Fundamentals o f Kinematics.

Nonuniform Rec­
tilinear and Curvilinear Motion. Fundamentals of
Dynamics. Laws of Motion. Forces in Nature.
Fundamentals o f Statics. Conservation Laws in
Mechanics. Laboratory Works.
Senior

PHYSICS1I. K. Kikoin, A. K. Kikoin

Mir Publishers Moscow

 Basic Units o f the System

metre kilog]
m kg
Paris

1 kg
approximal
1 m is approximately to the ma;
equal to 1/40 000 000 of pure v
o f the Earth meridian at a temperatu
passing through Paris

standard metre
1 m is equal
to 1 650763.73 of the wavelength
corresponding to the orange line
emitted by a crypton atom
having an atomic mass o f 86
standard 1;
International (SI)

am second
s

i
5)

is
sly equal
1 s is approximately
sof 1 1
ater equal to 1/31556925.9747
e o f 15 °C o f the period o f revolution
o f the Earth
about the Sun in 1900

1 s is equal
to 9192 631 770 periods
o f radiation corresponding to
a transition between certain
two levels o f a caesium atom
having an atomic mass o f 133
ilogram
Senior

PHYSICS
 HK. Khkohh
A K. Khkohh
d>H3HKa
Y4e6HHK OJ1H
8 KJiacca
MocKBa
"npocBeuieHHe”
 I. K. Kikoin, A. K. Kikoin
Senior

PHYSICS 1

Mir Publishers Moscow

 First published 1987
Revised from the 1986 Russian edition

Translated from Russian

by Natalia Wadhwa

Ha QH2AUUCKOM H3blKC

Printed in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

© H3ZtaTej!bCTB0 «ripocBemeHHe», 1986

© English translation, Mir Publishers, 1987
 CONTENTS

M echanics

In tro d u ctio n 9

F u n d a m en ta ls of K inem atics ll
1. G en eral C o n c e p ts o f M o tio n 11
Basic Problem o f Mechanics 11
1.1. Translational M otion o f Bodies. Material Point 12
1.2. Position o f a Body in Space. Reference System 13
1.3. Displacement 15
1.4. On Vector Quantities 16
1.5. Projections o f a Vector onto Coordinate Axes and
Operations on Projections 19
1.6. Uniform Rectilinear Motion. Velocity 24
1.7. Graphic Representation of Motion 28
1.8. Relative Nature o f M otion 31
1.9. On System of Units 36
Summary 38

2. N o n u n ifo r m R e c tilin ea r M otion 39

Velocity May Change 39
2.1. Velocity of Nonuniform M otion 39
2.2. Acceleration. Uniformly Accelerated Motion 42
23. Displacement in Uniformly Accelerated Motion 46
2.4. Measurement o f Acceleration 54
2.5. Free Fall. Acceleration Due to Gravity 55
Summary 57

5
3. C u rv ilin e a r M otion 59
M otion More Complex than Rectilinear 59
3.1. Displacement and Velocity inCurvilinear M otion 59
3.2. Acceleration in Uniform Motion o f a Body in a Circle 62
3.3. Period and Frequency o f a Body M oving in a Circle 65
3.4. Motion on a Rotating Body 66
Summary 67

F u n d a m e n ta ls of D ynam ics 69

4. L aw s o f M o tio n 69
The Most Important Question is “Why” 69
4.1. Bodies and Surroundings. Newton’s FirstLaw 69
4.2. Interaction o f Bodies. Acceleration o f Bodies as a Result
of Their Interaction 73
4.3. Inertia o f Bodies 76
4.4. Mass of Bodies 78
4.5. Force 82
4.6. Newton’s Second Law 84
4.7. What Do We Learn from Newton’s Second Law? 87
4.8. Measurement o f Force 90
4.9. Newton’s Third Law 93
Summary. The Importance of Newton’s Laws 95

5. F orces in N a t u r e 98
Are There Many Types o f Force in Nature? 98
5.1. Elastic Forces 99
5.2. Motion Is the Cause o f Deformation 102
5.3. Force of Universal Gravitation 104
5.4. Gravitational Constant 107
5.5. Force of Gravity 109
5.6. Friction. Static Friction 112
5.7. Sliding Friction 116
Summary 119

6. A p p lic a tio n of th e Law s o f D y n a m ic s 120

The Same Laws o f M otion for All Forces 120
6.1. Motion o f a Body Under the Action o f Elastic Force 120
6.2. M otion Under the Action o f Force o f Gravity: a Body
Moves Along the Vertical 121
6.3. M otion Under the Action of Force o f Gravity: Initial
Velocity o f a Body Is at an Angle to the Horizontal 126
6.4. Weight o f a Body. Weightlessness 132
6.5. Weight o f a Body Moving with an Acceleration 135
6.6. Artificial Earth’s Satellites. Orbital Velocity 139

6
 6.7. M otion o f a Body Under the Action o f Friction 142
6.8. M otion o f a Body Under the Action of Several Forces 144
6.9. Motion on Bends 149
6.10. Conditions o f Translatory Motion of Bodies. Centre
of Mass and Centre o f Gravity 152
6.11. Are the Laws o f Newtonian Mechanics Always Valid?
(Motion from Different Points o f View) 154
Summary 157

7. F u n d a m e n ta ls o f S ta tic s (E q u ilib riu m of B o d ies) 158

What Does Statics Study? 158
7.1. Equilibrium o f Bodies in the Absence of Rotation 158
7.2. Equilibrium of Bodies with a Fixed Axis o f Rotation 161
7.3. Stability o f Equilibrium of Bodies 167
Summary 172

C o n se rv a tio n Laws in M echanics 173

8. T h e Law o f C o n se r v a tio n of M o m e n tu m 173

Physical Quantities That Are Conserved 173
8.1. Force and Momentum 173
8.2. The Law of Conservation o f Momentum 175
8.3. Reaction Propulsion 179
Summary 183

9. T h e Law of C o n se r v a tio n o f E nergy 184

One of the Most Important Quantities in Science and
Engineering 184
9.1. Mechanical Work 184
9.2. Work Done by Forces Applied to a Body and the
Change in Its Velocity 187
9.3. Work Done by the Force o f Gravity 191
9.4. Potential Energy o f a Body Acted upon by the Force
of Gravity 194
9.5. Work Done by an Elastic Force; Potential Energy of
a Body Subject to Elastic Deformation 197
9.6. The Law o f Conservation o f Total MechanicalEnergy 201
9.7. Friction Work and Mechanical Energy 205
9.8. Power 208
9.9. Energy Transformation. Utilization of Machinery 211
9.10. Efficiency 213
9.11. Flow of Fluid in Pipes. Bernoulli’s Law 216
Summary 220

O n th e Im p o r ta n c e o f C o n se r v a tio n Law s 220

Conclusion 222

7
P ractical W ork 230
1. Determination o f the Acceleration of a Body in Uniformly
Accelerated Motion 230
2. Measurement o f the Rigidity of a Spring 231
3. Determination o f the Coefficient of Sliding Friction
4. Analysis of M otion o f a Body Along a Parabola 234
5. Analysis of M otion o f a Body in a Circle 235
6. Equilibrium Conditions for aLever 237
7. Determination o f the Centre of Gravity o f a Flat Plate 238
8. Experimental Investigation o f the Law o f Conservation
o f Mechanical Energy 239

Answers to Exercises 241

Index 243
0 MECHANICS

In tr o d u c tio n
Everything that really exists in the world, on the Earth or out
of it, is called matter. Various bodies surrounding us and the substances of
which these bodies are composed are material. Sound, light, radiowaves are
also material objects (although they cannot be called bodies) since they
actually exist. This means that any object (and, in general, the material world
surrounding us) exists independently of our consciousness and acts (or may
act) on our organs of sense.
One of the basic properties of matter is its variability. Various changes
occurring in the material world, viz. changes in matter, are called natural
phenomena.
Physics is a science dealing with unanimate nature. It studies the
properties of matter, its various changes, the laws describing these changes
and the relationships between different phenomena.
A distinctive feature of physics in comparison with other sciences is that
while studying the properties of matter and its changes, various physical
quantities are introduced. These quantities can be measured and expressed
by figures. This makes it possible to express the course of phenomena and
their interrelations with the help o f mathematical relations between the
introduced physical quantities. The most important relations existing for
natural phenomena, which are called laws, are also represented in the form
of mathematical formulas.
The role o f mathematics in physics is clearly outlined by the famous
Italian scientist Galileo: “Philosophy1} is written in a magnificent book that
is always open before our eyes (I mean the Universe), but which cannot be
understood without learning first its language and without recognizing the
characters used for its writing. Its language is the language of mathematics
and the characters are triangles and other geometrical figures without which
not a single word can be understood. Without them, we can only wander
blindly over the pitch-dark labirint”.

° In G alileo’s time, philosophy meant physics.

9
 Far from all properties of matter and the laws of nature are known.
However, the evolution of physics and other sciences shows that there is
nothing that cannot be studied, learnt and understood. The cognizability of
the material world can also be considered as one of its important properties.
The knowledge of the properties of matter and the laws of its variation
(the laws of nature) is in cope with the natural tendency of a human being to
know and understand the world around him. Therefore, this knowledge
constitutes an important part of human culture. On the other hand, natural
sciences are of utmost practical importance, since they enable us to predict
the course of various phenomena and processes. And without it no enterprize
can exist! For example, an engineer knows how a machine will operate even
before it is constructed, since while designing it, he used information
delivered by science, and above all, physics. The knowledge of the laws of
nature makes it possible not only to predict the future but also to explain
the past, since the laws of nature have been the same in the past and will
remain unchanged forever.
The possibility to forecast the future on the basis o f laws of nature has
become especially important nowadays when the activity of human being,
who mastered a powerful technique, strongly affects the environment. In
order to avoid an irretrievable disaster due to this influence of human
activity on nature, people must be able to foresee in advance the possible
aftereffects. For this the deeper and deeper knowledge of the laws of nature,
including those studied in physics, is required.
Mechanical motion is the best studied among all phenomena in nature.
The branch of physics in which this phenomenon is investigated is called
mechanics. Our book is devoted to this part of physics.
Fundamentals of Kinematics

G EN ERA L C O N C E P T S O F M O T IO N

BA SIC PROBLEM O F M E C H A N IC S
All events occur somewhere in space (where?) and at
a certain instant of time (when?). In particular, at any
moment a body occupies a certain position relative to other bodies in space.
If the position o f the body in space varies with the passage of time, we say
that the body moves, or is in mechanical motion.
The mechanical motion o f a body is defined as the change o f its position in
space relative to other bodies with the passage o f time.
To study the motion of a body means to determine how its position
changes with time. If this is known, we can determine (calculate) the position
of the body at any instant of time. This is the essence of the basic problem of
mechanics, i. e. the problem of finding the position o f the body at any moment.
Thus, astronomers use the laws of mechanics to determine the relative
positions of celestial bodies and quite accurately predict celestial phenomena
like solar and lunar eclipses. What is more, if the historians did not exactly
know, say, the exact date of Prince Igor’s march on the Polovets tribes, the
astronomers could come to their assistance. In the famous Russian epic “The
Lay of Igor’s Host” written in praise o f this campaign it is mentioned that
Igor’s march on the Polovets soil coincided with a total solar eclipse. This
information is sufficient to establish that Igor’s forces were on the border of
the Polovets territory on May 1, 1185.1)
Bodies can be in quite diverse types o f mechanical motion: they can move
along different trajectories, faster or slower, etc. To solve the basic problem
of mechanics, we must be able to describe briefly and exactly the motion of
the body, Le. indicate how its position changes with time. In other words, we
must find the mathematical description of the motion, viz. establish the
connection between the quantities characterizing the mechanical motion. In
the first part o f mechanics, called kinematics, we shall consider these
quantities and establish the relation between them.
*> There is no chance o f an error in this case, since it is well known
that a total solar eclipse is observed at the same place once in about 200 years. Only
one solar eclipse could be observed in the steppes o f the Don in the 12th century.

11
1.1 T ra n s la tio n a l M otion of Bodies. M a te ria l Point
To study the motion of a body, i.e. the change of its position
in space, we must first of all know how to determine this
position. But here we encounter certain difficulty. Each body has a definite
size. Consequently, its different parts have different positions in space. How,
then, can we determine the position of the body? In the general case, it is
not an easy task. However, in many cases it is not necessary to indicate the
position of each point of a moving body.
The position of each individual point of the body need not be specified if
all the points move identically.
For example, there is no need to describe the motion o f each point of
a sleigh which a boy pushes uphill since each point moves in exactly the
same way as all the other points.
All the points of a barge floating in a river move identically, and so do the
points of a suitcase as we lift it from the floor (Fig. 1).
The motion o f a body in which all its points move identically is called
translational motion. Any imaginary straight line drawn in a body performing
translational motion remains parallel to itself.
The motion o f each point o f a body also need not be specified when the size
of the body is small in comparison with the distance traversed by it or in
comparison with the distance from the body to other bodies. In these cases, the
size of the body can be neglected. For example, an ocean liner is small in
comparison with stretch of its voyage, and hence we can treat the liner as
a point while describing its motion in the ocean.
The same approach is used by astronomers while studying the motion of
celestial bodies. Planets, stars and the Sun are by no means small objects
However, the radius of the Earth, for example, is about 1/24 000 of the
distance between the Earth and the Sun. Hence we can assume that the
Earth is a point which moves around another point, viz. the centre of the
Sun.
Speaking o f the motion of a body, we shall actually mean the motion of
some point of this body. It should be borne in mind that this is a material
point which differs from ordinary bodies in that it has no dimensions.
A material point is a body whose size car he neglected under the given
conditions o f motion.
The expression “under the given conditions” means that the same object
can be treated as a material point for some type of motion while this may
not be possible for other motions. For example, suppose that a boy going to
school covers the distance of one kilometre. He can be treated as a material
point in this motion, because he is small in comparison with the distance he

Fig. I

12
travels. However, when the same boy does his morning exercises, he can by
no means be treated as a material point.

In which of the following cases can the bodies be treated

as material points?
1. A discus is being machined on a lathe. The same discus
covers 55 m when thrown by an athlete.
2. An aeroplane flies from Moscow to Khabarovsk. A plane
spins round its axis in aerobatic manoeuvres.
3. A skater covers a distance during a competition.
A skate-dancer does free skating exercises.
4. The flight of a spaceship is watched from the mission
control centre on the Earth. The same spaceship is watch­
ed by a cosmonaut carrying out docking manoeuvres with
this ship in space.

1.2. P osition of a Body in Space. R eference S ystem

How is the position of a body determined? An ancient
manuscript pertaining to the beginning of our era gives the
following description of the location of a treasure: “Stand at the East corner
of the last house of the village and take 120 steps northwards. Then face the
East and take 200 steps. At this spot, dig a hole 10 cubits deep, and find 100
talents of gold”. If the village and the house mentioned in the document
existed today, we could easily find this treasure. However, for obvious
reasons, there is no trace left of the house and the village, and hence it is
impossible to find the treasure. This example shows that the position of
a body or a point can be specified only relative to some other body which is
called the reference body.
The reference body can be chosen quite arbitrarily. For example, it can be
the house in which we live, the coach o f the train by which we are travelling
or any other body. The Earth, the Sun and stars can also serve as reference
bodies.
COORDINATES OF A POINT. When a reference body has been chosen,
the coordinate axes are drawn through some of its points, and the position
of any point o f a body is defined by its coordinates. This procedure is well
known from the course of elementary mathematics.
Let us determine, for example, the position of two motorcars I and II on
a road (Fig. 2). We draw the coordinate axis O X along the road and fix the
reference point (origin of coordinates) at point O. We assume that positive
coordinates are measured to the right of point O and negative, to the left of
it Then the position of motorcar / is determined by its coordinate xj = OB.
The scale in Fig. 2 is chosen in such a way that x j = 1200 m. The coordinate
of motorcar I I is expressed by the number 400 m, but since it has to be
measured to the left of the reference point, we write x// = - 400 m. Thus,
13
Fig. 2

the position of a body on a straight line is defined by a single coordinate.

If a body can move in a plane (for example, a boat on a lake), two
coordinate axes O X and O Y are drawn through points chosen on the
reference body. The position of a body on a plane is defined by two
coordinates x and y. For example, point A (Fig. 3) has the coordinates x = 3,
y = 4, while the coordinates of point B are x = 2, y = —1.5.
Finally, to specify the position of a body in space (for example, an
aeroplane in flight), we must draw three mutually perpendicular coordinate
axes OX, O Y and OZ through the reference body (Fig. 4). The position of
a body (point) in space is accordingly defined by three coordinates x, y and
z.
This is the system of coordinates that was chosen to describe the location
of the treasure in the document mentioned at the beginning o f this section.
To find the treasure, we must only know the location of the reference body.
Thus, the position o f a point on a line, in a plane or in space is defined
respectively by one, two or three coordinate numbers. The space surrounding
us is, so to say, a space of three dimensions or a three-dimensional space.
REFERENCE SYSTEM. It was mentioned above that mechanics deals
with determining the position of a body at any instant of time. Since the
position of a body is defined by the coordinates of its points, the basic
problem of mechanics is reduced to determining the coordinates o f points of
a body at any instant o f time.
The system o f coordinates, the reference body to which it is fixed, and the
instrument fo r measuring time form together the reference system with respect
to which the motion o f a body is considered.

14
 As a body moves, the coordinates of its points change. If, for example, the
coordinates of a point along X-, Y- and Z-axes are equal to x 0, y0> z0 at
some instant f = 0, and become equal to x, y, z after a certain time interval t,
this means that the x-, y- and z-coordinates have changed during this
interval of time by x — x 0, y - y 0 and z - z0 respectively. These three
quantities are the variations in the x-, y- and z-coordinates respectively. The
variation of a quantity is sometimes denoted by the symbol A (Greek
“delta”), for example, x — x 0 = Ax, y — y n = Ay, z - z 0 — Az.

1.3. D isp la ce m e n t
The change in coordinates is associated with the first of the
quantities mentioned in Introduction which were introduced
for describing motion of a body, viz. displacement. What is displacement?
Suppose that at some initial instant, a moving body (point) occupies
a position M, (Fig. 5). After a certain interval of time, the body occupies
a different position at a distance s from the initial point. How to find the
new position of the body? Obviously, it is not enough to know the distance
s for this purpose, since there is an infinite number of points at a distance
s from point M , (see Fig. 5).
When a body moves, its motion takes place in a certain direction. To find
the new position of the body, we must know the direction o f the line
segment connecting the initial and final positions of the body. This directed
segment describes the displacement of the body. The tip of the segment is
marked by an arrow for the sake of clarity. Setting this segment to point
M ,, we find the new position M 2 of the body at the tip of the arrow (Fig. 6).
The displacement o f a body (material point) is the directed line segment
connecting the initial position o f the body to its final position.
The displacement of a body must be distinguished from its trajectory (the
path along which it moves). The fact that the body has moved from point
M, to point M2 (Fig. 7) and its displacement is equal to the length of
segment M ,M 2 does not mean that the body was moving along the straight

Fig. 5 Fig. 6 Fig. 7

15
line M ,A f2. The trajectory o f motion of the body, i.e. the line along which it
actually moved, may not coincide with this straight line. The following
example will explain this point.
Figure 8 shows the map o f the Black Sea region. The distance between
Odessa and Sevastopol’ is 270 km as the crow flies. In order to reach
Sevastopol’ from Odessa, we require a displacement of 27 0 km in the
southeast direction. If we take a cruise on a steamer, the actual course may
indeed coincide with the straight line representing this displacement.
However, we can also take a train from Odessa to Sevastopol’. The railway
line passes through Nikolaev, Kherson and Dzhankoi. The length of the
track is 660 km. If we travel by train, the trajectory o f motion no longer
coincides with the displacement.
Thus, in order to find the position o f a body at any instant of time, we
must know its initial position and displacement to this moment.

1. Observation o f the movements o f players in a football

match showed that the forward covered about 12 km dur­
ing the match. How should this distance be interpreted: as
the displacement or path length?
1 A navigator tracking the position o f his ship in the
morning finds that the ship is at a distance o f 100 km
from the point where it was the previous evening. What
does this number represent: the displacement or path
traversed by the ship?
3. Taking over the motor-car from a taxi-driver at the end of
a day, the man on duty at the garage recorded that the
meter reading had gone up by 300 km. What does this
reading indicate: the distance covered by the car or the
displacement?

■• O n V e c to r Q u a n titie s
The quantity “displacement” differs from many other
quantities in that we must know its magnitude as well as the
direction in which it has occurred. Quantities like displacement, which are
specified not only by their magnitude (modulus) but also by direction, are
called vector quantities. A vector quantity is represented by a segment which
starts at a certain point and terminates at an arrow-tip indicating its
direction (see Fig. 6). Such an arrow-segment is called a vector. Sometimes,
a vector quantity itself is called a vector; for example, it is said that
displacement is a vector. The length o f the segment on a chosen scale
represents the modulus o f the vector quantity. Vectors are denoted by letters
with bars above them or by the bold face. For example, the displacement
vector (see Fig. 6) is denoted by S. The magnitude o f this vector will be
denoted by the same letter, but without a bar. In the figures vectors are
denoted by letters with arrows above them.

16
Fig. 8

The magnitude (modulus) and direction o f a vector are equally important.

Equal vectors have the same magnitudes and the same direction.
Quantities which cannot be assigned a direction and are completely
characterized by a number (dimensional or dimensionless) are called scalar
quantities or just scalars. For example, the number o f desks in the classroom,
or the length, width and height o f a room are expressed only by numbers
and are therefore scalars. The magnitude o f a vector is also a scalar quantity.
OPERATIONS O N VECTORS. The most important operation for us is
the addition o f vectors.
Suppose that a (Fig. 9) is the displacement vector for a group o f tourists
moving eastwards. Undergoing this displacement, the group turns in the
north-east direction and continues, its hike. Let b (see Fig. 9) be the
displacement vector for the group in the north-east direction. We draw
a vector c from the beginning of vector a to the end o f vector h. Had the
group undergone just one displacement c, it would have come to the same
point where it arrived after two displacements a and b. Hence vector c is the
sum of vectors a and b. It can be seen from Fig. 9 that the magnitude of
vector c is not equal to the sum of moduli o f vectors a and b. This is so
because the three vectors a, b and c form a triangle o f vectors and one side
o f any triangle is always smaller than the sum o f the other two sides. Hence
it is said that the vectors are added not algebraically but geometrically. Thus
we arrive at the following rule for addition o f two vectors. In order to add
two vectors, we must arrange them in such a way that the origin ( ta il) o f one
vector coincides with the tip (head) o f the other. The vector drawn from the
origin o f the first vector to the tip o f the second vector is the sum o f the two
vectors. This rule is called the triangle rule.
The same result can also be obtained by means o f a different construction.
Preserving the length and direction o f both vectors a and 8 (see Fig. 9), we
arrange them in such a way that they originate from the same point

17
2-376
(Fig. 10). Assuming that these two vectors form the adjacent sides of
a parallelogram, we construct this parallelogram and draw a diagonal from
the point where origins of the two vectors meet. This diagonal (with an
arrow!) is the resultant vector. The derivation of a vector sum in this way is
called the parallelogram rule. It can be seen from Figs. 9 and 10 that both
these rules lead to the same result. These rules are applicable not only to
displacement vectors, but also to any other vector quantities.
SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS. It is often necessary to subtract one
vector from another. As in the case of numbers, subtraction can always be
reduced to the addition. For example, the expression 7 —4 = 3 can be
replaced by 7 = 4 + 3. Similarly, the equality d —b = c can be replaced by
a = b + c. Consequently, to subtract one vector (b) from another (a)
means to find such a vector c whose sum with vector b is equal to a.
This can be done with the help of the following construction. Suppose
that we have to find the difference a — b o f vectors a and b (Fig. 11, top). We
translate vectors a and b so that they originate from the same point We then
connect their tips by a vector directed from the subtrahend to the minuend
(from the tip of b to that of a). This vector is precisely vector c (Fig. 11,
bottom). It is seen from the figure that the sum of vectors b and c is
indeed equal to vector a.
In order to find the difference between two vectors, they should be arranged
so that they emerge from the same point. Their tips must then be connected by
a vector directed from the subtrahend to the minuend. This vector is the
difference o f the two vectors.
COLLINEAR VECTORS. The vectors directed along the same straight
line or parallel to each other are called collinear. They can have the same
direction (Fig. 12a) or opposite directions (Fig. 13a). These vectors are
summed up in the same way as vectors d and b in Fig. 9: the origin of the
second vector is made to coincide with the tip of the first vector (Figs. 12b
and 13b), and the resultant vector is directed from the origin o f the first
vector to the tip of the second one. It can be seen from the figures, however,
that there is no need to resort to geometric constructions. The resultant
vector is modulo equal to the arithmetic sum (Fig. 12b) or difference
(Fig. 13b) o f the magnitudes of the vectors being added. It is directed either
in the same way as the two vectors or as the vector which has the larger
magnitude.

Fig. 9 Fig. 10 Fig. 11

 (a) (a)

(b) (b)

Fig. 12 Fig. 13

MULTIPLICATION OF A VECTOR BY A SCALAR. In many cases,

a vector d has to be multiplied by a number k (which may be a dimensional
quantity). As a result, we obtain a new vector kd. Its direction is the same as
that of vector d if k > 0 and opposite to that when k < 0. The magnitude of
the new vector is equal to the product of the magnitude of vector d and the
absolute value of the number k.

1. What is the difference between a scalar and a vector

quantity?
2. Is the quantity measured by the distance meter of
a motorcar scalar or vector?
3. Two vectors are equal in magnitude but have opposite
directions. Can we say that these vectors are equal to each
other?
4. In which case is the magnitude of the sum of two vectors
equal to the sum of their magnitudes?
5. When is the magnitude of the sum of two vectors equal to
the difference of their magnitudes?

Hometask
1. Prove by construction that the sum of two vectors is
independent of the order o f summands, i.e. a + 5 = 8 + a.
2. Take two arbitrary (noncollinear) vectors and Find their
sum with the help of the parallelogram rule. Using the
same drawing, Find the difference of these vectors.
3. Find by construction the sum and difference of two
vectors having the same magnitude and perpendicular to
each other.

1.5. P ro je ctio n s of a V e c to r o n to C o o rd in a te A xes

a n d O p e ra tio n s on P ro jectio n s
It was mentioned in Sec. 1.3 that if we “attach” the
displacement vector to the initial position of a moving body,
the subsequent position o f this body will be determined by the tip of this
vector. In actual practice, however, it is impossible to “attach” vectors in this
way, and the Final position of a body cannot be determined by this method.

19
2*
The final position of a body, i. e. its coordinates, must be calculated with the
help of the displacement vector. However, it is not possible to use vectors in
calculations since a vector is characterized not only by its magnitude but
also by the direction.
PROJECTIONS OF A VECTOR ONTO COORDINATE AXES. In
order to calculate the coordinate, we shall use another important concept,
viz. the projections of a vector onto coordinate axes.
Figure 14 shows the coordinate axis O X and a vector a which is coplanar
with this axis. We drop perpendiculars A A t and BBX from the endpoints
A and B of vector d onto the X-axis. The feet of the perpendiculars (points
A, and B x) are the projections o f points A and B onto the X-axis. The length
of segment A XB X between the projections of the tail and head o f the vector
onto the axis, taken with the plus or minus sign, is called the projection of
the vector onto the X-axis.
A projection is assumed to be positive if we have to move along the
positive direction of the axis from the projection of the tail to the projection
of the head o f the vector and negative in the opposite case. According to this
rule, the projection of vector a (Fig. 14) is positive, while the projection of
vector b (Fig. 15) is negative. If a vector is normal to an axis (Fig. 16), its
projection onto this axis is equal to zero.
The projection of a vector onto an axis is denoted by the same letter
Fig. 18
O- cx= -c X

which denotes the vector without an arrow and with the subscript
corresponding to the axis. For example, the projections of vectors a and b
onto the X-axis (see Figs. 14 and 15) are denoted by ax and bx respectively.
When a vector is parallel to an axis (Figs. 17 and 18X the magnitude of its
projection onto this axis is equal to the magnitude of the vector itself.
Moreover, if the vector and the axis have the same direction (see Fig. 17X
the projection is positive, and if the vector and the axis have opposite
directions, the projection is negative (see Fig. 18).
PROJECTION OF THE SUM AND DIFFERENCE OF VECTORS.
Figure 19 shows vectors a and b and the resultant vector c :c = a + b, as well
as the projections of the three vectors, ax, bx and cx , onto the X-axis. It can
be seen that the projection of the resultant is equal to the sum of the
projections of the vectors being added.
The projection of one of the vectors (vector b) may be negative (Fig. 20).
However, the projection of the resultant as before, is equal to the sum of the
projections of the two vectors, considering that the projection of one of the
vectors is negative. Consequently, the projection o f the sum o f vectors onto
any axis is equal to the algebraic sum o f projections o f the vectors being added
onto the same axis. Since, as was mentioned above, the subtraction of vectors
is reduced to their addition, this rule refers to the projection of the vector
difference as well.
Thus, in order to find the projection of a vector sum or difference, there is
no need to find the resultant and its projection. We can simply sum up the
projections of all the vectors, taking into account their signs.
COORDINATES OF A BODY (MATERIAL POINT) AND
PROJECTIONS OF THE DISPLACEMENT VECTOR. How can we

Fig. 19 Fig. 20
 v
Y
M (x ;y ) %

" Q

Q.
M 0(x„; y.)
0 *x
T2
s«
0 K f
X

Fig. 21 F ig 22

determine the coordinates of the subsequent position o f a body from the

known coordinates of its initial position and the displacement vector?
Let us do it for a body moving in a plane.
Suppose that the displacement of the body is s = M 0M. We choose the
coordinate system X O Y so that the vector M 0M lies in the X O Y -plane
(Fig. 21).
We denote the coordinates of the initial position o f the body (point M 0)
by x0 and y0, and the coordinates of a subsequent position (point M) by
x and y.
Figure 21 shows that OP = OP0 + P0P. But OP = x t OP0 = x 0, P0P =
sx . Consequently,
x = x 0 + sx . (1.5.1)

We can also see from this figure that OQ = OQ0 + Q0Q. But OQ = y,
OQ0 = y 0 and Q0Q = sy . Therefore,

y = y° + sy - (i.5.2)

Formulas (1.5.1) and (1.5.2) are valid for any other arrangement of the
vector Af0M on the X O Y -plane.
Hence it follows that the projection of a displacement vector onto the X-
or Y-axis is equal to the difference between the coordinates of the head and
tail of this vector:
sx = x ~ x 0, sy = y — y 0.
The difference between the subsequent and initial values o f any quantity
was called the change in this quantity. Consequently, the projection o f the
displacement vector s onto the X - or Y-axis is equal to the change in the
corresponding coordinate.

22
1. What do we call the projection of a vector onto an axis?
2. What is the relation between the displacement vector and
its coordinates?
3. What is the sign of the projection of a displacement vector
onto the coordinate axes if the coordinate of the moving
point increases (decreases) with time?
4. What is the sign and magnitude of the projections of
a displacement vector directed in parallel with one of the
coordinate axes?
5. Determine the signs of the projections of the displacement
vectors shown in Fig. 22 onto the X-axis. How will the
coordinates of the body change upon such displacements?
6. Why is the displacement vector more important in
mechanics than the distance covered by a body?
7. Can the magnitude of the displacement vector be small if
the distance covered by a body is large? Give examples.

Exercise 1
1. At the initial instant, a body was at a point with
coordinates x0 = - 2 m and = 4 m. The body moved
to a point with coordinates x = 2 m and y = 1 m. Find the
projections of the displacement vector onto the X- and
7-axes.
2. A body having coordinates x0 = —3m and y0 = 1 m
covered a certain distance after which the projection of the
displacement vector onto the X-axis and 7-axis became
equal to 5.2 m and 3 m respectively. Find the coordinates
of the finite position o f the body and draw its
displacement vector. What is its magnitude?
3. A hiker covered a distance of 5 km in the southward
direction and then 12 km in the eastward direction. Find
the magnitude of its displacement.

Hometask
Verify the validity of formulas (1.5.1) and (1.5.2) for any
position of the vector M 0M differing from that shown in
Fig. 21.

23
 1 .6 U n ifo rm R e c tilin e a r M o tio n . V e lo c ity
It was shown in Sec. 1.5 that for determining the coordinates
o f a moving body at any instant o f time, we must know the
projections o f the displacement vector onto the coordinate axes (in other
words, we must know the displacement vector). How can we find it?
Let us first consider the simplest type o f motion, i.e. uniform rectilinear
motion.
Uniform rectilinear motion is a motion when a body covers equal distances in
a straight line during any equal intervals o f time.
VELOCITY. In order to find the displacement o f a body in a uniform
rectilinear motion for any time interval t, we must obviously know the
displacement of the body per unit time, since during any subsequent unit of
time the body will cover the same distance. The displacement o f a body per
unit time is called its velocity and is denoted by letter v. The velocity of
a body can be determined by measuring any path length, however small, and
the time interval during which this path was traversed. If we denote the
displacement along this path by s and the corresponding time interval by f,
the velocity v will be equal to the ratio o f s to t.
The velocity o f a uniform rectilinear motion is a constant quantity equal to
the ratio o f the displacement o f the body during any time interval to the magni­
tude o f this interval1':

Since \/t is a scalar with the positive sign, velocity vector v has the same
direction as displacement s.
If velocity v is known, displacement s over time t is determined from the
formula

s = vt. (1.6.2)

As was mentioned above, formulas in vector form cannot be used for

calculations. For this purpose, we use formulas containing the projections of
vectors onto coordinate axes instead o f vectors, since algebraic operations
are applicable to projections and not to vectors.
The trajectory of a body in a rectilinear motion is a straight line. Hence it
is natural to direct a coordinate axis along this line. Then the motion of the
body will involve the variation o f only one coordinate, say, the coordinate
x if the chosen axis is the X-axis. Both the velocity vector and the
displacement vector are directed along this axis.

