Natural Science Module 1 2. Science as an intellectual activity.

It encompasses a systematic and practical

study of the natural and physical world. This process of study involves
systematic observation and experimentation.
Name: _____________________________________________________________
3. Science as a body of knowledge. It is a subject or a discipline, a field of study,
Year and Course: _______________ or a body of knowledge that deals with the process of learning about the
natural and physical world. This is what we refer to as school science.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 4. Science as a personal and social activity. This explains that science is both
knowledge and activities done by human beings to develop better
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to: understanding of the world around them. It is a means to improve life and to
1. discuss how the ideas postulated by Copernicus, Darwin and Freud survive in life. It is interwoven with people's lives.
contributed to the spark of scientific revolution; and
Human beings have embarked in scientific activities in order to know and
2. analyze how scientific revolution is done in various parts of the world like
understand everything around them. They have persistently observed and studied the
in Latin America, East Asia, Middle East, and Africa.
natural and the physical world in order to find meanings and seek answers to many
questions. They have developed noble ideas, later known as philosophy, to provide
CHAPTER 1 alternative or possible explanations to certain phenomena. Humans also used religion
GENERAL CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL EVENTS IN SCIENCE, to rationalize the origins of life and all lifeless forms.
TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY <

LESSON 1 The idea of scientific revolution is claimed to have started in the early 16th
INTELLECTUAL EVOLUTIONS THAT DEFINED SOCIETY century up to the 18th century in Europe. Why in Europe? The probable answer is the
invention of the printing machine and the blooming intellectual activities done in
various places of learning, and the growing number of scholars in various fields of
INTRODUCTION human interests. This does not mean, however, that science is a foreign idea
transported from other areas of the globe. Anyone who can examine the history of
This lesson will give light to the development of science and scientific ideas in science, technology, medicine, and mathematics is aware that all great civilizations of
the heart of the society. It is the goal of this lesson to articulate ways by which society the ancient world had their own sophisticated traditions and activities related to these
is transformed by science and technology. disciplines.
Scientific Revolution Scientific revolution was the period of enlightenment when the developments
in the fields of mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry transformed
Science is as old as the world itself. There is no individual that can exactly the views of society about nature. It explained the emergence or birth of modem
identify when and where science began. From the genesis of time, science has existed. science as a result of these developments from the disciplines mentioned. The ideas
It is always interwoven with the society. So, how can science be defined? generated during this period enabled the people to reflect, rethink, and reexamine their
beliefs and their way of life. There is no doubt that it ignited vast human interests to
1. Science as an idea. It includes ideas, theories, and all available systematic
rethink how they do science and view scientific processes.
explanations and observations about the natural and physical world.
 Scientific revolution was the golden age tor people committed to scholarly life
Creativity

TECHNOLOGY
SCIENCE DISCOVERIES
SCIENCE IDEAS
in science but it was also a deeply trying moment to some scientific individuals that

Passion to discover
Passion to know
led to their painful death or condemnation from the religious institutions who tried to

SCIENTISTS
preserve their faith, religion, and theological views. Some rulers and religious leaders Curiosity
did not accept many of the early works of scientists. But these did not stop people
especially scientists to satisfy their curiosity of the natural and physical world.
Critical Thinking

SCIENCE
IDEAS
Figure 2. Variables that Influence the Development of Science ldeas, ScienceDiscoveries, and Technology

