INTRODUCTION

In today's world, we use computers for all our tasks. Our day-to-day activities: paying bills,
buying groceries, using social media, seeking entertainment, working from home,
communicating with a friend, etc., can all be done using a computer. So it is important not
only to know how to use a computer, but also to understand the components of a computer
and what they do.

This topic explains all concepts related to computer in detail, from origin to end. The idea of
computer literacy is also discussed, which includes the definition and functions of a
computer. You learn about the components of a computer, the concept of hardware and
software, representation of data/information, the concept of data processing and applications
of IECT.

What is a Computer?
A computer is an electronic device that accepts data from the user, processes it, produces
results, displays them to the users, and stores the results for future usage.

Data is a collection of unorganized facts & figures and does not provide any further
information regarding patterns, context, etc. Hence data means "unstructured facts and
figures".

Information is a structured data i.e. organized meaningful and processed data. To process the
data and convert into information, a computer is used.

Functions of Computers
A computer performs the following functions −

Receiving Input

Data is fed into computer through various input devices like keyboard, mouse, digital pens,
etc. Input can also be fed through devices like CD-ROM, pen drive, scanner, etc.

Processing the information

Operations on the input data are carried out based on the instructions provided in the
programs.

Storing the information

After processing, the information gets stored in the primary or secondary storage area.

Producing output

The processed information and other details are communicated to the outside world through
output devices like monitor, printer, etc.
The history of the computer dates back to several years. There are five prominent
generations of computers. Each generation has witnessed several technological advances
which change the functionality of the computers. This results in more compact, powerful,
robust systems which are less expensive. The brief history of computers is discussed below −

First Generation (1940-1956)

The first generation computers had the following features and components −

Hardware

The hardware used in the first generation of computers was: Vacuum Tubes and Punch
Cards.

Features

Following are the features of first generation computers −

 It supported machine language.

 It had slow performance
 It occupied large size due to the use of vacuum tubes.
 It had a poor storage capacity.
 It consumed a lot of electricity and generated a lot of heat.

Memory

The memory was of 4000 bits.

Data Input

The input was only provided through hard-wired programs in the computer, mostly through
punched cards and paper tapes.

Examples

The examples of first generation computers are −

 ENIAC
 UNIVACTBM 701

Second Generation (1956-1963)

Several advancements in the first-gen computers led to the development of second generation
computers. Following are various changes in features and components of second generation
computers −

Hardware
The hardware used in the second generation of computers were −

 Transistors
 Magnetic Tapes

Features

It had features like −

 Batch operating system

 Faster and smaller in size
 Reliable and energy efficient than the previous generation
 Less costly than the previous generation

Memory

The capacity of the memory was 32,000 bits.

Data Input

The input was provided through punched cards.

Examples

The examples of second generation computers are −

 Honeywell 400
 CDC 1604
 IBM 7030

Third Generation (1964-1971)

Following are the various components and features of the third generation computers −

Hardware

The hardware used in the third generation of computers were −

 Integrated Circuits made from semi-conductor materials

 Large capacity disks and magnetic tapes

Features

The features of the third generation computers are −

 Supports time-sharing OS
 Faster, smaller, more reliable and cheaper than the previous generations
 Easy to access
Memory

The capacity of the memory was 128,000 bits.

Data Input

The input was provided through keyboards and monitors.

Examples

The examples of third generation computers are −

 IBM 360/370
 CDC 6600
 PDP 8/11

Fourth Generation (1972-2010)

Fourth generation computers have the following components and features −

Hardware

The Hardware used in the fourth generation of computers were −

 ICs with Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) technology

 Semiconductor memory
 Magnetic tapes and Floppy

Features

It supports features like −

 Multiprocessing & distributed OS

 Object-oriented high level programs supported
 Small & easy to use; hand-held computers have evolved
 No external cooling required & affordable
 This generation saw the development of networks and the internet
 It saw the development of new trends in GUIs and mouse

Memory

The capacity of the memory was 100 million bits.

Data Input

The input was provided through improved hand held devices, keyboard and mouse.

Examples
The examples of fourth generation computers are −

 Apple II
 VAX 9000
 CRAY 1 (super computers)

Fifth Generation (2010-Present)

These are the modern and advanced computers. Significant changes in the components and
operations have made fifth generation computers handy and more reliable than the previous
generations.

Hardware

The Hardware used in the fifth generation of computers are −

 Integrated Circuits with VLSI and Nano technology

 Large capacity hard disk with RAID support
 Powerful servers, Internet, Cluster computing

Features

It supports features like −

 Powerful, cheap, reliable and easy to use.