To be more precise, the velocity of the uniform rectilinear motion

is the vector whose direction is the same as that o f the displacem ent o f the body, and
w hose m agnitude is equal to the ratio o f magnitudes of the displacem ent and the time
interval during which this displacement occurred. However, the brief but less exact
definition given above, is normally used.

24
 I I
I I
1 V, 1
► 1 X 1 T
vx > 0 X O v ,< 0 X
Fig. 23 Fig. 24

PROJECTIONS OF DISPLACEMENT AND VELOCITY. Since the

vectors s and vt are equal, their projections on the Y-axis are also equal:
sx = vx t.
We can now obtain a formula for calculating the x-coordinate of a point
at any instant o f time. We know (Sec. 1.5) that
x = x 0 + sx .
Consequently,

x = x 0 + vx t. (1.6.3)

This formula represents the time dependence of the coordinate o f a point

and can therefore be used for describing the uniform rectilinear motion.
Formula (1.6.3) shows that the position o f a body (material point)
moving uniformly in a straight line can be determined at any instant of time
if we know the initial coordinate x0 of the body (point) and the projection of
the velocity vector onto the axis along which the body moves. It should be
borne in mind that the projection of the velocity vector may be either
positive or negative (Figs. 23 and 24).
Formula (1.6.3) clarifies the meaning o f the quantity “velocity”. Indeed, it
follows from this formula that
x x0
t •
This means that the projection o f the velocity vector onto the axis is equal to
the change in the corresponding coordinates per unit time.
It should be emphasized once again that for solving problems in
mechanics we must know not only the magnitude of the velocity but the
velocity vector as a whole. Spidometers mounted in cars indicate just the
magnitude of velocity. It is “the same” for a spidometer in which direction
the car moves. Therefore, their readings cannot be used for determining the
direction of motion o f the car or its position at any instant of time.

? 1. What is the difference between the displacement and the

distance covered by a body in uniform rectilinear motion?
2. What is the difference between the quantities defined by
the expressions: v = s/t and v = s /tl What do they have in
common?
3. A car moves eastwards at a velocity of 40 km/hr. Another
25
 car moves at a velocity of 40 km/hr southwards. Can we
say that the cars move with equal velocities?
4. Can we find the final position of a body if we know its
initial position and the length of the distance covered by
it?
5. What is the relation between the velocity of a body and
the change in its position during motion?

EXAMPLES OF SOLVING PROBLEMS

1. Two motorcars are travelling towards each other at velocities 60 and
90 km/hr. At a gasoline filling station they meet and then continue on their
way. Determine the position o f each motorcar in 30 min after their meeting
and the separation between them at this moment.
Solution. We take for the origin of coordinates the filling station and for
the time reference point, the instant when they meet. We direct the X-axis
from left to right. Then the coordinates of the motorcars in 0.5 hr after
meeting can be calculated by the formulas
* i = * o i + ”ixt and x 2 = x02 + v2xt.
The initial coordinates x01 and x 02 of the two motorcars are equal to zero.
Hence
X| = v]xt and x 2 = v2xt.
The projection vix of the velocity vector of the first motorcar is positive.
This means that its velocity vector is directed in the same way as the X-axis.
By hypothesis, it is equal to + 60 km/hr. The projection v2x o f the velocity
vector o f the second motorcar is negative since its velocity vector points
counter to the positive direction of the X-axis, so that v2x = — 90 km/hr.
Consequently,
x t = 60 km/hr x 0.50 hr = 30 km and

x 2 = —90 km/hr x 0.5 hr = - 45 km.

The separation / between the motorcars is equal to the difference in their

coordinates:
/ = | x2 - Xj | = | —45 km - 30 km | = 75 km.
2. Two motorcars move along mutually perpendicular roads towards their
crossing. At a certain instant of time, the first motorcar whose velocity Vi =
27 km/hr is at a distance /, = 300 m from the crossroads. At the same
instant, the second motorcar is at a distance l2 = 450 m from the crossroads.
What is the speed of the second car if it reaches the crossroads in t = 5 s
after the first car has passed it?
Solution. We take the origin of coordinates at the crossroads and direct the
coordinate axes O X and OY along the roads (Fig. 25). We take for the time
reference point the instant when the cars were at distances /, and l2 from the
crossroads. The first car is moving along the X-axis and the second, in the
negative direction of the T-axis.

26
 During the motion o f the first motorcar, only its x-coordinate varies:
x = x 0 + vixt,
while for'the second car, only the y-coordinate varies:
y = yo + v2yt.
It follows from the condition o f the problem that x0 = - h , y 0 = l2, vix =
°i» anc* v2y = — v2. We denote by the time when the first car passes the
crossroads. At this instant, its coordinate x = 0. The second car passes the
crossroads at the time + 1. At this instant, its coordinate y = 0.
Consequently,
0 = li + v lt, 0 = l2 - v 2{tl + t \
Solving these equations simultaneously, we obtain
_ l2 _ l2vi _ 450 m x 7.5 m/s
2 h / vi + 1 h + tvi 2 300 m + 37.5 m •s/s
= 10 m/s = 36 km/hr.

Exercise 2
1. A group of hikers moving at a constant speed o f 5 km/hr
travels the first hour northwards, the next 0.5 hr eastwards
(at right angles to the northward direction), and the last 1 hr
30 min southwards (at 180° to the initial direction). Where
will this group be after covering these three segments? What
time will the group take to return to the initial point by
moving along the straight line at the same speed?
2. A car moving at a speed of 30 km/hr has covered half the
distance to the destination point during a certain time. At
what speed should it move to be able to reach the destination
point and return back during the same span of time?
3. A traveller caught in a thunderstorm saw a flash of light­
ning and heard the thunder 10 s later. At what distance did
the flash occur if the speed of sound in air is 340 km/hr?

27
1.7. G rap h ic R e p re s e n ta tio n of M otion
MOTION PLOT. Motion can be visually described with the
help of plots (graphs). If we plot on the horizontal axis (axis
of abscissas) the time that has passed from the time reference point on
a certain scale and on the vertical axis (axis of ordinates) the coordinate of
the body on the corresponding scale, the obtained graph will express the
time dependence of the coordinate of the body (it is also called the motion
plot).
Let us suppose that a body moves uniformly along the X-axis (Fig. 26).
This means that only its x-coordinate is varying. At instants t = 0, f, = 10 s,
t2 = 20 s, r3 = 30 s, etc. the body is respectively at points whose coordinates
are x0 = 3 m (point A), x t = 4 m, x 2 = 5 m, etc.
The plot of motion is obtained if we lay the values o f x along the vertical
axis and the values of t along the horizontal axis (Fig. 27). The plot of this
motion is a straight line. This means that the coordinate linearly depends on
time.
The plot expressing the time dependence of the coordinate of a body (see
Fig. 27) should not be confused with the trajectory of motion of the body,
viz. the line all whose points the body visited during its motion (see Fig. 26).
For rectilinear motion, motion plots give the complete solution of the
problem of mechanics since they allow us to find the position o f the body at
any instant of time, including the instants preceding the initial moment (if we
assume that the body moved at the same speed before it reached the time
reference point).
Extending the graph shown in Fig. 27 in the direction opposite to the
positive direction of the time axis, we can find, for example, that 30 s before
the body reached point A, it was at the zero point of the x-coordinate (x =
0 ).
The form of the plots describing the time dependence of a coordinate gives
the idea about the speed of motion. It is clear that the steeper the plot, i.e.
the larger the angle between the plot and the time axis, the higher the speed
of motion.
Fig. 27 Fig. 28

Figure 28 represents several plots o f motion for different velocities. Plots 1,

2 and 3 indicate that the bodies move in the positive direction of the X-axis.
Straight line 4 describes the motion o f a body in the direction opposite to
that of the A'-axis.
The plots o f motion can also be used to find the displacement of a moving
body for any interval o f time. Figure 28 shows, for example, that the magni­
tude of the displacement o f a body whose motion plot is marked by figure
3 during the first four seconds in the positive direction of the X-axis is equal
to 2 m. During the same time, the body whose motion is described by plot
4 was displaced in the negative direction of the X-axis by 4 m.
VELOCITY GRAPH1*. Besides motion graphs, velocity graphs are also
often used. These graphs are obtained by plotting the projection o f the
velocity of a body along the ordinate axis, while along the abscissa axis, as
before, we plot time. These graphs show the variation o f velocity with time,
i.e. the time dependence of velocity. For uniform rectilinear motion, this
“dependence” consists in that velocity remains unchanged in the course of
time. Therefore, the corresponding velocity graph is the straight line parallel
to the time axis (Fig. 29). Graph 1 in this figure describes the motion o f the
body in the positive direction of the X-axis. Graph 2 refers to the case when
a body moves in the opposite direction (its velocity projection is negative).
The velocity graph can also be used for calculating the displacement o f the
body for a given interval o f time. It is numerically equal to the area of the
hatched rectangle (Fig. 30). Indeed, the area o f a rectangle is equal to the
product of its two adjacent sides. But one side of this rectangle is time t on

!> The graph o f the velocity projection is called for brevity the
velocity graph.

29
a certain scale, while the other is the projection of the velocity v. Their
product vx t is just the projection of the displacement of the body.

1. Which motion is described by the graph shown by the

dashed line in Fig. 28?
2. Which types of motion correspond to graphs 1 and 2 in
Fig. 29?
3. How can we find the displacement of a body with the help
o f the graph of velocity projection?

EXAMPLE OF SOLVING A PROBLEM

Figure 31 represents the graphs of motion of a car and a bicycle. Using
these graphs, find the place and time of their meeting.
Solution. Analyzing graph 1, we see that the car moves uniformly along the

Fig. 31 Fig. 32

30
X-axis at a speed of 20 m/s, while from graph 2 it follows that the cyclist
moves towards the car uniformly at a speed o f 5 m/s. It can also be seen
from the figure that at the initial instant of time the car and the bicycle were
at a distance o f 250 m from each other. The graphs intersect at point M.
This means that the car and the bicycle have met at this point. Their meeting
occurred after 10 s from the time reference point at a distance o f 200 m from
the initial position of the car.

Exercise 3
1. Using graphs 2 and 4 (see Fig. 28), find the distance
between the moving bodies at the moment of time t = 3 s.
2. Determine the magnitude and direction of the velocity of
a body with the help of the graph shown in Fig. 27.

Hometask
Using graphs 1 and 2 of the projections of velocities (see
Fig. 29), plot the graph of their magnitudes.

i .o • R e la tiv e N a t u r e of Motion
It was mentioned in Sec. 1.2 that the position o f a body
(point) in space is specified relative to some other object
chosen as the reference body. For this purpose, coordinate axes are drawn
through the reference body. It is said that the coordinate system is fixed to
this body.
However, we may take for the reference body any object and attach to it
its own coordinate system. Then the position of the same body can be
simultaneously considered in different reference systems. Clearly, the same
body may have quite different coordinates relative to different reference
frames in different coordinate systems. For example, the position o f a car on
the road can be defined by indicating that it is at a distance /, to the North
of locality 1 (Fig. 32). On the other hand, we can say that the car is at
a distance l2 to the East of locality 2. Consequently, the position o f a body is
a relative quantity: it is different for different reference bodies and coordinate
systems fixed to them.
But not only the position of a body is a relative quantity. Its motion is also
relative. What is the essence of relativity o f motion?
A child who watched for the first time floating of ice from the bank of
a river asked a question: “What are we riding on?” Obviously, he “chose” an
ice-floe as the reference body. Being at rest relative to the reference frame
fixed to the bank, the boy moved with it relative to the reference system -the
ice-floe-“chosen” by him.
Let us consider another well-known example o f the relativity of motion.
Everybody knows how it is difficult to establish which of the trains is
moving and which is at rest when you are in the train and watch from the

31
window another train passing by. Strictly speaking, if you see only the other
train without seeing the ground, buildings, clouds, etc., it is impossible to say
which o f the trains is moving uniformly and rectilinearly. If the passenger of
one train states that “his” train is in motion and the other is at rest, the
passenger o f the second train can rightfully say that it is “his” train that is in
motion, while the other is at rest. Essentially, both passengers are right since
motion is relative.
In actual practice, we must often consider the motion o f the same body
relative to different reference bodies which are moving themselves relative to
one another. For example, a gunner must know not only the motion of the
shell relative to the Earth relative to which the gun is at rest. He must also
know how the shell moves relative to the tank at which it is fired and which
moves relative to the Earth. A pilot should have information concerning the
flight o f the aeroplane relative to the Earth as well as relative to the air
which is also in motion, etc.
MOTION FROM DIFFERENT POINTS O F VIEW. Let us consider the
motion o f the same body in two different reference systems which move
relative to each other. We assume that one of these systems is fixed while the
other moves uniformly in a straight line relative to this system. We can
illustrate this by a simple example. A boat crosses a river at right angles to
the flow relative to which it moves at a certain velocity.
Suppose that the motion o f the boat is being watched by two observers.
One of them is at point 0 on the bank (Fig. 33), while the other is floating
with the current on a raft. Both the observers measure the displacement of
the boat and the time over which this displacement occurs.
The raft is at rest relative to water, but moves relative to the bank with
the velocity o f flow. We draw an imaginary system o f coordinates X O Y
through point O. The X-axis is directed along the bank, and the F-axis is
perpendicular to the flow (see Fig. 33). This is a fix e d reference system. We
also associate a system o f coordinates X 'O 'Y ' with the raft, the X'- and
F'-axes being parallel to the X - and F-axes respectively. This is a movable
reference system.

Fig. 33 Fig. 34
 Let us now consider the motion of the boat relative to the two observers,
i.e. relative to the two reference systems.
The observer on the raft, who is moving together with “his” reference
system downstream, finds that the boat is moving away from him
perpendicularly to the flow all the time. He observes the same pattern at
point A, point B (Fig. 33) or at any other point. When the raft reaches
a certain point C after a time r, the boat touches the opposite bank at point
C'. Relative to the moving reference system (raft), the boat is displaced by
s t = C C . Dividing this displacement by the time t, the moving observer will
obtain the following expression for the velocity u, of the boat relative to the
raft (the river flow):
«i = s j t .
To the fixed observer on the bank, the motion o f the boat appears to be
quite different. Relative to “his” reference system, the boat is displaced by
s = O C over the same time t. During this interval of time, the moving system
attached to the raft has been displaced by s2 (the boat is said to be carried
away downstream).
The displacement o f the boat is schematically shown in Fig. 34.
SUMMATION OF DISPLACEMENTS. It can be seen from Figs. 33 and
34 that the displacement s relative to the fixed reference system is connected
to the displacements and s2 through the formula

s = S\ + s2. (1.8.1)

SUMMATION OF VELOCITIES. Dividing the displacement s by the

time f, we obtain the velocity v o f the boat relative to the fixed reference
system:

or

v = Vi + v2. ( 1. 8. 2)

where v2 = s 2A is the velocity o f the raft relative to the bank (i.e. the flow
velocity). This formula represents the velocity summation rule: the velocity o f
a body relative to a fix e d reference system is equal to the geometrical sum o f its
velocity relative to a moving reference system and the velocity o f the moving
system relative to the fix e d one. .. .
Thus, a body has different displacements and velocities in different
reference systems. Its trajectories are also different (C C relative to the
moving system and OC relative to the fixed system). This is the essence of
the relative nature o f motion.
THE STATE O F REST IS ALSO RELATIVE. The example of a moving
and a fixed train shows that not only motion but also the state o f rest is
relative. If a body is at rest relative to some reference system, we can always

33
3-376
find reference systems relative to which the body is in motion. There are no
bodies in a state of “absolute rest”. Motion is inherent in all bodies, viz.
everything that exists in nature, in the whole material world.
A CORRECTION WHICH IS IMPORTANT IN PRINCIPLE BUT
NOT ALWAYS NECESSARY. In the above example with the boat and raft,
both observers on the bank and on the raft measure the interval of time
during which the motorboat crosses the river, from “start” to “finish”. We
assume that the time interval measured by the two observers is the same. In
other words, it is assumed that the time interval between the events “start”
and “finish” does not change as we go over from the fixed reference system
to the moving one. As a matter o f fact, this is not true. According to
Einstein’s theory of relativity, which is now believed to describe motion more
accurately, the time between two events, measured by an observer in motion
relative to the place where the events occur, is longer than the time between
the same events measured by an observer who is at rest relative to this place.
This means that motion retards the passage of time. Consequently, the for­
mula for summation of velocities acquires the form differing from (1.8.2).
However, time dilation becomes noticeable only at velocities close to 3 x
108 m/s (the velocity of light). The velocities with which we have to deal in
everyday life are always negligibly small in comparison with this velocity.
For such motions, formula (1.8.2) is found to be quite satisfactory.

? 1. What is the essence o f the relativity o f motion?

2. How do water and the bank move relative to the boat in
the example considered above?
3. A combine harvester moves in a field at a speed of
2.5 km/hr relative to the Earth and loads a track with
grain without coming to a halt. Relative to which reference
bodies is the track in motion and at rest?
4. A tugboat tows a barge on a river. Relative to which
reference bodies is the barge in motion? Relative to which
body is it at rest?

EXAMPLES OF SOLVING PROBLEMS

1. A swimmer whose velocity vx relative to water is 5.00 km/hr crosses the
river of width / = 120 m, swimming at right angles to the flow. The flow
velocity v2 = 3.24 km/hr. How much time does it take the swimmer to cross
the river? What is his displacement and velocity relative to the bank?
Solution. In the coordinate system attached to water, the swimmer moves
all the time at right angles to the direction o f the flow with the velocity u ,.
The magnitude o f his displacement sx is equal to the river width: Sj = /. The
time t the swimmer moved can be found from the relation I = vxt:
I

(this formula shows that the time t does not depend on the flow velocity v2).
The motion o f the swimmer relative to the bank is different. The
displacement s o f the swimmer relative to the bank is the sum of its

34
 displacement s, relative to water and the displacement s2 of water itself
relative to the bank:
s = s j + s2 .
The magnitude of the displacement s2 can be found from the equality s2 =
v2t. Substituting for t its value l/vt , we get

=^ - / .
vi
From the displacement vector triangle (Fig. 35), we have
s = |/ s \ + s\.
Since s, = / and s2 = (v2/ v l )l we obtain

Substituting the values of /, and v2 given in the condition o f the

problem, we obtain s = 120 m |/ l + (0.9/1.38)2 ~ 143 m.
The swimmer velocity relative to the bank can be found from the velocity
triangle (see Fig. 35):
v = \Zvj + v2, v = |/(0.9 m/s)2 + (1.38 m/s)2 ^ 1.65 m/s.
The same result is obtained from the equality
s sv 143 m -1.38 m/s
v= — = 1.65 m/s.
t T ’ 120 m
2. A swimmer (see Problem 1) wants to cross the river via the shortest
path (from A to B, Fig. 36). How much time will he need for this?
Solution. The magnitude of the displacement s o f the swimmer relative to
the bank is equal to the river width /, s = /.
According to formula (1.8.1), s = S j + s 2, where s, is the swimmer
displacement relative to water and s2 is the displacement of water relative to
the bank. The corresponding vector triangle is shown in Fig. 36. On the
same figure, we have the velocity triangle. We see from this triangle that the
magnitude v of the velocity relative to the bank can be found from the

35
3»
equality
v = j/uf —o f ; u = j/(1.38 m/s)2 -(0 .9 0 m/s)2 = 1.04 m/s.
Hence we obtain the following expression for r:
/ 120m 41C
t=— ; t = — ------— = 115 s.
v 1.04 m/s
It follows from the expression for velocity v that if the velocity of the
swimmer relative to water is less than the flow velocity, the swimmer cannot
cross the river via the shortest path (the radicand is negative in this case!).

Exercise 4.
1. The engine o f an aeroplane imparts to it a velocity of
900 km/hr relative to air. What is its velocity relative to
the Earth for fair wind (head wind) whose velocity is
50 km/hr?
2. A motorcar moves westwards at a velocity o f 80 km/hr.
Another car moves at the same velocity towards the first
car. At a certain moment, the distance between the cars is
10 km. What time does it take them to meet?
3. An aeroplane starting from Moscow keeps a course
northwards at a height of 8 km and velocity 720 km/hr.
What will be its coordinates relative to the airport in 2 hr
after the beginning of the flight if the westerly wind is
blowing at a speed of 10 m/s?
4. Does the current prevent the swimmer from crossing the
river? Does the current prevent the swimmer from
crossing the river along the shortest path?

1.9. O n S y s te m o f U n i t s
It follows from the above discussion o f motion that its
analysis requires the knowledge o f at least two quantities:
displacement and time.
The magnitude o f displacements, as well as periods of time, are expressed
by numbers. These numbers are obtained as a result o f measurements.
To measure a quantity means to compare it in some way with a similar
quantity conditionally taken as a unit.
We can, for example, measure the length of the corridor in school by
comparing it with the length of a step. Counting the number of steps over
the length o f the corridor, we find how many times the length o f the corridor
is larger than the length of a step. This number (of times) expresses the
length o f the corridor in steps.
Consequently, we must first o f all choose a unit for the quantity being
measured. This can be done quite arbitrarily. For instance, quite different

36
units were used for measuring length in different times and in different
countries. The units of length were the length of step, the length of foot, the
distance from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger, the distance covered
by a traveller per day, etc. Reading the lines in the comedy “Gore ot Uma”
(Misfortune from Wisdom)
I would keep these gentlemen
Within a gunshot of the capital!

we are aware that a character of this comedy, Famusov, uses for a unit of
length the distance covered by a shell fired from a cannon. This peculiar
measure of length was often used in old times by military men.
At present, the universal unit of length is adopted all over the world. This
is a metre (m).
One metre is the distance between two cuts on a specially shaped bar made o f
a platinum-iridium alloy.
This rod is said to be a standard of length. It is stored in the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures in France. The copies of the standard
metre are kept in all countries. They are used for graduating numerous rulers
intended for measuring length.
Besides the basic unit o f length, viz. the metre, the units which are 10, 100,
1000, etc. times longer or shorter than a metre are widely used (e.g.
kilometre, centimetre, millimetre, micrometre).
The unit of time can also be chosen arbitrarily. Naturally, it is impossible
to make a standard o f time in the form of a certain body like a ruler-meter.
A standard o f time must be the duration o f a certain regularly repeating
process. At present, the motion of the Earth around the Sun is taken for such
a process: one revolution is performed by the Earth during one year.
However, the unit o f time is not a year but a definite part of this time
interval, viz. a second. One year contains 31 556925.9747 seconds (for very
rough calculations, it can be assumed that 1 year = rtx 107 s).
In everyday life and in engineering, other units of time are used: minute
(min) and hour (hr) (1 min = 60 s and 1 hr = 3600 s).
Besides length and time, we have introduced one more quantity, the
velocity of motion. Do we need a special unit for this quantity?
It turns out that it is not necessary since velocity, as we already know, is
connected with length and time through the following relation:
s
v = —.
t
This formula shows that if a body performs a one-metre displacement
during one second, the velocity of the body is equal to unity (1 m/s). The
velocity of such motion can be taken for a unit of velocity.
7he unit o f velocity is the velocity o f such a uniform rectilinear motion in
which the displacement o f a body during one second is one metre.
There is also no need in choosing a special unit for measuring, for
example, volume, since volume is connected with length and can be
measured in cubic metres. Then when do we need a special unit of
measurement and when do we not?
37
 There exist certain relations between physical quantities because all
natural phenomena are connected in a certain way with one another.
Relations between quantities are expressed in the form o f mathematical for­
mulas. The same formulas relate units o f measurement o f physical quantities.
Therefore, the units can be expressed in terms of the units o f other
quantities.
We can choose a small number or (basic) quantities and establish the units
of their measurement in an arbitrary way. The units for other (derived)
quantities can then be established on the basis of the mathematical formulas
that connect the derived quantities with the basic ones.
The set o f thus established units for all physical quantities is called the
system o f units.
There are several different systems o f units. This division is determined by
the physical quantities taken as basic and by the choice o f the units for them.
At present, the International System o f Units (SI) is adopted. It is
constructed on the basis of seven quantities, including length and time. The
SI unit o f length is one metre and the unit of time is a second. The
remaining basic quantities of SI and their units o f measurement will be
introduced later.
Obviously, the definition o f the unit of velocity (1 m/s) given above
pertains to SI.

Summary
The phenomenon of mechanical motion o f bodies (material
points) consists in that the position o f a body relative to other bodies (i. e. its
coordinates) changes with time.
To find the coordinates o f a body at any instant of time, we must know
the initial cooi'dinates and the displacement vector. The change in the
coordinate is equal to the projection o f the displacement vector onto
the corresponding coordinate axis.
The simplest type o f motion is uniform rectilinear motion. For this
motion, only one coordinate has to be determined since the coordinate axis
can be directed along the displacement. The x-coordinate o f the body at any
instant of time t can be calculated from the formula
X = X 0 + Vx t ,

where x 0 is the initial coordinate o f the body and vx is the projection of the
velocity vector onto the X-axis. When this formula is used for calculations,
the signs o f the quantities appearing in it are determined by the conditions of
the problem.
Mechanical motion is of relative nature. This means that the displacement
and velocity o f a body in different coordinate systems moving relative to
each other are different. The trajectories and path lengths are also different.
The state o f rest is also relative. If a body is at rest relative to some
reference system, there exist other reference systems relative to which it
moves.

38
2
N O N U N I F O R M RECTILINEAR M O T I O N

V E L O C IT Y M AY C H A N G E
Uniform rectilinear motion in which the displacement
linearly depends on time according to the formula s = vt is
not frequently encountered in actual practice. More often we have to deal
with a motion in which displacements are different over equal intervals of
time, and hence the velocity varies with time. Such a motion is called
nonuniform.
The motion in which a body covers unequal distances during equal intervals
oj time is called nonuniform motion.
Trains, motorcars, aeroplanes, etc. generally move nonuniformly. For
nonuniform motion, the formula s = vt cannot be used for determining the
displacement, since the velocity is different at different points of the
trajectory. Consequently, we should be able to calculate the velocity at any
point and at any instant of time, otherwise we cannot calculate the
displacement and hence the coordinate of the body. How are displacements
and velocities calculated for a nonuniform motion? What must we know for
that?

2.1 Velocity of N onuniform Motion

AVERAGE VELOCITY. This concept is sometimes used
while considering a nonuniform motion.
If a body was displaced by s during a time interval f, then the average
velocity is obtained by dividing s into t:

Thus, the average velocity is the average displacement o f the body per unit
time.l)
If, for example, a train moving in a straight line covers 600 km during
10 hr, this means that on the average, it covers 60 km every hour. Obviously,
during some time the train did not move at all but had a stop. It increased

11 While considering the average velocity, for example, of a car or

a pedestrian, the scalar quantity determined by the length of the path the body covers
on the average per unit time, nav = l/t, is often meant rather than the vector pnv = s/f.

39
its speed while leaving the station and decreased the speed while
approaching it. All this is disregarded when we determine the average
velocity, assuming that the train covers 60 km per hour, or 30 km in 30 min,
and so on. Using the formula yav = s/t, we assume that the train as if moves
uniformly at a constant velocity equal to yav, although it may happen there
were not a single hour when the train covered exactly 60 km.
If we know the average velocity, the displacement can be determined from
the formula

It should ee remembered that this formula gives the correct result only for
the part of the path on which the average velocity has been determined. If
we use the value 60 km/hr for the average velocity to calculate the
displacement of the train not over 10 hr but over 2, 4 or 5 hr, we shall
obtain a wrong result. This is explained by the fact that the average velocity
over the time o f 10 hr is not equal to the average velocities over 2, 4 or 5 hr.
Consequently, the average velocity generally does not allow us to calculate
the displacement and coordinates o f a moving body at any instant of time.
Nevertheless, the concept o f velocity can be used for nonuniform motion as
well since mechanical motion is a continuous process.
INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY. The continuity o f motion consists in
the following. If, for instance, a body (or point), moving rectilinearly with
increasing velocity, has passed from point A to point £, it must pass through
all intermediate points between A and B, without any gaps. Moreover, let us
suppose that the body arrives at point A moving uniformly at a velocity of
5 m/s, and after passing point B it also moved uniformly but at a velocity of
30 m/s. Segment A B was covered during 15 s. Consequently, the velocity has
changed over segment AB by 25 m/s during 15 s. But as the body could not
miss any point on its route, its velocity must have acquired all the values
between 5 and 30 m/s, and without skipping any intermediate value! This is
the essence o f the continuity of mechanical motion: neither the coordinates of
the body nor its velocity may change abruptly. Hence it follows a very
important conclusion. There is an infinite set o f velocity values in the
interval from 5 to 30 m/s (infinitely large number, as it is said in
mathematics). But between points A and B there is an infinite set (infinitely
large number) o f points, while the 15-second time interval during which the
body has moved from A to B consists of an infinitely large number of
instants o f time (time also passes smoothly!).
Consequently, the velocity o f the body has a definite value at each point of
the trajectory and at each instant of time.
The velocity o f a body at a given instant o f time or at a given point is called
the instantaneous velocity.
The velocity o f a uniform rectilinear motion is equal to the ratio of its
displacement to the time interval over which this displacement took place.
This ratio also defines the average velocity o f nonuniform motion. The same
ratio will help us to understand the meaning of instantaneous velocity as
well.

40
 Fig. 37
Let us suppose that a body (as usual, we mean a certain point of this
body) is moving rectilinearly but not uniformly. How can we calculate the
instantaneous velocity o f the body at a certain point A o f its trajectory? We
isolate a small segment / on this trajectory, which contains the point
A (Fig. 37). We denote by s 2 a small displacen.ent of the body on this

segment and the small time interval over which it occurs by t t . Dividing s”,
by t j , we obtain the average velocity over this segment: the velocity varies
continuously and hence it is different at different points o f segment 1.
Let us now reduce the length of segment 1. We choose a segment 2 which
also includes point A. The displacement over this segment is equal to s2
{s2 < s j) and corresponds to the time interval t2. Obviously, the velocity of
the body can change by a smaller value over segment 2. The ratio s2/t2 gives
us the average velocity for this smaller segment. If we take a segment
3 which also includes point A and is smaller than segments 1 and 2, the
change in the velocity over this segment will be still smaller. Dividing the
displacement s3 by the time interval t3, we again obtain the average velocity
on this small part o f the trajectory.
Let us gradually reduce the time interval over which the displacement of
the body is being considered. The displacement o f the body will simultane­
ously decrease. Ultimately, the segment o f the path adjoining point
A contracts to the very point A. It is at this stage that the average velocity
becomes equal to the instantaneous velocity at point A where the body is
located at a given moment. This is so because the change in the velocity over
a very small segment will be so small that it need not be taken into account.
In other words, we can assume that the velocity does not change here (the
motion can be treated as uniform).
The instantaneous velocity, or the velocity at a given point is equal to the
ratio o f a sufficiently small displacement over a part o f path containing this
point to the small time interval during which this displacement occurred.
The instantaneous velocity is a vector quantity. Its direction coincides with
the direction o f displacement (motion) at a given point. Henceforth, while
speaking about the velocity of nonuniform motion, we shall mean the
instantaneous velocity.
Thus, the technique used for explaining the meaning of instantaneous
velocity consists in the following. We imagine a gradual reduction of the
path segment and the time during which it is traversed, until we can

41
distinguish neither the segment from a point nor the nonuniform motion
from uniform. This technique is always used for investigating phenomena in
which some continuously varying quantities take part.2’
It only remains for us to find out which quantities are required for
determining the instantaneous velocity of a body at any point of its
trajectory at any instant of time.

1. What is an average velocity?

2. Is it possible to find the displacement of a body over any
part of a time interval for which we know the average
velocity of motion?
3. What is the essence of continuity of motion?
4. What is meant by an instantaneous velocity?

Exercise 5
1. While travelling from one location to another, a motorcar
had a constant velocity o f 60 km/hr over half the time.
What is its constant velocity during the remaining time of
travel if its average velocity is 65 km/hr?
2. A motorcar covers the first half o f the distance to its
destination at a constant velocity o f 50 km/hr, and the
second half at a constant velocity o f 60 km/hr. Find the
average velocity of the car.

2 .2 . A c ce lera tion. U n i f o r m ly A c c e l e r a t e d M otion

The instantaneous velocity o f a body changes continuously
during nonuniform motion from point to point and from one
instant of time to another. How can we then calculate the instantaneous
velocity of the body?
It was shown above that the coordinate of a body can be calculated at any
instant o f time if we know the rate of its time variation. In the same way, the
velocity can be calculated at any instant of time if we know the rate of its
variation, i.e. change in velocity per unit time.
UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION. For the sake of simplicity,
we consider a nonuniform motion o f a body in which its velocity changes by
the same value over any equal intervals of time. Such a motion is said to be
uniformly accelerated.
The motion o f a body during which its velocity changes by the same value
over any equal time intervals is called a uniformly accelerated motion.
I f v0 is the velocity of a body at a certain initial instant of time, and v is
its velocity after a time t, the change in velocity per unit time is (v — v0)/t.

2) A brief but vivid description o f this method, which forms the basis
o f Differential Calculus, can be found on the first page o f Part 3, Vol. 3 o f the novel
“War and Peace” by Leo Tolstoy.

