Chapter 9 – Control System
Instrumentation
CHEN 4130
Learning with Purpose
Agenda
• Basic Elements of a Control System
• Hardware Elements of a Control System
• Sensors / Transmitters
• Final Control Elements
2
Basic Elements of a Control System
• Process
• Controller
• Sensor/transmitter (measuring element system)
• Final control element
3
Sensors / Transmitters
• A sensor system measures a process variable and converts
into a signal that can be sent to a controller
• Key parts of a sensor system
– Sensor measures the process variable
– Transmitter converts the sensor output into a transmission signal
– Device that does the actual conversion is sometimes called a
transducer
• Terminology is not standardized in the industry
4
Common Types of Sensors
See pages 152-155 in Seborg, et.al. (3rd ed) for more details
See pages 143-146 in Seborg, et.al. (4th ed) for more details
5
Sensor Selection Criteria
• Process conditions (solid/gas/liquid, corrosive fluid?, etc.)
• Materials of construction
• Nature of signal, speed of response
• Accuracy and measurement range
• Costs
• Previous plant practice
• Maintenance and reliability
• Invasive / non-invasive
• Environmental /safety considerations (enclosures, fugitive
emissions)
6
Static and Dynamic Characteristics of
Sensor Systems
• Most transmitters are calibrated by adjusting the span and
zero settings.
– Span: the difference between the high and low values of the
measured process variable range.
– Zero: the low value of the process variable range, and it
corresponds to the low value of the transmitter output signal.
If the calibration is linear (as shown
on the left), the relationship
between the output and input for
the sensor-transmitter is given by:
(20−4 𝑚𝐴)
𝑇𝑚 = 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛 (𝑜𝐶)
(T – Zero) (oC) + 4 mA
Typical range of sensor output signal
• USA - 4 to 20 mA
• Other - 1 to 5 V
7
Static and Dynamic Characteristics of
Sensor Systems
• Transmitters are usually direct acting
• A sensor system can be modeled as a first-order system
when relationship between process variable input and
transmitter output is linear:
dy m
– Differential equation model: m + ym = K m y
dt
Ym (s) Km
– Transfer function model: G m (s) = =
Y(s) m s + 1
• If τm is much smaller than process time constants,
transducer model can be simplified:
Ym (s)
ym = K m y G m (s) = = Km where 𝐾𝑚 =
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛
Y(s)
8
Example #1 of Sensor Dynamics - Thermocouple
Energy balance on thermowell
𝑑𝑇𝑚
𝑚𝑠 𝐶 = UA(T – Tm)
𝑑𝑡
Converting to deviation variables
and taking the Laplace transform
gives:
TM ( s ) 1 m sCs
= =
T ( s ) s + 1 U s As
To make τ as small as
possible….??
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Example #2 of Sensor Dynamics –
Pneumatic Transmission Lines
• Modeled as a pure time delay
𝑌𝑚(𝑠)
𝐺𝑚 𝑠 = = 𝑒 −𝜃𝑠
𝑌(𝑠)
• No time delays required for electronic transmissions
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Final Control Elements
A final control element
interfaces the controller with
the process.
Control valves are the most
common type of final control
element.
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Final Control Elements
Most control valves are operated by an air pressure signal.
A transducer is required to convert the controller signal to an
air pressure signal.
12
Factors in Control Valve Design
1. Materials of construction
• Dependent on the process fluid flowing
through the valve
2. Control valve action
• Specifies “failure” mode of valve
➢ Either fail-open or fail-closed
➢ Based on safety considerations
13
Factors in Control Valve Design (continued)
3. Control valve sizing
• Design equation for non-flashing liquids:
Pv
q = Cv Nf (l )
gs
where:
q is flow rate (gpm)
Cv is valve coefficient, related to valve size or capacity
(unitless)
N is a units conversion factor (gpm / psi1/2)
f(l) is the valve inherent characteristics
is the valve pressure drop (psi)
Pv
gs is the fluid specific gravity.
14
Factors in Control Valve Design (continued)
4. Control valve characteristics
➢ Inherent characteristics: relationship between flow
through the valve and valve stem position for a constant
pressure drop across the valve.
Common inherent characteristics:
Linear: f(l) = l
Quick opening: f (l ) = l
Equal percentage: f ( l ) = R l −1
15
Factors in Control Valve Design (continued)
4. Control valve characteristics (continued)
➢ Installed characteristics: relationship between flow rate
through valve and valve stem position for a valve in
service.
• Installed characteristics should be as linear as possible
over the controllable flow rate range.
• Controllable flow range: 0.05 f ( l ) 0.95.
16
Factors in Control Valve Design (continued)
5. Control valve “dynamics”
• Control valve dynamics tend to be relatively fast
compared to the process itself → often ignored
o Exception – large valves in very fast processes like
compressor surge loops
• Types of “dynamic behavior”
o Dead band
o Hysteresis
o Valve stem “stickiness”
o Valve stem dynamics
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Example Problem #1
A control valve must be designed to regulate the flow of a liquid in a
pipeline. The liquid with a specific gravity of 0.67 flows from a
pump to an elevated storage tank at a nominal flow rate of 950 gpm.
The pressure at the pump discharge is 138 psig and the pressure at the
end of the pipeline is 68 psig. The end of the pipeline is 140 feet
above the pump discharge. The frictional pressure drop in the
pipeline is 12.4 psi.
a) Size a control valve so that f(l) = 0.5 at the design condition.
b) If the frictional pressure drop in the pipeline is proportional to the
flow rate squared, determine the flow rate through a wide-open
control valve, f(l) = 1.0.
Assume the total pressure drop over the pipeline is constant.
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