 Portable and faster due to use of parallel processors and Super Large Scale Integrated
Circuits.
 Rapid software development is possible.

Memory

The capacity of the memory is unlimited.

Data Input

The input is provided through CDROM, Optical Disk and other touch and voice sensitive
input devices.

Examples

The examples of fifth generation computers are −

 IBM
 Pentium
 PARAM
Characteristics of Computer System involve Speed, Accuracy, Diligence, Versatility, Reliability,
Automation, Memory.

he characteristics of the computer system are as follows −

Speed
A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared to humans while
performing mathematical calculations. Computers can process millions (1,000,000) of
instructions per second. The time taken by computers for their operations is microseconds
and nanoseconds.

Accuracy
Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due to data
inconsistency or inaccuracy.

Diligence
A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same consistency and
accuracy. It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of concentration. Its memory also makes it
superior to that of human beings.

Versatility
Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of works with
same accuracy and efficiency.
Reliability
A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if we give same
set of input any number of times, we will get the same result.

Automation

Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without manual
intervention.

Memory
A computer has built-in memory called primary memory where it stores data.
Secondary storage are removable devices such as CDs, pen drives, etc., which are also used
to store data.

Computer systems consist of three components as shown in below image: Central

Processing Unit, Input devices and Output devices. Input devices provide data input to
processor, which processes data and generates useful information that’s displayed to the user
through output devices. This is stored in computer’s memory.

Central Processing Unit

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is called "the brain of computer" as it controls operation
of all parts of computer. It consists of two components: Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), and
Control Unit.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
Data entered into computer is sent to RAM, from where it is then sent to ALU, where rest of
data processing takes place. All types of processing, such as comparisons, decision-making
and processing of non-numeric information takes place here and once again data is moved to
RAM.

Control Unit
As name indicates, this part of CPU extracts instructions, performs execution, maintains and
directs operations of entire system.

Functions of Control Unit

Control unit performs following functions −

 It controls all activities of computer

 Supervises flow of data within CPU
 Directs flow of data within CPU
 Transfers data to Arithmetic and Logic Unit
 Transfers results to memory
 Fetches results from memory to output devices
Memory Unit
This is unit in which data and instructions given to computer as well as results given by
computer are stored. Unit of memory is "Byte".

1 Byte = 8 Bits

Input devices help to get input or data from user. Some of input devices are −

Name Characteristics Image

The keyboard was first peripheral device to
be used with computers.

It helps to input text and numbers into

Keyboard
computer.

It consists of 104 keys and 12 functional

keys.
A mouse is an input device which is also
called as pointing device because it helps to
point data on screen.
Mouse
It also helps to select, highlight content and
drag-drop controls.

Output devices help to display output to user. Some of output devices are −

Output Devices Characteristics Image

A monitor is most common type of output
device.

It is also called as "Visual Display Unit".

The inputs given by keyboard or any other

Monitor
input devices will get displayed on
monitor.

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) and Flat panel

display monitors are commonly used
monitors.
 Printers are most common type of output
devices which are used to take a hard copy
of any digital document.

The two types of printers are impact and

Printers non-impact printers.

Non-impact printers such as laser and

inkjet printers are less noisy, more reliable
and faster and also offer high quality
compared to impact printers.

Sound systems are output devices which

are used to get multimedia content such as
Sound Systems voice, music, etc., as output. Some of
examples of sound systems are speakers,
headphones, and microphones.

Computer memory refers to storage area where data is stored. It is of two types −

 Primary Memory
 Secondary Memory

Primary Memory
Primary memory is the main memory of computer present in motherboard. Primary memory
is of two types as shown in the image below.

Random Access Memory

RAM is referred as temporary memory, in which, information stored is lost once computer is
turned off. It is a volatile memory. Instructions written in this memory can be modified;
hence it is also known as programmable memory. The two types of RAM are Static RAM
(faster and costlier) and Dynamic RAM.
Functions of RAM are as follows −

 It stores data till it gets processed.

 It stores instructions for data processing.
 It acts as a working space where data processing takes place and intermediate results
are stored.
 It stores processed data/results before it is sent to output devices.

Read Only Memory

ROM is referred as permanent memory, in which information stored is available even if

computer is turned off. Instructions stored in this memory can only be read and cannot be
modified. Mostly ROM has a start-up instruction which is executed every time when
computer is switched on. Types of ROM are PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory),
EPROM (Erasable PROM), EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM) and flash memory.