42
This quantity characterizes the rate of variation of velocity and is called
acceleration.
Since acceleration is the product of the vector quantity v — v0 by the scalar
1A, it is a vector quantity (see Sec. 1.4). Acceleration is denoted by a:

The acceleration o f a uniformly accelerated body is a constant quantity equal

to the ratio o f the change in its velocity to the interval o f time during which this
change occurred.
If the magnitude of acceleration is large, the body rapidly gains velocity
during acceleration (or rapidly loses velocity during retardation).11
The velocity v o f a body at any instant of time can be found if we know its
initial velocity v0 and acceleration a. Indeed, it follows from formula (2.2.1)
that

v = v0 + a t . (2.2.2)

To determine the instantaneous velocity v o f a body, we need to know its

acceleration.
In what units is acceleration measured?
Since a = (v — v0)/t, the magnitude of acceleration is equal to unity if the
magnitude of the change in velocity is equal to unity over a unit interval of
time. Hence, the SI unit o f acceleration is the acceleration o f a uniformly
accelerated body whose velocity changes by 1 m/s during 1 s. Consequently,
acceleration in SI is expressed in metres per second per second or in metres
per second squared (m/s2).
PROJECTIONS OF VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION. It was
mentioned above that we can use in calculations the equations containing
the projections o f vectors onto coordinate axes and not the vectors
themselves.
In a rectilinear motion, vectors i70 and v are directed along the same
straight line coinciding with the trajectory o f motion. It is convenient to
direct a coordinate axis (e.g. the X-axis) along this straight line.
We proved in Sec. 1.4 that the projection of the sum of two vectors onto
an axis is equal to the sum of their projections onto the same axis. We
denote the projections of vectors v, v0 and a onto the X-axis by vx, vox and
ax. Then from Eq. (2.2.2) we obtain
Vx = vox + oxt . (2.2.3)
Since the three vectors iT, v0 and a lie on the same straight line (the
X-axis), the magnitudes o f their projections are equal to the magnitudes of

*> If the velocity o f the body changes nonuniformly over equal

intervals of time, instantaneous acceleration should be used. The value of
instantaneous acceleration is found by using the same method that was adopted for
determining instantaneous velocity.

43
the vectors themselves, while their signs are determined by the direction of
these vectors relative to the chosen axis.
If the signs of the projections of vectors v0 and a coincide, the magnitude
of the velocity of the body increases with time, i. e. the body is accelerated. If
however, the signs of the projections o f v0 and a are opposite, the magnitude
of the velocity of the body decreases with time, which means that the body is
decelerated.
When a body moves with increasing velocity, vectors v, v0 and a have the
same direction; for decelerated motion, the vector a is opposite to vectors v
and v0.
MOTION DURING DECELERATION. If the velocity o f a body
decreases with time (the body is decelerated), at a certain instant the velocity
may become equal to zero. How will the body move after that? Obviously, if
some varying quantity passes through the zero value, it changes its sign. In
our case, the varying quantity that changes its sign is the velocity. This
means that after the velocity of a body has acquired the zero value, the body
starts to move in the opposite direction (see Problem 2 on p. 45).
The motion at a velocity that increases in magnitude is usually called the
accelerated motion, and the motion with a decreasing velocity is decelerated.
In mechanics, however, any rectilinear nonuniform motion is referred to as
accelerated. Irrespective of whether a motorcar starts moving or is braking, it
moves with an acceleration. Rectilinear accelerated motion differs from
decelerated motion only in the sign of the projection o f the acceleration
vector onto a chosen axis.____________________________________________

1. What is acceleration and what is it required for?

2. The velocity changes when a body is in a nonuniform
motion. How is this change characterized in terms of
acceleration?
3. What is the difference between “decelerated” and
“accelerated” rectilinear motion?
4. Give the definition of a uniformly accelerated motion.
5. Can a body move with a high velocity but with a small
acceleration?
6. How is the acceleration vector directed when a body is in
nonuniform rectilinear motion?
7. Velocity is a vector quantity, both its magnitude and
direction may change. Which o f them is changing when
a body is in uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion?
8. Can the velocity o f a body be equal to zero at the moment
when its acceleration is other than zero?

EXAMPLES OF SOLVING PROBLEMS

1. A motorcar passes by an observer when its velocity is 10 m/s. At this
moment, the driver applies the brakes and the car starts moving with an
acceleration of 1.0 m/s2. What time will it take the car to stop?
Solution. We choose for the coordinate origin the point where the observer
is located and direct the X-axis along the trajectory o f the car (Fig. 38). We

44
 o« ►X
Fig. 38

denote by v0 the velocity o f the car at the moment it passes by the observer
and by d the acceleration as a result of applying the brakes.
The time of motion o f the car until it stops can be calculated from the
formula
vx = vox + axt,
where vx, vox and ax are respectively the projections of the Final and initial
velocity of the car and its acceleration onto the X-axis.
The car moves along the X-axis, and hence v0x = v0. Since its velocity
decreases, ax = — a. At the initial moment, vx = 0. Consequently,
0 = v0 — at or at = v0 .
This gives

Substituting the values o f u0 and a into this expression, we get

10 m/s
10s.
1.0 m/s2
The car will stop after 10 s from the beginning of braking.
2. A body moves rectilinearly with a gradually decreasing velocity. The
acceleration a is constant and equal in magnitude to 4 m/s2. At a certain
instant of time, the magnitude of the velocity of the body v0 = 20 m/s. Find
the velocity of the body in t j = 4 s and t2 = 8 s after this moment.
Solution. We direct the X-axis along the initial velocity. Then the
projection vox is positive and equal in magnitude to the vector v0 : vox = Vq.
Since the velocity is decreasing, the projection of the acceleration ax is
negative and equal to - a , ax = - a .
In order to find the projection of velocity, vx, at required instants of time,
we use the formula
vx = v0x + axt-
Hence for the moment of time we have
vlx = > , - a t , , vix = 20 m/s - 4 m/s2 ■4 s = 4 m/s,
and for t2
v2x = v0 — a t 2, v2x = 20 m/s —4 m/s2 •8 s = — 12 m /s.
The minus sign indicates that by the end of the eighth second the body
moves in the direction opposite to the initial one.

45
 Naturally, before the body starts moving in the opposite direction it
should stop. We can easily find the moment t' at which this happened. At
this instant, the projection vx of the velocity is equal to zero, and hence
v0x = —axt'. This gives
«' = ^ , 20 m /s _ 5 s
ax - 4 m/s”4
The direction o f motion has reversed in 5 s from the instant when the
velocity of the body was 20 m/s.
An example o f such a motion is the motion of a body which has been
pushed upwards along an inclined plane by imparting an initial velocity to it.

Exercise 6
1. A starting trolleybus moves at a constant acceleration of
1.5 m/s2. In what time will it acquire the velocity of
54 km/hr?
2. A motorcar moving at a velocity of 36 km/hr stops due to
braking during 4 s. Find its constant acceleration during
braking.
3. A lorry moving with a constant acceleration has increased
its velocity from 15 to 25 m/s. In what time did this take
place if the acceleration of the lorry is 1.6 m/s2?
4. Which velocity will be acquired by a body moving during
0.5 hr with an acceleration of 10 m/s2, if its initial velocity
is equal to zero?

2.3. D i s p la c e m e n t in U n i f o r m ly A c c e l e r a t e d Motion
The most important thing for us is to know how to calculate
the coordinates of a body. This is the basic problem of
mechanics. For solving this problem, we must be able to determine the
displacement of the body. How can we do this in the case o f uniformly
accelerated motion?
The formula for displacement can be easily obtained with the help of the
graphic method.
It was shown in Sec. 1.7 that the displacement of a body in a uniform
rectilinear motion is numerically equal to the area of the figure (rectangle)
lying below the velocity graph. Is this valid for uniformly accelerated
motion?
In uniformly accelerated motion of a body along the X-axis, the velocity
does not remain constant but varies with time according to the formula
vx = vox + flxt-

Therefore, the graphs of the velocity projection has the form shown in
Fig. 39. Line 1 in this figure corresponds to the motion with a positive

46
 o
Fig. 39

projection of acceleration (the velocity is increasing), while line 2 describes

the motion with a negative projection of acceleration (the velocity is
decreasing). Both graphs refer to the case when the velocity of the body at
the instant t = 0 is v0.
DISPLACEMENT CAN BE EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF AREA. Let
us isolate a small segment ab on the graph of velocity of a uniformly
accelerated motion (Fig. 40) and drop from points a and b the
perpendiculars onto the r-axis. The length o f segment cd on the t-axis is
numerically equal to the small interval of time over which the velocity has
changed from its value at point a to that at point b. Under segment ab of the
graph we have the narrow strip abed.
If the interval o f time numerically equal to segment cd is sufficiently small,
the change in the velocity during this time is also small.
We can assume that the motion during such a small time interval is
uniform, and the strip abed differs from a rectangle only slightly. Therefore,
the area of the strip is numerically equal to the projection of the
displacement of the body during the time corresponding to segment cd.

Fig. 40
 We can split into such narrow strips the entire area of the figure lying
below the velocity graph. Consequently, the displacement during the time t is
equal in magnitude to the area o f the trapezium OABC. As we know from
geometry, the area o f trapezium is equal to the product of the half-sum of its
bases by the height. In the case under consideration, the lengths of the bases
are equal to vox and vx, while the height is equal to t. Hence, the projection
sx of the displacement is
Vox + vx t
sx = (2.3.1)

We substitute into this formula the quantity vox + axt for vx, which gives
»ox + ®0 x+ a xt 2voxt + axt2
S* 2 2
Dividing the numerator by the denominator termwise, we get

while using this formula, it should be borne in mind that being the
projections o f vectors s, v0 and d onto the X-axis sx, vox and ax may be
positive or negative.
If the projection vox of the initial velocity is equal to zero, formula (2.3.2)
becomes

The velocity graph for such a motion is shown in Fig. 41.

Now, when we have obtained the formula for displacement, we can easily
derive the formula for calculating the x-coordinate o f a body at any instant
of time. It was shown above (see Sec. 1.5) that to find the x-coordinate at
a certain instant of time f, we must add the projection of the displacement
vector onto the coordinate axis to the initial coordinate x0:
X = X 0 + Sx .

Hence

(2.3.3.)

This formula is used fo r determining at any instant o f time the position o f

a body in a uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion.
To find x, we must know the initial coordinate x0 and the velocity v0, as
well as the acceleration a.
Formulas (2.3.2) and (2.3.3) make it possible to describe a uniformly
accelerated rectilinear motion in the same way as formula (1.6.3) allowed us
to describe a uniform motion. It can be seen that for describing uniformly
accelerated rectilinear motion one more quantity (acceleration) is required.
ANOTHER FORMULA FOR DISPLACEMENT. We can calculate the
displacement o f a uniformly accelerated body even when the time elapsed
from the beginning, of motion is unknown but we know the values of the
initial and final velocities of the body. The formula for the displacement
projection can be obtained from (2.3.1) and the formula vx = vox + axt.
From this formula, we find the value of t : t = (vx - v0x)/ax , and substitute
it into (2.3.1). This gives
vx + vox vx - vox (vx + vox){vx -V o X)

whence

(2.3.4)

We have obtained the formulas for calculating displacement from the

known values of the initial and final velocities and for the velocity at any
point through which the moving body passes.
If the initial velocity of the body is equal to zero, we get

(2.3.5)12

1. What is the difference between the velocity graphs for

uniform and uniformly accelerated motions?
2. How can we find the projection of the displacement in
uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion of a body by
using the graph of the velocity projection?

49
376
 3. What must we know to be able to calculate the coordinate
o f a body in uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion at
any instant o f time?
4. Compare the time dependences of the magnitudes of
displacement in uniform and uniformly accelerated
motions o f bodies. What is the difference between these
dependences?

EXAMPLES OF SOLVING PROBLEMS

1. The driver o f a motorcar moving at a speed o f 72 km/hr sees the red
light and applies the brakes. As a result, the velocity o f the car starts
decreasing and it moves with a deceleration o f 5 m/s2. What is the distance
covered by the car in the first two seconds after the brakes have been
applied? Which distance will the car cover until it stops completely?
Solution. We direct the X-axis along the car trajectory (Fig. 42) and take
for the coordinate origin the point on the road at which the brake was
applied. For the time reference point, we take the instant when the driver has
applied the brake.
The velocity v0 o f the car is collinear with the X-axis, while its
acceleration is opposite to it, so that the projection of the velocity v0 onto
the X-axis is positive and the projection o f the vector a is negative. Hence,
v0x = v0 and ax = - a .
The coordinate of the car can be found from the formula
ax t1
x = x 0 + v0x + — - - .

It follows from the condition o f the problem that x 0 = 0, v0 = 20 m/s, ax =

- 5 m/s2, and t = 2 s. Consequently,
- 5 m/s2 -4 s2
x = 0 + 20 m/s •2s -1----------------- = 40 m — 10 m = 30 m.

Let us now find the distance covered by the car before it stops. For this
we must know the time r, o f motion to the stop. It can be determined from

Fig. 42 Fig. 43

50
 the formula
v x — vo x + o x t1.

At this moment, the velocity is equal to zero, so that

0 = yox + ax t, or 0 = v0 - a t 1,
whence

We substitute this expression for time into the formula for the coordinate
ax t\
x = x 0 + v0xt l + —^ ~ .

This gives

x= (vp/a)2
2 2a
Taking into account the values of the parameters given in the condition of
the problem, we obtain
(20 m/s)2
= 40 m.
2 • 5 m/s2 ^
2. Determine the displacement of a body whose velocity projection has the
form shown in Fig. 43.
Solution. We calculate the projection sx o f the displacement by the formula

Figure 43 shows that for t = x, the velocity projection vx is equal to zero.

But vx = VqX + ax t. Hence 0 = vox + ax x, which gives

The total time o f motion is 2x. Consequently,

- d o x (2 t)2
= ”ox 2x + ---------------

- 4vox1 n
= 2u0x t ------r— = 0.

The answer shows that the graph represented in Fig. 43 corresponds

to the same displacement o f the body first in one direction and then in the
direction opposite to it. As a result, the body turns out to be at the initial
point.
3. When a train was approaching a station, the engine-driver switched off
the engine of the locomotive, after which the train started to move with
a constant acceleration o f 0.1 m/s2. Find the displacement of the train before

51
it stops if its velocity at the moment o f switching off the engine was 20 m/s.
In what time had the train stopped?
Solution. We direct the X-axis along the trajectory of the train. For the
time reference point, we take the instant when the engine was switched off,
while the coordinate origin will be the point where the train was at this
moment.
The train velocity has the same direction as the X-axis, while its
acceleration has the opposite direction, which means that the projection of
the velocity v0 is positive and the projection of the acceleration d is negative.
Consequently, vox = v0 and ax = —a.
The projection sx can be found by (2.3.4):

2ax
Substituting this expression the initial data and considering that vx = 0, we
get
0 - ( 2 0 m/s)*123 400 ^
sx = — ------ - r = m = 2000 m.
- 2 - 0 .1 m/s2 0.2
The time o f motion until the train stops is found from the formula
vx = vox + ax t.
Since vx = 0, we have 0 = v0 — at, whence
v0 20 m/s
- = 200 s.
0.1 m/s2

Exercise 7
1. Plot in the same coordinate axes the velocity graphs for
two uniformly accelerated bodies one o f which moves
with the velocity increasing in magnitude and the other
moves with a decreasing velocity. The initial velocities
and accelerations of the bodies are 1 m/s, 0.5 m/s2 and
9 m/s, 1.5 m/s2 respectively. What is the distance covered
by the second body until it stops? In what time will the
velocities o f the bodies become equal to each other?
What is the distance covered by the first body during this
time?
2. Figure 44 represents the graphs o f the velocity
projections for two moving bodies. What is the nature of
motion of these bodies? What can you say about the
velocities o f these bodies at the moments of time
corresponding to points A and B1 Find the accelerations
o f the bodies and write the expressions for their velocities
and displacements.
3. Using the graphs of the velocity projections for three

52
 bodies shown in Fig. 45, (a) determine the accelerations
of these bodies; (b) for each body, write a formula
describing the dependence of velocity on time and (c) find
common and distinctive features of the motions
corresponding to graphs 2 and 3.
4. Figure 46 represents the graphs of the velocity
projections of three moving bodies. Using these graphs,
(a) find physical quantities corresponding to the
intersepts OA, OB and OC on the coordinate axes; (b)
determine the accelerations of the bodies, and (c) write
the expressions for velocity and displacement for each
body.
5. An aeroplane taxies along the runway for 15s and takes
off at a speed of 100 m/s. What is its acceleration and
how long is the runway?
6. A shell whose velocity is 1000 m/s pierces the wall of
a dugout in 10~3 s, as a result of which its velocity
becomes 200 m/s. Find the thickness of the wall
considering that the motion of the shell through the wall
is uniformly accelerated.
7. A rocket moves with an acceleration of 45 m/s2 and in
a certain time attains the velocity of 900 m/s. Which
distance will it cover during the next 2.5 s?
8. At what distance from the Earth would a spaceship be in
30 minutes after its start if it moved all the time
rectilinearly with an acceleration of 9.8 m/s2?
9. It was observed that a race-horse attains its maximum
velocity of 15 m/s after it has “gathered speed” for the
first 30 m. What is a constant acceleration of the
rade-horse for this part of the distance?
10. To be able to take off, an aeroplane has to gather a speed
o f 180 km/hr. At what distance from the starting point of
the runway will the plane velocity attain this value if the
acceleration is constant and equal to 2.5 m/s2?
11. A train brakes and moves with an acceleration of

53
 0.15 m/s2. At what distance from the spot where the
brake was applied will the train velocity be equal to
3.87 m/s, if at the moment of braking the velocity was
54 km/hr?

Hometask
1. Compare formula (2.3.1) with the formula for displacement
s = v ^ t (p. 40) and prove that the expression (u0x + vx)/2
represents the projection of the average velocity in
uniformly accelerated motion onto the X-axis.
2. Using the graph o f the velocity projection (see Fig. 43),
plot the graph for the magnitude of the velocity.

2.4 . M e a s u r e m e n t of A c ce lera tio n

One of the ways o f the experimental determining of
acceleration is the so-called stroboscopic method. It consists in
illuminating a body which moves in the darkness in equal intervals of time
by a flash o f light. The corresponding device called stroboscope is shown in
Fig. 47. Clearly, the body will be seen only in positions where it is
illuminated. If the moving body is photographed (the shutter of the camera
should be open during all the time o f motion), consecutive positions of the
body in equal intervals of time will be seen on the photographic film.
Figure 48 reproduces a stroboscopic photograph of the motion of a ball
along an inclined plane for a time interval between flashes equal to 0.2 s. In
order to find the acceleration with the help of this photograph, we must
measure the lengths and l2 of two neighbouring distances covered by the
ball between the flashes. These lengths are equal to the magnitudes of
displacements st Bnd s2 over the time intervals x between flashes.
Writing the formulas for Sj and s2 and considering that the velocity at the
end of any time interval is equal to the velocity at the beginning o f the next

Fig. 47

54
 Fig. 48
..... ft. rTTT lll l l l l l r *

Fig. 49

interval, we obtain the following expression for the magnitude of

acceleration:

The acceleration o f a body can also be measured by the following easy

method. The body is placed in a vessel containing a coloured liquid and
having a tap connected to a thin tube with a small hole. When the tap is
open, the drops fall from the hole (Fig. 49) in equal intervals of time (which
are measured with a stop-watch). As the body moves, the drops mark its
position in equal intervals of time. Like in the stroboscopic method, we must
measure the lengths f and l2 o f two neighbouring distances between drops.
Then the acceleration is calculated by (2.4.1).

Hometask

Derive formula (2.4.1).

2 .5. Fre e Fall. A c ce lera tion Due t o G ravity

The free fall of a body and the motion of a body thrown
upwards are interesting examples of rectilinear uniformly
accelerated motion.
This type o f motion was studied by the Italian astronomer and physicist
Galilei, who established that these motions are uniformly accelerated. He
showed by measurements that the acceleration in these cases is directed
vertically downwards and is equal in magnitude to about 9.8 m/s2.
An especially astonishing fact which remained enigmatic for a long time
was that this acceleration is the same fo r all bodies.
If we take a steel ball, a football, an unfolded newspaper and a bird’s
feather, drop all these things from the height of several metres and watch
their motion, we shall see that the accelerations of these bodies are different.
But this, however, is only due to the fact that the bodies on their way to the

55
 G alileo G alilei (1564-1642), the
renowned Italian physicist and
astronomer, was the first to use
experimental m ethods for investigating
natural phenom ena. He discovered the
laws o f falling bodies and established the
law o f inertia. H e invented the telescope
and used it for astronom ical
observations. He m ade m any important
discoveries in this field. A s an active
supporter o f Copernicus' theory o f
rotation o f the Earth, he was subjected
twice to inquisition trial and compelled
to publicly renounce this theory.
According to the legend, G alileo made
his “forced” renunciation and then
added, “It rotates anyw ay!”

Earth have to penetrate through air which hampers their motion. If the
bodies fall in an evacuated tube, their accelerations would be the same. Such
an experiment can be made with the help o f a thick-walled glass tube about
one metre long, whose one end is sealed and the other is connected to a tap.
We place into the tube three different bodies, e. g. a pellet, a cork and a
feather, and rapidly turn the tube upside down. All the three bodies fall to
the bottom but in different time: first the pellet, then the cork and finally the
feather (Fig. 50u). However, the bodies fall like this only when the tube
contains air. We have only to pump the air out o f the tube with a pump
(Fig. 50b), close the tap and turn the tube upside down again (Fig. 50c) to
convince ourselves that all the three bodies touch the bottom at the same

W
Fig. 50 (a)

56
time. Consequently, in vacuum all bodies fall with the same acceleration.
Such a downward motion in vacuum, which is unimpeded by a medium, is
called the free fall.
In order to distinguish free fall from all other accelerated motions, the free
fall acceleration (acceleration due to gravity) is usually denoted by g instead
of d. Thus, the vector g is always directed downwards: a body falls with an
increasing velocity and moves upwards with a decreasing velocity so that the
magnitude o f the free fall acceleration g = 9.8 m/s2. If we direct (as is
normally done) the coordinate axis vertically (up or down) and denote it by
X the magnitude o f the projection gy is equal to the magnitude o f vector g.
The projection is positive or negative depending on whether the T-axis is
directed downwards or upwards.

Summary
The main problem o f mechanics is to determine the position
o f a body at any instant o f time. This problem is solved in
a “chain” manner: in order to find the coordinate of a point, we must know
its displacement, and to find the displacement, we must know the velocity of
motion. Such a velocity-displacement-coordinate chain is used for solving
problems in mechanics o f uniform rectilinear motion. If the motion is
accelerated, we must know the acceleration. Thus, the acceleration-
velocity-displacement-coordinate chain is used for such a motion. For
uniform as well as uniformly accelerated motion, the “initial conditions”
must be specified, viz. the initial coordinates and the initial velocity.
The instantaneous velocity of a body (material point) in uniformly
accelerated rectilinear motion changes continuously from one instant of time
to another. Therefore, to find the velocity at any instant of time and at any
point, we must know the rate of its variation, i.e. the acceleration:
_ v - v0
a = --------- .
t
The projection o f the velocity of a body onto a chosen coordinate axis at
any instant o f time t is calculated by the formula
vx = vox + «x t.

The coordinate o f the body is found from the formula

ax t 2
x = x0 + t>0xt + - y - ,

while the projection o f the displacement sx = x — x0 is given by

ax t2
Sx = y0x? + - y - .

57
 The magnitude o f the projection o f displacement in a uniformly
accelerated motion can also be calculated by the formula

The above formulas can be used for obtaining the expressions for velocity,
coordinates and displacements in a uniform rectilinear motion if we put
ax ~ 0-
The signs of the projections o f vectors v, v0 and a, as well as the sign of
the initial coordinate x 0, are determined from the conditions o f the problem
and the direction of the coordinate axis.
 C U R V IL IN E A R M O T I O N

3
M O T I O N M O R E C O M P L E X T H A N RECTILINEAR

In nature and in engineering we often deal with motions

whose trajectories are curves and not straight lines. Such
motions are called curvilinear. Planets and artificial satellites move in space
along curvilinear trajectories. On the Earth, various vehicles, parts of engines
and tools, water in rivers, atmospheric air, etc. are in curvilinear motion.
Problems in mechanics involving a curvilinear motion are more difficult to
solve since this motion is more complicated than a rectilinear motion. For
a curvilinear motion, we cannot say that only one coordinate of the body is
changing. If a motion occurs, for example, in a plane, the two coordinates,
x and y, are changing (Fig. 51). The direction o f motion, i.e. the direction of
the velocity vector, also changes all the time. The direction of the
acceleration vector may also change. If we add to what has been said above
that the magnitudes o f velocity and acceleration may also change, it becomes
clear that curvilinear motions are much more complicated than rectilinear
motions.

3. 1. D i s p l a c e m e n t and Velocity in C urviline ar

M otion
The direction o f the velocity vector in rectilinear motion
always coincides with the direction of the displacement. What
can we say about the directions of the displacement and velocity in
curvilinear motion?
DISPLACEMENT IS DIRECTED ALONG THE CHORD. Figure 52
shows a curvilinear trajectory. Suppose that a body moves along it from
point A to point B. The distance covered by the body is the arc AB, while
the displacement is the vector AB directed along the chord. We cannot now
state that the velocity vector is directed in the same way as the displacement
vector AB. But we can draw several chords between points A and B (Fig. 53)
and assume that the body is moving just along these chords. On each chord,
the body moves rectilinearly, and the velocity vector is directed along the
chord, i.e. along the displacement vector.
INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY IS DIRECTED ALONG THE
TANGENT. Let us make our rectilinear segments (chords) still shorter
(Fig. 54). As before, the velocity vector on each segment is directed along the

59
Y

0| Xq

Fig. 51 Fig. 52 Fig. 53

chord. It can be seen, however, that the broken line consisting of these
chords now resembles a smooth curve.
Hence it is clear that if we continue to decrease the lengths of rectilinear
segments, we as if contract them to points, and the broken line will become
the smooth curve. At each point o f this curve, the velocity is directed along
the tangent to the curve at this point (Fig. 55).
A t any point o f the curvilinear trajectory the velocity o f motion o f a body is
directed along the tangent to the trajectory at this point.
We can verify that the velocity of a point in curvilinear motion is indeed
directed along the tangent while observing, for example, the operation of
a grinding lathe (Fig. 56). If we press the ends o f a steel rod against
a rotating grindstone, red-hot particles detached from the stone will be seen
in the form of sparks. These particles fly at the velocity they had at the
moment of separation from the stone. We can clearly see that the direction
in which the sparks fly always coincides with the tangent to the circle at the
point where the rod touches the stone. Splashes from the wheels of
a skidding car also fly along the tangent to the circle (Fig. 57).
Thus, the instantaneous velocity of a body at different points of
a curvilinear trajectory has, as shown in Fig. 58, different directions. As to
the magnitude of the velocity, it can either be the same everywhere (Fig. 58)
or change from point to point (Fig. 59).
However even if the magnitude o f the velocity in curvilinear motion
remains unchanged, the velocity cannot be considered constant. We know
that velocity is a vector quantity, and the magnitude and direction are of
equivalent importance for vectors. Therefore, a curvilinear motion is always

Fig. 54 Fig. 55 Fig. 56

60
an accelerated motion even if the magnitude of the velocity is constant. We
shall limit ourselves to considering this type of motion. It is called uniform
curvilinear motion. The acceleration in this motion is only due to a change in
the direction o f the velocity vector. What are the magnitude and direction of
this acceleration?
CURVILINEAR MOTION IS THE MOTION ALONG THE ARCS OF
CIRCLES. Both the magnitude and the direction of acceleration depend on
the shape of the curvilinear trajectory. However, we shall not consider each
type from the multitude of curvilinear trajectories.
Figure 60 depicts a complex trajectory along which a body is moving. It
can be seen that individual parts of the curvilinear trajectory are
approximately the arcs of circles shown by dashed lines. For example,
segments K L and B M are the arcs of small circles, while segment EF is the
arc of the circle having a large radius.

Thus, the motion along any curvilinear trajectory can be approximately

represented as the motion along arcs of some circles. Hence, the problem of
determining the acceleration in a curvilinear motion is reduced to finding the
acceleration in the uniform motion of the body in a circle.

? 1. What is the direction of the instantaneous velocity in

a curvilinear motion?
2. What is the difference in the variation of velocity in
curvilinear and rectilinear motions?
3. Can the directions of the velocity and acceleration
coincide in a curvilinear motion?
4. Can a body move along a curvilinear trajectory without
acceleration?
5. Is it possible for a body to move at a velocity with

61
 a constant magnitude along a polygonal trajectory?
6. What is the relation between curvilinear motion and
motion in a circle?

3.2 . A c c e le ra tio n in U n ifo rm M o tio n o f a Body in

a C ircle
It was shown in Sec. 3.1 that a uniform motion o f a body in
a circle is an accelerated motion, although the magnitude of
the velocity remains unchanged. We now have to find out what magnitude
and direction this acceleration has.
ACCELERATION VECTOR IS DIRECTED TOW ARDS THE
CENTRE. The acceleration is defined by the relation

(3.2.1)

For the sake o f brevity, we denote the difference between two values of
velocity (the change in velocity is v — u0) by AtJ. Then
Av
a= (3.22)
t

Obviously, the vector a has the same direction as the vector Av since t is
a scalar quantity.
Let us suppose that a body moves in a circle of radius r and at a certain
instant o f time, which will be taken as the initial instant (r = 0), it is at
a point A (Fig. 61). The velocity v0 at this point is directed along the
tangent. Let us consider another point B, which is very close to A and at
which the body moving in a circle will be in a certain very small interval of
time t. We shall assume that points A and B are so close to each other that
the arc A B cannot be distinguished from the chord AB (although this cannot
be shown in the figure). But in spite o f the proximity o f these points, the
velocity v at point B still differs from the velocity y0 in direction, although it
has the same magnitude (v = y0). We can now find the vector Av = v — v0 by
the method introduced in Sec. 1.4: we translate vector v so that it remains
parallel to itself Bnd emerges from the same point A as vector v0 does (see
Fig. 61). Then we connect the heads o f the two vectors by a segment of
straight line and direct it from v0 to v. We obtain the directed segment, viz.
vector Av. It can be seen from the figure that vector Av is directed inside the
circle. It can be easily seen that if points A and B are infinitely close to each
other, this vector is directed towards the centre of the circle. Clearly, the
acceleration vector d has the same direction. Thus, the acceleration o f a body
which moves uniformly in a circle is directed towards the centre o f the circle
at all points. This acceleration is therefore called centripetal.

62
 A body moving uniformly in a circle has at each point a centripetal
acceleration, i.e. the acceleration directed along the radius o f the circle towards
its centre.
This peculiarity of the acceleration for a uniform motion in a circle is
illustrated in Fig. 62.
WHAT IS THE MAGNITUDE OF CENTRIPETAL ACCELE­
RATION? This quantity can be easily found from Fig. 61.
The triangle formed by vectors v0, v and Av (see Fig. 61) is isosceles since
v = v0. The triangle OAB in this figure is also isosceles because its sides OA
and OB are the radii o f the circle. The angles at the vertices o f the two
triangles are equal since they are formed by mutually perpendicular sides:
v 0 1 O A and v I OB. Therefore, the triangles are similar as isosceles triangles
with equal angles at the vertices. The fact that one of the triangles is formed
by vectors is immaterial. The similarity o f the triangles implies that then-
similar sides are proportional:
Av v
AB r
Here v and Av are the magnitudes of the velocity and the velocity increment
acquired when the body passes from A to B, r is the radius of the circle and
A B is the chord. It was pointed out earlier, however, that if points A and
B are infinitely close to each other, the chord AB is indistinguishable from
the arc AB. The length of the arc AB is the distance covered by the body
having the velocity v of constant magnitude. This distance is vt. Hence, we
can write
Av v Av v2
vt r t r
Since the time interval t under consideration is very small, A v /t is the magni­
tude of instantaneous acceleration. Consequently,

63
 Thus, for a uniform motion in a circle, the centripetal acceleration has the
same magnitude at all points of the circle. This acceleration is always
directed along the radius towards the centre so that (see Fig. 62) its direction
varies from point to point. Therefore, the uniform motion o f a body in
a circle cannot be treated as uniformly accelerated motion.
It should be recalled that we are interested in the acceleration of a uniform
motion in a circle since any curvilinear motion can be represented as the
motion along the arcs of circles o f various radii.
It can now be stated that if a body moves uniformly along a curvilinear
trajectory, its acceleration at any point is directed towards the centre of the
circle whose part coincides with the segment of the trajectory containing this
point. The magnitude of the acceleration depends on the velocity o f the body
at this point and on the radius o f the corresponding circle. Figure 63 shows
a certain complex trajectory and the vectors of centripetal acceleration at its
different points.12345

1. What is the direction o f acceleration o f a body moving in

a circle with a velocity having a constant magnitude?
What is the magnitude of this acceleration?
2. Will the acceleration of a body moving in a circle with
a velocity whose magnitude is varying be directed towards
the centre o f the circle?
3. Can we assume that the motion in a circle with
acceleration o f a constant magnitude is a uniformly
accelerated motion?
4. Why do car drivers reduce the speed at a steep turn?
5. A speed motorboat towing a sportsman on waterskis
moves in a circle. The sportsman can follow the speedboat
along the same circle but can also move inside or outside
it. What is the relation between the velocities of the
sportsman and speedboat in these three cases?

