection was given to the heads of the departments who were responsible for program
delivery (Kumar & Gupta: 152).
If we read Article 7 along with Article 97 of the United Nations Charter, says that the
Secretariat, with the Secretary General as its head, is a principal executive of the United
Nations. The Secretary General shall be appointed by the General Assembly upon the
recommendation of Security Council. He shall be the chief administrative officer of the
Organization (See UN Charter, Basu: 446). Looking in to the consensus required for the
election of General Secretary (GS), a past GS, Boutros Boutros-Ghali- was fondly called him
the “humble servant” of the member states (Goldstein & Pevehouse: 248).
The Secretary-General is nominated by the Security Council-requiring the consent of all
five permanent members-and must be approved by the General Assembly.The term of the
office is five years and may be renewed. Past secretaries-generals have came from various
regions (Ban Ki-moon was from South Korea; U Thant was from Myanmar; Kofi Annan was
from African continent). However, the Secretary-General is more than a bureaucratic manger.
Along with administrative reforms, developmental work she has to use is office to serve as a
neutral mediator in international conflicts- to bring hostile parties together to negotiations
(ibid). Like any CEO of the company the GS of UN gives vision and mission to work and
implement policies they adhere to. He/ or She work as the captain of the ship, direct and
coordinate and implement the policy decisions during normal times and exigencies too.
(d) Peace Keeping, Peace Making and Enforcement, Peace Building and Responsibility
to protect by UN
Peacekeeping activities of United Nations are created to establish long lasting peace in the
world. It generally aimedat reduces the death of civilian and reduces the risk of renewed
warfare among conflicting nations or ethnic groups. The peacekeeping activity is always
scrutinized by Security Council and discussed in General Assembly as resolution. It is an
extraordinary diplomatic act for using polices, soldiers not to fight a war and win but to
prevent fight and, maintain cease-fire. Peacekeeping process is of a kind of mechanism which
deescalates and pacifies things and act positively for humanitarian assistance.
Within the United Nations (UN) group of nation-state, governments and organizations,
there is a general understanding that at the international level, peacekeepers especially
monitor and observe peace processes in post-conflict areas. Itassists ex-combatants in
implementing peace agreement commitments that they have undertaken. Such assistance may
enter in many forms, including confidence-building measures, power-sharing arrangements,
electoral support, strengthening the rule of law, and economic and social development.
Peacekeeping is associated with the name of Dag Hammarskjold, who extended
enormous influence both refining and applying the concept. Peacekeeping as Hammarskjold
envisaged it as “a matter of preventing engagement or facilitating disengagement on the part

17
of the super powers when and where they are rational enough to see the advantage of
mutually standing back or stepping aside. It proposes a preemptive and neutralizing collective
intervention to forestall a unilateral intervention, designed to establish dominance, or a
competitive intervention destined to raise the temperature of cold war”. Thus it a mechanism
of independent and impartial intervention to prevent any war or conflict.
Accordingly, the UN peacekeepers (often referred to as Blue Helmets because of their
light blue helmets) can include soldiers, police officers, and civilian personnel. Every
member nation contributes for the recruitment of these troops of UN. The major contributors
of peacekeepers are India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.
The United Nations is not the only organization to implement peacekeeping missions.
Some of the examples of non-UN peacekeeping forces include the NATO mission in
Kosovo (with United Nations authorization) and the Multinational Force and Observers on
the Sinai Peninsula or the ones organized by the European Union (like EUFOR RCA, with
UN authorization) and the African Union (like the African Union Mission in Sudan).
The Nonviolent Peace force is one NGO widely considered having expertise in general
peacemaking by non-governmental volunteers or activists is being impartial agency of UN to
promote peace keeping.
Peacekeeping forces are normally deployed with the consent of the parties to a conflict.
It supports ceasefires and agreed upon to establish peace measures. Peace enforcement refers
to the use of military assets to enforce a peace against the will of the parties to a conflict
when, for instance, a ceasefire has failed. Thus, one can summarize that Peacekeeping
activities are of neutral and impartial in nature. In this line it tries to take consent of both
warring states and pursue them to resolve their conflict in peaceful manner.
The peacekeeping forces are to be financed by all the member states. They have not
entitled to use any type of force for offensive manner. In case of violent situation they would
use force for their self-defense. All operations of the force, including the questions of their
stationing and the duration of its stay, are subject to the consent of the host country.
(e) Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
Millennium Development Goals are the UN approved eight international development goals
that all 193 UN member countries have agreed to achieve by 2015. Now these goals are being
converted and called as Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) which need to be achieved
by 2030.
The MDGs was signed in 2000 in the objective to combat or overcome poverty, hunger,
diseases, illiteracy, environmental degradation and discrimination against women. The eight
MDGs can be discussed below:
a. Eradicate extreme poverty and Hunger
b. Achieve universal primary education

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c. Promote gender equality and empower women
d. Reduce child morality
e. Improve maternal health
f. Combat HIV/AIDs, malaria and other diseases
g. Ensure environmental sustainability
h. Develop a Global Partnership for Development.
UN has decided to eradicate poverty and hunger by targeting people whose income is less
than $1.25 a day and suffering from hunger. Throughout the world including India UN as
pursued to eradicate hunger. The program of mid day meal can be of such one type was being
supported by UN. This policy has set to achieve the target to make students of primary
education free from hunger and illiteracy. The goal to promote gender equality and empower
women UN had given directives to all the member countries. Every government throughout
the globe is taking of measures to achieve this. In case of India, the constitution has created
and provided equal citizenship rights. However, the substantive equality has not been
achieved yet. Thus, gender quotas, reservation policy in the Panchayati Raj Institutions are
being given to women in India. The Directive Principle of State Policy also acknowledges
equal payment for men and women for equal work.
The Global Monitoring Report 2011(GMR) on the MDGs, prepared jointly by World
Bank and International Monetary Fund, makes it clear that, despite some progress, key targets
will remain elusive when the 2015 deadline is reached. There are positive indicators that the
goals relating to parity in primary and secondary education, completion of primary education,
access to clean drinking water, and halving extreme poverty and hunger can be met. But there
is cause for serious concern in the areas of child and maternal morality and access to
sanitation. We can also access the partial success of Swatch Bharat Mission in this regard.
One reason for this uneven progress is that access-based goals, such as education, are easier
to achieve than those that can be measured by specific outcomes, such as health care (Kumar
and Gupta: 434). We can see the vital importance of health care in the present context of
pandemic.
Kofi Annan, former Secretary General of UN, while evaluating MDGs point out that, the
revitalizing the political will to achieve the MDGs, and scaling up proven interventions, is
linchpin to achievement. He further asserts that primary responsibility, however, rests with
national leaders. Their challenge is to re-articulate a compelling case for global solidarity and
equitable growth (ibid).
Cited Works
 Basu, Rumki (2020) United Nations: Structure and Function of an international
Organization, Sterling Publishing Private Limited, New Delhi

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  Basu, Rumki (eds.) (2012), International Politics: Concepts Theories and Issues, Sage
Publications, New Delhi
 Kumar Chanchal & Sanju Gupta (eds.) (2013), United Nation and Global Conflict,
Regal Publications, New Delhi
 Joshua S. Goldstein & Jon. C. Pevehouse (2013), International Relations, Pearson
Education (Pp 231-270)
 Jackson Robert & Georg Sorensen, Introduction to International Relations: Theories
and Approaches, Oxford University Press
Websites
https://www.un.org/en/sections/history/history-united-nations/index.html
https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/background.shtml
https://www.un.org/en/about-us/un-charter
https://www.un.org/en/sections/history/history-united-nations/index.html
http://brandt21forum.info/About_BrandtCommission.htm
http://brandt21forum.info/BrandtEquation-19Sept04.pdf
www.un.org/dppa/deconization
https://www.un.org/ar/geninfo/pdf/UN.today.pdf
https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/background.shtml
https://legal.un.org/repertory/art39.shtml
https://www.un.org/en/about-us/un-charter/chapter-7
http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1945/1945-06-28a.html