Scientists are not driven by clamor for honor and publicity. They are ordinary
people doing extraordinary things. Some scientists were never appreciated during their
times, some were sentenced to death, while others were condemned by the Church
during their time. In spite of all the predicaments and challenges they experienced,
HUMANS SOCIETY they never stopped experimenting, theorizing, and discovering new knowledge and
ideas.
Figure 1. Influences to Scientific Revolution
In this part of the lesson, three notable scientists are discussed. For sure, there
were many scientists who worked before and after these individuals. However, it is
Scientific revolution is very significant in the development of human beings,
important to note that these men, particularly through their ideas, had shaken the
transformation of the society, and in the formulation of scientific ideas. It significantly
world.
improved the conduct of scientific investigations, experiments, and observations. The
scientific revolution also led to the creation of new research fields in science and Nicolaus Copernicus
prompted the establishment of a strong foundation for modern science. In many ways,
One of the Renaissance men, particularly in the field of science, is Nicolaus
scientific revolution transformed the natural world and the world of ideas.
Copernicus. Knowledge about the nature of the universe had been essentially
Some Intellectuals and their Revolutionary Ideas unchanged since the great days of Ancient Grecce, some 1,500 years before
To further understand what exactly happened during the scientific revolution, it Copernicus came on the scene (Gribbin, 2003), This continued up to the Renaissance
is important to examine the different individuals whose ideas have shaken and period. In one important way, Copernicus resembled the Greek ancient philosophers or
contested the dominant theories and ideas during period-the truths of their time. thinkers-he did not do anything extensive such as observing heavenly bodies or
Scientists in all periods of time are driven by their curiosity, critical thinking, and inviting people to test his ideas. His ideas were an example of what is presently called
creativity to explore the physical and natural world. Their love for science is driven by as a thought experiment. By the time he finished his doctorate degree, Copernicus had
their deep passion to know and to discover. been appointed as canon at Frombork Cathedral in Poland. Despite his duty as a
canon, he had plenty of time to sustain his interest in astronomy. Copernicus was
strongly influenced by a book entitled Epitome published in 1496 by a German author,
Johannes Müeller. This book contains Mücller's observations of the heavens and some
commentary on earlier works especially that of Ptolemy.
 Copernicus' idea and model of the universe was essentially complete in 1510. Charles Darwin
Not long after that, he circulated a summary of his ideas to his few close friends in a
manuscript called Commentariolus (Little Commentary). There was no proof that Charles Darwin is famous for his theory of evolution. He changed our concept
Copernicus was concerned about the risk of persecution by the Church if he published of the world's creation and its evolution. Johnson (2012) described Darwin as a genius
his ideas formally. who came from a line of intellectually gifted and wealthy family. He developed his
interest in natural history during his time as a student at Shrewsbury School. He would
Copernicus was a busy man. His duty as a canon and as a doctor affected his also spend time taking long walks to observe his surroundings while collecting
time to formally publish his work and advance his career in astronomy. The specimens and he pored over books in his father's library (Gribbin, 2003). According
publication of his book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of to Johnson, Darwin went to the best schools but was observed to be a mediocre
the Heavenly Spheres) in 1543 is often cited as the start of the scientific revolution. student. He struggled in his study in medicine and ministry, which his father has
In his book, he wanted a model of the universe in which everything moved imposed to him. Darwin's life soon changed when one of his professors recommended
around a single center at unvarying rates (Gribbin, 2003). Copernicus placed the Sun him to join a five-year voyage through the HMS Beagle on the Islands of Galapagos.
to be the centerpiece of the universe. The Earth and all the planets are surrounding or Darwin published his book The Origin of Species in 1589. This book is
orbiting the Sun each year. The Moon, however, would still be seen orbiting the Earth. considered to be one of the most important works in scientific literature. Darwin
Copernicus's model of the Earth orbiting around the Sun automatically positioned the collected many significant materials in order to present his theory with overwhelming
planets into a logical sequence. In his model, Copernicus outlined two kinds of evidence. His book presented evidence on how species evolved over time and
planetary motion: (1) the orbits or Venus and Mercury lay inside the orbit of the Earth, presented traits and adaptation that differentiate species. Like many other scholars,
thus, closer to the Sun; and (2) the orbits of Mars, Saturn, and Jupiter lay outside the Darwin accumulated many pertinent materials and data that he could ever possibly
Earth's orbit, thus, farther from the Sun. From this model, he would work on the length need to substantiate his theory.
of time it will take for each planet to orbit once around the Sun. The result would form
a sequence from Mercury, with a shortest year, through Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Darwin's observational skills as a scientist were extraordinary that moved
and Saturn with the longest year. He placed the planets in order of increasing distance beyond the realms of plants and animals into the realms of humans. His book The
from the Sun. One of the great problems planets in the Copernicus model, however, Descent of Man was so impressive yet very controversial. He introduced the idea of all