64
 3.3 • P e rio d a n d F requency o f a Body M oving in a
C irc le
PERIOD OF REVOLUTION. The motion of a body in
a circle is often characterized not by its velocity but by the
time during which it completes one revolution along the circular trajectory.
This quantity is called the period o f revolution o f the body and is denoted by
T. For example, the announcements concerning the launching of a satellite
usually contain information about the period of its revolution, and the
velocity of its orbital motion around the Earth is never mentioned. If,
however, the period Tis known, the velocity v can be easily found. The path
traversed by the body during the time interval equal to the period T is the
circumference 2nr. Consequently,
2nr

where r is the radius o f the circle around which the body moves.
Substituting this expression for velocity into formula (3.2.3), we obtain
another expression for centripetal acceleration:
_ 4n2r2
(3.3.1)
T2
FREQUENCY OF REVOLUTION. The motion of a body in a circle can
be also characterized by the number o f revolutions made by the body per
unit time. This quantity is called the frequency o f revolution of the body and
is denoted by n. The frequency n and the period T of revolution are
connected through a very simple relation. For example, if the period of
revolution T=0.1 s, the body completes 10 revolutions in one second. This
means that n = 1/Tor, in other words, frequency is the quantity reciprocal to
the period. The unit of frequency of revolution is 1/s, or s *.
The magnitude v of velocity of motion in a circle can be expressed in
terms of the frequency of revolution n. Indeed, the velocity is equal to a path
traversed by a body in one second. The path traversed by a body during one
revolution is 2nr. This means that a body completing n revolutions per
second traverses a path equal to 2nrn in one second. Consequently, v = 2nrn.
Substituting this expression for v into (3.2.3), we obtain

a= T — or a = 4n2n2r. (3.3.2)
r ----------------
While solving problems, use can be made o f all the three formulas for
centripetal acceleration, viz. (3.2.3), (3.3.1) and (3.3.2).
Formulas (3.3.1) and (3.3.2) show that if the period or frequency of
revolution are preset, the magnitude of centripetal acceleration is the larger
the longer the radius o f the circle. For example, if we consider a rotating
wheel (Fig. 64), all the marked points move in circles of different radii but
with the same period and the same frequency of revolution. The centripetal
acceleration of the points that are further from the axis of rotation is higher.

65
5-376
 1. What is the period o f revolution?
2. What do we call the frequency o f revolution?
3. What is the relation between these quantities?
4. How can the centripetal acceleration be expressed in terms
of period o f revolution?
5. How can the centripetal acceleration be expressed in terms
of frequency of revolution?
6. Which points of a rotating wheel (Fig. 64) have a higher
and a lower velocity v of motion in a circle?

Exercise 8
1. A grinding wheel whose radius is 10 cm completes one
• revolution during 0.20 s. Find the velocity o f points which
are most remote from the axis o f rotation.
2. A motorcar is moving along a round track of radius
100 m at a velocity of 54 km/hr. Find its centripetal
acceleration.
3. The period o f revolution of the first manned spacecraft
“Vostok” was 90 min. The average altitude of the
spacecraft above the Earth surface can be assumed to be
equal to 320 km, the radius o f the Earth is 6400 km.
Calculate the orbital velocity of the spacecraft.
4. What is the velocity of a moving motorcar if its wheels
having the radius o f 30 cm complete 10 revolutions per
second?
5. The Moon moves around the Earth at a distance of
384 000 km, completing one revolution during 27.3 days.
Calculate the centripetal acceleration of the Moon.

3*4 * M otion on a R o ta tin g Body

We all live on the surface of the globe which rotates (together
with us!) about its axis. However, we do not notice this
rotation except when it is manifested in the change o f days and nights. But
we do not notice the rotation of the Earth only because it rotates very
slowly, making only one revolution a day (about 10"5 revolution per
second).
If, however, a body rotates at a sufficiently high frequency, any other body
on its surface is in a very intricate motion. This can be illustrated by
a simple experiment: we put a wire ring on a rod (knitting needle, pencil,
etc.) and rapidly rotate the rod in the horizontal plane. The ring will slip
from the rod. Why does it slip?
Let us consider this experiment in greater detail.

66
 Fig. 65

Suppose that we have a rod on which a small ball with a through hole is
put. Let this rod rotate about an axis passing through its middle (Fig. 65). In
order to investigate the behaviour of the ball on the rotating rod, we shall
consider the rotation o f the rod as a sequence o f small turns o f the rod
about the axis.
How does the ball behave during these turns? Suppose that at a certain
initial instant o f time the ball is at point A at a distance OA from the axis of
rotation 0. If the ball were fixed on the rod, then during rotation it would
move in a circle o f radius OA, shown in the figure. But it is not fixed. Hence
it will move along the velocity vector which, as was shown above, is directed
along the tangent to the circle, i.e. normally to OA. After a small turn of the
rod the ball is at point B. Clearly, OB is greater than OA since the triangle
OAB is rectangular (Fig. 65) and OB is the hypotenuse, while OA is the
cathetus. During the next small turn, the ball again is displaced
perpendicularly to the new position of the rod, viz. OB, and gets to point C.
In the right triangle OBC, the side OC (hypotenuse) is longer than OB (cathe­
tus). The same refers to the triangle OCD, etc. Thus, we see that during the
rotation of the rod, the ball keeps moving away from axis O, sliding along
the rod.
If we fix to the rod a system of coordinates and direct one o f the axes, say,
the X-axis, along the rod, in this reference system the ball will move
rectilinearly along the X-axis. It can be easily seen that in a stationary
reference system (relative to the Earth), the trajectory o f motion of the rod is
much more complex (unwinding spiral). This is one more manifestation of
the relativity o f motion.
Almost the same happens to children on a disc rotating about the vertical
axis (Fig. 66). The children slip off to the disc edges.

Summary
When a body (material point) is in curvilinear motion, the
direction o f its velocity vector varies continuously: at each point of the
trajectory, it is directed along the tangent at this point. Therefore, even
a uniform motion along the curvilinear trajectory, when the magnitude of the
velocity remains unchanged, is an accelerated motion.

67
5*
Fig. 66

The motion o f a body in a circle is characterized not only by the velocity v

but also by the period o f revolution T and the frequency o f revolution n. The
magnitude o f velocity is connected with these quantities through the
following relations:

v=— and v = 2nrn,

T
where r is the radius of the circle.
For a body moving uniformly in a circle, the acceleration vector at any
point is directed normally to the velocity vector, i.e. to the centre of the
circle. For this reason, it is called the centripetal acceleration. Its magnitude
is connected with the quantities v, T and n through the following relations
v2 4nr
a=— , a = 4 n2n2r.
’ fl“ “r r ’
Fundamentals of Dynamics

LAWS O F M O T IO N

T H E M O S T IM P O R T A N T Q U E S T I O N IS “ W H Y ”

In the previous part o f the book devoted to fundamentals of

kinematics, we introduced the quantities used for describing
various types o f motion observed in the world surrounding us. We have
found out that for calculating the velocities of bodies, their displacements
and, finally, the coordinates at any instant of time, we must know their
accelerations. As a matter of fact, one type of motion differs from another
just in acceleration. For example, a uniform rectilinear motion differs from
all other types in that its acceleration is equal to zero. A typical feature of
a uniformly accelerated motion is that its acceleration is constant in magni­
tude and direction. The uniform motion in a circle is characterized by an
acceleration directed at any point o f the circle towards its centre, etc.
The motions of bodies (relative to a chosen reference system) start and
cease, are accelerated or slowed down, change their directions, and so on. In
all these cases the velocities o f moving bodies are changing, i.e. accelerations
emerge. Clearly it is very important to be able to find (calculate) acceleration.
Without that we can neither solve problems in mechanics nor control
a motion. However, to find accelerations we must know why and how they
emerge. In physics it is important to find out not only how a certain
phenomenon occurs but also why it occurs in this way and not otherwise. In
kinematics, we have learned how the motion occurs (for example, with an
acceleration or without it). The question “why do bodies move in fhis way?
is answered in the main part of mechanics, viz. dynamics.

4.1. B odies a n d S u rro u n d in g s. N e w to n ’s F irst Law

In order to find the reason behind the emergence of
acceleration, we must turn to experiments or observations.
But first let us determine the conditions under which a body moves without
an acceleration, i.e. when its velocity does not vary with time.

69
 Any body, in motion or at rest, is not solitary in the world. There are
many other bodies around it-clo se and remote, large and small, stationary
and moving. It is natural to assume that some of these bodies, if not all of
them, influence the body under consideration in a certain way, affecting its
state of motion. We cannot distinguish beforehand the surrounding bodies
which affect this state considerably from those whose influence is insig­
nificant. This should be investigated in each separate case.
Let us first consider a body at rest. The acceleration o f this body is equal
to zero as well as its velocity.
Figure 67 depicts a ball suspended from a rubber cord. The ball is at rest
relative to the Earth. There are many different bodies around the ball: the
cord from which it is suspended, the walls o f the room, the objects in this
and neighbouring rooms and, o f course, the Earth. Obviously, these bodies
act on the ball not in the same way. If, for example, we rearrange the furni­
ture in the room, this will not produce any noticeable effect on the ball. But
if we cut the cord (Fig. 68), the ball will immediately start to fall with an
acceleration.
It is well known that all bodies fall down just under the action of the
Earth. But until the cord is cut, the ball is still at rest. This simple
experiment shows that of all the bodies surrounding the ball, two bodies
have a noticeable effect: the rubber cord and the Earth. Their joint effect
ensures that the ball is at rest. We had only to eliminate one of these bodies
(the cord), and the state of rest was violated.
If we could remove ... the Earth (retaining the action o f the stretched
cord), this would also disturb the state o f rest of the ball. It would start to
move in the opposite direction (upwards).
Thus, we can draw the conclusion that the actions on the ball o f the two
bodies-the cord and the Earth -cancell or balance each other.
When the effects of two or more bodies are said to compensate each other,
this means that the result of their joint influence is the same as if these
bodies were absent.
The example considered above, as well as many other similar examples,
leads us to the following conclusion: a body is at rest if the actions o f other
bodies on it compensate each other.

70
 Fig. 69

We know, however, that motion as well as the state of rest is relative.

A body which is at rest relative to some reference system can move relative
to some other systems. Let us consider, for example, a puck lying on the ice
of a hockey field (Fig. 69). The puck is at rest relative to the ice (the Earth)
since the action o f the Earth on it is balanced by the action o f the ice. But
for a hockey-player moving past the puck rectilinearly and uniformly, the
puck is also in uniform rectilinear motion. Thus, the same body (the puck) is
at rest in one reference frame (fixed to the Earth) and is moving rectilinearly
and uniformly relative to the other reference system (fixed to the
hockey-player).
The hockey-player strikes the puck by the stick. As a result of the very
short action o f the stick, the puck is set in motion, having acquired a certain
velocity. It is remarkable that after the impact, when the action o f the stick
on the puck has ceased, the puck continues its motion. Meanwhile, the effect
of other bodies on the puck after the impact has remained the same: as
before, the action of the Earth is balanced by the action of the ice, and the
stick does not produce any effect on the motion of the puck any longer.
However, after the impact the puck is moving along the straight line at an
almost constant velocity which it acquired at the moment of impact True, in
the long run the puck stops, but we know from experience that the smoother
the ice and the puck surface, the longer the puck moves. Hence we can guess
that if it were possible to eliminate the action of the ice on the puck, which
is called friction, the puck would continue to move relative to the Earth at
a constant velocity for an infinitely long time.
If, however, a hockey-player moved alongside with the uniformly sliding
puck at the same velocity, the puck would be at rest relative to him (or to
the reference system associated with him). In this case too the same body is
in a uniform rectilinear motion relative to one reference system (the Earth)
and is at rest relative to the other system (hockey-player).
NEWTON’S FIRST LAW. This and many other similar examples lead us
to one of the fundamental laws of mechanics, called the first law of motion,
or Newton's first law.
There exist such reference systems relative to which a body in translatory

71
motion preserves its velocity unless other bodies are acting on it (or the
action of other bodies is not balanced).
The property of preserving the velocity of a body (in particular, the state
of rest) when external effects on the body are balanced is called inertia.
Therefore, Newton’s first law is often called the law o f inertia. The common
expression “inertial motion (coasting)” just means that a body moves at
a constant velocity (i.e. is in a uniform rectilinear motion) when the actions
of other bodies on it are balanced. In the same way, we can speak about the
“state o f rest by virtue o f inertia”.
INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEMS. Reference systems mentioned in
Newton’s first law, i.e. the systems relative to which the body is at rest or in
uniform rectilinear motion when external effects are balanced, are called
inertial reference systems. In the examples considered above, the inertial
systems were the system fixed to the Earth and the system associated with
the hockey-player moving uniformly in a straight line relative to the Earth.
We can verify whether a reference system is inertial or not only in
experiment. Since experiments show that any reference system fixed to the
Earth can be approximately considered as inertial, a system associated with
any body which moves uniformly in a straight line is also inertial relative to
the Earth.
The law of inertia is not as obvious as it may seem at first sight. The
discovery o f this law put an end to an old delusion. Before this law was
discovered, it was assumed for centuries that in the absence o f external in­
fluences (or, which is the same, when all these influences are balanced)
a body can be only in a state of rest which was assumed to be a natural state
of the body. It was believed that the motion of a body at a constant velocity
requires another body acting permanently on it. This may seem to be
confirmed by everyday experience: in order to make a carriage move at
a constant velocity, a horse must pull it all the time. To move a table over
the floor, it must be continuously pushed or pulled.
The great Italian scientist GALILEI was the first to find that this
statement is erroneous and that in the absence of external influence a body
can not only be at rest but also move uniformly in a straight line.
Consequently, uniform rectilinear motion is a “natural” state o f bodies like
a state o f rest. We must push or pull the table to set it in motion since the
floor not only balances the action o f the Earth on the moving table but also
creates an additional effect called friction. The action o f those who pull or
push the table is needed for balancing friction. Galilei drew the conclusion
that if friction were absent, a body (table) set in motion would continue to
move at a constant velocity without any effect from outside.
The brilliant English physicist ISAAC NEWTON generalized Galilei’s
conclusions and included them in fundamental laws of motion.

1. Rowers who strive to move a boat against the stream are

unable to cope with their job and the boat remains at rest
relative to the bank. The actions o f which forces are
balanced in this case?

72
 2. What is the meaning o f inertia?
3. Formulate Newton’s first law.
4. A table tennis ball is lying on a table. The table was
pushed and the ball started to move. Indicate the reference
body relative to which the law o f inertia is valid and the
one relative to which this law does not hold.
5. Figure 1 illustrates a translatory motion in which a body
(suitcase) is moving not in a straight line. Is Newton’s first
law violated in this case?

Hometask
1. Give examples of bodies in a state of rest. The action of
which bodies is compensated in these cases?
2. Give examples of bodies moving uniformly in a straight
line. Indicate the bodies whose actions are mutually
compensated.

4 .2 . In te ra c tio n of Bodies. A c ce lera tio n o f Bodies

a s a R esult of T h e ir In te ra c tio n
According to Newton’s first law, a body moves without an
acceleration, i.e. uniformly and in a straight line relative to
an inertial reference system, if no other bodies are acting on it or if the
actions are present but they are compensated.
Let us now determine the conditions under which bodies move with an
acceleration. Experiments show that when a body is moving with an
acceleration, we can always indicate another body or several bodies whose
influence causes this acceleration. For example, falling bodies move with an
acceleration. The body causing their acceleration is the Earth. A puck lying
on ice has changed its velocity as a result of an impact. The body imparting
an acceleration to the puck is the stick.
Let us bring a magnetized steel rod (a magnet) to an iron ball. The ball
which has been at rest starts to move. It acquires an acceleration (Fig. 70)
due to the action o f the magnet. Until the magnet stops acting, the ball will
move with an acceleration, continuously increasing its velocity.

Fig. 70 Fig. 71

73
 Fig. 72

If we bring the magnet close to the moving ball as is shown in Fig. 71, the
direction o f the ball velocity will change: the trajectory o f the ball will be
curved. As we know, this means that the ball has acquired a centripetal
acceleration. This experiment demonstrates once more that the influence of
an external body just causes a change in motion rather than the motion
itself. The ball was moving before we brought the magnet to it, was it not?
Thus, the cause o f acceleration o f a body is the influence o f other bodies on
it.
What determines the magnitude and direction of acceleration acquired by
a body due to the influence o f another body? To answer this question, we
again turn to an experiment.
INTERACTION OF BODIES. In the simplest case, two bodies should
take part in the experiment, viz. the influencing body and the body that
experiences this influence.
Actually, the two bodies have, so to say, “equal rights”. Each of them in­
fluences the other and at the same time experiences a reaction. For example,
when a football player runs into another player, they both change their
velocities.
Generally, every time a body A acquires an acceleration due to the action
of a body B, the body B also acquires an acceleration. It is said that
interaction o f bodies takes place and both of them acquire accelerations.
What accelerations are these?
A large number o f experiments carried out with various bodies revealed
that accelerations of two interacting bodies have opposite directions. Besides,
the ratio o f magnitudes o f accelerations o f these bodies is always the same.
This ratio is completely independent o f the nature o f interaction o f the
bodies. It can be a collision between two bodies or the interaction of the
same bodies connected through a spring, thread or wire. Finally, the bodies
may interact without touching each other in the same way as planets interact
with the Sun, the Moon with the Earth or a magnet with a piece o f iron. The
magnitudes o f accelerations o f each body can be quite different for different
types o f interaction, but their ratio remains unchanged.
If, for example, we took two carts o f the same size but one made of
aluminium and the other o f steel (Fig. 72) and made them collide, they
would change their velocity during the collision and get accelerated. The
measurements would show that the magnitude o f the acceleration aj o f the
aluminium cart is three time larger than the acceleration a2 o f the steel cart

74
irrespective o f the velocities the carts had before the collision:

a2
The accelerations o f the carts have opposite directions.
It is very difficult to measure the accelerations of the carts during the
collision, since the time o f the collision is very short. It is much easier to
carry out an experiment in which the interacting bodies move uniformly in
a circle and to measure the centripetal accelerations of these bodies.
The schematic diagram of such an experiment is shown in Fig. 73. Two
cylinders, one o f steel and the other of aluminium, having the same size and
with holes drilled along their axes, are put on a rod along which they can
slide with a small friction.
We fix the rod with the cylinders to centrifugal machine and set it in
rotation. The cylinders will immediately slide towards the ends of the rod
(see Sec. 3.3). In this experiment, the cylinders do not interact with each
other.
We then tie the cylinders together with a thin thread and rotate the
centrifuge again. The cylinders are now interacting with each other through
the thread.
At certain distances o f the cylinders from the axis o f rotation o f the rod,
they no longer slide from the rod and move in circles. The radii r, and r2 of
these circles are the distances o f the cylinders from the axis o f rotation. As
we know, a body moves in a circle with a centripetal acceleration directed
towards the centre o f rotation and equal to 4n 2n2r, where n is the frequency
of revolution and r is the radius of the circle. The ratio of the accelerations
of the aluminium and steel cylinders is hence
a, 4n2n2rx rx
a2 4n2n2r2 r2
Measuring the radii rx and r2, we see that the radius r, for the aluminium
cylinder is three times the radius r2 of the circle in which the steel cylinder
rotates. Therefore, the ratio of the accelerations of the cylinders is equal to 3.
We can change the length o f the thread connecting the cylinder or the
number of revolutions of the rod per unit time. This will change the
accelerations o f the cylinders. However, the experiment shows that for any
type of interaction of these two bodies, the ratio of the magnitudes o f their
accelerations remains unchanged.

S te e l A lu m in iu m
 1. What is the cause of acceleration?
1 What can we say about the accelerations of two
interacting bodies?
3. As a result o f interaction o f two bodies, the velocity of one
o f them has increased. What is the change in the velocity
of the other body?

Exercise 9
1. Find the velocity o f the aluminium cart mentioned in this
section after its collision with the steel cart, if the initial
velocity o f the steel cart is 4 m/s and its velocity after the
collision is 2 m/s. The aluminium cart was at rest before
the collision.
2. The aluminium and steel cylinders used in the experiment
described in this section are connected by a 8-cm thread.
At what distance from the centre o f the rod will each
cylinder be?
3. In the same experiment, the cylinders were tied by
a thread o f a different length. It turned out that during
rotation o f the rod, the aluminium cylinder was at
a distance o f 9 cm from its centre. What was the length of
the thread?

Hometask
Give examples showing that interaction of bodies is the
cause of the change in motion (velocity) o f the bodies
rather than o f the motion itself.

4*3* In e rtia o f Bodies

Experiments considered in Sec. 4.2 have shown that the ratio
of magnitudes o f the accelerations acquired by two bodies
during their interaction does not depend on the nature o f the interaction and
is determined only by the bodies themselves. Consequently, each body has
a certain property which determines the ratio o f the magnitude of its
acceleration to the magnitude of the acceleration o f the body with which it
interacts.
What kind o f property is this?
When a body is moving without acceleration, i.e. at a constant velocity, it
moves by inertia. As a result o f interaction between bodies, the velocity of
each o f them changes. The experiments considered in Sec. 4.2 show that the
accelerations o f interacting bodies are different. The fact that the acceleration
of one body is smaller in magnitude than that o f the other implies that
during the same time of interaction, the velocity of one o f the bodies changes

76
 ♦
Fig. 74 (a) (c)

to a smaller extent than the velocity of the other. It should be recalled that
acceleration is the ratio o f the change in velocity to the time interval t during
which this change occurs:

Therefore, the smaller the acceleration of a body, the smaller is the change in
its velocity over a given time t.
The body which changes its velocity to a smaller extent as a result of
interaction is said to be more inert than the other body. If the body did not
change its velocity at all, it would move by inertia, i.e. uniformly and in
a straight line, would it not?
Inertia is the property inherent in all bodies. It consists in that it takes
some time fo r a body to change its velocity. The longer the time required for
changing velocity by a given value, the more inertia the body has. Of two
interacting bodies, the one which changes its velocity slower is more inert
The following example clearly illustrates the manifestation of inertia of
bodies and the role o f the time during which one body is acting on another.
A cylinder is suspended from a thin thread (Fig. 14a). Another thread is
tied to the bottom of the cylinder. If we abruptly jerk the lower thread, it
breaks, while the cylinder continues to hang on the upper thread (Fig. 14b).
If, however, we pull the lower thread slowly instead of jerking, the upper
thread breaks and the cylinder falls (Fig. 74c). This is explained as follows. If
we jerk the lower thread abruptly, the time o f its action on the cylinder is so
short that the cylinder cannot considerably increase its velocity (has no time
to gain speed) and be noticeably displaced downwards. Hence the upper
thread remains intact. On the other hand, the lower thread is less inert and
acquires a considerable velocity during the jerk. Its displacement turns out to
be sufficient for a breakdown. If, however, we pull the lower thread slowly, it
acts on the cylinder for a long time during which it acquires such a velocity
that its displacement is enough to rupture the upper thread which has been
already stretched.

1. Can the velocity of a body change instantaneously?

2. Which property of bodies is called inertia?

77
 Hometask
Give examples showing that the velocities of two
interacting bodies change simultaneously.

4 .4 . M ass of B odies
Inertia, which is inherent in every body, is one of the most
important properties since it determines the acceleration
acquired by a body as a result o f its interaction with other bodies.
Physics studies the properties o f bodies which can be characterized by
a certain quantity. The property called inertia is also characterized by
a definite quantity. This quantity is the mass of the body.
Of two interacting bodies, the more inert body, i. e. the one acquiring the
smaller acceleration, has the larger mass. If we denote the masses of the
interacting bodies by m, and m2, we can write

(4.4.1)

The ratio o f the magnitudes o f accelerations o f two interacting bodies is

equal to the inverse ratio o f their masses.
It was shown, for example, that the ratio o f the accelerations o f an alumin­
ium and a steel cylinder is equal to three. This is due to the fact that the
mass o f the aluminium cylinder is equal to one third the mass of the steel
cylinder.
Thus, we now know how to find the ratio o f the masses o f two bodies. For
this purpose, we must measure their accelerations due to interaction. But
how can we determine the mass o f each body? In order to find the number
expressing the mass of an individual body, we must first choose a body
whose mass will be conditionally taken as a unit or the standard mass. Then
we must carry out an experiment in which the mass of the body being
determined somehow interacts with the standard mass (see Fig. 73). As
a result o f this interaction, both the body and the standard will acquire
accelerations which can be determined experimentally. Then we can write the
relation

(4.4.2)

where mb and a\, are the mass and the magnitude of acceleration o f the body
while mst and are the mass and the magnitude o f acceleration of the

78
 standard. But the mass o f the standard is equal to unity, and hence
flst c
m\, = — units of mass.
a b

The mass of a body is the quantity which characterizes its inertia. It

determines the ratio o f the magnitude o f acceleration o f the standard mass to
the magnitude o f acceleration o f the body in their interaction.
It should be recalled (see Junior Physics, Sec. 22) that the standard mass is
a specially made cylinder o f platinum-iridium alloy. The mass o f this cylinder
is taken as the international unit of mass-kilogram (kg). To a sufficient
degree o f accuracy, we can assume that one litre of pure water at 15 °C has
the mass o f one kilogram.
Along with such quantities as length and time, mass is included in basic SI
units.
It should not be thought that each time when the mass of a body has to
be measured the body is made to interact with the standard mass and the
accelerations o f the body and the standard are determined. Of course, this
method is practically inconvenient. There exists another method of
measuring mass, viz. weighing, which is commonly used. This method of
measuring mass is well known from the course of Junior Physics. However,
in certain cases, measurement of accelerations due to interaction is the only
possible method o f determining the mass. For example, the mass o f planets,
stars and other celestial bodies cannot be determined by weighing. Very
small masses like the masses of atoms and particles constituting them cannot
be measured with the help of a balance.
The mass o f a body expresses its intrinsic property (inertia) which does not
depend on the interactions in which the body takes part or on its motion.
N o matter where a body is and how it moves, its mass remains the same.
MASSES ARE ADDED. Let us carry out one more experiment (Fig. 75)
in order to investigate an interesting and important property o f mass. We
connect two identical aluminium cylinders and repeat the experiment with
a centrifuge (see Sec. 4.2). The steel cylinder is now interacting not with one
but with two connected aluminium cylinders. The experiment shows that the
ratio o f accelerations o f two connected aluminium cylinders and the steel
cylinder is 3/2 and not 3. This means that the mass o f two identical cylinders
connected together to form as if a single body is twice as large as the mass of
one of them. Consequently, when two or more bodies are combined into one,
their masses are added.

S te e l A lu m in iu m

Fig. 75
 ONCE MORE ABOUT THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY. It was
mentioned above that the mass o f a body does not depend on the type of its
motion. This, however, is not quite so. In Sec. 1.8 we have found out that
according to the theory o f relativity, time passes differently in different
reference systems moving relative to each other. This leads to many
wonderful consequences. It turns out, in particular, that the mass of a body
changes during its motion. Suppose that the mass o f a body at rest is m0. If
we could measure with the help, for example, o f a centrifuge the mass of this
body when it is moving at a velocity v, it would turn out that it is not equal
to m0 and is given by
m0
m= 7 -■
y \ - v2/c 2

where c is the velocity o f light. Consequently, the mass o f the body has
increased. However, this increase in mass becomes noticeable only at
velocities close to the velocity of light (c = 3 x 108 m/s). Ordinary bodies
never move at such velocities. The fastest body encountered on tiie Earth is
the Earth itself which rotates around the Sun at a velocity o f 30 km/s. At
such velocities the mass can be treated as a constant quantity.

1. Which quantity characterizes the inertness of a body?

2. What is the relation between the masses o f bodies and the
magnitudes o f accelerations acquired by them as a result
of interaction?
3. How can the mass o f an individual body be determined?
4. What is taken as the standard o f mass?

EXAMPLE OF SOLVING A PROBLEM

Compare the masses o f the Moon and the Earth if the radii of the
orbits o f the Moon and o f the centre o f the Earth are known.
Solution. It is usually assumed that the Moon (under the action of the
Earth) rotates about the Earth so that the centre o f the Earth is as if the
fixed centre o f the lunar orbit. This, however, is impossible since both
interacting bodies acquire accelerations as a result o f interaction. Actually,
the M oon also influences the Earth, making it move in a circle and
imparting a centripetal acceleration to it. But around which centre is the
Earth moving?
Astronomical observations have shown that the M oon rotates not about
the centre o f the Earth but about a certain point P (Fig. 76) which is
4700 km away from the centre o f the Earth. The centre o f the Earth also
moves about this very point P (Fig. 77). The centre o f the Earth is moving in
a circle o f radius rg ~ 4700 km, while the centre o f the Moon is moving in
a circle o f radius rM * 380 000 km. Hence the Earth and the Moon behave
in the same way as the aluminium and steel cylinders considered in Sec. 4.2.
It was shown in the example with the cylinders that the ratio o f magnitudes

80
 of the centripetal accelerations imparted to the cylinders is equal to the ratio
of radii of the circles in which they are moving. Hence, we can write
aM _ rM^
aE /•£ ’
But as we know, the ratio o f magnitudes o f the accelerations o f interacting
bodies is equal to the inverse ratio o f their masses. Hence
rM _ mE
rE mM '
Since % 380 000 km and rE « 4700 km, we obtain
mE _ 380000 km ^
wm 4700 km ~

Exercise 10
1. A cart is moving over a horizontal surface at a velocity of
50 cm/s. It is hit by another cart which is moving in the
same direction at a velocity o f 150 cm/s. After collision,
the carts continue to move in the same direction at the
same velocity o f 100 cm/s. Find the ratio of the masses of
the carts.
2. A cart is moving over a horizontal surface at a velocity of
30 cm/s and collides with a cart of the same mass which is
at rest. As a result of the collision, the moving cart comes
to a halt. What is the velocity acquired by the other cart?

81
6-376
4.5 Force
It should be recollected that our aim is to calculate
accelerations of moving bodies. Without this, the basic
problem o f mechanics cannot be solved.
It was shown in previous sections that when a certain body 1 with mass
m, acquires an acceleration a , , this is due to the fact that some other body
2 with mass m2 is exerting an influence on it. The second body, in turn, also
acquires an acceleration a2 such that

It may seem that according to this formula the motion o f only one body
(we shall call it the body being accelerated) cannot be studied and its
acceleration cannot be calculated. We must know the mass and acceleration
of another body (which will be called accelerating body).
FORCE IS THE CAUSE OF ACCELERATION. Usually, we are
interested in the motion of just one body (being accelerated) and not the
body or bodies which influence it by imparting an acceleration. For example,
when a shell is fired from a barrel, it interacts with the Earth and the air
through which it flies. Both the Earth and the air impart accelerations to the
shell and simultaneously acquire certain accelerations themselves. For the
gunner, however, it is important to know only the acceleration of the shell.
Why does he need to know the masses and accelerations of the Earth and
air? Therefore, the acceleration of only one body is usually calculated, viz.
the body whose motion is being studied. The effect o f the other body causing
an acceleration is briefly called the force acting on the body being accelerated.
Thus, instead of saying that the acceleration of a body is caused by the in­
fluence of another body on it, it is said that the acceleration is caused by
a force applied to the body (or acting on it).
Let us consider the following example. Suppose that one end of a spring of
length / is fixed (Fig. 78, top). A bar connected to the other end of the spring
remains at rest. Let us stretch the spring (without a bar) by A/ (Fig. 78,
bottom) and again fix the bar to its free end. When we release the spring, the
bar will move with an acceleration. Obviously, the acceleration is caused by
the interaction of the bar and the spring. Now we can say that it is caused
by the force due to stretching the spring. This force is called the elastic force.

Fig. 78

82
 Fig. 79

Since the elastic force emerges only as a result of stretching the spring (no
force appears if there is no stretching!), it depends only on the extent to
which the spring is stretched. Here is another example. It is well known that
a freely falling body and a body thrown upwards move with an acceleration.
This acceleration is caused by the interaction of a body with the Earth. But
now we can say that the acceleration is caused by the force exerted on the
body by the Earth. This force is called the force o f gravity.
FORCE IS A PHYSICAL QUANTITY. It appears that the elastic force
and the force of gravity are entirely different. They are unlike if only due to
the fact that the spring is acting on a body in contact while the Earth exerts
force without touching a body. However, these actions are similar in that
they impart accelerations to bodies.
One force may impart a large acceleration to a body, while another may
cause only a small acceleration. Hence, force is a physical quantity that can
be expressed by a number, but not only by it!
Let us consider Fig. 79b. It shows a load which is suspended to a spring
and is at rest in this position.
The load is acted upon by the force of gravity due to the presence of the
Earth and the elastic force caused by stretching the spring (cf. Fig. 79a).
Each of these forces can impart an acceleration to the body. The force of
gravity (if it were acting alone) would impart the acceleration g to the body.
On the other hand, if the elastic force were the only force acting on the load,
it would impart to it a certain acceleration a. But the load is at rest. This
means that accelerations g and a are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction: g = — a. Consequently, their sum is equal to zero.
What can be said about forces? Clearly, if two forces are applied to
a body and the body has no acceleration, the sum of these forces is zero.
This means that like the accelerations, these forces are equal in magnitude
and have opposite directions.
Hence it follows that a force is defined not only by a number but also by
a direction, i. e. force is a vector. For this reason, the forces Fcl and Fg are
depicted in Fig. 79 by arrows of the same length and opposite directions.
83
6*
 Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727) was one of
the greatest physicists and
mathematicians of all times. He for­
mulated the general laws of mechanical
motion, discovered the law of universal
gravitation, and formulated the basic
principles of differential and integral
calculus. Newton made significant
contributions in the field of optics.
Basically, all these discoveries and
investigations were made by Newton
when he was about 25 years old. These
results were published much later in the
form of two books, the magnificent
treatise entitled “Philosophiae naturalis
principia mathematica” (1686), and
“Opticks” (1704).

Thus, the word “force” corresponds to a physical quantity that expresses

the action of one body on another.
What kind of quantity is it? What is its magnitude? And above all, how is
it related to acceleration? The answers to these questions are given by the
most important law o f motion, viz. Newton’s second law.