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 Unit-2

Major Global Conflicts since the Second World War

Dr. Shakti Pradayani Rout

At the end of World War II, the world was divided into two blocs. The United Nations (UN)
tried to work in the back drop of this rivalry between USA and USSR. From its inception
UN had accomplished many milestones; resolved crises and many conflicts through
negotiations and mediation. The UN can be credited as the institution which formalized
decolonialization process by recognising the principle of equal rights and self-determination
of people. It had played multidimensional role from: peacekeeping; development and
provided humanitarian aid to nations who asked for it. For example, UN have supervised
elections leading to independence in various countries as Togo Land (1956-1968); Namibia
(1989); East Timor (1999) and Kosovo (in 2008). In course of its action it tried to
reconstruct various war ravaged states like Afghanistan, South Sudan and Iraq. In our
present chapter we will discuss how UN has worked on these four crisis situation and tried
to resolve the conflict. The aim of the chapter is to analyse major global conflicts and
develop an in depth understanding how UN has tried to work and managed the conflicts. The
conflicts are 1) Korean Crisis; 2) Vietnam War; 3) Afghanistan War; 4) Balkan War: Serbia
and Bosnia.
(a) Korean Crisis
Korea is a peninsula situated in the east of China. Korea was occupied by Japan since
1911.After liberating Korea from Japan in post World War II the both occupying power USA
and USSR divided Korea over 38th parallel. This was taking place in the end of World War II,
where the world is being divided into two poles. The Cold War between USSR vs. USA had
divided the world into two rivalry blocs. On 25th June 1950, North Korea, with the backing of
the Soviet Union, attacked South Korea. The UN condemned the invasion as an act of
aggression. It had demanded the withdrawal of North from Seoul. In the mean time China
was supported Communist Russia. The Soviets administered the northern part of Korea and
the Americans tried to administer the southern part of it. During 1950s, the Cold
War tensions were in full scale, the occupation of two zones became two weights in the hands
of USA and USSR. A socialist and Communist styled state was established in the north under
the leadership of Kim Il-Sung. In opposition to it, a capitalist American style state was
established in the South Korea under the leadership of Syngman Rhee. Both governments of
the two new Korean states claimed to be the sole legitimate government of all of Korea, and
neither accepted the border as permanent settlement.
North Korean’s Korean People’s Army (KPA) forces crossed the border and advanced
into South Korea on 25 June 1950.The United Nations Security Council strongly condemned
the North Korean move as an invasion, and authorized the formation of the United Nations
Command sent the force to Korea to combat the disaster. These UN decisions were taken

21
place without participation of the Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of China, both of
which supported North Korea. More than twenty countries of the United Nations eventually
contributed to the UN force, with the flagship of United States of America. USA had
providing and contributed 90% of the military expenses.
During first two months of war, South Korean Army (ROKA) and the US forces rapidly
dispatched to Korea led to defeat. In subsequent battles, Seoul was captured four times and
Communist forces backed by USSR and China was pushed back to the 38th parallel, close to
where the war started. The North Korea was being subject to a massive bombing by
USA. The new technology of Jet fighters was being sent, air-to-air combat strikes were taking
place for the first time in the world history. The Soviet pilots covertly supported their
communist allies. During pick of the crisis, UN had also denied entry of China to Security
Council of United Nations. Though, the General Assembly of UN had adopted ‘United for
Peace’ resolution but it had not able to stop the catastrophe taken place in Korean Peninsula.
However, the collective security measure ensured by UN had become ineffective in the Cold
War rivalry between USA and the then Communist Russia.
The Korean War was the first major conflict in post world war II. The Korean War was
among the most destructive conflicts in the world in the Cold war era. It had been seen that
approximately 3 million war fatalities had taken place and a larger proportional civilian death
toll than World War II or the Vietnam War. It had incurred the destruction of virtually all of
Korea’s major cities. The war also massacred thousands of lives to the both sides. Thousands
of suspected communists by the South Korean government were being killed, tortured by
North Korea. North Korea became among the most heavily bombed countries in the world
history. The future East and West relations were being deepened as the mistrust between
USA and China increased.
At last, the confrontation ended on 27 July 1953 when the Korean Armistice Agreement
was signed. The truce agreement had been initiated the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) to
separate North and South Korea. This agreement has also allowed the return of prisoners to
respective side. However, no peace treaty was being signed, and the two Koreas are
technically still at war, engaged in a frozen conflict. However, in April 2018, the leaders of
both North and South Korea met at the DMZ and agreed to work toward a treaty to formally
end the Korean War.
UN and Korean Crisis:
In September 1947 America had proposed that Korean Crisis would be handled by the UN.
On 14th of November the General Assembly created a UN Temporary Commission on Korea
to work towards Korean independence. It was agreed that Korea would be unitred and
declared as democratic, independent and free country. However, Soviet Russia had not
allowed the commission to access the north. Indirectly USA had supported Rhee regime
dominated by aristocrats’ and landlords. In this crisis situation between two sides of Korean
peninsula, the communist China had submitted a resolution at 423th Security Council meeting

22
held in 8th of April 1949. The main objective was to give admission to the South Korea to
UN. However, it was being vetoed by USSR, in apprehension of setting a puppet government
in South Korea. A second veto on this question was cast at the 704th meeting of the Security
Council held on 13 December 1955. A third Veto was cast at the 790th Security Council
meeting on 9th of September 1957 after the Soviet Union had failed to carry resolution
amendments to admit both Koreas to the United Nations. However, the Korean crisis shows
how partially UN is successful to handle any global crisis. Till today USA troops remain in
South Korea, and heavily armed North Korean and South Korean forces still face each other
with frequent truce violations (Kumar & Gupta: 233). However, it’s clear that the war had not
expanded to global level but remained specific to Korean peninsula.
(b) Vietnam War
Previously Vietnam was a French Colony and some part was ruled by Japan.In the year 1945
to 1950 the Vietnamese started anti colonial war. In the Post World War II Laos, Cambodia
and Vietnam got their independence. Vietnam temporarily divided into South and North.
North Vietnam was being supported by Communist Russia and South Vietnam was anti-
communist and supported by USA. However, the major mineral resources and manufacturing
industries were situated in North of Vietnam. The south was pro democratic and was major
rice producing part and specialized in producing personal goods.
North Vietnam, which had defeated the French colonial administration of Vietnam in
1954, under the leadership of Ho Chi Min, tried to unify the entire country under a
communist government model similar to China and the Communist Russia. The South
Vietnamese government, which was more aligned with West and US opposed it.
Around 1958, Communist-led armed members, known as the Viet Cong, started battling
against the South Vietnamese government. In support of South Vietnam Government, The
United States of America sent military. In later, the numbers of US soldiers increased to
16,300 in 1963. The war continued for longer time. South Vietnam had lost the Mekong
Delta by 1963. In 1965, US President Lyndon Johnson escalated the war by sending more
ground forces and more air strikes on North Vietnam. In 1968 there were around 536,000
strong ground forces of US.
In the year 1968, another major escalation by North Vietnamese called The “Tet
Offensive” which turned many Americans against this war due to its implication in economic
and loss of life of American armed forces. The war of Vietnam was the major military
operation conducted by both USA and the then USSR. At the starting of this offense the allies
lost control of several cities but latter inflicted heavy casualties on People’s Army of Vietnam
(PAVN/VC) forces. Another battle took place in Hue which lasted for a month, resulting in
the destruction of the city. During this battle, the PAVN/VC executed thousands of people
and massacred many civilian.
The continued Vietnam War had far reaching consequences due to its effect on the views
of the American public. The next US president, Richard Nixon, advocated withdrawing