was the position of the stars. The stars cannot be placed in a fixed position like crystals organic life, including human beings, under the realm of evolutionary thinking. This
in a distance sphere replaced the dominant views of a religious or biblical design that places human beings
in a privileged position of having been created by God. Darwin's theory of evolution
Copernicus is also a courageous man. Although the Copernican model makes scientifically questioned this view.
sense now, during those times, it was judged to be heretic and therefore it was an
unacceptable idea to be taught to Catholics. The Catholic Church banned the Darwin's accomplishments were so diverse that it is useful to distinguish two
Copernican model and was ignored by Rome for the rest of the 16th century. fields to which he made major contributions: evolutionary biology and philosophy of
science. More than these works, what made Darwin truly remarkable was his courage
THINK ABOUT THESE QUESTIONS (OPTIONAL) to challenge religious and unscientific ideas that are deemed to be prominent during
1. What is the contribution of Copernicus in the philosophy of Science? those days. His unorthodox way of pursuing science gave more value to evidence-
2. Do you think thought experiment is still useful in science in the present time? based science. Darwin provided a different framework for doing scientific activities. It
3. Do you think the Church should intervene in scientific activities? is a science marked by observation and experiment.
 psychologist or a scientist is for people to decide. The fact remains that Freudian ideas
THINK ABOUT THESE QUESTIONS (OPTIONAL) and theories are still considered nowadays as a great inspiration to examine human
1. What is Darwin's contribution to modern science? mind and behavior in a more scientifically accepted way.
2. How can Darwin's evolutionary theory influence the following fields in THINK ABOUT THESE QUESTIONS (OPTIONAL)
modern times: 1. By looking for other sources and literatures, what are the controversies or
 Economy questions on Freud's ideas?
 Agriculture 2. How can you describe Freudian ideas as a scientist?
 Political Science 3. If Freud is still alive, what do you think are the major changes he would make
 Religion to his theory?
Sigmund Freud CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE
Freud is a famous figure in the field of psychology. Rosenfels (1980) also Development of Science in Mesoamerica
described him as a towering literary figure and a very talented communicator who did Mesoamerica includes the entire area of Central America from Southern
his share to raise the consciousness of the civilized world in psychological matters. Mexico up to the border of South America. There is no doubt that the Mesoamerican
region is rich in culture and knowledge prior to the arrival of its European colonizers.
However, apart from these, Freud also made a significant contribution in the
scientific world through the development of an important observational method to The Maya civilization is one of the famous civilizations that lasted for
gather reliable data to study human's inner life. This method is popularly known as the approximately 2,000 years. These people are known for their works in astronomy.
method of psychoanalysis. The scientific hypothesis he formulated formed the They incorporated their advanced understanding of astronomy into their temples and
essential fundamental version of this method. For Freud, this method of other religious structures. This allows them to use their temples for astronomical
psychoanalysis is a scientific way to study the human mind and neurotic illness. It is observation. For example, the pyramid at Chichén Itzá in Mexico is situated at the
no doubt that amidst all questions on his works that led to some sort of academic location of the Sun during the spring and fall equinoxes.
controversy, his method of psychoanalysis had great impact on the scientific way of Mayan knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies was advanced for
understanding human nature. their time, as evidenced by their knowledge of predicting eclipse and using
Freud is not a traditional thinker. According to Weiner (2016), his method of astrological cycles in planting and harvesting. The Mayans are also known for
psychoanalysis was proven to be effective in understanding some neurological measuring time using two complicated calendar systems. These calendars were very
conditions that were not understood by medicine at that time. His method was useful for their life especially in planning their activities and in observing their
unorthodox--focusing on human sexuality and the evil nature of man. This posed religious rituals and cultural celebrations.
immense challenges to scholars and ordinary citizens of his time. To some, they found
his ideas not easy especially in his explanations of human sexuality. The Mayans also developed the technology for growing different crops and building
elaborate cities using ordinary machineries and tools. They built hydraulics system
Freud was born in a much later period from the scientific revolution but his with sophisticated waterways to supply water to different communities.
contribution to knowledge can be seen in many aspects of the human scene, including Furthermore, they used various tools and adapt themselves to innovations
art, literature, philosophy, politics, and psychotherapy. Whether he is more of a especially in the field of arts. The Mayans built looms for weaving cloth and devised a
rainbow of glittery paints made from a mineral called mica. They are also believed to 3. Antispasmodic medication. They used a type of antispasmodic medication
be one of the first people to produce rubber products 3,000 years before Goodyear that could prevent muscle spasms and relax muscles, which could help
received its patent in 1844 during surgery.
4. Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec technology for agricultural farming in
The Mayans are considered one of the most scientifically advanced societies in
which the land was divided into rectangular areas and surrounded by
Mesoamerica. They are also famous as one of the world's first civilizations to use a