4.6 . N e w to n ’s Second Law

FORCE AND ACCELERATION. To find the relation
between force and acceleration, we must again turn to an
experiment In this experiment, the same force should impart acceleration to
different bodies, i.e. the bodies having different masses, so that the
acceleration o f these bodies could be measured.
For this experiment, we must choose a body that acts on all other bodies
with the same force. It can be a stretched or compressed spring which
generates an elastic force. The remarkable feature o f this force which
distinguishes it from all other forces is that it depends only on the
deformation o f the spring and does not depend on the body to which it is
attached.1* Thus, a spring stretched to a certain length acts on any body
attached to it with the same force, viz. the elastic force o f the spring.
Since the force is the same, a certain quantity associated with acceleration
should be the same for all bodies. In this experiment, we shall find out what
is this quantity.
For example, we can carry out such a simple experiment. We fix one end
of a spring to a cart of a known mass m. To its other end, we tie a cord with
a load thrown over through a pulley (Fig. 80a). Owing to attraction to the
Earth, the load moves downwards and stretches the spring. The spring is

11 Experiments show that there are no other forces in nature that

would possess this property.

84
stretched by a certain length A/, exerts an elastic force on the cart and
imparts to it an acceleration. This acceleration can be measured, for example,
by the stroboscopic method (see Sec. 2.4). Suppose that this acceleration is
equal to a.
Let us repeat this experiment but instead o f one cart take two identical
carts joined together (Fig. 80/?), so that their total mass is 2m. We must
measure the acceleration of this “train” for the same elongation A/ o f the
spring, since the force should remain the same. In order to get the same
elongation of the spring as in the first experiment, we should choose and
suspend another load from the cord. The experiment will show that for the
same elongation A/ of the spring, the acceleration of the two connected carts
is a/2. If we make a train of three, four, etc. carts, for the same elongation of
the spring the acceleration will be equal to 1/3, 1/4, etc. of the acceleration of
one cart. It turns out that if the mass of the cart is increased a certain
number of times, the acceleration imparted to it by the same force decreases
in the same proportion. This means that the product o f the mass o f the cart
by its acceleration remains unchanged.
It is easier to carry out this experiment by imparting centripetal ac­
celerations to bodies of different mass. Let us again use the centrifugal
machine.
A body JVf in the form of an aluminium cylinder with a hole drilled along
its axis is put on the rod of a centrifuge (Fig. 81a). We connect one end of
a spring to the cylinder and fix its other end to the frame of the centrifugal
machine at point A. Then we set the machine in rotation. As was shown in
Sec. 4.1, the cylinder M will slide along the rod, moving apart from point
A and thus stretching the spring. If the spring were absent, the cylinder
would come to a halt at point B. But due to the elastic force of the stretched
spring, the cylinder will be shifted from the axis of rotation (by a distance AO
and will then move in a circle of radius r (Fig. 81Z>). The centripetal
acceleration o f cylinder Af is directed along the radius to the centre of
rotation. The axis of the spring is also directed along the radius.

85
 A M B

Fig. 81

Consequently, the acceleration o f the cylinder M is directed along the axis of

the spring parallel to the elastic force. Clearly, it is this force that imparts the
centripetal acceleration to the body.
The magnitude o f centripetal acceleration a is given by
a = 4n2ti2r,
where n is the frequency of revolution and r is the radius o f the circle in
which the body moves.
By measuring n and r, we find the magnitude of the acceleration d.
Figure 82 shows an instrument used in school laboratories for
demonstrating this experiment.
Let us replace the aluminium cylinder by a steel one o f the same size. As
we know, its mass is three times the mass of the aluminium cylinder. Let us
set the centrifuge in rotation again and choose such a frequency of
revolution that the elongation of the spring is the same as in the first
experiment. Then the force acting on the cylinder is also the same. The
experiment shows that the acceleration o f the steel cylinder is less than the
acceleration o f the aluminium one by a factor of three.

Fig. 82
 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW. We can carry out the experiment described
above with a large number of bodies of different mass. As in the experiments
with the carts, we shall see that accelerations of different bodies are different
but the product of the mass of a body and its acceleration is the same for all
the bodies. Thus, we find from experiment that if the same force is acting on
different bodies, the product of the mass of a body and its acceleration also
remains the same.
This gave grounds to Newton to state that the force is equal to the
product of the mass of a body and its acceleration and to formulate the most
important law of mechanics which is called Newton's second law:
The force acting on a body is equal to the product of the mass of the body
and the acceleration imparted by this force.
If we denote the force by F, the analytic form of Newton’s second law is
F = ma. This formula refers to the magnitude of force. But since acceleration
is a vector and mass is a scalar, the force is a vector quantity and vectors F
and a have the same directions. Therefore we can write the formula
expressing Newton’s second law in the following form:

F = ma. (4.6.1)

From this formula, we can obtain the expression for a:

F
a=—, (4.6.2)
m
which shows that the acceleration of a body has always the same direction as
the force causing it.

1. What is force?
2. Is force a scalar or a vector quantity?
3. A body thrown upwards moves with an acceleration.
Which force imparts it to the body? Which body is acting
with this force? What is the direction of the force and
acceleration?
4. Can we state, proceeding from the formula F = ma that
the force F applied to a hody “depends” on the mass m of
the body and on its acceleration a?
5. Can we say, on the basis o f the formula a = F/m, that the
acceleration a of a body depends on the force applied to it
and on its mass?

4.7. W h a t Do We L earn fro m N e w to n ’s Second Law?

UNIVERSAL LAW FOR ALL FORCES. We have obtained
Newton’s second law in the form F = ma from the experiment
with a stretched spring. Is it valid only for elastic forces? It can be easily
shown that this is not so. Let us consider Fig. 79 again We have found that
the accelerations a and g which would be imparted to the body by the elastic

«7
force and the force o f gravity are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction: a = — g. However, if the equality a = — g holds, the equality
ma = — mg is also valid. As we know, ma is the elastic force, and hence mg
represents the force o f gravity. It is also equal to the product o f the mass of
the body and its acceleration. In the same way we can prove that Newton’s
second law is valid for forces o f any origin.
FORCE A N D MOTION. Newton’s second law indicates that the force
applied to a body determines its acceleration, i.e. the change in the velocity
rather than the velocity itself. This means that the force is the agency causing
a change in motion (velocity) and is not the cause o f motion. The direction of
acceleration always coincides with that o f force. However, the direction of
velocity, and hence the displacement of the body may differ from the
direction of force.
If the force applied to a body coincides in direction with its velocity, the
body moves in a straight line so that its velocity increases in magnitude.
A body also moves rectilinearly when the vectors o f force and velocity have
opposite directions. But then the velocity decreases in magnitude. In both
cases, if the magnitude and direction of a force are constant, the body is in
a uniformly accelerated motion.
The force can also be directed at right angles to the velocity. In this case,
the acceleration is also perpendicular to the velocity. It was shown above
(see Sec. 3.2) that this is observed when a body is moving in a circle at
a velocity o f constant magnitude, viz. when the body has a centripetal
acceleration (the velocity of the body changes only in direction). This is how
the body was moving under the action o f an elastic force in our experiment
with a centrifugal machine. Thus, Newton’s second law allows us to find out
why and under which conditions bodies are in the motions studied in
kinematics.
A BODY IS ACTED UPON BY SEVERAL FORCES. A body may be
under the action o f not one but several forces simultaneously. Experiments
show that these forces “do not prevent” each other from imparting an
acceleration to the body. The acceleration o f the body turns out to be equal
to the acceleration which a single force equal to the geometrical (vector) sum
of all the forces would impart.
The force equal to the geometrical sum o f all the forces applied to a body is
called the resultant jorce.
In the formula F = ma, F should be treated as the resultant o f all the
forces acting on a body. Let us consider an example. A boy on a rope swing
(Fig. 83) experiences simultaneously the action of two forces: the force Fx
directed downwards due to the action of the Earth and the force F 2 caused
by the rope and directed along it. Under the action o f the two forces, the
boy is moving in a circle around the pole to which the rope is tied. There­
fore, the acceleration is directed towards the centre o f the circle and not
along F 1 or F 2. It can be seen from the figure that the force F equal to the
geometrical sum o f F l and F2 is also directed to the centre of the circle.
Consequently, the boy moves in such a way as if only one force, i.e. the
resultant F o f the forces F j and F 2 is acting on him:
f = f 1+ f 2.
 Fig. 85

THE FORCES ARE PRESENT BUT ACCELERATION IS ZERO. The

vector sum of forces acting on a body can be equal to zero. Then, in
accordance with Newton’s second law, the body behaves as if no forces are
acting on it. The acceleration of the body is equal to zero. This case was
borne in mind when we spoke in Sec. 4.1 about the balance of influences
(actions) of several forces on a given body. In the example with a small ball
suspended from a string (see Fig. 67) the “balance” simply means that the
sum of the forces applied to the ball is equal to zero (Fig. 84). Figure 85
illustrates the case when the resultant of not two but three forces (F ,, F2 and
F3 acting on the lantern) is equal to zero.
ANOTHER FORMULATION OF NEWTON’S FIRST LAW. Using the
concept of force, we can formulate Newton's first law in a different way.
There exist such reference systems relative to which a body in translatory
motion conserves its velocity if the resultant of all the forces applied to the
body is zero. Such reference systems were called inertial.
Newton’s second law is also valid only for inertial reference systems.
UNIT OF FORCE. Formula F = ma which expresses Newton’s law can
be used for deriving the unit of force. Obviously, the force is equal to unity if
under its action a body of unit mass acquires an acceleration equal to unity.
Thus, the unit o f force in S I is the force that imparts an acceleration o f 1 m/s*23
to a body o f 1 kg mass. This force is called a newton (abbreviated as N)
1 N = 1 kg •m/s2.

? 1. What is the motion o f a body acted upon by a force

having a constant magnitude and direction?
2. What is the direction o f the acceleration of a body due to
a force acting on it?
3. Can a body acted upon by a single force move without an
acceleration or be at rest?

89
 4. Is it true that the velocity o f a body is determined only by
the force acting on it?
5. Can we state that a body always moves in the direction of
a force applied to it?
6. Is the statement that the displacement o f a body is
determined only by the force acting on it correct?
7. Formulate Newton’s first law using the concept o f force.
8. A body is moving at a constant velocity. How will it move
after the application of two forces equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction?
9. A body o f mass m is moving in a circle o f radius r at
a velocity v o f constant magnitude. Is there a force acting
on the body? What are the magnitude and direction of
this force?

Exercise 11
1. A body having a mass o f 1.0 kg is falling to the Earth at
a constant acceleration of 9.8 m/s2. What is the magnitude
of the force acting on it (force o f gravity)?
2. A motorcar whose mass is 1000 kg is moving on a circular
road of radius 100 m at a velocity o f 20 m/s. What is the
magnitude o f the force acting on the car? What is its
direction?
3. A car whose mass is 2160 kg starts moving with an
acceleration which remains constant for 30 s. During this
time, the car covers a distance o f 500 m. What is the
magnitude o f the force applied during this time to the car?
4. Many years before Newton, the famous Italian artist and
scientist Leonardo da Vinci put forth the following
statement: “If a force displaces a body over a certain
distance during a certain time, the same force would
displace half o f this body over the same distance during
half this time”. Is this statement true or false?

4 »8 « M e a s u re m e n t o f Force
Force is one o f the fundamental quantities in mechanics. This
is so since knowing the force F acting on a body o f mass nu
it is possible to calculate its acceleration a by the formula
F
d= — .
m
As we know, the acceleration is the quantity required for solving the fun­
damental problem o f mechanics. However, in order to find the value of the
force it should be measured.

90
 How can we measure the force acting on a body?
Let us recall how we measured the force of gravity with which the Earth
acts on bodies near its surface (see Junior Physics, Sec. 31).
For this purpose, a body was suspended from a vertical spring. The spring
was stretched to such an extent that the elastic force Fe\ directed upwards
along the axis of the spring balanced the force of gravity Fg :
Fe,= —Fg.
The elastic force Fe\ with which the stretched spring acts on the body has
been already known (see experiments described on pp. 84,85).
In these experiments the force of gravity acting on a body of mass m was
found to be equal to mg. Therefore, the measurement of the force o f gravity
consisted in its balancing by a force which was known beforehand.
This method can be used for measuring any other force acting on any
body. The force should be balanced by a known force applied to the body.
A spring is very convenient for measuring forces since it acts on all bodies
with the same force when stretched (or contracted) to a certain extent.
Besides, the same spring can be used for obtaining different forces if we
stretch it to different extents.
In order to use a spring for measuring forces, we must first determine the
magnitudes of elastic forces corresponding to its different elongations. In
other words, we must find out how the elastic force depends on the
elongation of the spring. For this purpose we could again use a centrifuge
(place on it a spring with a body of known mass and measure the spring
elongation at different speeds of rotation).
But since the magnitude o f the force of gravity acting on a body is known,
we can find in a simpler way the elastic forces corresponding to different
elongations o f a given spring.
We can suspend from a vertical spring bodies having different masses and
measure each time the elongation of the spring with the help o f a scale
(Fig. 86). Indeed, we know that the magnitude of the force of gravity acting
on a body of mass m is mg. When the body suspended to the spring is at
rest, this force o f gravity is balanced by the elastic force of the spring.
Fig- 87

Consequently, the magnitude of the elastic force of the spring is also mg.
It this way, we can establish the dependence o f the elongation of the
spring on the force of gravity acting on the body suspended from it. If
against the divisions of the scale we write the figures corresponding to the
value of the elastic force in newtons, the spring will be graduated. Such a
graduated spring can be used for measuring any force. This device is called
a dynamometer.
HOW TO MEASURE A FORCE BY A DYNAMOMETER? Suppose
that a horizontal force F which is to be measured is acting on a body
(Fig. 87). We attach to this body the hook of a dynamometer with the
horizontal axis. The dynamometer itself is at rest. Under the action of the
force F, the body acquires an acceleration and moves, entraining the hook of
the dynamometer attached to it. The spring is elongated, thus giving rise to
an elastic force directed against the force F. When the elastic force Fe\ and
the force F become equal in magnitude, the body stops and the pointer of
the dynamometer indicates on the scale the value of the force F.
It should be noted that the dynamometer with the body to which the force
being measured is applied need not necessarily be at rest. Nothing will change
if they move together uniformly in a straight line. We know that a uni­
form rectilinear motion also takes place when equal antiparallel forces are
acting on a body. Figure 88 illustrates how the force with which the Earth
(soil) is acting on a platform pulled by a tractor is measured. To ensure the
accurate measurement, the tractor must move uniformly (at a constant
velocity).

Fig. 88
92
 4.9 N e w to n ’s T h ird Law

It was pointed out more than once that the actions of two
bodies on each other are always mutual, i.e. the bodies
interact. We can now say that each o f the bodies acts on the other one with
a certain force. For this reason, each body acquires an acceleration. It was
shown in Sec. 4.5 that the ratio of the magnitudes of accelerations of two
interacting bodies is equal to the inverse o f their masses:
a i = ”i2

a 2 m l

Hence m,a, = m2a 2.

In the same section, it was pointed out that the accelerations imparted to
the bodies during interaction have opposite directions. Hence we can write
m la 1 = — m2d2.
But m1a l = F, and m2a2 = F 2, where F x and F 2 are the forces acting on the
first and second bodies. Consequently,

= ~ F 2.

This equality expresses Newton's third law:

Bodies act on each other with forces directed along the same straight line.
These forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
This law indicates that due to the “mutual” action of bodies on each other,
the forces always emerge in pairs. If a force is acting on a body, there always
exists another body on which the first body is acting with a force having the
same magnitude but opposite direction. The accelerations imparted to the
bodies by these forces also have opposite directions.
Newton’s third law is valid for inertial reference systems.
The following experiment clarifies the meaning of Newton’s third law.
Let us take two identical carts and fix an elastic steel plate to one of them.
We bend this plate and tie it with a thread. Then we place the second cart in
such a way that it is in close contact with the other end of the plate
(Fig. 89). Let us cut the thread. The plate starts to straighten out and the
two carts will be set in motion. This means that both of them have acquired
an acceleration. Since the masses of the carts are equal, their accelerations
are also equal in magnitude. Therefore, their velocities are also equal, as can
be seen from the same displacements of the carts during the same time.
If we put a load on one o f the carts (Fig. 90), we shall see that the
displacements o f the carts after releasing the plate will be different. This
means that their accelerations are also different: the acceleration of the load­
ed cart will be lower.
This example, as well as any other, illustrates one more peculiarity of the
two forces which, in accordance with Newton’s third law, simultaneously
emerge during the interaction of two bodies: these forces are always of the
same origin. If, for example, the force exerted by one body on another is

93
elastic force, the second body “responds” to the first one by an elastic force
as well.
It should be always borne in mind that the forces appearing during
interaction o f bodies are applied to different bodies and hence cannot balance
each other. Only the forces applied to the same body can balance each other.

1. Formulate Newton’s third law.

2. A formulation o f the third law proposed by Newton
himself is: “An action is always opposed by an equal
reaction”. Is there any physical difference between the
action and reaction?
3. Do the forces o f two interacting bodies balance each
other?
4. Why is the damage to a motorcar colliding with a loaded
lorry always more than the damage to the lorry?

EXAMPLE OF SOLVING A PROBLEM

The mass of each cart in the experiment shown in Fig. 90 is 200 g. The
mass of the load on the right cart is 300 g. The elastic plate straightens out
during 2 s, and the average elastic force Fav of the plate is equal to 1 N.
What are the displacements o f the carts during this time? The mass of the
plate and friction can be neglected.
Solution. We assume that during 2 s the plate acts with a constant force
equal in magnitude to Fav.
Let the right cart move along the X-axis. The left cart experiences the
action of the elastic force o f the plate in the opposite direction. The
projection o f this force onto the X-axis is negative and equal in magnitude
to Fav. According to Newton’s third law, the right cart is acted upon by the
force o f the same magnitude but directed along the X-axis. Hence its
projection onto the X-axis is positive. Then, in accordance with Newton’s
second law, we can write
^av = ^ a ]x, Fav = mTaTX,
where W| and mr are the masses o f the left and right (loaded) carts, and a\x
and aTX are the projections of the accelerations of the carts onto the X-axis.

94
 Hence
a\x = ~ F*Jm\ and aTX = F ^/rr^.
The projections S|x and sIX of the displacements can be found from the
formulas

s \x =
“lx '2 ~ Fm t2 . _ arx‘2 f av <2
2 2m\ 2 2 mT
Substituting the values of the quantities from the condition of the problem,
we get
- 1 N (2s)2 1 N(2s)2
s \x = = - 10 m; = 4 m.
2 x 0.2 kg " 2 x 0 . 5 kg

Exercise 12
1. Two men pull a rope in opposite directions with a force of
50 N each. Will the rope break if it can withstand
a tension of 80 N?
2. Two boys weighing 40 and 50 kg stand facing each other
on rollerskates. The first boy is pushing away from the
second boy with the force o f 10N. Find the accelerations
o f the boys.

S u m m a r y . The I m p o r ta n c e of N e w t o n ’s
Laws
Our experience and observations show that the cause of
a change in motion o f bodies, i.e. the cause of a change in their velocity are
the actions of other bodies on them. Without this action, the motion of
a body cannot change, i.e. no acceleration can appear. The action of one
body on another is quantitatively expressed by the quantity called force.
The action o f one body on another is not unilateral. Bodies act on each
other, i.e. they are interacting. The acceleration of a body due to interaction
depends on a peculiar property of the body, viz. its inertia which is expressed
by the quantity called mass.
 These experimental results form the basis o f three laws of motion
(dynamics), discovered by Newton at the end o f the 17th century. These laws
are strikingly brief and simple if motions are considered in appropriate
reference systems, viz. inertial systems.
Newton's first law states that such systems do exist and enables us to find
them.
There exist such reference systems relative to which the velocity o f a body
in translational motion remains unchanged if the sum o f the forces acting on
the body is equal to zero.
Newton's second law establishes the relation between the force and
acceleration caused by it.
Regardless o f its nature, the force acting on a body is equal to the product
of the mass of the body and the acceleration imparted by this force:
F = md.
Newton's third law shows that the action of a body on another is of mu­
tual nature.
Bodies act on each other with forces o f the same origin, which are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction:

F'i= - F 2-
The laws o f motion are expressed by two simple (at first sight) formulas.
However, they contain an extraordinary rich information. Different kinds of
motion occur around us: water flows in rivers, waterfalls come down, winds
and hurricanes blow over the Earth, motorcars run on the roads, ships sail
in the seas, airplanes fly in air, galaxies, stars, planets, and artificial satellites
are in motion in space. These motions as well as bodies are different. The
forces acting on the bodies are also different. However, Newton's laws are
equally valid for all these motions, bodies and forces. These laws are
expressed analytically in the above formulas which seem to be very
simple.
N ewton’s mechanics was the first complete theory in the history of physics
(and science in general) which correctly described a large class of
phenomena, viz. the motion of bodies. N ot without reason, one o f Newton’s
contemporaries expressed his admiration at this theory in the following
verses:
Nature and Nature’s Laws
Lay hid in night;
God said, Let Newton be\
And all was light.

N ewton’s laws permit, in principle, to solve any problem in mechanics. If

the forces applied to a body are known, its acceleration can be found at any
point o f the trajectory at any instant of time.
Thus, the “chain” mentioned at the end o f Chapter 3 has been completed:
from known forces and mass o f the body, its acceleration is determined.
Then the velocity o f the body and its displacement over any interval of time
are calculated. Finally, the coordinates o f the body at any instant o f time are

96
found. For this we must know the “initial conditions”, viz. the initial position
and initial velocity o f the body.
For example, the scientists who control the flight of a spacecraft obviously
must know in advance the position of the spacecraft at any instant o f time.
They can find it by using such a “chain”. They know the initial position of
the spacecraft on the launching pad and its initial velocity. They also know
the forces acting on the spacecraft at any point o f the trajectory. Using these
data, they solve the problem o f mechanics for a given flight. But since the
forces acting on the spacecraft are varying all the time, the calculations
become so complicated that they can be made only with the aid of
computers.
We repeatedly stated that the basic problem of mechanics is to determine
the position o f a moving body at any instant o f time. However, this does not
mean that the laws o f motion are used just for calculating the position of
a body. In actual practice, such quantities as the velocity o f a body, its
acceleration, forces acting on it, etc. have to be found. Of course, Newton’s
laws allow us to solve such simpler problems as well.
5
FORCES IN N A T U R E

ARE T H ER E M A N Y TY PE S O F F O RC E IN N A T U R E ?

It was pointed out earlier that the cause o f a change in

motion, i.e. the cause o f acceleration o f bodies is force. On
the other hand, forces emerge when bodies interact. Which kinds of
interactions exist in nature? Are these kinds numerous?
At first sight, there is a large number of force types the bodies act on each
other, and hence/ there are many types of interactions. We can impart an
acceleration to a body by pushing or pulling it by the hand. Any body falling
to the Earth moves with an acceleration. A ship whose sails are blown up by
the wind starts moving with an acceleration. Stretching and releasing the
bow string, we impart an acceleration to the arrow. In all these cases some
forces are acting, which seem to be quite different. Naturally, we can mention
many other forces also. Everybody knows about electric and magnetic forces,
forces o f earthquakes, tides, etc.
Are there indeed so many different types of forces in nature? It turns out
that this is not so.
Whiie considering mechanical motion of bodies, we have to deal only with
three types of forces: elastic force, force o f friction and gravitational force. All
the forces mentioned above, which seem so different, are reduced to one of
these types. However, these three types of forces are the manifestation of
only two main forces in nature, which are indeed o f different origin. These
are electromagnetic forces and gravitational forces.
Let us first consider electromagnetic forces.
From the introductory course o f physics it is known that there is a force
which is acting between electrified bodies and called electric force.
Electric forces can be either attractive or repulsive. Charges o f two types
exist in nature. They are conventionally called positive and negative charges.
Two bodies with like charges repel and with unlike charges attract each
other.
Electric charges possess a very interesting property. When they are moving
relative to each other, one more force is acting between them in addition to
an electric force. This is a magnetic force.
These two forces-electric and magnetic-are related to each other so
closely that they cannot be separated: they are acting simultaneously. Since
we deal as a rule with moving charges, the forces acting among them can be
called neither electric nor magnetic. They are called electromagnetic
forces.
What is the origin o f an “electric charge” which a body may have or have
not?

98
 Any body consists of molecules and atoms. Atoms, in turn, (although they
are very sm a ll-o f the order of 1 0 ' 8 cm) are composed of still smaller
particles, viz. atomic nuclei and electrons. These particles, nuclei and
electrons, possess electric charges. A nucleus has a positive charge while
electrons are charged negatively.
Under normal conditions, an atom contains such a number of electrons
that their total negative charge is equal to the positive charge of the nucleus
so that the atom on the whole as if has no charge. It is said to be electrically
neutral. Hence the bodies composed o f such neutral atoms are also
electrically neutral. Electric forces are practically absent when such bodies
interact.
On the other hand, the neighbouring atoms constituting a solid (or liquid)
are arranged so closely that the forces o f interaction between the charges of
these atoms are considerable.
Forces of interaction of atoms depend on their separations. This depen­
dence is complex and is not exactly known so far. However, the forces of
interaction o f atoms are found to change the direction upon a change in the
separation between them. If it is very small, atoms repel each other. If,
however, the separation of the atoms has increased, they start to attract each
other. At a certain atomic separation, the forces of interaction between the
atoms become equal to zero (vanish). Naturally, atoms are arranged relative
to each other just at such separations in solids and liquids. It should be
noted that these distances are very small. They are of the order of atomic
dimensions.

5.1. E lastic Forces

When a body is stretched, the atomic separation somewhat
increases, and attractive forces emerge between the atoms.
These forces impart acceleration to the atoms and make them come closer
up to the previous distance.
If, on the contrary, a body is compressed and thus its atoms arc brought
closer, repulsive forces emerge, which make the atoms move apart and
occupy the previous positions.
Thus, if a body is stretched or compressed, the forces of electrical origin
emerge in it, which restore the previous dimensions of the body.
Such restoring forces also appear when bodies are bent (Fig. 91) or twisted
(Fig. 92) because in these cases too the mutual arrangement of atoms
changes.
Extension, compression, bend and torsion are called deformations o f bodies.
Experiments show that in any deformation (if it is not too large in
comparison with the dimensions of the body itself) a force emerges, which
returns the body to the initial state prior to the deformation. It is this force
that is called elastic force.
In Secs. 4.7 and 4.9 we considered elastic forces appearing upon
deformation of a spring. We can now say that an clastic force emerges dur-

99
ing deformation o f any body and not only a spring (each body may play the
role o f a spring!).
Since an elastic force returns the body to the initial state, it is directed
oppositely to the displacement o f particles of the body during deformation.
If, for example, a rod with one fixed end (Fig. 93a) is stretched so that its
particles are displaced to the right o f the fixed end (Fig. 93b), the elastic
force is directed to the left. If the rod is compressed as shown in Fig. 93c, its
particles are displaced to the left and the clastic force is directed to the right.
Elastic force is the force appearing during deformation o f a body and having
the direction opposite to the displacement o f particles o f the body.
Henceforce, we shall be considering elastic forces emerging only during
extension or compression.
The change in the length o f the body in Fig. 93c (its elongation) is denot­
ed by x. Figures 93b and c show that x is also the projection onto the X-axis
of the displacement vector o f the free end o f the rod upon extension or
compression. This projection is positive for the extension o f the rod and
negative for its compression.
HOOKE’S LAW. Experiments similar to that described in 4.9 (see Fig. 86)
were carried out not only with springs but also with rigid rods. These
experiments have led to the relation between elastic force and deformation
causing it. It turned out that for sufficiently small elongations (small in
comparison with the length o f the rod), the magnitude o f the elastic force
vector is proportional to the magnitude o f the displacement vector for the
free end of the rod. As we know (see Figs. 93b and c), the projections of
these vectors onto the X-axis have opposite signs. Hence the analytical form
of this dependence is

(^el)x = ~ k x . (5.1.1)

Here k is the proportionality factor called the rigidity of the body (or spring).
The rigidity depends on the dimensions o f a body (spring) and the material
of which it is made. The unit o f rigidity in SI is newton per metre (N/m).

Fig. 91 Fig.- 92

100
 Formula (5.1.1.) expresses H ookes law: Elastic force due to deformation of
a body (spring) is proportional to the elongation of the body and is directed
oppositely to the displacement of particles of the body under deforma­
tion.
It follows from what is said above that the elastic force depends on
coordinates o f some parts of a body relative to other parts.

1. List the types of interactions in nature. Which of them

cause an elastic force?
2. Which o f the forces cited at the beginning of this chapter
are elastic?
3. Under which conditions do elastic forces emerge?
4. Formulate Hooke’s law.

Exercise 13
1. A load o f mass 0.1 kg is suspended from a vertical spring
whose upper end is fixed. After the vibrations of the load
have damped, it turns out that the spring is elongated by
2 cm. What is the rigidity of the spring?
2. Two identical carts having the mass of 100 g each arc
connected through a compressed spring whose length (in
the compressed state) is 6 cm. The rigidity of the spring is
30 N/m. After the spring had expanded, the carts moved
apart at an acceleration o f 6 m/s*12. Find the length of the
undeformed spring.

101
5.2 M otion Is t h e C a u s e of D e f o r m a t io n
How does the deformation of a body emerge? Let us take
two carts with balls of soft rubber fixed in front o f them
(Fig. 94). We push the carts towards each other so that they collide. When
the balls touch each other, they both change their shape, i.e. get deformed.
At the same time, the velocities o f the carts to which the balls are fixed are
gradually decreasing. Ultimately, the carts stop for a moment and then start
to move backwards, reversing the directions o f their accelerations. Obviously,
the cause of acceleration is the elastic force due to deformation o f the balls.
This experiment shows that the deformation occurred because the balls, after
having been brought in contact, continued to move for a certain time in the
previous direction until the elastic force due to deformation stopped them.
After this, the deformed balls restoring their shape made the carts move in
the opposite directions. However, as soon as the balls had restored their
shape, the elastic force vanished. Hence, we can state that the cause o f the
deformation o f the ball was the motion o f one its part relative to the other and
as a consequence o f deformation, the elastic force appeared.
If we now replace rubber balls by steel ones and repeat the experiment, the
result is just the same. The carts collide, stop for a moment and then start to
move in the opposite directions. However, in this experiment we do not see
the change in the shape of the balls (their deformation). But this does not
mean that there is no deformation since the carts with steel balls behave just
in the same way as the carts with rubber balls. As a matter o f fact, the
deformations o f steel balls are very small and cannot be detected without
special devices.
Not only deformations but also the motions causing them are often
imperceptible. For example, when we are looking on a book (or some other
load) lying on the table, we naturally cannot notice that both the load and
the table are slightly deformed. But it is just the deformation of the table,

Fig. 94

102
 n

completely imperceptible by the naked eye, leads to the emergence of the

elastic force directed upwards and balancing the attraction of the load to the
Earth. For this reason, the load remains at rest. When we put a load on
a table, it starts to move downwards due to the attraction to the Earth, like
any falling body. The moving load displaces the particles comprising the part
of the table which is in contact with the load. The table is deformed, which
gives rise to the elastic force just equal to the force of attraction of the load
to the Earth but directed upwards.
If we put the load on a soft rubber, we can see by a naked eye both the
displacement and the final deformation of the rubber (Fig. 95).
The same line of reasoning applies to the action of a suspender (Figs. 96a
and b).
In many cases, the deformations causing an elastic force are quite signif­
icant. The elongation of a spiral or a rubber cord can be easily observed.
Using rapid photography, we can observe the deformation of a football
under the impact of a player. Coloured plate I la shows the shape acquired
by the round ball at the moment of impact. Tennis ball also loses its
spherical shape under the blow of a racket.
Elastic force exerted on a body by a support or suspender is often called
the reaction o f support or the reaction o f suspender ( suspender tension).
The above examples show that elastic force emerges during the contact of
two interacting bodies. Of course, both bodies are always deformed.

Fig. 96 (b)

103
Fig. 97 Fig. 98

An important property o f elastic force is that it is directed normally to the

surface of contact of interacting bodies. If such bodies as compressed or
stretched springs are taking part in an interaction, the elastic force is directed
along their axes.

1. Under which conditions do deformations o f bodies

appear?
2. Figure 97 shows an archer. What is the direction of an
elastic force imparting an acceleration to the arrow?
3. A load is at rest on an inclined plane (Fig. 98). Is an
elastic force acting on the load? Which deformed body is
responsible for this force?
4. What is called the reaction of support?

Hometask
Explain the appearance o f elastic force Fei in the experiment
illustrated in Figs. 96a and b.

5.3 . Force of U n i v e r s a l G r a v i t a t i o n
Newton discovered the laws of motion o f bodies. According
to these laws, accelerated motion is possible only under the
action of a force. Since falling bodies move with an acceleration, they should
experience the action of a downward force directed to the Earth. Is it only
the Earth that has the property to attract bodies near its surface? In 1667,
Newton put forward the hypothesis that forces of mutual attraction are in
general acting among all bodies. He called these forces the forces o f universal
gravitation.
Then why don’t we notice mutual attraction between bodies surrounding
us? Perhaps, this is due to the fact that attractive forces are too weak?