23
American troops and giving South Vietnam greater responsibility for fighting the war. In
1970, Nixon attempted to lessen the flow of North Vietnamese soldiers and supplies into
South Vietnam by destroying supply bases in Cambodia. However, Nixon’s period was
considered as a period of detente in the Cold War. However, during period 1968 to 1973,
many efforts were made through diplomacy to end the conflict.
During January 1973, as per agreement, U.S. forces were withdrawn from Vietnam, and
went back to U.S. The prisoners of war from the both the sides were released and repatriated
by the mediation of United Nations. In the April 1975, South Vietnam surrendered to the
North, and Vietnam was reunited. However, Vietnam War was the longest war in American
history and considered as the most unpopular American war of the 20th century. However, it
had resulted in nearly 60,000 American deaths and more than 2 million Vietnamese deaths.
Here after, the US Congress enacted the War Powers Act in 1973, requiring the President to
receive explicit Congressional approval before committing American forces overseas.
UN and Vietnam War:
The Vietnam crisis had a colonial legacy. The conflict included various big powers like
France, USA, Soviet Union and China. Security Council was somehow brought very little to
solve this issue. UN organ like the General assembly could not even able to issue a binding
recommendation. Thus, most of the decisions are being taken outside the UN.
The issue was first brought to the notice of UN formally in 1963 by 16 countries,
Afghanistan, Algeria, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, Guinea, India, Indonesia, Mali, Mongolia,
Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Somalis, and Trinidad and Tobago. They
had complained that human right violated in South Vietnam. However, the then government
had denied the charges. A fact finding team sent to South Vietnam but it was futile to find
any facts. In 1964 USA attacked North Vietnam which was being supported by countries like
Australia, New Zealand, Philippines, and South Korea to its side. However, the resolution of
Vietnam conflict took place largely outside the UN intervention. Paris Peace accords brought
the war into an end. The South and North Vietnam were unified. The Communist Vietnam
became a UN membership in 1977. However, UN played a significant role in the resettlement
of refugees through UN High Commission for Refugees (Kumar & Gupta: 259) and other
subsidiary organs.
(c) Afghanistan War (1978-92)
The root causes of the war started with the overthrow of the centrist government of President
Mohammad Daud Khan in April 1978 by Communist military officers led by Nur
Mohammad Taraki (People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan). Authority of the government
was thereafter shared by two Marxist-Leninist political groups, the People’s (Khalq) Party
and the Banner (Parcham) Party, which had earlier emerged from a single organization, the
People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan. The new government, which had no popular
support in the ground, had close ties with the Soviet Union. The government tried to crush the
domestic opposition ruthlessly and wanted to establish a Communist puppet regime regulated

24
from USSR. The then Soviet Union had a keen interest to capture Afghanistan and establish
Communist regime. Spreading of Communism to Afghanistan would connect USSR to
Arabian Sea and warm water port connecting to Arab and other side to China. However, the
Communist government started extensive land and social reforms that were severely opposed
by the Muslim and of largely anti-communist population. This internal conflict that began in
1978 between anti-communist Islamic rightist and the Afghan communist government was
backed by Soviet communist government.
The war had indirectly connected to USA, Pakistan, China, Saudi Arabia and United
Kingdom also. During same time USA was supported the anti-communist opposition groups
by funding and supplying them with war gadgets. The so called Mujahedeen was rightist
Islamic forces supported by Pakistan and USA and others. Under this situation Pakistan
became the frontline state to USA foreign policy. The war in Afghanistan became the proxy
war between USA and USSR. The war led to massive forced migration in the region. Afghani
people were fled across the region to Pakistan and Iran.
The nine year prolonged war has ended with UN intervention and multi dimensional
intervention of UNHCR (United Nations Human Right Commission) and food and civilian
supplies. Through the ‘Uniting for Peace Resolution’ UN had called up USSR to withdraw
immediately. The internal politics of USSR being changed by the time of 1985, as Gorbachev
came into power and tried to open up and restructure the economy with the help of USA.
Gorbachev had a different outlook for USSR and wanted healthy relationship with USA.
However, with the mediation of the then General Secretary of UN, the Geneva Accord
was been signed between Pakistan and Afghanistan on April 14 1988. There are four major
elements in it: i) bilateral agreement between Afghanistan and Pakistan took place not to
interference and intervention in each other’s matter; ii) bilateral agreement between
Afghanistan and Pakistan also signed for voluntary return of refugees; iii) declaration of
international guarantees by Soviet Union and USA on non-interference and non-intervention
in internal affairs of Afghanistan; and iv) agreement for political settlement of Afghan
problem (Kumar and Gupta: 296) also being decided.
Conversely, the rightist Mujahedeen group rejected this accord as they were not party to
the Accord. This type of discontent led to further intervention of USA. However, it had a
proliferating impact on insurgency activities in Punjab and Kashmir in India. Further thing
went more complex as Taliban regime wanted to instil a fundamentalist regime there in
Afghanistan.
UN and Afghanistan War:
The United Nations Good Offices Mission in Afghanistan and Pakistan (UNGOMAP) had
been created to monitor the withdrawal of troop. In May 1988, in view of the gravity of
humanitarian situation, the Secretary- General called for establishing a UN common system
to deal with the needs of the country. This led to the appointment of the Coordinator of the
United Nations to Afghanistan (UNOCA). In June 1989, the Secretary-General issued an

25
appeal for $1.1 billion in international assistance. In October, the Secretary General and
coordinator launched ‘Operation Salaam’, an international effort for relief and rehabilitation
in Afghanistan, for which UNOCA was responsible. In 1993 became the United Nations
Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Assistance to Afghanistan (UNOCHA), which
continued to coordinate the humanitarian programme throughout the country (Kumar &
Gupta: 297)
Post-Withdrawal: Emergence of Taliban Regime
With the withdrawal of USSR, there was intensifying demand for Islamic Republic in
Afghanistan under the banner of Taliban regime. The then President Najib was being deposed
by a Mujahideen government. Najib had to take refuge in the UN compound in Kabul.
Mujahedeen had took over power in 1992 April and wanted to built ‘Jihad Council’ in
Afghanistan.
In December 1993, UN general Assembly through its resolution 48/ 208 requested
General Secretary to build and sent a special mission to Afghanistan to solicit the views of
Afghan leader s on how the UN could best facilitate national reconciliation and
reconstruction. In February 1994, a special envoy Mahmoud Mestiri was appointed to head
the Special mission. On Mestiri’s initiative an advisory group of Afghan came up with some
recommendations as below: 1) an early transfer of power to fully representative Authoritative
Council; 2) a countrywide cease-fire; 3) a security force for Kabul; and 4) the subsequent
establishment of a transitional government or the convening of a ‘Loya Jirga’ (Grand
Assembly of Afghan Tribal Elders). These recommendations were endorsed by the UNSC
and approved in the UNGA (Kumar & Gupta: 298).
However, the mission failed as factional fighting took place in Kabul. The new Taliban
regime publically executed Najib and his brother in 1996 and captured the capital city of
Kabul. The Taliban imposed stringent laws like forbidding women to work outside the home,
attend school or to leave their home unless accompanied by male relatives. They had also
imposed ban on western entertainment and channels. These were being condemned
throughout the world as human rights violations. The Taliban also renamed the country as
Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. The Taliban regime was recognized only by three countries-
Saudi Arabia, Pakistan and UAE (ibid). The Security Council repeatedly condemned the
sectional conflict in Afghanistan. However, the conflict provided the fertile ground for cross-
border terrorism and narco-trafficking. In 2001 Taliban was linked to Al Qaeda and its leader
Osama Bin Laden. There were reports the border of Pakistan Afghanistan became the training
ground for the militants exported to Kashmir, Bosnia and Chechnya etc.
The USA and Afghanistan War in Post 9/11:
The immediate cause of the war was the September 11 attack on the World Trade Centre
(WTC) in 2001. Few years before terrorist attack took place in US embassy in Nairobi and
Tanzania. After the September 11 incident USA had given ultimatum to the terrorist groups
in Afghanistan. The main objective was to find Osama Bin Laden and high ranking Al-Qaeda