canals.
writing system known as the Mayan hieroglyphics. They were also skilled in
mathematics and created a number system based on the numeral 20. Moreover, they 5. Aztec calendar. This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals, and
independently developed the concept of zero and positional value, even before the planting season.
Romans did. 6. Invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water
systems.
The Inca civilization is also famous in Mesoamerica. The Incas made advanced
scientific ideas considering their limitations as an old civilization. The following were Development of Science in Asia
scientific ideas and tools that they developed to help them in everyday life:
Asia is the biggest continent in the world and the home of many ancient
1. roads paved with stones; civilizations. It is a host to many cultural, economic, scientific, and political activities
2. stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters; of all ages. In the field of science, technology, and mathematics, great civilizations
3. irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all have stood out: India, China, and the Middle East civilizations. These civilizations
types of land; were incomparable in terms of their contributions to the development of knowledge
4. calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for during their time.
planting season;
5. the first suspension bridge; India
6. quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret;
and India is a huge peninsula surrounded by vast bodies of water and fortified by
7. Inca textiles since cloth were one of the specially prized artistic achievements. huge mountains in its northern boarders. The Indians creatively developed various
ideas and technologies useful in their everyday lives. They are known for
Following the Inca, the Aztec civilization has also made substantial manufacturing iron and in metallurgical works. Their iron steel is considered to be the
contributions to science and technology and to the society as a whole. Some of their best and held with high regard in the whole of Roman Empire.
contributions are the following:
India is also famous in medicine. For example, Ayurveda, a system of
1. Mandatory education. The Aztec puts value on education; that is why traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, is still practiced
their children are mandated to get education regardless of their social class, as a form of alternative medicine. They discovered some medicinal properties of plants
gender, or age. It is an early form of universal or inclusive education. that led them to develop medicines to cure various illnesses. Some ancient texts, like
2. Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate during their time. the Susruta Samhita, describe different surgical and other medical procedures famous
In the Mayan culture, they used it as currency. The Aztec valued the cacao in Ancient India.
beans highly and made it as part of their tribute to their gods.
Ancient India is also notable in the field of astronomy. They developed
theories on the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting Earth, and
the year of 360 days with 12 equal parts of 30 days each. Sama (2008) noted that their
interest in astronomy was also evident in the first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta In terms of technology, the Chinese are known to develop many tools. Among
Shiromani, written in the 12th century. According to Sama (2008), this ancient text the famous discoveries and inventions of the Chinese Civilizations were compass,
covered topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; papermaking, gunpowder, and printing tools that became known in the West only by
the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes the end of the Middle Ages (Davies, 1995). They also invented other tools like iron
of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets plough, wheelbarrow, and propeller, among others. They developed a design of
with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the paths of the different models of bridges (Zhongguo ke xue yuan, 1983), invented the first
Sun and Moon. seismological detector, and developed a dry dock facility (Needham et al., 1971).
Ancient India is also known for their mathematics. Bisht (1982) noted that the In the field of astronomy, the Chinese also made significant records on
earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appeared in the supernovas, lunar and solar eclipses, and comets, which were carefully recorded and
Indus Valley Civilization. The people of this civilization, according to Bisht (1982), preserved to understand better the heavenly bodies and their effects to our world
tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy and designed a (Mayall, 1939). They observed the heavenly bodies to understand weather changes and
ruler, the Mohenjo daro ruler. seasons that may affect their daily activities. They used lunar calendars, too. The
Chinese are also known in seismology. This made them more prepared in times of
Clifford (2008) and Bose (1998) pointed out that Indian astronomer and
natural calamities.
mathematician Aryabhata (476-550), in his Aryabhativa, introduced a number of
trigonometric functions, tables, and techniques, as well as algorithms of algebra. In China made substantial contributions in various fields. The list of their
628 AD, another Indian, Brahmagupta, also suggested that gravity was a force of discoveries and inventions is overwhelming. These contributions were made along
attraction, and lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal with mathematics, logic, philosophy, and medicine. However, cultural factors
digit, along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into modern science.
the world (Clifford, 2008; Bose, 1998). Another Indian named Madhava of According to Needham (1986), it may have been the religious and philosophical
Sangamagrama is also considered as the founder of mathematical analysis (Joseph, framework of Chinese intellectuals that made them unable to accept the ideas of laws
1991). of nature.