104
 Newton managed to show that the force of attraction between two bodies
depends on their masses. It turned out that its value becomes significant only
when interacting bodies (or at least one of them) have an appreciable mass.
THE ROLE OF MASSES OF INTERACTING BODIES. Free fall
acceleration has a remarkable property consisting in that it is the same for
all bodies (of any mass) at a given point. How can this peculiar property be
explained?
The only explanation of the fact that the acceleration due to gravity is
independent o f the mass of a body is that the force F itself, with which the
Earth attracts the body, is proportional to its mass.
Indeed, in this case, say, a double increase in the mass m will double the
magnitude of the force F, while the acceleration equal to the ratio F/m
remains unchanged. Newton draw a single correct conclusion: the force of
universal gravitation is proportional to the mass of the body on which it is
acting.
However, there is a mutual attraction between bodies, the forces of
interaction being of the same origin. Consequently, the force with which the
body attracts the Earth is also proportional to the Earth’s mass. According
to Newton’s third law, these forces are equal in magnitude. Hence, if one of
them is proportional to the mass of the Earth, the second force equal to the
first one (viz. the force with which the Earth attracts the body) is also
proportional to the mass of the Earth. Therefore, the force o f mutual
attraction is proportional to the masses of the two interacting bodies. This
means that it is proportional to the product o f masses o f the bodies.
What else determines the force o f mutual attraction of two bodies?
THE ROLE OF THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE BODIES. Newton
supposed that the force of mutual attraction between two bodies must de­
pend on the distance between them. It is well known from experiments that
near the Earth’s surface, the free-fall acceleration is 9.8 m/s2 and it is the
same for all bodies falling from the height o f 1, 10 or 100 m. We cannot
conclude from this, however, that the acceleration is independent of the
distance from the Earth. Newton believed that the distance should be
measured not from the Earth’s surface but from its centre. The radius of the
Earth is 6400 km. Hence it is clear that several tens of metres above the
Earth cannot introduce any noticeable change in the free-fall acceleration.
In order to determine the effect of the separation of bodies on their mutual
attraction, we must know the acceleration of bodies at large distances from

It ^ obviously difficult to measure the free-fall acceleration of bodies at an

altitude of several thousand kilometres above the Earth’ surface^ It would
more convenient to measure the centripetal acceleration of a o y J"0™ *
a circle around the Earth under the action of attraction by the Eara (Recall
that the same technique was used by us while studying e eas ■
measured the centripetal acceleration of the cylinder moving in a circle under
the action of this force (see Sec. 4.6). . r i r„ i
Nature itself came to help physicists studying the for“ of
gravitation and made it possible to determine the acceleration o f a body

105
moving in a circle around the Earth. This body is the natural satellite of the
Earth-the Moon. Indeed, if Newton’s hypothesis is correct, it should be
assumed that it is the force o f attraction to the Earth that imparts to the
Moon a centripetal acceleration in its orbiting the Earth. If the gravitational
force between the Moon and the Earth were independent o f their separation,
the centripetal acceleration o f the M oon would be the same as the
acceleration due to gravity for the bodies near the Earth’s surface. In fact,
the centripetal acceleration o f the orbital motion of the M oon is known to
be 0.0027 m /s2 (see Problem 5 o f Exercise 8). This is about 1/3600 of the
free-fall acceleration for bodies on the Earth. At the same time, the
centre-to-centre distance for the Earth and the Moon is known to be about
384 000 km. It is 60 times as large as the Earth’s radius, i. e. the distance
from its centre to the surface.
Thus, the 60-fold increase in the distance between bodies attracting each
other decreases the acceleration by a factor o f 602.
Hence we may conclude that the acceleration due to the force of
universal gravitation, and consequently this force itself, is inversely
proportional to the squared separation o f the interacting bodies. This was
just the conclusion drawn by Newton.
THE LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION. We can thus write that
two bodies having masses M and m attract each other with a force F whose
magnitude is expressed by the formula
Mm
F=G (5.3.1)

where r is the separation of the bodies and G is the proportionality factor,

which is the same for all bodies in nature. This factor is called the constant of
universal gravitation, or gravitational constant.
Formula (5.3.1) expresses the law o f universal gravitation discovered by
Newton.
All bodies attract one another with a force whose magnitude is directly
proportional to the product o f their masses and inversely proportional to
their squared separation.
The force o f universal gravitation makes planets move around the Sun and
artificial satellites, around the Earth.
What should be meant under the separation o f interacting bodies?
It turned out that formula (5.3.1) which expresses the law o f universal
gravitation is valid when the separation o f the bodies is so large in
comparison with their dimensions that the bodies can be treated as material
points. This force is directed along the straight line connecting the material
points. While calculating the gravitational force, the M oon and the Earth,
the planets and the Sun can be treated as material points.
If the bodies have spherical shape, they attract one another as material
points located at their centres even when their dimensions are comparable
with their separation. In this case, r is the centre-to-centre distance o f the
spheres and the force is acting along the line connecting the two centres.
Formula (5.3.1) can also be used for calculating the force o f attraction

106
 between a large sphere and a body having a small size and arbitrary shape,
which is near the surface of the sphere. Then we can neglect the dimensions
of the body in comparison with the radius o f the sphere. We proceed just in
this way while considering attraction o f different bodies and the globe.
Gravitational force is another example of the force which depends on the
mutual arrangement o f interacting bodies, i.e. on their coordinates (the
gravitational force depends on the separation r between the bodies).

5.4 . G ra v ita tio n a l C onstant

The formula expressing the law of universal gravitation
contains the coefficient G, viz. the constant o f universal
gravitation (gravitational constant). What is the meaning of this quantity?
The coefficient G has a simple meaning. If the masses M and m of two
interacting bodies are equal to unity (M = m = 1 kg) and their separation is
also equal to unity (r = 1 m), it follows from formula (5.3.1) that the force
F is equal in magnitude to the gravitational constant G.
What are the dimensions of constant G? The formula expressing the law of
universal gravitation leads to the following expression:
Fr2
G = ------ .
Mm
If the force is given in newtons (N), the distance in metres (m) and the
mass in kilograms (kg), the quantity on the rig't-hand side of this equation
has the dimensions N m2/kg2. We know that in any formula (if it is correct)
the quantities on different sides of equation should be expressed in the same
units (for example, 5 m cannot be equal to 5 kg). Hence it follows that
constant G must have the dimensions o f N -m 2/kg2.
The numerical value o f the gravitational constant can be determined only
from an experiment in which the force F acting on one of the bodies of
known masses m1 and m2 arranged at a known distance r should be
determined in one way or another.
Such experiments have been carried out more than once. In one of them
a glass ball filled with mercury was suspended from a long thread fixed to
a pan of sensitive scales (beam balance) (Fig. 99). The other pan was loaded
with weights for balance. After the scales had been thoroughly balanced,
a lead sphere o f a large mass (about 6000 kg) was arranged under the sphere
with mercury as close to it as possible. The equilibrium of scales was
violated due to attraction o f the mercury sphere to the lead one. In order to
balance the scales, an additional load should be placed on the pan with
weights. The force of attraction between this additional weight and the Farth
is obviously equal to the force of attraction between the mercury sphere and
the lead one. i.e.

F —G -

107
 M ercury ^ )

Here m\ is the mass o f the lead sphere, mm is the mass o f the mercury sphere
and r is their centre-to-centre distance. Hence we can easily calculate the
value o f G:

m\mm '

This and many other experiments have yielded the following value of G:
G = 6.67 x 10"11 N m2/kg2.

This is a very small quantity. It is because o f its smallness that we do not

notice the attraction among bodies surrounding us. Two balls having a mass
of one ton each and located at a distance o f 1 m attract one another with
a force equal only to 6.67 x 10~5 N.

1. What will be the change in the force o f attraction between

two spheres if (a) one o f them is replaced by a sphere
whose mass is twice larger? (b) the mass o f the second
sphere is also doubled?
2. What will be the change in the force o f attraction between
two spheres if their centre-to-centre distance is doubled?
3. Bodies on the Earth’s surface attract one another. Why
don’t we notice this?
4. Which force makes the Earth and other planets move
around the Sun?

IOC
 Exercise 14
1. The mass o f the mercury sphere described in this section is
5 kg, its radius is 4.5 cm, the mass of the lead sphere is 6 t
and its radius is 0.5 m. Which load should be added on
the right pan of the balance to compensate the attraction
between the lead and mercury spheres?
2. Two ships 50 000 t each are on harbour at a distance of
1 km from each other. What is the force o f their
attraction?
3. Calculate the force o f attraction between the Moon and
the Earth. The mass o f the Moon mM~7 x 1022 kg, the
mass o f the Earth x 1024 kg, and their separation
should be taken at 3.84 x 108 m.
4. A cosmonaut has landed on the Moon. He is being
attracted both by the M oon and by the Earth. What is the
ratio o f the forces o f attraction to the Moon and the
Earth? The radius o f the Moon is 1730 km.

5 .5 . F o r c e o f G r a v i ty
FORCE O F GRAVITY. One of manifestations of the force
o f universal gravitation is the force of gravity, viz. the force of
attraction to the Earth. We denote the Earth’s mass by M, its radius by
R and the mass o f a body by m. Then the force acting on the body near the
Earth’s surface is, in accordance with the law of universal gravitation
Mm (5.5.1)
F =

This is just the force o f gravity. It is directed to the centre o f the Earth.
If only this force is acting on a body (while all other forces are mutually
balanced) the body falls freely. The free-fall acceleration can be found with
the help of Newton’s second law:
F Mm (5.5.2)
9 = — = ^ ~a2—
m Rm
Thus the free-fall acceleration g does not depend on the mass m o f the body
and consequently it is the same for all bodies. This is a remarkable property
of the force o f universal gravitation, and hence o f the force of gravity, whic
was discovered experimentally by Galilei. It is remarkable since, according to
Newton’s second law, the acceleration should be inversely proportional to
the mass. However, the gravitational force itself is proportional to the mass
of a body on which it acts. This is the reason behind the fact that the tree-
fall acceleration is the same for all bodies.

109
 We can now write the following equation for the force o f gravity:

F g = " fr

which was derived earlier (see Sec. 4.7).

FREE-FALL ACCELERATIONS ARE DIFFERENT AT DIFFERENT
LATITUDES. Strictly speaking, formula (5.5.2), as well as Newton’s second
law, is valid when a free fall is considered in an inertial reference system. On
the surface of the Earth, reference systems fixed to the poles o f the Earth,
which do not take part in its diurnal rotation, may serve as inertial systems
of reference. All other points of the Earth’s surface are moving in a circle
with centripetal accelerations. Hence, reference systems fixed to these points
are not inertial and Newton’s second law is inapplicable to them.
Rotation of the Earth leads to the fact that the free-fall accelerations
measured relative to any body fixed on the Earth’s surface are different at
different latitudes.
Another important cause of the difference in free-fall accelerations at
different points on the Earth’s surface is due to the fact that the globe is
slightly flattened at the poles.
Experiments show that the free-fall acceleration measured relative to the
Earth’s surface at the poles is about 9.83 m/s2, on the equator it is 9.78 m/s2,
while at the latitude o f 45° it is 9.81 m/s2.
These figures show that the values of free-fall acceleration in different
regions of the globe differ only slightly from each other and from the value
calculated from the formula

g= —9.83 m/s2.

Hence, in rough calculations the facts that reference systems connected with
the Earth’s surface are noninertial and that the shape o f the globe differs
from spherical are neglected. The free-fall acceleration is assumed to be the
same and is calculated by formula (5.5.2).
In some regions of the globe, the free-fall acceleration differs from the
above value for some other reason. The anomalies are observed in the
regions where the Earth’s interiors contain deposits o f minerals whose
density is higher or lower than the average density of the Earth. The value of
g is larger where denser minerals are deposited. This gives a tool for geol­
ogists to find the deposits of commercial minerals by measuring the value
of g.
Finally, the force of gravity, and hence the free-fall acceleration change as
a body is moving away from the surface of the Earth. If a body is at a height
h above the Earth s surface, the magnitude of the free-fall acceleration
g should be written in the form

9 G (R + h)2 '

For example, if a body is at a height of 300 km, the acceleration due to

gravity is 1 m/s2 smaller than at the surface. This formula shows that the

110
force of gravity can be assumed constant, independently of the position of
a body, at altitudes above the Earth not only o f dozens or hundreds of
metres but also o f several kilometres. It is only for this reason that free fall
near the Earth can be assumed to be a uniformly accelerated motion.
MEASUREMENT OF THE MASS OF A BODY BY WEIGHING. It
was shown in Chapter 4 that the mass of a body can be determined by
measuring the ratio o f accelerations acquired during the interaction of the
given body with the one taken as the standard o f mass. Obviously, this
method is very inconvenient and normally never employed in actual practice.
Let us now consider another, more convenient method for measuring the
mass. This method is called weighing. It is based on the fact that the force of
gravity acting on a body and the mass o f this body are proportional to each
other:
Fg = mg.

The force o f gravity can be measured by a dynamometer (spring balance).

Having measured the gravity force Fg and knowing the value of g at the
place where weighing is performed, we find the mass of the body from the
formula

It is still more convenient to determine the mass of a body by weighing it

on a beam balance when the mass of a body (on one pan) is compared with
the mass of weights (on the other pan). When the balance is in equilibrium,
we can state that the same force of gravity is acting on the body and on the
weights. This means that the mass of the body is also equal to the mass of
the weights. Since it is the mass which is indicated on a weight, we can
determine the mass o f the body by summing up the figures indicated on the
weights.
Beam balance is a very sensitive instrument. The smallest mass that can be
measured with the help o f a modem sensitive balance amounts to several
millionths of a kilogram.

1. Give the definition of the force of gravity.

2. Free-fall acceleration of bodies is independent o f their
mass. What about the force of gravity?
3. Is the force o f gravity the same at different points on the
globe?
4. Does the rotation of the Earth around its axis affect the
force o f gravity?
5. Does the force o f gravity acting on a body change when it
moves away from the Earth’s surface?
6. What is the direction o f the gravity force acting on any
body?

Ill
EXAMPLE OF SOLVING A PROBLEM
Calculate the mass of the Earth if the free-fall acceleration near its surface
is known to be 9.8 m/s2. Assume that the radius o f the globe is 6370 km.
Solution. Naturally, the mass of the Earth cannot be measured with the
help of a beam balance. However, it can be calculated from the formula for
the free-fall acceleration:

where G = 6.67 x 10 11 N -m 2/kg2 is the gravitational constant.

Hence, the mass of the Earth

Substituting the values o f g, R and G, we obtain

9.8 m/s2(6.37 • 106 m)2
M =- 6.0 x 1024 kg.
6.67 x 10"11 N m2/kg2
The mass of the Earth is about six million billion billion kilograms!

Exercise 15
1. What is the mass of a body if the force o f gravity acting
on it is 49 N ? The body is near the Earth’s surface.
2. At what altitude above the Earth does the force o f gravity
acting on a body decrease by half?
3. Find the force of attraction acting on one-kilogram body
near the M oon’s surface. What is the ratio between this
force and the force o f gravity acting on this body at the
Earth’s surface?
4. Calculate the free-fall acceleration near the Mars surface,
assuming that the mass of the Mars is 6.0 x 1023 kg and
its radius is 3300 km.

Friction. S t a ti c Friction
We have already mentioned one o f the manifestations of
electric interaction between bodies, viz. elastic force. Friction
mentioned by us more than once is another manifestation o f electric
interaction. This force cannot be forgotten since it accompanies any motion
of bodies. It is due to this force that motion o f a body ultimately ceases
unless any other force is acting on the body, like elastic force or force of
gravity.
It should be recalled (see Junior Physics, Sec. 34) that friction emerges
when bodies are in direct contact and is always directed along the contact
surface unlike elastic force which is always normal to this surface.

112
 Fig. 100

Let us illustrate the emergence of friction by the following experiment

(Fig. 100). A dynamometer is attached to a body resting on a support. The
dynamometer string is stretched by the hand. Figure 101 schematically shows
the forces acting on the body: the force F parallel to the surface o f contact
between the body and the table. This force is measured by the dynamometer.
Besides, the body is acted upon by the force o f gravity F g and the normal
reaction o f support N , balancing the force o f gravity. This force is due to
deformation o f the table and is directed normally to the contact surface
between the body and the table. If the load is insufficient, the body remains
at rest. This means that another force F f is acting on the body in addition to
the force F. This force is equal in magnitude to F but has the opposite
direction:
Ff = - F .
This is just the friction which is called static friction.
Let us increase the load by attaching to it a large weight The
dynamometer indicates an increase in force F. However, the body, as before,
remains at rest. This means that the force o f static friction has increased
together with F so that, as before, these forces are equal in magnitude and
have opposite direction. This is the main peculiarity o f static friction.
Static friction is always equal in magnitude and directed oppositely to the
force applied to the body along the surface o f its contact with another body.

Fig. 101

113
Fig. 102

Finally, at a certain value of the mass of the load, the body starts to slide.
Consequently, there exists a certain maximum static friction F fmax. Only
when the force F parallel to the surface becomes if only slightly larger than
static friction, the body acquires an acceleration.
Static friction is just the force that prevents us from shifting a heavy
object: a cupboard, a table, a drawer, etc.
Why is it important that the body should be heavy? We are not moving it
upwards, against the force o f gravity are we? The answer to this question is
given by an experiment.
Let us place a load on a body in order to press it against the table
(Figs. 102 and 103) (instead we could press it by the hand, spring, etc.). Thus
we increase the force directed normally to the surface o f contact between the
body and the table. (Force applied to the surface of support in contact with
the body is called the force o f pressure.) If we now measure again the
maximum static friction, i. e. the force required to make the body slide, it
turns out to increase in the same proportion as the force of pressure.
Maximum static friction is proportional to the force o f pressure.
In accordance with Newton’s third law, the force o f pressure o f a body on
a support is equal in magnitude to the normal reaction. Hence, we can write

Fig. 103

114
the following relation for the magnitudes o f these forces:
F If m a x = p A f »

where p is the proportionality factor called the coefficient o f friction.

FRICTION DOES N O T ALWAYS HINDER MOTION. It was
mentioned earlier that friction is an obstacle for the beginning of motion. On
the other hand, however, there exist situations when just static friction
initiates motion. For example, it is just static friction F j acting on the sole
that imparts an acceleration to a walking person (Fig. 104). The sole does
not slide backwards, hence friction between the sole and the ground is static.
And if the sole is sliding, it is impossible to walk. The force F2 equal in
magnitude to F l and having the opposite direction imparts an acceleration
to the Earth. In a similar way, the wheels o f motorcars and other vehicles as
if push off the Earth, and this pulling force is just static friction.
When the transmission belt in a belt drive makes the pulley rotate
(Fig. 105), the force imparting an acceleration to the pulley ring is the static
friction between the belt and the pulley.

1. A boy pushes a bookcase with a maximum possible effort

but cannot shift it. Is Newton’s second law, stating that
a body acted upon by a force changes its velocity, violated
here?
2. Is friction acting on a table standing on the floor?
3. When does static friction appear? What is its direction?
4. What is called the force o f pressure?

115
 5.7 Sliding F ric tio n

It was established in the preceding section that if a force

applied to a body parallel to the surface o f its contact with
another body is if only slightly stronger than the maximum static friction,
the body acquires an acceleration and starts sliding over the surface of the
other body. In this case too friction is acting on the body, but now it is
sliding friction. Measurements show that this force is approximately equal in
magnitude to the maximum static friction. The direction o f sliding friction
(henceforth, this force will be called just friction) is always opposite to that of
the relative velocity of the bodies in contact. This is the most important
property of friction.
The direction o f (sliding) friction is opposite to the direction o f the velocity
o f a body relative to the body in contact with it.
The acceleration imparted to a body by friction also has the direction
opposite to that o f the relative velocity of the body. This means that sliding
friction always leads to the reduction of the relative velocity o f the body.
Just as the maximum static friction, sliding friction is proportional to the
force of pressure (and hence to the normal reaction N ) acting on a body:

Ff = \iN .

The proportionality factor p in this formula is the same as in the expression

for the maximum static friction.
The formula for friction shows that the coefficient p is equal to the ratio of
the magnitudes of friction and the normal reaction:
F

Normally, the coefficient of friction is less than unity. This means that
friction is always smaller than the force o f pressure.
The coefficient o f friction characterizes simultaneously two bodies rubbing
against each other rather than a body on which friction is acting. 11 > value
depends on the materials of which rubbing bodies are made, on finishing the
surfaces, their cleanness, etc. Experiments revealed that friction is
independent both of the area o f surfaces in contact and o f the relative
position o f the bodies. For example, the coefficient o f friction between
a skate and ice is the same for the entire ice road (of course, if the ice surface
ls, un‘ ° [ in everywhere). Thus, friction is an exception to the rule according to
which the force acting on a body depends on its position relative to the body
with which it is interacting. It turns out that friction depends not on the
position o f a body but on its relative velocity. The velocity dependence of
friction consists in that a change in the direction o f the velocity brings about
a change in the direction o f friction.
The values o f the coefficient o f friction for some materials are compiled in
the table.

11A
 Materials Coefficient of friction

Wood over wood 0.25

Rubber over concrete 0.75
Leather belt over cast iron pulley 0.56
Steel over steel 0.20

These values of the coefficient of friction refer to nonlubricated surfaces.

Lubrication considerably reduces friction. For example, when a lubricant is
applied, steel slides over steel as easily as steel over ice does: the coefficient
of friction amounts to only 0.04. Friction of two solid surfaces in contact
(without a lubricant) is called dry friction.
WHY DOES A LUBRICATION OF FRICTION SURFACES REDUCE
THE COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION? As a matter of fact, when solid
bodies are moving in contact with fluids, there is also a force parallel to the
contact surface and directed against the relative velocity of the body. In this
respect, it resembles dry friction. This force is often called fluid friction. (It is
also called the drag force.)
Fluid friction is considerably smaller than dry friction. It is well known
that it is net difficult to push a raft off the shore for a person standing on it
with a boathook. However, there is no use in trying to employ this method
on the shore. This is why lubrication reduces friction (friction is no longer
dry!).
There is no static friction in fluids. This means that even a very small force
applied to a body in a fluid imparts an acceleration to it.
The absence of static friction in liquids is demonstrated by the following
experiment. Let us put a small wooden bar on the surface of water in a wide
vessel (Fig. 106). It is easy to set the bar in motion (to change its velocity)
even by a very small force. It is sufficient to blow on it or push it with
a paper strip. If, however, we put this bar on the table, it can be set in
motion only by a sufficiently large force exceeding the maximum static
friction.
In contrast to dry friction, the drag force in a fluid depends not only on
the direction but also on the magnitude of the relative velocity of a body in
the fluid. At a low velocity, the drag is proportional to it, while at a high
velocity it is proportional to its square.
Besides, drag force greately depends on the shape of a body.
Figure 107 represents three bodies having the same cross-sectional areas.
If, however, these bodies move in a fluid at the same velocity, the largest
drag force turns out to act on the plane discus (top figure) and the smaller
drag, on the drop-shaped body (bottom figure).
The shape o f a body for which drag is small is called streamline shape.
Therefore, aircraft, motorcars and other vehicles moving at high speeds in
fluids are given a streamline shape and their surfaces are thoroughly finished.
This helps to reduce the drag force.
Concluding the section, it should be noted that the nature of friction is far
from being studied completely.
117
Fig. 106 Fig. 107

? 1. What is called sliding friction (dry friction)?

What is its direction?
2. Give the definition o f the coefficient o f friction.
3. Why is it dangerous to drive a car on an icy road?
4. Which force should be applied to a body lying on
a horizontal plane to initiate its motion over this plane?
5. The friction between the wheels o f a bicycle and the
ground is almost independent o f velocity. At the same
time, it is well known that the higher the velocity of the
bicycle, the stronger muscular force should be applied by
the cyclist to the bicycle pedals. Why is it so?
6. Should a streamline shape be given to spacecraft and to
the rockets that bring them to space?
7. Why are not tractors and road rollers given a streamline
shape?

Exercise 16
1. Calculate the force required for pushing a 20-kg wooden
bar over a wooden floor at a constant speed. What will be
the motion of the bar if the force applied to it is larger
than the one obtained in calculations?
2. A horse working for a long time develops a force of
600 N. What is the maximum load it can draw in sledges
whose mass is 100 kg, if the coefficient o f friction between
the slides and the snow is 0.05? Assume that the shafts are
parallel to the road.
3. A rubber bar is pressed against a vertical concrete wall by
a spring. The elastic force of the spring is normal to the
wall and equal to 100 N. Which force should be applied to
the bar to initiate its motion?

118
 Sum m ary
All forces known in nature are manifestations of a few types
of interaction. Forces considered in mechanics are the results
of only two types of interaction, viz. electromagnetic and gravitational
interaction.
Electromagnetic interaction is responsible for elastic forces and friction.
Elastic force emerges upon a deformation of a body as a result of
displacement of some its parts relative to others. The projection of elastic
force is determined by the following equation (Hooke’s law):
( F e l) x = - foe.
The force o f universal gravitation is a manifestation of gravitational
interaction. The magnitude of this force is given by the following equation:

Elastic force and gravitational force depend on the mutual arrangement of

interacting bodies, i.e. on the coordinates.
The force of attraction of bodies by the Earth near its surface is equal to
mg and can be assumed constant if the distance from a body to the Earth’s
surface is small in comparison with the Earth’s radius.
Friction emerges when bodies in contact are either at rest (static friction)
or in motion (sliding friction). Friction is directed along the contact surface
against the direction of the relative motion of the bodies in contact. Friction
depends not on the coordinate of one body relative to the other but on their
relative velocity.
 A P P L I C A T I O N O F T H E LAWS O F D Y N A M IC S

6
T H E SA M E LA W S O F M O T I O N FO R ALL FORCES

Using the laws of motion discovered by Newton and being

able to measure or calculate forces, we can solve the
fundamental problem of mechanics: to determine the acceleration from
known forces and initial conditions, then to determine the velocity from its
acceleration, and finally, the coordinates (position) of a body at any instant
o f time.
The situation when only one force (elastic force, friction or force of
gravity) is acting on a body arises not frequently. In most cases a body is
acted upon by several forces simultaneously. Then the acceleration is
determined by the resultant o f all the applied forces.
However, there are cases when although several forces are acting on
a body, only one of them plays a significant role. The other forces either
balance one another or are too small in magnitude.
We shall first consider precisely such cases.

6 .1. Motion of a Body U n d e r t h e A c t io n of Elastic

Force
Let us start with the situation when the initial velocity of
a body is either zero or parallel to the elastic force.
It was shown earlier that the projection (Fe,)x of the elastic force Fc\ onto
the A"-axis is equal to —kx. Consequently, the force Fe\ changes with the
position of the body on which it is acting. It should be recalled that the
elongation o f a spring (or any other elastic body) is determined by the
position of a body relative to the end of the undeformed spring.
What is the motion o f a body under the action o f such a varying force?
We can find an answer to this question in an experiment.
Let us attach one end o f a spring to a cart carrying a body of a large
mass. The other end of the spring is fixed (Fig. 108). We pull the cart to the
right by several centimetres and then release it. The cart starts moving
periodically back and forth relative to its initial position. Such motion is
called vibrational.
It is easier to observe vibrational motion o f a body by suspending it from
a spring (Fig. 109). Hauling the body downwards by several centimetres and
releasing it, we initiate the vibrational motion o f the body.
Using Newton s second law, we can find the position o f the body at any
instant o f time. However, it is a difficult problem since the elastic force is

120
 a varying quantity. Vibrational motion will be considered in detail in the
Senior Physics 2.
The motion o f a body to which the initial velocity is imparted
perpendicularly to the elastic force acting on the body is quite different.
A similar case was considered in Sec. 4.6 (see Fig. 81). It was shown that
for such a mutual orientation o f velocity and elastic force, the body moves in
a circle.
Consequently, when the elastic force is at right angles to the initial
velocity, it imparts to the body a centripetal acceleration and makes it move
in a circle.

1. What is the motion o f a body if an elastic force is the only

force acting on it?
2. What is known about the acceleration of a body on which
a varying force (e.g., an elastic force) is acting?
3. Does an elastic force applied to a body always lead to
vibrational motion o f the body?

Hometask
Watch the behaviour o f a body being weighed on a spring
balance. Does it reach the state o f rest immediately?

6 .2 . M o t i o n U n d e r t h e A c tio n of Force of G r a v i t y :
a B ody M oves A long t h e V e rtic a l
As long ago as at the end o f 16th century, Galileo Galilei
established that the free fall o f a body is a uniformly
accelerated motion. Moreover, he found that all bodies fall at the same
acceleration. Later measurements showed that the magnitude o f this

121
 acceleration is 9.8 m/s2. At that time, and even long after that, these were the
facts established by observations and measurements but nevertheless quite
enigmatic and unexplained.
Only Newton’s laws of motion and of universal gravitation provided an
explanation to these facts. Falling bodies have an acceleration since the force
of gravity is acting on them. The acceleration of bodies falling on the Earth’s
surface is constant since the force o f gravity is constant. Finally, the fact that
all bodies are falling at the same acceleration irrespective o f their mass is
explained by the proportionality o f the force of gravity (and in general the
force of universal gravitation) to the mass of the body to which it is applied.
This was discussed in Sec. 5.3.
Thus, under the action o f the force of gravity, a body is in a uniformly
accelerated motion so that the acceleration vector g is directed downwards
(downward direction is just defined as the direction o f the vector g at a given
point), and its magnitude is 9.8 m/s2.
It should be borne in mind that the acceleration o f a falling body remains
unchanged if we push the body downwafds, imparting to it an initial velocity
v0. In this case, the velocity will be increasing not from zero but from the
value vo-
The magnitude and direction of the acceleration also remain unchanged if
a body is thrown upwards with a certain initial velocity. In all these cases,
the trajectory of the body is a vertical straight line, and hence the motion of
the body is rectilinear and uniformly accelerated.
While solving problems concerning this type of motion, it is convenient
(although not necessary) to choose the Earth as a reference body and take
the origin on its surface or at any point above or below the surface. The
coordinate axis is usually directed upwards or downwards along the vertical.
The height is denoted by h. Then (Fig. 110), the coordinate of a body is just
its height above the reference point In this case, the projection y ~ y 0 of the
displacement corresponds to the change in the height. Hence, the projection
of the displacement is h - h 0y where h0 is the initial height (h0 = y0).

Fig. 110
O
122
 The formulas for calculating coordinates (heights) and velocities do not
differ from the formulas obtained in Secs. 22-2.3 for a rectilinear uniformly
accelerated motion.
The coordinate (height) o f a body is given by

y ~ h = h0 Voy t + . ( 6 .2 . 1 )

The velocity o f a body at any instant o f time is

vy = voy + gy t. (6.2.2)

The velocity of a body at any point of the trajectory is

»y = 4 y + 2 9 y ( h - h0). (6.2.3)

The projection gy is positive if the T-axis is directed downwards and negative

if it has the upward direction. The projections voy and vy are positive when
velocities are parallel to the axis and negative when the velocities are
antiparallel to it.

1. What is called a free fall o f bodies?

2. What are the accelerations o f a freely falling body and of
a body thrown downwards?
3. What is the acceleration o f a body thrown upwards?
What is its magnitude and direction?
4. What is the difference between the acceleration imparted
to bodies by the force of gravity and that imparted by
other forces?
5. Why is the acceleration imparted to a body by the force of
gravity constant and independent of its mass?
6. Would the motion of a body falling to the Earth from the
height o f several hundred or thousand kilometres be
uniformly accelerated? Would the acceleration depend on
the mass of the body in this case?

EXAMPLES OF SOLVING PROBLEMS

1. A body has fallen from the height of 100 m. Find the time of the fall of
the body and its velocity at the moment it strikes the Earth’s surface.
Solution. Let us choose as the origin o f the y-coordinate (height) the point
on the surface of the Earth and direct the T-axis upwards (see Fig. 110).
Then gy = - g, vy = - v and voy = 0 (the body fell and was not thrown!).
Finally, at the moment the body touches the Earth its height h = 0.
The time o f fall can be found with the help of formula (6.2.1) which
assumes the form
gt
0 = fcO+ 0 - - y -

123
Fig. Ill
Hence

1 / 2 x 100 m
4.5 s. (I)
|/ 9.8 m/s2

The landing velocity can be calculated from formula (6.2.2) which in our case
becomes
- a = 0 - gt or v = gt,

n = 9.8 x 4.5 s 44 — .
s s
2. What is the maximum height o f a body thrown upwards at the initial
velocity c0 = 44 m/s? Calculate the time required to reach this height.
Solution. As in the previous problem, we direct the T-axis upwards
(F ig 111). In this case, voy = n0 and gy = - g. In the uppermost point, the
velocity of the body e = 0. Then Eq. (6.2.2) becomes
0 = v0 —gt.
Hence we find the time o f ascent:
44 m/s
re 4.5 s. (2)
g 9.8 m/s2
Since h0 = 0, the maximum height can be calculated with the help of for­
mula (6.2.3). Using the conditions of the problem, we have
0 = vi - 2gh,
whence
± h (44 m/s)2
~ 100 m. (3)
2g ’ 2 x 9.8 m/s2

124
 A comparison of Problems 1 and 2 shows that the time required for
a body to fall from a certain height is equal to the time of ascent to the same
height if the initial velocity of the body thrown upwards is equal to the final
velocity of the falling body. This is not surprizing. Both the falling body and
the body thrown upwards experience the action of the same force, viz. the
force of gravity Fg which imparts the same acceleration g to them.