26
members who were reported to reside in Pakistan. Bush Administration named Afghan war as
‘War against Terror’. It was being said that the USA would not distinguish between terrorist
organizations and nations or governments that harboured them. However, this war was
unilateral move of USA and being supported by all other powers like UK, Russia and China.
Nevertheless, USA was unwilling to take the help of UN in this regard. USA’s security
alliance NATO took the lead in this operation. The prime suspect Osama Bin Laden was
being caught by US army operation. However, US have an army base in Kandahar region as
it’s the prime site where cross border terrorism is being thriving.
UN in Afghanistan War 2001:
On December 20, 2001 the UNSC by its resolution 1386, authorized the establishment of an
International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) to help the Afghan Interim Authority (AIA) to
maintain security in Kabul and its surrounding areas. The Afghan Transitional Authority had
chosen Hamid Karzai for two years. The constitution was being framed and election was
declared to choose a democratic regime. However, Hamid Karzai won the Presidential
elections of 2005 and 2009. The election of 2009 was fully run by Afghan Independent
Election Commission (AIEC) with support from UNAMA and UNDP.
UN and its specialized agencies like UNDP, UNHCR, UNIFEM, UNICEF, FAO and
WFP have been involved in humanitarian aid and recovery plan for Afghanistan. They have
been assisting Afghanistan to develop health, education, rebuilding democratic institutions
etc. UNICEF provided health care facilities to children and women. UNIFEM working to
empower Afghan women and trying to rebuild society based on gender equality. FAO has
provided assistance in cultivation. UNHCR helped more than 2.5 million Afghan refugees to
return home and rehabilitate. However, USA led NATO had decided to withdraw from
Afghanistan base from Kandahar.
(d) Balkans: Serbia and Bosnia
Yugoslavia was a Communist Federation, comprise of multi-ethnic consist of Muslims
(Bosniaks), Serbs, Croats and some who called themselves as Yugoslavs. In the post World
War II time, the Balkan states of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia
and Macedonia together created a communist country called the People’s Republic of
Yugoslavia. Its leader Joseph Tito tried his best to keep the country unified under the
communist umbrella. Tito checked both separatism and ethnic nationalism with strong
measures of sentences and purges. But the ethnic conflicts were under the carpet. With the
death of Marshal Tito and decline of USSR fuelled Balkan states to demand for
independence. There was decline of Yugoslavia economy in 1990s which strengthen the idea
of separation.
The existing ethnic discontent was deliberately fuelled by Slobodan Milosevic. He rose
to power in Yugoslavia in 1986 as a lightning rod for nationalism. Milosevic was a leader
who intentionally created conflict between Serbians, Croatians and Muslim Bosnians (the
three main ethnic groups in the region) and wanted to be the leader of independent state. He

27
not only converted Yugoslavia in to one party state to multi-party state. He reformed the
constitution to give independence to the Serbian province. Milosevic, also called modern day
Hitler and later being charged with war crime, took advantage of the ethnic tensions that
would be the cause of the Bosnian War or known as Balkan war. As USSR declined and
disintegrated likewise Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina passed a referendum of their
independence. They declared their independence from Yugoslavia. However, this was being
vehemently supported by Slobodan Milosevic in Serbia; Bosnian Muslim President Alija
Izetbegovic and Croatian President Franjo Tudjman. Later, Milosevic was being jailed and
charged under the clause of war crime, crime against humanity and prosecuted in
International Criminal Court in Hague, which war which was part of United Nations.
However, in consequence, the United Nations (UN) refused to interfere in the Bosnian
War. But UN Protection Force (UNPROFOR) troops did facilitate the delivery of
humanitarian aid. The organization later extended its role to the protection of a number of
UN-declared “safe areas.” However, the UN peacekeeping had failed to protect the safe area
of Srebrenica. In July 1995, during the Bosnian war, the Bosnian Serb forces perpetrated and
they massacred of more than, 7,000 Bosnian men. UN has certainly failed to provide Bosnian
a safe, civilian atmosphere. Then NATO headed by US took up the issue and intervened in
Bosnian civil war.
UN in Serbia and Bosnia:
United Nations Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina (UNMIBH) was set up 1995 which
carried out a number of functions related to law enforcement and police reforms in Bosnia
and Herzegovina. The mission also coordinated other activities of the United Nations in the
region involving humanitarian relief, refugees, human rights, elections, rehabilitation of
infrastructure and economic reconstruction. After successfully concluding its tasks,
UNMIBM was terminated on 31 December 2002 (Kumar & Gupta: 313).
The United Nations (UN) was failed to stop the Bosnian War and genocide took place on
Serbs and Tutsis. However, the UN Protection Force (UNPROFOR) troops did facilitate the
delivery of humanitarian aid. Lastly, the issue was being dissolved by unilateral intervention
of NATO which remains sole responsible organ in Post-cold War ear to provide security.
Afterwards, Kosovo was also being created as independent nation out of Serbia. The crisis
was being resolved outside the table of UN by USA lead NATO, UK, France, Germany, Italy
and Russia.
To conclude, we can assume that the delay in arriving at consensus over any crisis
remain the prime problem of UN. The humanitarian interventions of super powers remain
always apprehension for few opposing states. Nevertheless, the international interventions
were justified in the name of protection of Human rights, democracy and rule of law. The
Idea of Responsibility to Protect (R2P) was also taken shape in the back drop up the Balkan
Wars. It was evolved over humanitarian intervention. This was being promoted by the then
Secretary General Kofi Annan who defined the term in regard to the war issue taken place in
Balkan over Serbia and Bosnia; later in Kosovo.

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 In the Millennium Development Report 2000, embraced three different aspects to
understand R2P : 1) responsibility to Prevent by addressing both the root and immediate
causes of conflicts within countries, as well as other man-made crisis; 2) Responsibility to
react by responding appropriately to situations of massive human rights violations by, for
example, imposing sanctions, bringing international prosecutions; and in extreme cases,
intervention with military force ; and 3)Responsibility to rebuild by providing full assistance
with recovery, reconstruction and reconciliation particularly after any military intervention.
(Kumar & Gupta: 565). This is how the peace and security of the world has been managed in
last few decades. The assessment of it says that peace and security remain the prime duty of
the powerful states like US, Russia and China. They have the power and capability to use and
modify the letter and spirit of the laws written in the Charter of the United Nations.
Therefore, many prominent members including India demanding the reform of United
Nations and the way it is managing the crisis.
Cited Work
 Basu, Rumki (2020) United Nations: Structure and Function of an international
Organization, Sterling Publishing Private Limited, New Delhi
 Basu, Rumki (eds.) (2012), International Politics: Concepts Theories and Issues,
Sage Publications, New Delhi
 Kumar Chanchal & Sanju Gupta (eds.) (2013), United Nation and Global Conflict,
Regal Publications, New Delhi
 Joshua S. Goldstein & Jon. C. Pevehouse (2013), International Relations, Pearson
Education (Pp 231-270)
 Jackson Robert & Georg Sorensen, Introduction to International Relations: Theories
and Approaches, Oxford University Press
Websites
https://www.un.org/en/sections/history/history-united-nations/index.html
https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/background.shtml
https://www.un.org/en/about-us/un-charter
https://www.un.org/en/sections/history/history-united-nations/index.html
http://brandt21forum.info/About_BrandtCommission.htm
http://brandt21forum.info/BrandtEquation-19Sept04.pdf
www.un.org/dppa/deconization
https://www.un.org/ar/geninfo/pdf/UN.today.pdf
https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/background.shtml
www.unorg/preventgenocide/rawanda/responsibility.shml