China Middle East Countries

China is one of the ancient civilizations with substantial contributions in many The Middle East countries are dominantly occupied by Muslims. With the
areas of life like medicine, astronomy, science, mathematics, arts, philosophy, and spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, or what is
music, among others. Chinese civilizations have greatly influenced many of its called the Golden Age of Islam lasted until the 13th century. The common language of
neighbor countries like Korea, Japan, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Arabic, access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, and their proximity to India
Myanmar, and other countries that belong to the old Silk Road. were contributory to the intellectualization of the Muslims and provided their scholars
knowledge to create innovations and develop new ideas. But contrary to the Greeks,
The Chinese are known for traditional medicines, a product of centuries of
Muslim scientists placed greater value on science experiments rather than plain-
experiences and discovery of the Chinese people. They discovered various medical
thought experiments. This led to the development of the scientific method in the
properties and uses of different plants and animals to cure human illness. An example
Muslim world, and made significant improvements by using experiments to
is the practice of acupuncture.
distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical The ancient Egyptian civilization has contributed immensely and made
orientation. A Muslim scientist named Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the Father significant advances in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. For
of Optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. example, the development of geometry was a product of necessity to preserve the
layout and ownership of farmlands of the Egyptians living along the Nile River. The
In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave
rules of geometry were developed and used to build rectilinear structures, the post of
his name to the concept of the algorithm while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr,
lintel architecture of Egypt. These early science activities in Egypt were developed to
the beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as the Arabic
improve the quality of life of the Egyptians especially in building their early homes
Numeral System originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did make
and cities. The great structures of the Egyptian pyramids and the early dams built to
several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point
divert water from the Nile River are some proofs of their advanced civilization.
notation.
Egypt was known to be a center of alchemy, which is known as the medieval
Muslim chemists and alchemists also played an important role in the
forerunner of chemistry. They tried to study human anatomy and pharmacology, and
foundation of modern chemistry (Durant, 1980). In particular, some scholars
applied important components such as examination, diagnosis, treatment, and
considered Jäbir ibn Hayyān to be the "Father of Chemistry" (Derewenda, 2007;
prognosis for the treatment of diseases. These components displayed strong parallels
Warren, 2005)
to the basic empirical method of studying science.
In the field of medicine, Ibn Sina pioneered the science of experimental Astronomy was also famous in the African region. For instance, documents
medicine and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials (Jacquart, 2008). His two show that Africans used three types of calendars: lunar, solar, and stellar, or a
most notable works in medicine, the Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine, combination of the three.
were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe during
Metallurgy was also known in the African regions during the ancient times,
the 17th century. Among his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious
North Africa and the Nile Valley imported iron technology from the Near East region
nature of infectious diseases and the introduction of clinical pharmacology (Craig
that enabled them to benefit from the developments during the Bronze Age until the
&Walter, 2000).
Iron Age. They invented metal tools used in their homes, in agriculture, and in
There are numerous Muslim scholars who made significant contributions in the building their magnificent architectures.
field of science, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, and even in the field of social
Mathematics was also known to be prominent in the life of early people in the
sciences. The decline of this golden age of Islam started in the 11th to 13th century
African continent. The Lebombo Bone from the mountains between Swaziland and
due to the conquest of the Mongols whereby libraries, observatories, and other
South Africa, which may have been a tool for multiplication, division, and simple
learning institutions were destroyed.
mathematical calculation or a six-month lunar calendar, is considered to be the oldest
known mathematical artifact dated from 35,000 BCE. Ancient Egyptians are good in
Development of Science in Africa the four fundamental mathematical operations and other mathematical skills. They
Africa is blessed with natural and mineral resources. Science also emerged in have knowledge of the basic concepts of algebra and geometry. The Islamic regions in
this part of the planet long before the Europeans colonized it. The history of science Africa during the medieval period was also benefiting from mathematical learning,
and mathematics show that similar to other ancient civilizations, the early civilizations which is considered advanced during those times, such as algebra, geometry, and
in Africa are knowledge producers, too. trigonometry.
 understand the natural and physical world. It also enabled human beings to develop
various technologies that helped them in their everyday tasks.