The below table jots down the major differences between RAM and ROM −

Sr.No RAM ROM

1 It is volatile memory. It is non-volatile memory.
The contents are temporary; data is lost The contents are permanent; data is not lost
2
when electricity supply is lost. even when power is switched off.
3 Available in small storage capacity. Available in high storage capacity.
4 Processing speed is high. Processing speed is low.
Generally, operating system supporting
5 User-defined programs can be stored.
programs can be stored.
6 Cost is very high. Cost effective.
It comes in different types such as PROM,
7 It is of two types, SRAM and DRAM.
EPROM, EEPROM and flash memory.

Secondary Memory
Sometimes when data to be processed is large, it cannot fit in primary memory as it is
limited, in such cases, we use supplement memory or secondary memory. Secondary memory
helps to store information permanently and is non-volatile. Examples of secondary storage
memory are compact disk, floppy disk, pen drive, external hard drive, etc.

The concept of hardware and software is explained in detail below –

Hardware
The term hardware refers to mechanical device that makes up computer. Computer hardware
consists of interconnected electronic devices that we can use to control computer’s operation,
input and output. Examples of hardware are CPU, keyboard, mouse, hard disk, etc.

Hardware Components
Computer hardware is a collection of several components working together. Some parts are
essential and others are added advantages. Computer hardware is made up of CPU and
peripherals as shown in image below.
Software
A set of instructions that drives computer to do stipulated tasks is called a program. Software
instructions are programmed in a computer language, translated into machine language, and
executed by computer. Software can be categorized into two types −

 System software
 Application software

System Software

System software operates directly on hardware devices of computer. It provides a platform to

run an application. It provides and supports user functionality. Examples of system software
include operating systems such as Windows, Linux, Unix, etc.

Application Software

An application software is designed for benefit of users to perform one or more tasks.
Examples of application software include Microsoft Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Oracle, etc.
Differences between Software and Hardware are sorted out below −

Sr.No. Software Hardware

It is a collection of programs to bring
It includes physical components of
1 computer hardware system into
computer system.
operation.
It includes numbers, alphabets, It consists of electronic components like
2 alphanumeric symbols, identifiers, ICs, diodes, registers, crystals, boards,
keywords, etc. insulators, etc.
Software products evolve by adding new Hardware design is based on architectural
3 features to existing programs to support decisions to make it work over a range of
hardware. environmental conditions and time.
It will vary as per computer and its built- It is mostly constructed for all types of
4
in functions and programming language. computer systems.
It is designed and developed by
The hardware can understand only low-
5 experienced programmers in high-level
level language or machine language.
language.
The hardware works only on binary codes
1’s and 0’s.

It is represented in any high-level

6 language such as BASIC, COBOL, C,
C++, JAVA, etc.

The software is categorized as operating

The hardware consists of input devices,
7 system, utilities, language processor,
output devices, memory, etc.
application software, etc.

A program is a set of instructions that help computer to perform tasks. This set of
instructions is also called as scripts. Programs are executed by processor whereas scripts are
interpreted. The languages that are used to write a program or set of instructions are called
"Programming languages". Programming languages are broadly categorized into three types
−

 Machine level language

 Assembly level language
 High-level language

Machine Level Language

Machine language is lowest level of programming language. It handles binary data i.e. 0’s
and 1’s. It directly interacts with system. Machine language is difficult for human beings to
understand as it comprises combination of 0’s and 1’s. There is software which translate
programs into machine level language. Examples include operating systems like Linux,
UNIX, Windows, etc. In this language, there is no need of compilers and interpreters for
conversion and hence the time consumption is less. However, it is not portable and non-
readable to humans.

Assembly Level Language

Assembly language is a middle-level language. It consists of a set of instructions in a specific
format called commands. It uses symbols to represent field of instructions. It is very close to
machine level language. The computer should have assembler to translate assembly level
program to machine level program. Examples include ADA, PASCAL, etc. It is in human-
readable format and takes lesser time to write a program and debug it. However, it is a
machine dependent language.

Assembly Language Machine Code

SUB AX, BX 0010101110000011
MOV CX, AX 100010111001000
MOV DX, 0 10111010000000000000000
High-level Language
High-level language uses format or language that is most familiar to users. The instructions in
this language are called codes or scripts. The computer needs a compiler and interpreter to
convert high-level language program to machine level language. Examples include C++,
Python, Java, etc. It is easy to write a program using high level language and is less time-
consuming. Debugging is also easy and is a human-readable language. Main disadvantages of
this are that it takes lot of time for execution and occupies more space when compared to
Assembly- or Machine-level languages. Following is a simple example for a high level
language −

if age < 18 {
printf("You are not eligible to vote");
} else{
printf("You are eligible to vote");
}

Computer does not understand human language. Any data, viz., letters, symbols, pictures,
audio, videos, etc., fed to computer should be converted to machine language first.
Computers represent data in the following three forms −