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 Unit-3

International Organization: Imperative of Reform and the

Process of Reform
Ram Kishor

Introduction
In the changing contemporary world, International Organizations after the states are the
second most important actors in the global politics. These are considered a significant player
in the maintenance of international peace, security and stability in the international relations.
These are also seen as significant instruments of social, economic and political development
of the international community. According to the David MacKenzie, the international
organisations create the spaces for debate, expose issues affecting international community
and provide aid, assistance and information. Moreover, these entities focus attention on
problems, offer potential solutions and take action in places and areas ignored by others in the
different parts of the globe. Even historically, whatever may be the form and nature of the
international organizations, these have had contributed to the international cooperation,
peace, security, stability and development.
In this context, one cannot ignore the role of Concert of Europe, Inter-Parliamentary
Union (IPU), the League of Nations and the United Nations. Irrespective of the fact that these
institutions have been sometimes criticized for becoming the instruments at the hands of
powerful states, the positive outcomes and role of such entities especially to resolve the
disputes peacefully is well known to the international community. And today, more than ever,
global problems such as the climate change, human rights violations, deteriorating health of
the people, and crisis in agriculture, food insecurity and transnational organized crime require
global solutions.
The Concept of International Organization
An International Organization refers to any international group or association of the states
which encourages voluntary cooperation and coordination among its members. The
International Law Commission defines International Organization as an ‘organization
established by a treaty or other instrument governed by international law and possessing its
own international legal personality’. Inis L. Claude, Jr. observes it as a ‘process by which
states establish and develop formal, continuing institutional structures for the conduct of
certain aspects of their relationships with each other’. According to Claude, Jr., International
Organization is a product of and ‘reaction to the extreme decentralization of the traditional
system of international relations’ and also a result of the efforts made by ‘statesmen to adapt
the mechanics of that system to the requirements posed by the constantly increasing
complexity of the interdependence of states’. Hence, international organizations are a
manifestation of the organizing process occurring in the international relations.

30
Development of International Organizations until 1945
The United Nations does not occupy the first place among the international organizations
established and created for the purpose of establishing peace in the world. Even before the
establishment of the United Nations, efforts have been made to establish peace in the world
through various international treaties and international organizations such as the Treaty of
Westphalia and the establishment of the League of Nations in 1920. (See Table 1)
Thirty Years War
Begins A series of wars between Protestant and Catholic
countries in the Central Europe
1618
Treaty of Westphalia
Legal basis of International, Inter State System
1648
Napoleonic Wars
Begin Wars between the French Empire and European
Monarchies
1803

Concert of Europe The first international organization was born

through the Treaty of Vienna at the end of the
1815 Napoleonic wars
Franco Prussian War
Marks the end of the Concert of Europe
1870-71

First World War

Unprecedented global war originating in Europe
1914-18
Founded by 42 countries after the 1919 Paris
League of Nations Peace Conference that ended First World War,
1920 the league was a second attempt at cooperation
between nations
Second World War
The deadliest war in the human history
1939-45

United Nations 51 founding members established the UN to

replace the ineffective League of Nations after
1945 the devastation of Second World War
(Table: 1)
In the recorded human history, a desire and struggle for the peace and security can explicitly
be seen among the individuals, groups and communities. This desire and struggle for peace
and security is responsible for the emergence of international organizations. Early

31
international organizations were formed by Greek City-States. Contemporary international
organizations were also envisioned by the European scholars such as Pierre Dubois and
Emeric Cruce. However, such organizations did not evolve until the 19th century. Military
alliances among the Greek City-States were the first type of international organizations. The
desire for peace and security gave the original motivation for establishing a union of City
States and of tribal communities in the form of defensive and sometimes also offensive
military alliances in the Ancient Greek.
The Symmachia of the Greek City States were the first alliances of ancient times that
were formed against the Persian invaders around 400 B.C. After this, alliances were also
formed among the Habsburg Empire, the Imperial States and Poland against the Turkish
invader in 1683. At the turn of the 18th and 19th Century, alliance was formed among
England, Austria, Prussia and Russia against the French expansion under Napoleon
Bonaparte. Later on, the alliances of the Allied and Associated Powers were formed during
the First World War against Germany and Italy and during the Second World War by the
“United Nations” against Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany and Japan. These last two alliances led
to the emergence of the first universal organization of peace, namely the League of Nations in
1919 and the United Nations Organization in 1945.
United Nations
The United Nations is the most important and well-known international organization at the
present time. However, there are other major inter-continental and regional organizations. In
the presence of such institutions, in the modern world, the independent behaviour of state
actors is becoming more limited and narrower because of their responsibilities to
international regimes, agreements, and institutions. In other words, the increasingly complex
interdependence between states is facilitating the structuring of global governance,
challenging state-centred approaches to international policy-making. Therefore, this text
discusses international organization as a theoretical concept. Since international organizations
are the result of a long historical evolutionary process, this text also analyzes the
development of international organizations in a historical-evolutionary context. Since the
Concert of Europe and the League of Nations were two important international organizations
of their respective time periods, this text also describes the origin, structure and performance
of these institutions in international relations.
In August 1941, the then US President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Churchill
met and presented the Atlantic Charter. The British Prime Minister aspired to establish an
effective international organization while the US President was only supporting the idea of a
permanent system of general security because he was afraid of the separatist impulse in
America. The ideals of the Atlantic Charter received further impetus on January 1, 1942,
when the United Nations Declaration was signed not only by Churchill and Roosevelt, but
also by representatives of the Soviet Union and China. Thus for the first time the term United
Nations was used to address nations that had gathered in pursuit of peace based on the
principles laid down on the Atlantic Charter. The Charter became an ideological and political

32
basis for the Allied Powers not only to continue the war but also to consider the post-war
period.
The shape of the United Nations was finalized in Moscow on 30 October 1943 by a
proclamation by the Chinese ambassador to Moscow, including the foreign ministers of the
Soviet Union, Britain and the United States. The creation of a decentralized United Nations
system by a gathering of three large countries led to the establishment of the United Nations
Organization with specialized agencies. The Hot Springs Conference in May 1943 paved the
way for the creation of the Food and Agriculture Organization and the establishment of the
United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration in the same year. The International
Civil Aviation Organization was created by a meeting in Chicago, and the Brettonwoods
Conference in July 1944 resulted in the formation of the International Monetary Fund and the
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
To outline the fundamental principles of the United Nations, a huge conference of three
big nations, including China, was organized at Dumbatern Oaks near Washington in 1944. At
the centre of this entire system was a Security Council with five permanent members and a
provision of veto power for them. Apart from this, three other principal organs namely the
General Assembly, the Secretariat and the International Court of Justice were also
considered. The idea of the Trust Council and the Social and Economic Council still
remained questionable in the minds of the United Nations makers. Despite detailed
agreements on the issue of the General Assembly and the Security Council, a number of
unresolved questions attracted the attention of the three major delegates. The veto provision
proposed by the Soviet Union was left in limbo as other parties wanted flexibility on certain
matters falling within the category of veto.
After the Second World War, the United Nations took the place of the League of
Nations. Those who created the Charter in San Francisco formed the cornerstone of the
United Nations. Although some amendments were made to the Charter. In February 1945, a
meeting was held in Yalta between the then British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, US
President Roosevelt and the Secretary General of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union,
Joseph Stalin, to finalize the shape of the United Nations. The top leaders of the three
countries, respecting and respecting each other’s feelings and wishes, reached a consensus
regarding the final shape and form of the United Nations. The San Francisco Conference was
organized on 25 April 1945 to support the proposals of Dumbarton Oaks and Yalta.
Representatives from fifty member states attended the San Francisco Conference, and
representatives of all fifty member states accepted the charter. All the smaller states
participating in the conference played an important role by recognizing the supremacy and
constructive role of the superpowers as protectors of international peace and security. In order
to maintain international peace and security in all parts of the world, and to ensure an
appropriate level of cultural, economic and social development for all peoples of the world,
the United Nations Charter was adopted on 26 June 1945. Simultaneously a world class life
saving international organization was created.