SUMMARY APPLICATION AND ASSESSMENT

Scientific revolution is a golden age in the history of science. It marked the
birth of science as a discipline and as a field of inquiry and gave birth to the THINK ABOUT THESE QUESTIONS…
development of the scientific method. It was a time in the history of science where
many scientific ideas and discoveries, which were considered innovative and useful, Use one whole sheet of paper and answer the following questions.
were developed. Some of these ideas were also controversial in the scientific
community and in the political arena. The scientific revolution significantly changed 1. How did society shape science and how did science shape society?
how people study science and does scientific activities. It inspired human creativity 2. How do social and human issues influence science?
and critical thinking, moving away from thought experiments to data-driven and 3. How do the political and cultural landscapes of the society affect the
experiment-based ideas. development of scientific culture, science activities, and science literacy?
4. Considering the current state of our society, do you think science literacy
There were many intellectuals who made essential contributions in science among people has contributed to the growth of our economy?
during the period of scientific revolution. Nicolaus Copernicus developed a model of 5. How can science influence government policies?
the universe in which everything moved around a single center at unvarying rates. He
placed the Sun in the center of the universe and all the planets were surrounding or
orbiting it. Copernicus's model of planets orbiting around the Sun automatically
positioned the planets into a logical sequence. Charles Darwin made significant
contribution in the field of evolutionary biology and philosophy of science. His theory
of evolution by natural selection is very useful in many fields until now. Sigmund
Freud developed the idea of psychoanalysis that helped in understanding human
behavior especially neurological conditions.

Science also developed in different parts of the world: in Asia, Europe,

Mesoamerica, and Africa. People in these continents invented tools to help them in
everyday life, discovered medicines to cure diseases, observed heavenly bodies, built
structures, discovered many things, and invented mathematics as a tool and as a
discipline. Science provided different ancient civilizations the means to survive and
 REFERENCE
Alata, E.J.P., Caslib, B.N.,Jr., Pawilen, G.T., Serafica, J. P.J., (2018).
Science, Technology, and Society, Rex Book Store,INC.