Exercise 17
While solving these problems, assume that the resistance
offered by air can be neglected.
1. A stone was falling to the bottom of a ravine during 40 s.
What was the depth o f the ravine?
2. How long would a load falling from the Ostankino
television tower (540 m height) take to reach the ground?
What would be its velocity at this moment?
3. How much time will it take for a body that started to fall
from a state o f rest to cover a distance of 4.9 m? What is
its velocity at the end of motion?
4. A boy standing on the brim of a 180 m cliff dropped
a stone and a second later he threw downwards the
second stone. What was the initial velocity imparted to
the second stone if both stones touched the ground
simultaneously?
5. A body falls freely from the height of 20 m above the
ground. What is its velocity at the moment it strikes the
Earth? At what height does its velocity amount to a half
o f this value?
6. Coloured plate / shows consecutive positions o f a freely
falling ball in every 0.1 s. Using the figure, find the free-
fall acceleration if the initial velocity o f the ball was zero.
The scale is such that a square size is 4.9 x 4.9 cm.
7. An arrow is shot from a bow vertically upwards at
a velocity of 30 m/s. What is its maximum height?
8. A body thrown from the ground upwards has fallen in
8.0 s. Find the height of its ascent and the initial velocity.
9. A ball shot from a spring pistol located at 2.0 m above
the ground flies upwards at the initial velocity of 5.0 m/s.
Determine its maximum height and its velocity at the
moment it falls to the ground. What is the time of the
ball’s flight? What is its displacement during the first
0.2 s of the flight?
10. A body is thrown upwards at a velocity o f 40 m/s. At
what height will it be in 3 and 5 s? What will be its
velocities at these moments? Assume that g = 10 m/s2.
11. Two bodies are thrown upwards with different initial
velocities. The height reached by one body is four times
larger than that for the other body. What is the ratio of
their initial velocities?
12S
 12. A body thrown upwards flies past the window at
a velocity o f 12m /s. What will be its velocity at the
moment it passes the same window during its downward
motion?

6 .3 . M otion U n d e r th e A c tio n o f F o rc e o f G ra v ity :

In itia l V e lo city o f th e Body is a t a n A n g le to
th e H o riz o n ta l
We often deal with motion of bodies having acquired an
initial velocity not parallel to the force o f gravity but at
a certain angle to it (or to the horizontal). Such a body is said to be thrown
at an angle to the horizontal. For example, when a sportsman pushes a shot
or throws a discus or a lance, he imparts to these objects an initial velocity
of this kind. In artillery firing, barrels o f guns have a certain angle of
elevation so that a fired shell also acquires an initial velocity at an angle to
the horizontal.
We shall assume that the resistance offered by air can be neglected. What
is the motion of a body in this case?
Figure 112 represents a stroboscopic photograph o f a ball thrown at an
angle of 60° to the horizontal. Connecting consecutive positions o f the ball
by a smooth line, we obtain the trajectory o f motion o f the ball. It is the
well-known curve-parabola.
It was known even to Galilei that a body thrown at an angle to the
horizontal moves along a parabola. But the explanation to this effect also
was given only by Newton’s laws o f motion and the law o f universal
gravitation.
Suppose that a body is thrown from a certain point at a certain initial
velocity v0 directed at an angle a to the horizontal. We take for the origin
the point from which the body is thrown and direct the X - and Faxes as
shown in Fig 113. For the reference time we take the instant when the body
was thrown, it can be seen from the figure that the projection o f the initial
velocity f0 onto the X- and Faxes are u0sina and u0cosoc respectively,

e
a 0
« 0
0 0
0 0
0 0

Fig. H2 0 0
126
 where v0 is the magnitude of the initial velocity i70:
vpy = Vo sin «, Vqx = Vo cos ol

Since only the force o f gravity is acting on the body, which is directed
downwards, only the y-projection of the velocity v will change in the motion,
while the x-projection o f the velocity will remain unchanged.
Hence, the x-coordinate o f the body changes with time in the same way as
in uniform rectilinear motion:
x = vo xt. (6.3.1)
On the other hand, the y-coordinate varies as in a uniformly accelerated
rectilinear motion:

y = »oy‘ + ~ - (6-3.2)

In order to plot the trajectory o f this motion, we must substitute into Eqs.
(6.3.1) and (6.3.2) successively, increasing values o f time t and calculate the x-
and y-coordinates for each instant of time t. Using these coordinates, we
must plot the points representing consecutive positions of the body. The
smooth curve drawn through these points is the trajectory we are interested
in. It is shown in Fig. 113. Having this curve, we can find the value of
a coordinate for a certain value of the other coordinate.
A BODY IS THROW N ALONG THE HORIZONTAL. A body can be
thrown in such a way that its initial velocity v0 is directed along the
horizontal (a = 0). For example, this is the case when a body is separated
from a horizontally flying aeroplane. The shape of the trajectory along which
the body will move can be easily found. For this purpose, let us consider
again Fig. 113 showing the trajectory o f a body thrown at an angle to the
horizontal. At the upper point o f the parabola, the velocity of the body just
has the horizontal direction. As we know, having passed this point, the body
moves along the right-hand branch of the parabola. Obviously, any body
thrown at a certain initial velocity v0 in the horizontal direction will also
move along the branch o f the parabola (Fig. 114).

127
 Fig. 115

The trajectory o f a body thrown along the horizontal or at an angle to it

can be visualized in a simple experiment. A vessel filled with water is placed
at a certain height above the table and is connected by a rubber tube having
a spout with a tap (Fig, 115). Discharged jets directly show the trajectories
of water particles. Changing the angle o f the jet discharged, we see that the
maximum horizontal range is attained at an angle o f 45°.
We have analyzed several examples o f motion o f bodies under the action
of the force of gravity. They show that in all cases a body moves with the
acceleration g imparted to it by the force of gravity. This acceleration is
completely independent o f whether or not the body also moves in the
horizontal direction. We can even say that in all these cases the body is in
a free fall.
For this reason, for example, a bullet shot from a gun in the horizontal
direction falls on the ground simultaneously with another bullet dropped by
chance by the gunman at the moment o f shot However, the bullet dropped
by chance falls at the feet of the gunman while the one shot from the gun
falls in several hundred metres from the gunman.
Coloured plate lb represents a stroboscopic photograph o f two balls one
of which falls vertically and the other acquires a horizontal velocity at the
moment the first ball starts falling. The photograph shows that at the same
instants (flashes of light) both balls are at the same height and naturally they
reach the ground simultaneously.
While considering the motion of a body thrown along the horizontal or at
an angle to it, we assumed that the body experiences the action of the force

128
of gravity alone. Actually, this is not so. Besides the force of gravity, the
force o f resistance (friction) is always exerted on the body in air. This force
reduces the velocity o f the body.
Due to the drag force, the actual trajectory of a body thrown along the
horizontal or at an angle to it is not a parabola but a more complex curve.

1. What are common features in motion of bodies thrown

vertically, horizontally and at an angle to the horizontal?
2. What is the trajectory of a body thrown at an angle to the
horizontal?
3. Which force is acting on a body thrown at an angle to the
horizontal?
4. Can the motion of a body thrown at an angle to the
horizontal be considered as uniformly accelerated?
5. What is the acceleration o f a body thrown at an angle to
the horizontal? What is the direction of this acceleration?
Hint. Answering these questions, assume that friction can
be neglected.

EXAMPLES OF SOLVING PROBLEMS

1. A shell flies from a cannon at an angle a to the horizontal with an
initial velocity v0. Find (a) the time of flight o f the shell; (b) its maximum
height and (c) horizontal range.
Solution. The motion o f a body thrown at an angle to the horizontal is
described by Eqs. (6.3.1) and (6.3.2).
Since v0x = v0 cos a, v0y = v0 sin a and gy = - g, we have
x = v0t cos a,
, . gt2
y = v0t sm a - — .

(a) At the end of the shell flight, the coordinate y = 0. Consequently, the
time o f flight can be found from the equation for the y-coordinate:
gt2
0 = u0 t s i n a ---- — .

Solving this equation, we obtain

g
The value t l = 0 corresponds to the beginning of flight (at this instant, the
y-coordinate is also equal to zero), while t2 is the time o f flight:
2i>0 sin a
rflight - ~•

129
Due to the symmetry of the parabola, the time of ascent to its vertex is equal
to a half of the time of flight, i.e.
i>0 sin a
t as c = •
9

(b) The maximum height /imax is the value of the y-coordinate obtained by
substituting the value of the time of ascent into the expression for the
y-coordinate:
v0 sin a
^m ax = t’o s ,n a
9

_9_
2

Simplifying this expression, we get

vi sin2 ci
"max = “ ( ) 1

29

(c) The horizontal range / is equal to the value o f the x-coordinate

obtained by substituting the time of flight for r into the expression for x:
2vn sin a
I = v0 cos a -

2vq sin a cos a

9

We can easily find the angle a for which the range is maximum. It is well
known that 2 sin a cos a = sin 2ol Hence the expression for the horizontal
range can be written as follows:
j _ Vq sin 2a
( 2)
9

It follows that the range is maximum when sin 2a = 1. This corresponds to

2a = 90° or a = 45°.
It should be noted that the horizontal range and the maximum height in
air are always smaller than the corresponding values obtained from (1) and (2)
since air offers a resistance to motion.
1 When an aeroplane flying horizontally at a speed u0 = 720 km/hr is at
a height h = 3920 m a load is dropped from it. How far from the place above
which it was released will the load touch the ground?
Solution. At the moment o f separation from the plane the load has the
initial velocity i;0 which has the horizontal direction and is equal in magni­
tude to the velocity of the aeroplane. This instant should be taken as the
time reference point, while for the origin of coordinates we take the point at
which the load is dropped. We direct the X-axis along the horizontal and the

130
 s
\
\
\

h \
\
\

Fig. 116

y-axis, vertically upwards (Fig. 116). The motion of the load is described by
the well-known equations

x = v0 t cos a, y = v0 t sin a — — .

In this problem a = 0, and hence sin a = 0, cos a = 1. Then the equations

describing the motion of the load dropped from the aeroplane take the form

The horizontal range / is the value of the x-coordinate obtained by substi­

tuting for the time t the time of fall for the load. This time can be
determined from the equation for the y-coordinate. At the moment of
landing, - y = h and hence

We can find the time o f fall for the load:

Consequently,

131
 Exercise 18
1. A ball is thrown at an angle of 30° to the horizontal at the
initial velocity o f 10 m/s. Find the maximum height, the
time and the horizontal range of the ball’s flight.
2. A bullet is shot in the horizontal direction at an initial
velocity o f 800 m/s. Calculate the descent o f the bullet in
the vertical direction during its flight if the distance to the
target is 600 m.

Hometask
Show that formulas (6.2.2) and (6.2.3) describing the motion
of a body thrown vertically upwards can be obtained as
a particular case of formulas for the motion of a body
thrown at an angle a to the horizontal if we assume that this
angle is 90°.

W eight of a Body. W eightlessness

WEIGHT OF A BODY. It should be recalled (see Junior
Physics, Sec. 29) that weight is the force exerted by a body on
a support or suspender due to its attraction to the Earth.
Why does such a force appear? What are its magnitude and direction?
Let us consider, for example, a body suspended from a spring whose other
end is fixed (Fig. 117 right). The body experiences the action of the force of
gravity Fg = mg, directed downwards. Hence it starts to fall down entraining
the lower end of the spring. The spring is thus deformed, which gives rise to
the elastic force Fe\ of the spring. It is applied to the top of'the body and is
directed upwards. Hence, when the body falls, its top will “lag behind” its
other parts which are not acted upon by the elastic force. As a result, the
body is deformed as well (this is shown in Fig. 117 on a magnified scale).
Another elastic force, viz. the elastic force o f the deformed body, emerges. It
is applied to the spring and is directed downwards (see Fig. 117 left). It is
just this force that is called the weight of the body. It is denoted by P. In
accordance with Newton’s third law, the two elastic forces are equal in
magnitude and have opposite directions.
After several vibrations, the body comes to rest. This means that the force
of gravity mg is equal in magnitude to the elastic force o f the spring (see
Fig. 1176). The weight P of the body is also equal to the same force. Thus,
in this example the weight of the body is equal in magnitude to the force of
gravity mg:
P = mg.
This does not mean, however, that the weight of a body and the force of
gravity applied to it are identical forces. The force of gravity is

132
 a gravitational force applied to the body, while the weight is the elastic force
applied to the suspender.
If a body is placed on a support instead of being suspended (Fig. 118), the
support also experiences the action of the force emerging in a similar way
and also called the weight.
WEIGHTLESSNESS. Let us suppose that a spring with a load suspended
from it (or a spring balance) is held in the hand (Fig. 119). The weight of the
body can be seen on the scale of the spring balance. If the hand holding the
spring balance is at rest, the balance indicates that the weight P o f the body
is equal to the force of gravity mg. Now suppose that the spring is released
so that it falls freely with the load. It would be easily noted that the pointer
of the balance in this case stands against the zero division, indicating zero
weight of the body. It is not surprising. In free fall both the balance and the
load move at the same acceleration equal to g. The lower end of the spring is
not entrained by the load but just follows it so that the spring is not deformed.
Hence there is no elastic force acting on the load. This means that the load
is not deformed either and does not act on the spring. The weight has
vanished. The load is said to become weightless.
Weightlessness is explained by the property of the force o f universal
gravitation (and, in particular, the force of gravity) to impart the same
acceleration to all bodies (in the case under consideration, to the load and
spring) (see Sec. 5.3). Therefore, each body moving under the action of the
force o f gravity alone (or, in general, the force o f universal gravitation) is in
the state of weightlessness. Any freely falling body is just under such
conditions. It should, however, be borne in mind that the fact that the

Fig. 117 Fig. 119

Fig. 120 Fig. 121

pointer of the balance is at zero in the experiment considered above does not
mean that the force of gravity has disappeared. It is weight that has
vanished, i.e. the force exerted by the load on the suspender. As regards the
force of gravity acting on the balance as well as on the load, it is present and
causes the free fall.
Weightlessness is not a rare state for people on the Earth. A jumper is in
this state from the moment o f its separation from the ground to landing, as
well as a swimmer springing from a tower from the moment o f separation
from it to the instant he touches water. Even a runner is in the state of
weightlessness during short lapses of time between the instants he touches
the ground by a foot.
The emergence of weightlessness in free fall can be observed in the
following experiment.
A strip of paper is placed between the weights of a composite load
(Fig. 120), its free end being tightly clamped in the tang o f a holder. If the
load is released slowly, the strip is stretched, i. e. deformed, and then ruptured.
Hence it follows that the paper strip was clutched by the loads quite
tightly. The ruptured strip is then replaced by another, intact one and the
load is let fall freely. The new paper strip remains intact in the tang of the
holder. This experiment shows that in free fall the weight does not exert
pressure on the support, i.e. the load becomes weightless during the free fall.
Another experiment is illustrated in Fig. 121. Two different loads are
suspended from two identical springs in a frame which can slide along two
guiding rods. Naturally, the springs are stretched to different extents by the
loads. If, however, we bum the thread that holds the frame, the latter will fall
freely, and it can be seen that the deformations of the springs disappeared:
the loads have become weightless!

134
 1. What is called the weight of a body?
2. What is the difference between the weight and the force of
gravity acting on a body?
3. A body is resting on a support. Which forces are acting on
this body and on the support?
4. When is a body said to be in a state of weightlessness?
What is the general reason behind weightlessness?
5. Is a body in a state of weightlessness when thrown
upwards? Friction in air should be neglected.
6. Is a body in a state of weightlessness when thrown along
the horizontal? What about a body thrown at an angle to
the horizontal? Friction of air should be neglected.

6 .5. W eig h t of a Body M oving w ith an A c c e le ra tio n

WEIGHT OF A BODY CAN BE LESS THAN THE
FORCE OF GRAVITY. Let us now consider the case when
a body attached to a spring balance is moving with an acceleration relative
to the Earth but is not in a free fall. To realize such a motion, we can,
without releasing the spring balance, lower it abruptly, imparting to it
a certain downward acceleration d (Fig. 122). It can be easily seen that the
pointer of the balance will go up. This means that the weight of the body has
become less than it was when the balance and the body were at rest. Why
has the weight become smaller?
The body is acted upon by (1) the downward force of gravity Fg = mg
and (2) the upward elastic force Fe\ of the balance spring. These two forces
together impart the acceleration a to the body. According to Newton’s
second law, we have
Fel + mg = md. (6.5.1)
The three vectors in this equation are parallel to the Y-axis which we
directed downwards (see Fig. 122). Hence formula (6.5.1) for the projections
of these vectors onto the Y-axis assumes the form
( f .i )y + mgy = may . (6-5.2)
Figure 122 shows that the vectors g and a have the same direction as the
Y-axis. Consequently, their projections are positive and equal in magnitude
to the vectors themselves: gy = g and ay = a. The vector Fc\, however, is
directed opposite to the Y-axis, and hence its projection is negative: (Fcj)y =
— Fej. Therefore, formula (6.5.2) can be written as follows:
— Fe\ + mg = ma or Fe\ = mg - ma.

The weight P is equal in magnitude to the elastic force Fe\ (according to

135
Newton’s third law), and hence
P = mg - m a . (6.5.3)
This formula shows that if a < g , the weight o f the body is less than the force
of gravity mg, i.e. less than the weight of the body at rest.
I f a body (of course, together with a support or suspender) is moving with
an acceleration having the same direction as the a c c e le r a tio n due to gravity, its
weight is less than that in a state o f rest.
It should be recalled once again that we speak o f a decrease in the weight
and not in the force of gravity.
THE WEIGHT OF A BODY CAN ALSO BE LARGER THAN THE
FORCE OF GRAVITY. If a spring balance with a body suspended from it
is abruptly raised, thus imparting to it an upward acceleration a (Fig. 123),
the pointer o f the balance goes down, indicating an increase in the weight of
the body. The above reasoning is valid for this case too, the only difference
being that the projection o f the vector a onto the Y-axis is now negative, and
hence the formula for the magnitude of the weight becomes
P = mg + ma. (6.5.4)
The weight of the body is now larger than the force o f gravity m g , i. e. larger
than the weight of the body at rest.
I f a body is moving with an acceleration w h o se d ir e c tio n is o p p o s ite to that
o f the free-fall acceleration, its weight is la rg er th a n th a t in a s ta te o f rest.
An increase in the weight o f a body due to its accelerated motion is called
overload.

136
 The weight o f a body increases or decreases not only when the body
moving with an acceleration is suspended from a spring or a spring balance.
The same applies to any suspender or support.
Let us consider several examples in which the weight of a body changes
with an acceleration.
1. A motorcar moving over a convex bridge (Fig. 124) is lighter than the
same car resting on the same bridge.
Indeed, the motion over the convex bridge is the motion along a segment
of a circle. Hence, the motorcar is moving with a centripetal acceleration
whose magnitude is given by
i >2
a= — ,
r
where p is the car’s velocity and r is the radius of curvature. At the instant
when the car is at the uppermost point o f the bridge, this acceleration is
directed vertically downwards. It is imparted to the car by the resultant of
the force o f gravity Fg = mg and o f the normal reaction N of the bridge.
The equation expressing Newton’s second law in the vector form is written
as follows:
mg + N = ma.
We direct the T-axis upwards and write this equation for the projections
of the vectors onto this axis:
mgy + N y = may .
Obviously,
v2
gy = g, N y = - N and ay = a = — .

It follows that
v2
mg — N = m — ,

whence

The weight P o f the motorcar (Le. the force with which it presses against
the bridge) is, according to Newton’s third law, equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to the normal reaction N o f the bridge. Consequently,

P = A/ = m ^ - - j , P< m g.

Similarly, the weight o f the passengers in the motorcar moving across

a convex bridge decreases.
2. A pilot taking his plane out o f a dive (Fig. 125) experiences overload
in the lower part o f the trajectory. Indeed, in this part o f the trajectory, the
plane is moving in a circle with a centripetal acceleration directed vertically

137
Fig. 124 Fig. 125

upwards to the centre of the circle. The magnitude of this acceleration is

a=— .
r
Its projection onto the downward vertical axis is negative:

av — — a = ------- .
J r

Consequently, the weight o f the pilot, i.e. the force with which he acts on
the support (seat) will be, in accordance with formula (6.5.3), defined as

Thus, the weight o f the pilot is greater than the “normal" weight, equal to
the force of gravity mg, by the quantity mv2/r. If at the end o f the dive the
centripetal acceleration v2/r is n times larger in magnitude than the free-fall
acceleration g(v2/r = ng), the weight of the pilot is
P = m{g + ng) = m g(n+ IX
i. e. is n + 1 times as large as the “normal” weight of the pilot.
The weight of pilot’s intestines also increases in overload, as well as the
force with which they act on each other and on his skeleton. This causes
painful reaction and may become hazardous to health at a too high
overload. Well-trained pilots can withstand the overload up to 10 mg (the
overload is normally expressed not in mg's but in g's; it is said that the
overload is, for example, 10 g).

138
 1. In what way does the weight o f a body change during its
accelerated motion?
2. Does the weight of a body change if it moves with an
acceleration in the horizontal direction?
3. What will be the change in the weight of a cosmonaut at
the start of the rocket bringing his spacecraft to its orbit?
4. What is the change in the weight of a cosmonaut during
the deceleration of the landing spacecraft?
5. What happens to the weight of a pilot performing
a wingover when he is at the lower and upper points of
the acrobatic manoeuvre?

Exercise 19
1. A crane uniformly displaces a concrete 500-kg plate, (a)
vertically upwards, (b) horizontally and (c) vertically
downwards. What is the force of gravity acting on the
plate and what is its weight in each case?
2. A 100-kg load is fixed on the bottom of a mine cage. What
is the weight of this load if the cage (a) moves vertically
upwards with an acceleration of 0.3 m/s2, (b) moves
uniformly, (c) moves downwards with an acceleration of
0.4 m/s2, and (d) falls freely?
3. What is the decrease in the weight of a motorcar at the
uppermost point of a convex bridge? The radius of curva­
ture of the bridge is 100 m, the mass of the car is 2000 kg
and its velocity is 60 km/hr.
4. Calculate the weight of a body having a mass of 1000 g at
the pole and on the equator, assuming that the radius of
the Earth is 6400 km.

6.6. A rtific ia l E a rth ’s S a te llite s. O rb ita l V elocity

It was shown in Sec. 6.3 that a body acquiring at the height
h above the Earth an initial velocity v in the horizontal
direction (i. e. parallel to the Earth’s surface) describes a parabola. Moving
along this parabola, the body falls to the ground.
While considering this motion, the surface of the Earth was assumed to
be plane. Such a simplification is justified for comparatively low velocities v
for which the displacement of the body in the horizontal direction is small
(Fig. 126a).
THE EARTH RUNS FROM UNDER THE BODY. As a matter of fact,
the Earth is a sphere. For this reason, as the body moves along its trajectory,
the Earth’s surface moves away from it to a certain distance (Fig. 1266). We
can choose such a magnitude of the velocity v for the body that the distance
separating the body from the surface of the Earth due to curvature is equal

139
Fig. 126 (c)
to the distance to which the body approaches the Earth due to its attraction.
Then the body moves at a certain constant distance h above the Earth’s
surface, i. e. in a circle of radius R + h, where R is the radius of the globe
(Fig. 126c). What is this velocity?
ARTIFICIAL EARTH’S SATELLITE. Since the body is moving
uniformly in a circle, the magnitude of its acceleration is

R +h
This acceleration is imparted to the body by the gravitational force of the
Earth, whose magnitude is
Mm
F=G
(R + h)2 ‘

Here M is the mass of the Earth and m is the mass o f the body.
According to Newton’s second law, we have

F -G M
m (R + h)2 ‘

140
 Consequently,
p2 _G M
R +h (R + h)2 ’
whence

v= ( 6. 6. 1)

This means that if the body acquires the velocity having the horizontal
direction and specified by formula (6.6.1), it moves in a circle around the
Earth, i.e. becomes its artificial satellite.
ORBITAL VELOCITY. A body o f any mass may only become an
Earth’s satellite if a sufficient velocity is imparted to it. Let us calculate this
velocity for a satellite launched near the Earth’s surface (h = 0):

It should be recalled that G (M /R 2) = g. Consequently,

Hence

v = ]fg R .

Substituting g = 9.8 m/s2 and R = 6 . 4 x l 0 6 m into this formula, we

obtain

This is the velocity which should be imparted to a body in the horizontal

direction near the Earth’s surface for it to become a satellite moving in
a circular orbit instead of falling to the Earth’s surface. This velocity is called
the orbital velocity.
Eight kilometres per second-it is about 29000 kilometres per hour! Of
course, it is not easy to impart such a huge velocity to a body. It was only in
1957 when Soviet scientists managed for the first time in the history of
mankind to impart the orbital velocity to a body whose mass was about
84 kg with the help of a high-power rocket. This body has become Earth’s
first artificial satellite.
Satellites are orbiting the Earth under the action of a single force, viz. the
force o f universal gravitation which imparts the same acceleration to the
satellite and all the objects in it. As was mentioned in Sec. 6.4, in this case
the very concept o f weight loses its meaning since a body and its “support”
do not deform each other and cannot press on each other. This means that
all bodies in a satellite, including cosmonauts, are in a state of
weightlessness.

141
? 1. What must be the direction of the velocity o f a body at
the moment it is brought to a circular orbit to become an
artificial Earth’s satellite?
2. What is the direction of the acceleration o f an artificial
Earth’s satellite?
3. Can we assume that the motion of an artificial satellite is
uniformly accelerated?
4. The Soviet cosmonaut A. Leonov was the first to perform
a space walk, leaving its spacecraft. Was he in a state of
weightlessness during this time?

Exercise 20
1. Calculate the period o f revolution o f an Earth satellite at
a height o f 300 m.
2. Calculate the orbital velocity for the height above the
Earth which is equal to its radius.
3. At what height above the Earth is the orbital velocity
equal to 6 km/hr?
4. At what height above the Earth’s surface should an
artificial Earth’s satellite be launched so that its period of
revolution be 24 hr?

O i# • M otion of a Body U n d e r th e A c tio n o f F rictio n

Sliding friction differs from all other forces in that its
direction is opposite to the direction of the relative velocity
of motion of rubbing bodies.
Hence it follows that the acceleration imparted by friction to a body
moving over a fixed surface is directed against the relative velocity. This
means that fr ic tio n leads to a d e c re a s e in th e m a g n itu d e o f th e v e lo c ity o f the
body.
If no forces, except friction, arc acting on a body sliding over a fixed
surface, it ultimately stops. Let us consider this case which is often
encountered in practice. Suppose that a certain unexpected obstacle appears
in front of a moving train. A driver switches ofT the engine and applies the
brake. Starting from this moment, the train is acted upon only by a constant
friction, since the force of gravity is balanced by the normal reaction of the
rails, and the air resistance is small. In a certain time t the train, having
traversed a certain distance / called the b ra kin g d ista n c e, stops. Let us find
the time t required for the train to stop and the braking distance / covered
during this time.
Under the action o f the force Ffr , the train moves with an acceleration
a = Ff,/m

142
 F.g. 127

Let us c h o o s e t h e X - a x i s s o t h a t its p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e
direction o f t h e t r a i n v e l o c i t y ( F ig . 127). T h e f r i c t i o n F\x a n d t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n
d imparted b y it a r e d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e X - a x i s , a n d h e n c e t h e p r o j e c t i o n s o f
these vectors o n t o t h e X - a x i s a r c n e g a t i v e a n d e q u a l t o t h e m a g n i t u d e s o f
these vectors t a k e n w i t h t h e m i n u s s ig n . T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e m a g n i t u d e o f
acceleration a = — ax = Ffx/m. B u t ax = (ux - vox)/t, w h e r e vx a n d vox a r e t h e
projections of t h e f i n a l a n d i n i t i a l v e lo c i ty v e c to r s . B o t h o f t h e m a r e p o s it iv e ,
i. c. vx = v and vox = v0 . T h u s ,

/
We arc i n t e r e s t e d in t h e t i m e r e l a p s i n g f r o m th e b e g in n in g o f b r a k in g
(when the tra in v e lo c ity w as u0 ) to th e h a lt (t> ® 0 ). In th is case.

v0 mvo
a = —vo and
A t
t
THIS IS I M P O R T A N T T O E V E R Y B O D Y . L e t u s c a l c u l a t e t h e b r a k i n g
distance. T h i s d i s t a n c e is t h e x - p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e v e c t o r s' o f t r a i n
displacement over t h e t i m e t. I t c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d b y t h e f o r m u l a

In th e case u n d e r c o n s id e r a tio n , s * - s , i»o, ■ f o an^ a»m

F,,/m. C o n s e q u e n tly ,

This formula s h o w s t h a t t h e d i s t a n c e c o v e r e d t o t h e h a l t is p r o p o r t i o n a l
t o t h e s q u a r e o f t h e i n i t i a l v e lo c i ty . I f t h i s v e lo c i ty is d o u b l e d , t h e b r a k i n g
distance i n c r e a s e s f o u r f o l d . T h i s s h o u l d b e r e m e m b e r e d b y e n g in e d r i v e r s , c a r
drivers a n d i n g e n e r a l b y a l l t h o s e w h o d r i v e v e h ic l e s . I t is a ls o i m p o r t a n t fo r
p e d e s t r i a n s c r o s s i n g a s t r e e t w i t h h e a v y tra f fic . T i m e a n d s p a c e a r c r e q u i r e d
for s to p p in g m o v in g b o d ie s .

? I. W h a t is th e d ire c tio n of an a c c e le ra tio n im p o r te d to

a b o d y b y f r ic tio n ?
2. C a n w e a s s u m e th a t th e m o tio n under th e a c tio n of
f ric tio n is u n ifo rm ly a c c e le r a te d ?

141
 3. Give examples o f motion without friction in nature.
4. Can a body be stopped instantaneously by braking?
5. Which quantities determine the braking distance of
a moving body? What will be the change in this distance
if each o f these quantities is doubled?
6. In order to reduce the braking distance (the distance
covered by a body to a halt), either friction must be
increased or the velocity of motion must be decreased.
Which of these methods is more effective?

Exercise 21
1. What was the velocity of a propeller-driven sledge if it
covered the distance o f 250 m after its engine had been
switched off? p = 0.02.
2. A car driver switched off the motor and quickly applied
the brake at a speed o f 72 km/hr. What time will the car
move to a halt if p = 0.60? What will be the braking
distance?

Hometask
Give examples of motion of bodies under the action of
friction alone.

68 * * M otion of a Body U n d e r t h e A c tio n of S ev eral

Forces
Earlier in this chapter we analyzed the motion of bodies
under the action of only one force. This force can be caused
by elasticity, gravity or friction. In actual practice, however, we virtually
never deal with such motions. Besides elastic and gravitational forces, a body
always experiences the action o f friction.
FALLING BODY IN A FLUID. This is an interesting example of
a rectilinear motion of a body under the action o f two forces. In this case,
the force o f gravity and the resistance o f a fluid (drag force) described in
Sec. 5.7 are acting on the body.
If we ignore all other forces, we can assume that at the moment when the
body starts to fall (v = 0), only the force of gravity Fg is acting on it. The
drag force is zero. As soon as the body starts moving, a drag force (i. e. fluid
friction) appears, which increases with the velocity and is directed opposite
to it.
Since the force of gravity remains constant, while the drag force having the
opposite direction increases with the velocity o f the body, in a certain time
the two forces will be equal in magnitude. At this moment, the resultant of
the two forces becomes equal to zero. The acceleration o f the body will thus
also vanish, and the body will move at a constant velocity. For example.

144
a parachutist starts to move at a constant speed soon after the beginning of
the jump. Snowflakes and rain drops also fall at a constant velocity.
If a body is falling in a fluid, one more force should be taken into account.
This is the Archimedian force (buoyancy) directed upwards. But since this
force is constant and independent of the velocity it does not prevent the
body from falling uniformly in the fluid.
The uniform motion o f a body in a fluid can be observed in the following
simple experiment. A glass tube of about 1 m long is completely filled with
water or glycerin. Then a steel ball is dropped into the liquid (Fig. 128). It
can be easily seen that the ball is moving through the liquid at a constant
velocity. This can be proved by painting divisions along the tube and
measuring the distances covered by the ball during equal time intervals
counted by a metronome.
HOW TO SOLVE PROBLEMS IN MECHANICS WHEN SEVERAL
FORCES ARE ACTING ON A BODY? First o f all, it should be recalled
that the force F appearing in the equation for Newton’s second law
F = md
is the vector sum o f all the forces applied to a body. Thus, when solving
a problem, one should first plot on the figure the vectors of all these forces
and the acceleration o f the body (if its direction is known). Then, having
chosen the direction of coordinate axes, one should find the projections of all
the vectors onto these axes. Finally, one should write the equations of
Newton’s second law for the projections onto each axis and solve the
obtained scalar equations simultaneously.
If the motion of a system of bodies is being considered, the equation for
Newton’s second law is applied to every body of the system and then the
obtained equations are solved simultaneously.

1. What is the difference between the drag force acting on

a falling body in a fluid and the sliding friction?
2. Why does the motion o f a parachutist become uniform in
a certain time after the opening of the parachute?
3. Formulate Newton’s second law for the case when several
forces are acting on a body.

EXAMPLES OF SOLVING PROBLEMS

1. A bar A o f mass m is moving downwards along an inclined plane with
a slope a (Fig. 129). The coefficient of friction between the bar and the plane
is p. Find the acceleration of the bar.
Solution. Three forces are acting on the bar: the force of gravity Fg = mg,
the normal reaction of the support N (elastic force) and friction Ffr- The
directions of these forces are indicated in the figure. The three forces together

145
Fig. 128 Fig. 129

impart to the bar an acceleration a directed along the inclined plane.11

Let us direct the coordinate axes X and Y so that they are parallel and
perpendicular to the inclined plane respectively. Newton’s second law in
vector form is written as
ma = mg + N + Ffr. (1)
In order to write this equation in scalar form, we must find the projections
of the vectors onto the X- and T-axes. Let us start with the x-projections. The
projection ax of the acceleration vector a onto the X-axis is positive and
equal in magnitude to d (vector a is parallel to the X-axis): ax = a. The
projection of the force of gravity mg is positive and, as can be seen from
AABD (see Fig. 129), is mg sin a. The projection of the friction Ffr is negative
and is —F(r . Finally, the projection of the normal reaction N is equal to
zero, since this vector is perpendicular to the X-axis: N x = 0.
Newton’s second law for the projections onto the X-axis, which are
expressed in terms of the magnitudes of the vectors, has the form
ma = mg sin a —Ffr . (2)
Let us now find the y-projections. The projection of the acceleration vector
a onto the T-axis is zero (vector a is perpendicular to the T-axis): av = 0. The
projection of the force of gravity mg onto the T-axis is negative and is
- m g cos a, as can be seen from Fig. 129. The projection of the normal
reaction N is positive and equal to it in magnitude: N y = N . Finally, the
projection of the friction force Ffr is equal to zero.