33
 The United Nations officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, with headquarters
in New York, when China, the Soviet Union, the United States, France and Britain and a
majority of other signatory countries ratified the charter. United Nations Day is celebrated
every year on 24 October in memory of this historic oath to establish peace and security in
the world.
UN Charter
The United Nations Charter is the structural form of the United Nations. Under the Charter,
the functions and procedures of the main organs of the United Nations have been described
along with the determination of the obligations and rights of the member countries. The
Charter represents an international treaty codifying the fundamental principles of
international relations, from the equal sovereignty of member states to the prohibition of the
use of force in any form inconsistent with the purposes of the United Nations.
Under the Charter of the United Nations, a preamble, 19 chapters and 111 articles have been
included.
 Chapter 1 covers the objectives and principles of the United Nations.
 In Chapter 2, the rules and norms for members seeking membership have been
determined.
 The main organs of the United Nations are described under Chapter 3.
 In chapters 4 to 15, the activities, rights and responsibilities of the main organs of the
United Nations are mentioned and defined.
 Chapters 16 and 17 relate the relationship of the United Nations to international law.
 And in Chapter 18 and 19, the process of approval and amendment of the Charter has
been included.
Objectives and Principles of the United Nations
The following objectives and principles have been incorporated and set out in the Charter of
the United Nations.
 To build international peace and security in the world.
 Formulation of principles of rights on the basis of equality among member states.
 To establish friendly relations between the member states and the people of those
states based on respect for self-determination.
 To cooperate in the promotion and promotion of human rights and fundamental
freedoms of the people.
 To harmonize the actions of nations to achieve common goals.

34
Structure of the United Nations
Six major organs were established by the United Nations through a charter on 26 June 1945.
 General Assembly
 Security Council
 Economic and Social Council
 Trusteeship Council
 International Court
 Secretariat
The General Assembly and the Security Council are the central parts of the six main and
principal organs of the United Nations. The General Assembly and the Security Council can
be compared to the legislative and executive organs of the national government. The position
of the General Assembly and the Security Council is so strong in the United Nations that only
a coordinated and effective role of these two organs can ensure the achievement of the
primary objective of the United Nations.
General Assembly
Out of all the six major organs of the United Nations, the place of the General Assembly is
very important. In the United Nations, the General Assembly is the main organ of
deliberation, representatives of all member states participate in the General Assembly. Each
nation can send two representatives to the General Assembly meeting, but each nation will
have only one vote. A two-thirds majority is necessary to decide on matters such as
admission of new members, peace, security and budget, decisions on other matters are taken
by simple majority.
Functions and Powers of the General Assembly
The following functions and powers of the General Assembly have been included under the
Charter of the United Nations:–
 To discuss and make recommendations based on the principles of cooperation for the
maintenance of peace and security, including those governing armed regulation and
disarmament.
 To provide for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all peoples of the world,
and to recommend international participation in the fields of social, economic,
political, cultural, educational and health.
 To receive and discuss reports from the United Nations and other organs of the
Security Council.
 Electing non-permanent members of the Security Council, members of the Justice
Council (when necessary), members of the Economic and Social Council, and
35
 together with the Security Council elects judges of the International Court of Justice,
and on the recommendation of the Security Council appoints the General Secretary.
Solidarity for Peace
Under the resolution of Solidarity for Peace, passed by the United Nations General Assembly
in November 1950, it has been provided that if the Security Council, in the absence of
consensus among its permanent members, threatens international peace, in the event of a
breach of peace in the world or in the event of aggressive action. If it does not act, the
General Assembly can take action.
Session
The annual session of the United Nations General Assembly regularly begins on a Tuesday in
the third week of September each year. The President of the General Assembly, 21 Vice-
Presidents and the Chairmen of the Major Committees of the United Nations General
Assembly are elected at least 3 months before the commencement of the regular session.
In order to give equal representation to all geographical regions, the General Assembly is
presided over by five groupings of nations: Africa, Asia, Eastern Europe, and Latin America,
the Caribbean and Western Europe and other countries on a rotational basis each year. In
addition, special sessions of the General Assembly may be held at the request of the Security
Council, the majority of member states and one member. In an emergency, a special session
of the UN General Assembly may be held within 24 hours at the request of the Council by a
vote of nine members of the Security Council, or at the request of one member with the
consent of a majority of the UN members.
Security Council
The Security Council is the most powerful of the major organs of the United Nations, which
can be gauged from the fact that the Security Council has the primary responsibility of
maintaining international peace and security under the United Nations Charter. One of the
major differences in the Security Council as compared to the League of Nations is the power
and ability to implement its decisions, so the Security Council has been compared to the three
organs of government, the Legislature, the Executive, the Executive and the Judiciary. The
Security Council has a total of 15 members, of which the five permanent members are China,
France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States. There are 10 non-permanent
members elected by the General Assembly for a 2-year term. Each member has one vote.
Decisions on procedural matters are taken by consensus vote of 9 members out of 15, but in
order to make decisions on important matters in the Security Council, it is also necessary that
any of the five permanent members, along with 9 consensus votes Don’t use the dissenting
vote.
The permanent members of the Security Council have used the prohibition at one time or
another. If a permanent member of the Security Council does not fully agree to a draft

36
resolution, but does not wish to exercise the veto, he may remain absent from a meeting of
the Security Council. Thus, if the necessary consent votes are obtained, the motion is passed.
The Presidency of the Security Council is provided to each member for a period of one
month in rotation according to the English alphabet.
Current members of the Security Council
Permanent Members
 China
 France
 Russia
 Britain
 America
Non-permanent members of the Security Council
Sr.
Name of the Country Term Period
No.
1. Estonia 2020-21
2. India 2021-22
3. Ireland 2021-22
4. Kenya 2021-22
5. Mexico 2021-22
6. Niger 2020-21
7. Norway 2021-22
8. St. Vincent and the Grenadines 2020-21
9. Tunisia 2020-21
10. Vietnam 2020-21

Functions and Powers of the Security Council

 The Security Council is the most powerful body of the United Nations whose primary
responsibility is to maintain international peace and security.
 It is the only body of the United Nations with the right to issue binding resolutions on
member states.
 Its powers include contributing to peacekeeping operations, enforcing international
sanctions and taking military action through Security Council resolutions.

37
  Under the United Nations Charter, all member states of the United Nations are bound
to abide by the decisions of the Security Council.
 At present, the five permanent members of the council have veto power. This means
‘I do not allow.’
 If a member does not agree with the decision of the permanent members, he can use
the veto power to block that decision.
Economic and Social Council
The Economic and Social Council is the most important agency coordinating the economic
and social work carried out by the United Nations and its specialized agencies and
institutions. Article 55 of the Charter directs the United Nations to create such conditions of
stability and prosperity as are necessary for friendly and peaceful relations between nations
and based on the principle of self-determination and equal rights of the people.
Functions of the Economic and Social Council
 High standard of living, full employment and conditions of economic and social
progress and development of the people.
 To solve international economic, social, health and other related problems and to
promote international cultural and educational cooperation.
 Freedom for all without discrimination on the basis of gender, race, religion and
language and the observance of human rights and universal respect for them.
 The Economic and Social Council consists of 54 members, out of which 18 members
(1/3) are elected annually by the General Assembly. The term of the members is three
years. The members are elected through a system based on geographical distribution.
The term of the President is annual. The Chairperson and other members can be re-
elected immediately after their retirement.
 The council meets twice a year and special sessions can also be organized. Each
member has one vote and decisions are made by simple majority.
International Court
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial body of the United Nations. It
has two primary functions: to settle legal disputes submitted by nations in accordance with
established international law and to act as an advisory board on issues presented to it by
authorized international organizations.
Members of the Court
The International Court of Justice is made up of 15 judges elected by the United Nations
General Assembly and the Security Council for nine-year terms. These organs vote together
but separately. To be elected, a candidate must obtain an absolute majority in both the bodies.
To ensure a measure of continuity, one-third of the members of the Court are elected every
three years. Judges are eligible for re-election.

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Qualifications of Judges
 A judge should have a high moral character.
 A judge should be of the highest judicial officers appointed by his respective states.
 A judge must have a judicial examiner of recognized qualification in international
law.
The court’s 15 judges are divided according to regions:
 Three from Africa.
 Two from Latin America and the Caribbean
 Three from Asia.
 Five from Western Europe and other nations
 Two from Eastern Europe
United Nations Secretariat
The day-to-day affairs of the United Nations are managed by the Secretariat. Its main
function is to provide services to other United Nations organs. It is the headquarters of the
United Nations. It administers and coordinates policies and programs prepared by other
organizations. The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General, who performs his duties
with the help of several Under-Secretaries-General, Assistant Secretaries-General and Deputy
Secretaries-General. Headquarters in New York and other United Nations offices located in
other parts of the world employ 8,000 employees of the Secretariat.
The powers of the Secretary-General are greater than that of any other UN official. The
Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the
Security Council for a five-year term. The General Secretary presents the annual report
related to organizational achievements and problems to the General Assembly. He can advise
the governments of member states and use the influence attached to his office in solving
problems. Article 99 of the Charter empowers the Secretary-General to draw the attention of
the United Nations Security Council to a matter that threatens world peace and security in a
particular region.
United Nations Council of Trustees
The five members of the Trust Council include only permanent members of the Security
Council, it was established to supervise such trust territories, where autonomous rule could
not be started after the end of World War II. The Trust Territories were placed under the
international trust system in accordance with Chapter XII of the United Nations Charter. The
purpose of this arrangement is to maintain international peace and security, to promote the
interests of the peoples of the Trust Territories, to promote respect for human rights and
fundamental freedoms without discrimination, and to promote respect for human rights and
fundamental freedoms, and the citizens of the United Nations Member States in all Trust
Territories. To ensure equal treatment with Originally there were 11 trust territories. The
function of the Trust Council was to assist in the establishment of independent or autonomous

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government in these areas. By October 31, 1994, all the Trust Territories had gained
independence as a separate state or amalgamation with neighboring countries. The Palau
Islands were the last trust territory to be administered by the United States. On 1 November
1994, the Trust Council formally suspended its functions after the Security Council in Palau
terminated the Trust Agreement. Nevertheless, the Trust Council was not dissolved. It
continued to exist with the provision that it could be reactivated as and when required.
Recently, a proposal to use the Trust Council’s Global Environment and Resources System as
a trustee has also been put forward.
The United Nations was established 75 years ago today. The main objective of the
United Nations was to maintain peace and security in the world for the people. The United
Nations has been successful in preventing the disintegration process of countries and world
wars in the world. Although the world of the 21st century is very different from the world of
the 20th century, the present world is facing many new kinds of problems, realities, and
challenges. The human and economic damage currently facing the United Nations related to
COVID-19 is compared to war. The problem before the United Nations is a more serious
problem than the Great Depression of 1929 and the problem of unemployment at the global
level.
This problem has cautioned the United Nations to deal with multilateral challenges and
to take multilateral action on future global problems. Apart from this, the attention of many
such problems has also been drawn before the United Nations in the present time, such as
terrorism, mass destruction, epidemics, climate crisis, cyber security, and poverty etc.
Therefore, to solve the above problems at the global level, the United Nations needs to
further strengthen and strengthen its multilateral position because the United Nations is
considered a symbol of the multilateral world order.
Challenges before the United Nations at present
Structural Challenges
 The resolutions passed by the United Nations General Assembly are not of binding
nature which is the biggest weakness for the General Assembly.
 The duties and responsibilities of the Secretary-General of the United Nations are
unclear in the Charter of the United Nations, which influences policy-making in some
way or the other.
 The UN Secretary-General is expected to act impartially but the UN largely depends
on funding from member states, which hinders impartiality.
 The United Nations General Assembly, consisting of representatives of all states, does
not have control over the veto power of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC).
 Despite the establishment of the United Nations for 75 years, its most important
institution, the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), is not represented in line
with the immediate global politics.

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  Abuse of veto power by member states due to the lack of inclusive representation and
transparency of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC).
Current Challenges
 During the Cold War, the US and Russia were facing each other and the work of the
UN Security Council continued to be disrupted.
 In the 1990s after the disintegration of Soviet Russia, America’s agenda was
dominant in the context of global security.
 From the first decade of the 21st century, once again there was a conflict in the
Security Council when the US came together on the one hand and Russia and China
on the other. In the present time, the conflicting nature between the United States on
the one hand and the alliance of Russia and China on the other has again developed.
 There are also differences between the US and its European allies on many global
issues. Due to which the complexity of the issue is increasing more and more. for
example-
 The US wants to continue with UN sanctions on Iran while other powers, including
America’s European allies, are unwilling to follow the US lead.
 Even within the US, there are differences of opinion on global issues.
 The United Nations has also been facing criticism in the wake of the Covid-19
pandemic.
 The United Nations failed to respond effectively to the global crisis of the century.
 In the Security Council, China used its vetoes to stop serious discussions about the
origin of the corona virus.
 Although the World Health Organization has done some work in this direction. But
the US has said that it will withdraw from the World Health Organization, calling it
insufficient.
 All the above issues present serious challenges to the existing multilateralism.
Necessary changes should be made in the United Nations for the establishment of a
new multilateralism system according to the needs of today.
Rise of the New Cold War
The conflict between China and America on the one hand, and the origin of the West-East
conflict between Russia and China on the other
Divided West
Despite post-war alliances, differences between the US and its European partners have arisen,
and are increasing, on many global issues.
The United Nations has failed to respond and act effectively on the Corona crisis arising
globally. At present, another problem is arising within the United Nations, which has acted to
block the serious discussions and deliberations on the floor of the United Nations. The main
role in this is the debate arising between China and America because when the US pulled

41
itself out of the World Health Organization, accusing the World Health Organization of
supporting China.
Areas of Reform of the United Nations
Security Council
United Nations Security Council is the principal executive body of the United Nations with
the primary responsibility of maintaining peace and security at the international level.
However, the power of injunction is used by the five permanent members of the United
Nations Security Council as a tool to pursue their geopolitical interests regardless of the
disastrous consequences for the victims of armed conflict. As can be seen in Syria, Iraq and
present day Afghanistan.
The Security Council also does not reflect the present day distribution of military and
economic power, nor does it reflect a geographical balance. Thus we find that the
composition and structure of the 15 members Security Council should be more democratic
and representative. India, Germany, Brazil and Japan together have formed a group called G-
4, and these four countries support each other for permanent membership of the United
Nations Security Council.
Reform of the General Assembly
The United Nations General Assembly can only make non-binding recommendations, which
are another reason for the ineffectiveness of the United Nations and another important topic
for reforming the United Nations. UN bodies have been criticized by the Economic and
Social Council as being less effective than institutions such as the International Monetary
Fund and the World Bank, which lack democratic processes, transparency, accountability and
accountability.
United Nations Financial Crisis
It is often said that the United Nations has a lot to do, but has little financial force to do it, as
many of its members do not pay their financial aid on time. Due to which the United Nations
has to face financial crisis. The United Nations is not able to play its effective role even in the
absence of proper budget.
 United Nations has failed to play a significant role in peacekeeping operations due to
structural deficiencies.
 The old structure and functioning of the United Nations
 Changes in the global scenario after the dissolution of the Soviet Union
 The corrupt politics played by the five permanent members in the Security Council is
the main reason for the weakness of the United Nations.
 In the contemporary times of the 21st century, most of the features of the world
scenario have changed since the creation of the United Nations. For example, Britain
and France are no longer important players of world politics.

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United Nations Reforms and Amendments
Reform of the United Nations is one of the most pressing and important issues facing policy-
makers around the world. All the Asian and African countries that have formed a powerful
and strong group in the United Nations have provided strong support in favor of the
democratization of the United Nations, which is a big topic of strengthening the United
Nations at the present time. It is argued by these policy-makers that since the creation of the
United Nations, there has been a massive change in the world.
The main point is that out of the 6 main organs that make up and constitute the United
Nations, the public’s attention has mainly been towards the structure, functioning and powers
of the Security Council, because of all the organs of the United Nations, the Security Council
is mainly It has been entrusted with the important responsibility of maintaining international
peace and security.
Thus, instead of reforming all the organs of the United Nations, the attention of experts
and policy-makers is focused only on improving the structure and functioning of the Security
Council, as all the debates are related at the global level.
The structure and functioning of the United Nations, resulting from the uncertain
circumstances that prevailed after World War II, reflect the unbelievable reality of the time.
All the major superpowers of that time took undue advantage of the weak position and
created the United Nations and made an international organization a puppet in their hands by
establishing a monopoly over decision-making power.
Out of all the major organs of the United Nations, the Security Council was given the
responsibility of taking binding decisions regarding peace and security, but due to improper
and misuse of the power of veto by the five permanent members, the Security Council
became the most undemocratic and failed organ of the United Nations. Due to which there
has been a demand for reforms in the structure and functioning of the Security Council.
Which we can understand through the following points:-
Boutros Boutros-Ghali and UN Reform: An Agenda for Peace
Although the need and demand for reforms in the structure and functioning of the Security
Council has been there for a long time, but due to the Cold War, this topic has not been
allowed to come to the centre in the field of international politics. By the members of the G4
which include India, Germany, Japan and Brazil. Under the leadership of these four
countries, there has been a constant demand for reforms in the Security Council, the most
important organ of the United Nations. And for this, on 31 January 1992, the first conference
of the Council was organized at the United Nations Headquarters to discuss the nature and
scope of the working style and functioning of the Security Council after the Cold War.
The members present at the conference assigned the task of examining the functioning of
the Security Council to the Secretary-General of the United Nations, Boutros Ghali, for the
maintenance of international peace and security, before any final framework for reforming

43
the Security Council’s composition was reached. After examining the functioning of the
Security Council, Boutros Ghali presented his report ‘An Agenda for Peace’ to the United
Nations, in which many suggestions were presented related to improving the functioning of
security.
IBSA
The group of developing countries ‘IBSA’ in which India, Brazil and South Africa have also
raised this topic from other UN forums. On the topic of reform of the Security Council, all
the permanent members of the Council ‘Britain, America, Russia, France and China’
thwarted efforts to reform the Security Council by their lacklustre and indifferent response.
Kofi Annan and UN Reform: In Larger Freedom
The proposed reforms to the structure and functioning of the Security Council are related to
the expansion of its membership, limiting veto power, changes in working practices and
changes in the impunity. In 2005, Secretary-General Kofi Annan organized a meeting to
reach a consensus on the expansion of the Security Council through a report titled ‘In Larger
Freedoms’. Presenting the final outline of the subject, Kofi Annan proposed to fix the number
of members of the council to 24. In this resolution, along with three new non-permanent
members, six new permanent members should be included. A new category of members
should be included in which in addition to a temporary member, there will be eight new
members, whose term will be for four years and they can also be suspended.
Reform of Veto Provision
Apart from reforming the structure of the Security Council, there is another subject in which
the need for reform has been felt is the provision of veto to the permanent members of the
Council. From the formation of the United Nations to the present time, the way the veto
power has been exercised by the permanent members of the Council without distinction of
right and wrong, has led to many proposals to improve the veto provision based on the point
of view of different countries and peoples. .
 The first argument is to limit the use of the veto on matters of national security to the
member states, so as to reduce its use on a variety of subjects.
 Efforts should be made by various member countries for the use of the power of veto
so that the use of veto power can be made mandatory for a fair and rational approach.
Therefore, there has been a demand from time to time to abolish the power of veto to
make decision-making non-discriminatory and non-partisan in the Security Council.
António Guterres and UN Reform
The current Secretary-General of the United Nations, Antonio Guterres, had also proposed
reform of the United Nations since the beginning of his term in January 2017. Which can be
understood from the following points:–

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Development: The 2030 Agenda will require bold changes in the United Nations
Development System to address the new generation of indigenous groups. Such changes
should be focused on the strategic United Nations Development Assistance Framework and
led by impartial, independent and empowered local coordinators.
Management: A new management paradigm for the Secretariat and the United Nations that
empowers managers and employees, streamlines processes, increases transparency and
improves the delivery of our mandates.
Peace and Security: The overarching goal of reforms is to prioritize prevention and stability
of peace; to increase the effectiveness and coherence of peace and special political campaigns
and move towards a single, unified peace and security pillar.
Reforms are aimed at a 21st century United Nations focused on individuals over processes
and rendering more than bureaucracies. The real test of reform will be when it shows tangible
results on the lives of those we serve – and will be judged by the trust of those who support
our actions.
India and UN Reform
India got a major breakthrough when the document for reform of the Security Council was
accepted by the General Assembly for discussion by Sam Kutesa, President of the 69th
session of the General Assembly. This is the first major success in India’s efforts to get
permanent membership in the United Nations Security Council after 23 years. India has
wholeheartedly welcomed this decision of the United Nations General Assembly.
Diplomats and politicians believe that this is a big success for India and the countries in
favor of reforming the Security Council. Any proposal to reform the Security Council in the
United Nations General Assembly would require a two-thirds majority, ie, votes of at least
129 countries out of the total 193 countries. In which all the permanent member countries of
the Security Council will also be required.
However, it will not be possible for a permanent member country to veto any resolution
in the UN General Assembly with the support of more than two-thirds of the countries.
Conclusion
In the present times, for peace, global stability and prosperity in the world, there is a need for
such an international system and institution which is formed, built and based on democratic
values, and its functioning supports transparent as well as accountability and equal
representation. The COVID-19 global pandemic has done an important job of reminding the
world the importance of multilateralism and collective cooperation and the need to preserve
them. Therefore, all the international organizations of the world, their member countries and
all the countries of the world together should promote cooperation to protect and safeguard
their common interests. The circumstances after the Second World War which helped to
generate the idea of the United Nations as a collective international organization are
weakening the structure and functioning of the United Nations today. That is, it is the
45
misfortune of the United Nations that it has to solve and face the problems of the new century
with the mind-set and methodology of the middle of the twentieth century. Although only a
few reforms in the structure and working of the United Nations cannot reduce the weaknesses
of the United Nations and increase its power, for this, not only the abolition of the Trust
Council, reforms in the Security Council, the powers of the Economic and Social Council,
etc. There is a need for promotion, renewal of the International Court of Justice and the
Secretariat, but there is also a need to streamline its role and scope according to the
international order and needs of the people of the 21st century. Therefore, it can be said that
either the structure or functioning of the United Nations should be reformed and changed
according to the needs of the present times, or the collapse of the United Nations should also
be waited for like the collapse of other international organizations in the past. After that, the
way could be paved for the formation and formation of a new international organization
according to the needs of the present time.
 References
 Rudiger Jutte and Annemarie Grosse-Jutte (ed.) The Future of International
Organization. (Frances Printer, 5 Dryden Street, London, 1981).
 John Trent and Laura Schnurr (ed.). A United Nations Renaissance: What the UN is, what
it could be. (Verlag Barbara Budrich, Opladen, Berlin, Toronto, 2018)
 United Nations Department of Public Information, Basic Facts: About the United
Nations, New York, Translated and published by United Nations Center for Public
Information, New Delhi, 2012
 Rumki Basu (ed.). International Politics: Concepts, Theories and Issues. (Sage
Publication India Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, 2012)
 Muharrem Hilmi Ozev and Aydin Erdogan (ed.). The United Nations and its Conflict
Resolutions Role.(Istanbul University Press, May 2019)
 Web Link
 https://in.one.un.org/reforms/
 https://www.patrika.com/miscellenous-india/un-adopts-india-s-resolution-for-sc-reforms-
1101662/

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