In order to simplify Fig. 129, we assumed that all the three forces
are applied to the same point, viz. the centre o f the bar. Actually, the forces Ffr and N
are applied to its base.

146
 In this case, the equation for Newton’s second law has the form
0 = N — mg cos a, (3)
whence
N = mg cos a.
It is well known (see Sec. 5.7) that the magnitude of the friction force is
IiN . Hence Ffr = pm gcosa. Substituting this expression for the friction force
into (2), we get
ma = mg sin a —jlmg cos a.
Cancelling m, we find the required acceleration of the bar:
a = g (sin a —p cos a).
It follows from this formula that a is smaller than the acceleration of free
fall.
If there is no friction (p = 0), the acceleration of a body sliding along an
inclined plane is equal in magnitude to g sin a, i.e. it is still less than g. That
is why inclined planes are widely used in practice, since they make it possible
to reduce the acceleration of a body sliding up or down along them.
2. A thread is passed over a fixed pulley with loads of mass m, and m2
attached to it (m x > m2). Find the acceleration of the loads, assuming that the
masses of the thread and pulley are small in comparison with m{ and m2 and
that there is no friction in the pulley.
Solution. We direct the T-axis vertically upwards (Fig. 130).
If we let the system alone, the load having mass w, will start moving
downwards, while the load of mass m2 will move upwards. Let us find the
acceleration (whose magnitude will be the same for the two bodies if we
ignore the elongation of the thread: a x = a 2 =a). For this purpose, we write
the equation of Newton’s second law for each load.
The left load experiences the action of the force of gravity Fgl = mxg and
the tension of the thread F (elastic force). The projection of the force of

Fig. 130

147
gravity onto the 7-axis is equal to the magnitude of the vector m xg with the
opposite sign: mlgy = -m ^ g . The y-projection of the force F is equal to the
magnitude of the vector F: Fy = F. The projection of the acceleration a, is
equal in magnitude to vector a, with the opposite sign: a iy = - u , = - a .
The equation of Newton’s second law for the left load has the form

- m la = - m lg + F. (1)
The right load is acted upon by the force of gravity Fg2 = m2g and the
tension of the thread F (the same as that acting on the left load if the mass
of the thread is assumed to be zero). The y-projection of the force of gravity
is equal in magnitude to the vector m2g with the opposite sign: m 2g, =
—m2g. The y-projection of the force F is equal in magnitude to the vector
F: Fy = F. The projection of the acceleration d2 is equal to the magnitude of
the acceleration vector d2: a2y = a2 = a.
The equation of Newton’s second law for the right load has the form
m2a = - m 2g + F. (2)
Subtracting termwise (1) from (2), we obtain
m2a —( —mla) = - m2g + F - ( - mlg) - F,
or
(mi + m2)a = (ml - m 2)g.
Hence
m, - m2

Since the difference in masses of the loads is less than their sum, the
acceleration a is less than the free-fall acceleration. Pulleys are sometimes
used to make a body fall with an acceleration less than g. This principle is
used in the design of counterweights of lifts and other hoisting machines.

Exercise 22
1. Find the geometrical sum of the forces applied to the bar
on an inclined plane (see Fig. 129) by plotting. What is the
direction of the resultant F of these forces relative to the
inclined plane?
2. A bar slides from the top of an inclined plane o f a 20-cm
height. Find the velocity of the bar at the foot of the
plane, ignoring friction.
3. A sledge slides down the hill of length 10 m during 2 s.
Find the slope of the hill, ignoring friction.
4. A 50-kg body is on an inclined plane whose height is 5 m
and length 10 m. A horizontal force F o f 300 N is acting
on the body (Fig. 131). Find the acceleration o f the body,
neglecting friction.

148
Fig. 131

5. Calculate the acceleration of a body sliding down an

inclined plane having equal height and base, if the
coefficient of friction between the body and plane is 0.20.
6. A ball suspended from a thread rotates in a horizontal
plane, completing one revolution during 0.50 s. With
which force does it act on the thread which makes it
rotate? The mass of the ball is 200 g.

Hometask
Prove that for a uniform motion of a body along an inclined
plane p = tan a, where p is the coefficient of friction and a is
the slope.

6 .9. M otion on Bends

It was shown more than once that in order to make a body
move in a circle, the force applied to it should be directed
towards the centre of the circle. If several forces are acting on the body, the
resultant of these forces must be directed to the centre of the circle.

Fig. 132
 By way of an example, let us consider the motion of a railway car on
a roundiiig of a horizontal track (Fig. 132).
As long as the train is moving over a rectilinear track at a constant
velocity v, every car, naturally, experiences the action o f the force o f gravity
which is balanced by the upward elastic force (normal reaction) o f the rails.
As to friction, it is balanced by the pulling force of the locomotive.
The car now reaches the rounding o f the track. Here it turns and starts
moving along the arc of a circle. What is the force that makes the car change
the direction of the velocity, i.e. move with an acceleration? This force is the
elastic force (normal reaction) exerted on the wheels o f the car by the rail.
The wheels of railway carriages have a flange which touches the rail not
from above but from the side (Fig. 133). As long as the carriage moves over
a rectilinear track, the flange does not play any role and only the part of the
wheel which touches the rail from above is deformed. Having passed point
A (Fig. 134), the wheel, continuing on its way, acts through the flange on the
rail and deforms it on one side. The rail is bent outwards (naturally, the
flange itself is also deformed). This gives rise to an elastic force F directed
normally to the lateral surface of the rail. It is this force that makes the
carriage move in a circle. If the wheels of the carriage had no flanges, this
force could not appear, and the carriage would go off the rails.
The magnitude of the acceleration of the car moving at a velocity v over
the rounding of radius r is v2/r. Hence, according to Newton’s second law,
the magnitude of the elastic force F exerted on the flange (and hence on the
car) by the deformed rail is

r
where m is the mass of the car.
The deformation of the rail just attains the value at which the elastic force
due to this deformation imparts the acceleration v2/r to the car. This
deformation is very small and cannot be noticed by naked eye (dashed line
in Fig. 134).
For reducing the wear of rails and flanges, it is necessary to reduce the
faction between them, i.e. reduce the force o f pressure of the rail on the

Flange

Fig. 133

150
Fig. 134

flange. For this purpose, the railroad bed at roundings is made slightly
inclined to the centre of the rounding (Fig. 135). In this case, the normal
reaction N o f the rails (elastic force) does not balance the force of gravity Fg.
Their resultant F x is directed approximately to the centre of the rounding.
This, obviously, “facilitates” the turn since the magnitude of the elastic force
F exerted by the rail on the flange becomes smaller. Indeed, now the same
centripetal acceleration v2/r is imparted to the car by two forces: F and F x.
Therefore, for a small angle we can write
v2 _ F + F x
r m
whence

This expression shows that the magnitude of the force acting on the flange is
reduced by F x. Therefore, the wear of the rail and flange is smaller.
The wheels of a motorcar have no flanges. When the car makes a turn on
a highway, a centripetal acceleration is imparted to it by the dry friction
between the tires and the asphalt surface (see coloured plate II).

Fig. 135

151
 ? 1. In what direction should a force be applied to a body so
that its rectilinear motion is transformed into a curvilinear
motion (at the bend)?
2. In this section we have considered the motion o f a railway
carriage at the bend o f the track. The resultant o f which
forces imparts a centripetal acceleration to the carriage?
3. The resultant o f which forces imparts a centripetal
acceleration if there is no banking on the track?
4. Can sliding friction impart a centripetal acceleration to
a body?
5. Why is it dangerous to take a turn on an ice-covered
road?

Exercise 23
1. A motorcar moving at a speed o f 108 km/hr has to
describe a turn of radius 50 m. Can it be safely done
without reducing the speed, if the static friction between
the wheels and asphalt surface is 4000 N and the mass of
the car is 1000 kg? What is the maximum speed that
ensures safety?
1 A train is moving over a bend of radius 500 m. The width
of the track is 1.524 m. The outer rail is 12 cm above the
inner one. Find the train velocity on the bend at which the
flanges of the wheels exert no pressure on the rails.

o .iu . C o n d itio n s o f T ra n s la to ry M o tio n of Bodies.

C e n tre of M ass and C e n tre o f G ra v ity
While studying the motion of bodies under the action of
various forces, we paid no attention so far to the fact that
bodies have dimensions. Determining acceleration o f bodies, we assumed
that they are material points.
Such a simplification is valid if a body is in translatory motion. However,
it should be established at which point of the body a force must be applied
for its accelerated motion to be translatory.
Let us make an experiment. We take a broad ruler, attach a thread
to its end at point A and pull the thread with a certain force F in
the direction normal to the ruler axis (Fig. 136). The ruler turns, different
points o f the ruler covering different distances and moving with different
velocities. In other words, they move in different ways, and the ruler
is not in a translatory motion.
Let us now change the direction o f the force: we pull the ruler along its
longer side to the right (Fig. 137). The ruler is moving so that the velocities
and displacements of all its points are the same. Thus, the ruler is in
a translatory motion.

152
 Fig. 136 Fig. 137 Fig. 138

If the force F is not balanced by other forces, the body moves with an
acceleration. It can be easily seen that if the thread is fixed at point A , there
exists only one straight line along which the force F should be directed to
cause an accelerated translatory motion o f the ruler. A force acting along
any other straight line causes the ruler to turn.
We can reverse the direction of the force by attaching the thread at point
B (Fig. 138). The motion of the ruler will again be translatory. This means
that only the position o f the straight line along which the force acts (the line
of force) is important.
Let us now fix the thread at any other point of the ruler, e.g. at point
C (Fig. 139) and again change directions of tension o f the thread (several
directions are shown in the figure as straight lines emerging from point C).
Once again, we see that the ruler is in a translatory motion only if the force
acts in a certain direction. This direction is marked by a red line in the
figure. At all other directions o f the force applied at point C, the ruler always
turns.
Fixing the thread to other points o f the ruler, we can be certain that for
each point there exists only one direction o f the force at which the ruler
translates without rotation. Figure 140 shows the directions of forces applied
at different points o f the ruler to make it translate. Experiments show that
the straight lines along which these forces act converge at the same point 0.
CENTRE OF MASS. Similar experiments with other bodies lead us to an
important conclusion that for each body there exists a point o f intersection
of lines of forces making the body perform an accelerated translatory motion.
This point is called the centre of mass. Any force acting along the straight
line that misses the centre o f mass causes a rotation of the body.
The centre o f mass o f a body is the point at which the force setting the body
in an accelerated translatory motion is applied.
In the experiment with the ruler we can easily see that the centre o f mass
of the ruler coincides with the intersection of its diagonals. This, however, is
the case only if the ruler is homogeneous (made of the same material), has
a regular shape and the same thickness everywhere. If, for example, half the
ruler is made, say, o f wood and the other half is made of steel, the centre of
mass would lie somewhere on the “steel” half, i. e. closer to the part having
the larger mass.
The centre of mass o f a body may turn out to be outside it. For example,
a translatory motion o f a homogeneous ring (Fig. 141) is possible only when
the forces applied to it have the radial direction. Naturally, the lines of
action of these forces converge at the geometrical centre o f the ring. This is
the point where its centre o f mass is.
If different parts o f the ring are made o f different materials, the centre of

153
Fig. 139 Fig. 140 F ig 141

mass may not coincide with its geometrical centre. In this case, the centre of
mass should be found experimentally. There exist some methods of
calculating the centre-of-mass coordinates, but they are cumbersome and
even inapplicable in some cases.
But what fo r do we need the position o f the centre o f mass? As a matter of
fact, if a body is in a translatory motion under the action of one or several
forces, this means that this force or the resultant of all forces passes through
the centre of mass o f the body. In this case, the centre o f mass moves as i f the
entire mass o f the body were concentrated in it and all the forces acting on the
body were applied to it.I} Therefore, if a body is in a translatory accelerated
motion, this means that the resultant o f forces acting on it passes through its
centre of mass as if the entire mass o f the body were concentrated at this point
and the acceleration of the body were the acceleration o f its centre of mass.
Thus, instead o f the motion o f a body, we consider the motion o f a material
point, i.e. its centre o f mass. We proceeded in this way, without stipulating it,
in the previous chapters of this book.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY. The motion of a body under the action of the
force o f gravity is a particular case of translatory motion (if, of course, the
body has not been set in rotation before it began to fall). The force of gravity
acts on all points of the body. If the body is in a translatory motion under
the action of all these forces, this means that their resultant passes through
the centre of mass of the body in any position. For this reason, the centre of
mass is often called the centre o f gravity.

A re th e Law s o f N e w to n ia n M ec h an ics A lw ays

6 • 4I I4* V alid? (M o tio n fro m D ifferen t P o in ts o f V iew )
Summing up what has been considered above, we must first
of all pay attention to the fundamental ideas o f mechanics.
The first idea consists in that if no force acts on a body or if the resultant
of all forces is zero, the body is at rest or in motion at a velocity o f constant
magnitude and direction. If, however, the body moves with an acceleration,
the motion necessarily occurs under the action of a force. The state of rest or

11 h can be shown that this is valid for any kind o f motion.

154
 Fig. 142

uniform rectilinear motion are impossible if there is a force, while an

accelerated motion cannot proceed without a force.
According to the second fundamental idea o f mechanics, a force can act on
a body only in the presence o f another body, large or small, remote or close.
There may or may not be a direct contact with this body. But behind
every force there is necessarily “hidden” a body or several bodies. In other
words, any force is material in origin.
These two ideas constitute the essence o f the Newtonian mechanics.
Are these fundamental statements always correct? To answer this question,
let us imagine an experiment which can be actually carried out. (This
question was partially considered in Sec. 4.1.)
A man is standing on a flatcar with front and rear walls, which is attached
to a locomotive. Suppose that the floor o f the flatcar is made of a very rigid
and smooth material, and the man is on rollers that can move with a very
small friction (Fig. 142). Assume further that another man at the station
watches him. Now, the flatcar starts off, i.e. begins to move with an
acceleration.
THE POINT O F VIEW OF THE STATIONARY OBSERVER. The
observer at the station sees that after the flatcar has started off, the man on
it remains at rest and the floor of the flatcar just moves from under him.
Knowing the laws o f mechanics, the observer would say that this is what
should be expected. The man on the flatcar remains at rest since the forces
acting on him -th e force o f gravity and the elastic force of the flatcar-are
directed vertically and balance each other. And only when the rear wall
touches the man, he starts moving together with the flatcar. This is also in
agreement with the laws of mechanics: the moving wall coming in contact
with the man interacts with him and is deformed. As a result, an elastic force
emerges, which imparts to the man an acceleration equal to that of the
flatcar.

155
 THE POINT OF VIEW OF THE MAN ON THE FLATCAR. The man
on rollers perceives the situation quite differently. All o f a sudden he realizes
that he starts to move relative to the flatcar towards its rear wall with
a certain acceleration. From his point of view, this contradicts the laws of
mechanics. He will just be at a loss if he tries to find out which body has
imparted the acceleration to him, since he will not find such a body.
Which of the observers is right?
Obviously, the personality of an observer does not play any role here. The
reference systems relative to which the motion is observed cause the
difference. The observer on the station speaks about motion relative to the
Earth which he assumed to be a fixed reference system. On the other hand,
the man on the flatcar has in mind the motion relative to the reference
system attached to the flatcar. This reference system is moving with an
acceleration relative to the Earth. The matter is just in the accelerated
motion o f one reference system, viz. the flatcar, relative to another system,
viz. the Earth.
The laws o f Newtonian mechanics hold only under the condition that the
motion is considered relative to inertial reference systems.
It should be recalled that inertial reference systems are the systems in
which bodies do not acquire an acceleration in the absence o f forces (the
man on the flatcar is at rest and the wall o f the flatcar approaches him). If
bodies in such systems acquire an acceleration, this means that forces due to
other bodies act (the rear wall of the flatcar has touched the man and he
starts to move with an acceleration together with the platform).
However, in the reference systems fixed to the flatcar, the laws of
mechanics are invalid. Relative to this system, the man moves with an
acceleration when no other bodies act on him. When the force actually
emerges (the elastic force of the rear wall), the man stops. The reason behind
the violation of Newton’s laws in this system is its accelerated motion
relative to the reference frame in which these laws hold, i.e. relative to the
Earth. Indeed, as soon as the flatcar has gained speed and starts moving
uniformly, the man on rollers moves relative to the flatcar without an
acceleration. The laws of mechanics come to force.
If the laws o f mechanics are valid for a motion relative to one reference
frame, they remain valid also for a motion relative to any other reference
frame that moves uniformly in a straight line relative to the first frame.
There is a countless number o f such systems. In all inertial reference
frames, the laws of motion are the same. This is the essence o f the Galilei
relativity principle.
All reference systems which move with an acceleration relative to an
inertial system are called non-inertial systems since the law o f inertia as well
as Newton’s second and third laws are not valid for them.

1. A load (pendulum) is suspended by a thread from the

ceiling of a railway carriage. What happens to the pendu­
lum during a deceleration of the car? How is this
phenomenon explained by (a) an observer standing on
a platform and (b) an observer in the car?

156
 2. Is it possible to determine the velocity of a steamer and its
acceleration if a passenger in a cabin with closed porthole
observes the motion o f a load suspended by a thread from
the ceiling of the cabin?

Hometask
1. Invent a device which, when attached to a body, would
allow us to measure its acceleration.
2. Consider an example similar to that described in this
section when the flatcar is uniformly rotating.

Summary
Any problem in mechanics is solved with the help of
Newton’s laws if, besides initial coordinates and velocity, the
forces applied to the body are known (in other words, if we know how these
forces depend on coordinates and velocity). It should be borne in mind that
the force or resultant o f several forces determines not the velocity o f the body
( its magnitude and direction) but its acceleration. For this reason, bodies do
not necessarily move in the direction of the force. The trajectory of motion
of a body is determined not only by the forces applied to it but also by the
initial conditions, viz. the magnitude and direction of the initial velocity of
the body.
Motion of bodies can be treated as motion of material points only in the
case of translatory motion. The body is in a translatory motion if and only if
the line of action of the resultant of all the forces passes through the centre
o f mass of the body. Otherwise, the rotation of the body about a certain axis
takes place in addition to its translation.
If we consider the motion of a body relative to a non-inertial reference
system (viz. the reference system moving with an acceleration relative to any
inertial system), the laws of Newtonian mechanics turn out to be invalid. The
body moves relative to a non-inertial reference system with an acceleration
which is not due to forces applied to it, and may move uniformly in the
presence of forces.
 F U N D A M E N T A L S O F STATICS
( E Q U I L I B R I U M O F BODIES)

W H A T D O E S ST A TI C S S T U D Y ?

It was shown earlier that Newton’s laws allow us to

find accelerations acquired by bodies due to forces ap­
plied to them.
It is often important to know, however, the conditions under which bodies
experiencing the action of various forces do not acquire accelerations. Such
bodies are said to be in equilibrium state. In particular, this is the state of
bodies at rest.
It is very important for practical purposes to know the conditions under
which bodies remain at rest, for example, for constructing buildings, bridges,
various supports, suspenders, for manufacturing engines, instruments, and so
on.
For example, the tower of the Ostankino TV centre in Moscow cannot be
allowed to acquire an acceleration under the action o f wind and to move
from its foundation. It is Newton’s laws that allow us to find the conditions
ensuring equilibrium and above all, the state of rest o f a body.
The part of mechanics which studies equilibrium of rigid bodies is called
statics.
It is well known that each body can be in translatory motion and, besides,
can rotate or turn about a certain axis. Obviously, neither translatory nor
rotary motionl) of the body should change in equilibrium. In particular, if it
is required that the body should be at rest, it must neither translate nor
rotate (turn) about an axis.
Let us consider conditions of equilibrium of bodies for these two possible
types o f motion separately.

7. 1. E quilibrium of Bodies in t h e A bsenc e of R o ta tio n

For translatory motion, we can consider the motion o f only
one point of the body, viz. its centre o f mass. In this case, we
assume that the entire mass o f the body is concentrated at the centre of mass
to which the resultant of all the forces acting on the body is applied. It
follows from Newton’s second law that the acceleration o f this point is zero
if the geometrical sum of all the forces applied to it (resultant) is equal to

l) In rotational m otion, all points o f a body describe concentric

circles around a point through which the axis o f rotation passes.

158
zero. T h is is ju st the co n d itio n o f equilibriu m for a b o d y in the a b sen ce o f
rotation.
The necessary condition o f equilibrium fo r a body that can translate ( without
rotation) is that the geometrical sum o f forces applied to the body should be
equal to zero.
If, how ever, the geom etrica l sum o f the forces is zero, the sum o f
projection s o f the vectors o f these forces o n to any axis a lso vanishes. There­
fore, the co n d itio n o f equilibriu m can be form ulated as follows.
For a nonrotating body to be in equilibrium, it is necessary that the sum
o f the projections o f the forces applied to it onto any axis is equal to
zero.
F or exam p le, a b od y to w hich tw o eq u a l forces a cting a lo n g the sam e
straight line in o p p o s ite direction s are a p p lied (Fig. 143) is in equilibrium .
F igure 144 illustrates an experim ent that can be carried o u t in a sch o o l
laboratory.
An equilibriu m state is n o t necessarily a sta te o f rest. It fo llo w s from
N e w to n ’s secon d law th at w h en the resultant o f forces applied to a body
vanishes, the b od y can be in a uniform rectilinear m otion. In this m o tio n , the
body is also in eq u ilib riu m . F o r exam ple, a parachutist reaches an equilib­
rium state w h en he starts falling at a co n sta n t velocity.
T h e forces s h o w n in Fig. 143 are a pplied to the body not at the sam e
point. It was sh ow n , how ever, that it is the line alo n g w hich the force is
a ctin g that is im p ortan t rather than the p o in t o f its application. T h e m o tio n
o f the body or its equilibriu m state d o e s n ot change when the p o in t o f
a p p lication o f a force is disp la ced a lo n g the line o f its action. F or ex a m p le, it
is o b v io u s that n o th in g ch a n g es if the car sh o w n in Fig. 145 is pushed
instead o f bein g p u lled (Fig. 146).
If the resultant o f forces a cting o n a b o d y differs from zero, an ad d ition al
force equal and o p p o site to the resultant is required for the body to be in
equilibrium .

Fig. 143 Fig. 144

159
Fig. 145 fig . 146

1. What is the meaning of the expression: “a body (or system

of bodies) is in equilibrium” ?
2. Several forces are applied to a body, such that their
resultant differs from zero. What should be done to bring
the body to an equilibrium state?
3. What are the conditions of the equilibrium for bodies in
translatory motion?
4. Does the equilibrium necessarily imply a state of rest?
5. If the geometrical sum of forces applied to a body is zero,
what is the algebraic sum of the projections of these forces
onto a certain axis?

EXAMPLE OF SOLVING A PROBLEM

How can we keep in equilibrium a boat acted upon by the river flow and
the wind blowing from the bank (Fig. 147)?
Solution. Let us find the resultant F of the forces F , and F 2 due to the
wind and water flow by using the parallelogram rule. The diagonal of the
parallelogram constructed on the forces as sides gives the magnitude and
direction o f the resultant F. In order to keep the boat in equilibrium, the
force Fy equal and opposite to the resultant force direction should be
applied to it. This force may be, for example, the elastic force o f the rope
whose one end is fixed to the boat and the other to the bank. If the force

Flow

Fig. 148

160
exerted by flowing water is, say, 150 N and the force o f pressure o f the wind
is 100 N, the resultant o f these two perpendicular forces can be calculated by
the Pythagorus theorem:

F = ] /F \ + F j , F = |/(1 0 0 N )2 + (150N )2 ^ 1 8 0 N .
Consequently, the boat can be held by the rope capable of withstanding
tension not less than 180 N.

Exercise 24
1. A load is moved over a horizontal plane at a constant
velocity with the help o f two ropes to which forces of
500 N each are applied. The ropes form an angle of 60°.
What is the friction on the plane? What is the magnitude
o f friction that requires the angle between the ropes to be
0, 90, 120°?
2. A 3.0-kg sphere is hanging on a rope fixed to a smooth
wall (Fig. 148). Find the tension of the rope and the force
o f pressure of the sphere on the wall. The rope forms an
angle o f 15° and passes through the centre of the sphere.
3. A 3.4-kg lamp is suspended at the middle o f a 20-m
horizontal rope, as a result of which the latter sags by
5 cm. Find the elastic forces emerging in the rope.

7.2 . E q u ilib r iu m of Bodies w ith a Fixed Axis of

R otation
In the preceding section, we established the conditions of
equilibrium for a body in the absence of rotation. But how
can we ensure the absence of rotation?
To answer this question, let us consider a body that cannot translate but
can turn or rotate. In order to make translation impossible, it is sufficient to
fix the body at one point. For example, we can fix a board on a wall by
nailing it up with a single nail. The translatory motion of such a board
becomes impossible, but the board can turn with the nail as an axis.
WHICH FORCES CAN CAUSE A BODY TO TURN? Let us first find
out which forces can and which cannot cause a turning (rotation) o f a body
having a fixed axis.
Figure 149 shows a body that can turn about an axis 0 normal to the
plane o f the figure. It can be seen that the forces F lt F2 and F3 do not cause
rotation of the body since their lines pass through the axis of rotation. Any
force o f this type is balanced by the reaction of the fixed axis.

F,

Fig. 149 F2

161
 (a)

A turning (or rotation) can be caused by forces whose lines do not pass
through the axis of rotation. For example, the force F , applied to the body
as shown in Fig. 150a makes the body turn clockwise. On the other hand,
the force F2 (Fig. 150b) also causes the turning of the body but anticlockwise.
To make turning (rotation) impossible, we must obviously apply to the
body at least two forces, one o f which causes a clockwise rotation of the
body, while the other rotates it anticlockwise. These forces may be not equal
in magnitude to each other. For example, the force F x (Fig. 151) causes
anticlockwise rotation of the body. It can be shown experimentally that it
can be balanced by a force F 2, rotating the body clockwise, whose magni­
tude is smaller than that of F x. This means that these two forces differing in
magnitude produce the same “rotating action”. What do they have in
common? Which property is the same for them? Experiments show that in
this case the product of the magnitude of the force and the distance1* from
the rotational axis is the same. This distance (denoted in Fig. 151 by d x and
d2 respectively) is called the arm of force. The arm of the force F x is d2 and
the arm of the force F2 is d x.
MOMENT OF FORCE. Thus, the “rotating action” of a force is
characterized by the product of its magnitude and the arm. The quantity
equal to the product o f the magnitude o f the force Fx and its arm d is called the
torque or the moment o f force about the axis o f rotation:
M = Fd.

The expression “about the axis of rotation” is necessary in the definition of

the torque since if we shift the axis o f rotation from point O (see Fig. 151) to
some other point without changing the magnitude of the force or its
direction, then the arm of force, and hence its moment, will change.
The moment o f force depends on two quantities: the magnitude of the

11 The word “distance” here indicates the length o f the perpendicular

dropped from the axis of rotation onto the line o f action o f the force.

162
force and its arm. The same torque can be produced by a small force whose
arm is large and by a large force with a small arm. If somebody, for example,
is trying to shut the door by pushing it near the hinge, he could be thwarted
by a child who is clever enough to push the door in the opposite direction
by applying the force closer to the door edge. The door will remain at rest
(Fig. 152).
Naturally, we must find a unit of measurement for the new quantity-the
moment of force.
It follows from the expression M = Fd that for the unit of torque in SI
should be taken the moment of force o f 1 N whose line of action is separated
from the axis o f rotation by 1 m. This unit is called a newton-metre (N • m).
CONDITION OF EQUILIBRIUM (RULE OF MOMENTS). Moments
of forces rotating a body anticlockwise are conventionally given the plus
sign, while the minus sign corresponds to the torques rotating a body
clockwise. Then the moments of forces F x and F2 about the axis O (see
Fig. 151) have opposite signs and their algebraic sum is zero. Thus, we can
write the following condition of equilibrium for a body with a fixed axis:
F xd x = F 2d2 or - F xdx + F2d2 = 0.
A body that can rotate about a fixed axis is in equilibrium if the algebraic
sum o f the moments o f forces applied to it about this axis is zero.
This is the rule o f moments, which is the condition of equilibrium for
a body with a fixed axis of rotation.
We obtained the rule o f moments for the case when two forces act on
a body. It can be shown that this rule is valid also when several forces act on
a body.
For this purpose, let us consider an experiment carried out with the help
of the device shown in Fig. 153. It is a body of an irregular shape, fixed at
an axis (rotational axis).
Forces are applied at four points of this body. Two of them are equal in
magnitude to the weights o f the corresponding loads shown in Fig. 153. The
other two are elastic forces with which the stretched springs of the
 F.

"
ID

Fig. 154

dynamometers act on the body. The magnitudes of these forces are indicated
on the scales of the dynamometers. Under the action of these four forces, the
body is in equilibrium. Using a compass and a ruler, we can measure the
arms of these forces. In doing so we can make sure that the algebraic sum of
the moments of the four forces about the rotational axis is equal to zero.
Figure 154 schematically illustrates a similar experiment with three forces
(F1? F2 and F3) acting on a body. The fixed axis passes through point 0. The
figure shows that the moments of the forces F, and F2 about the rotational
axis of the body are negative, while the moment of the force F 3 is positive.
The condition of equilibrium for the body is written in the form
-Fi<*i ~ F 2d2 + F 3d3 = 0 ,
where d u d2 and d3 are the arms of the corresponding forces.
Let us now formulate the general condition of equilibrium for a body.
For a body to be in equilibrium, it is necessary that the geometrical s u m o f
the forces applied to the body and the sum o f the moments o f these forces about
the rotational axis be equal to zerol).
LEVER RULE. It can be easily seen that the rule of moments leads to the
famous lever rule: a lever is in equilibrium when the magnitudes o f forces
acting on it are inversely proportional to their arms. This is just another
expression for the rule of moments. Indeed, it follows from the formula
F ld1 = F2d2 that

Figure 155 represents, by way of an example, a lever with two mutually

perpendicular forces applied to it, F , and F2.

The fulfilment of these conditions, however, does not prevent the

body from moving uniformly in a straight line or from rotating at a constant period
of revolution.

164
 1. Under which conditions does a force applied to a body
cause its rotation about a fixed axis?
2. What is called the arm o f a force?
3. Give the definition o f the moment of force (torque).
4. In which case is the torque acting on a pedal (Fig. 156a
and b) larger?
5. Formulate the condition o f equilibrium for a body that
can rotate about a fixed axis.
6. Under which condition is the lever shown in Fig. 155 in
equilibrium?

EXAMPLE OF SOLVING A PROBLEM

A homogeneous rod of mass m = 2 kg is fixed to a hinge at its lower end
(Fig. 157). The rod is maintained in equilibrium by a horizontal guide rope
fixed to a stationary vertical post. Using the data indicated on the figure,
find the tension o f the rope and the reaction of the hinge.
Solution. Three forces act on the rod: the force o f gravity Fg = mg, applied
at its middle, the elastic force F , of the rope and the elastic force F2 of the
hinge. The axis o f rotation passes through the hinge at the lower end of the
rod. Only two o f the above forces have torques about this axis. The line of
action of the normal reaction of the hinge passes through its axis; hence its
moment is zero. O f the two remaining forces, the elastic force o f the rope
rotates the rod anticlockwise, while the force of gravity rotates it clockwise.
According to the rule o f moments, we have

—Fgd + F j d ^ O , - 2 kg x 10— x 0.30 m + F X

x 0.40 m = 0.
Solving this equation, we obtain F x = 15 N.
In order to determine the normal reaction in the hinge, we apply the other
condition of equilibrium: the sum of the projections of the applied forces
onto each coordinate axis should be zero:
F 2x + F lx —0 , F2y + Fgy —0.

Fig. 156 Fig. 157

165
 F 1X= - F , and Fgy = mgy = - mg,
we have
F 2x - F l = 0 , F2x = F „ F2 x — 15 N ,
F 2y - m g = 0 , F2y = mg, F2>1= 2 0 N .
By the Pythagoras theorem, we obtain

F2 = \/(F 2x )2 + (F 2, ) \

F 2 = \J 152 + 202 N = 2 5 N .

It follows from the conditions of equilibrium that the direction o f the force
F 2 should intersect the lines of action o f the forces F, and Fg at the same
point.

Exercise 25
1. Figure 158 shows a homogeneous rod whose rotational
axis passes through point O. Loads whose masses are 0.2
and 0.4 kg are suspended from points A and
B respectively. What is the mass o f the load which should
be suspended from point C so that the rod is in
equilibrium?
2. A 0.8-kg load is fixed at point A o f a homogeneous rod
(Fig. 159) that can rotate about an axis. What should be
the mass of the load fixed at point B so that the rod is in
equilibrium? The mass of the rod is 400 g.
3. A box is lying on an inclined plane. Will it slide down if
the coefficient o f friction between the box and the inclined
plane is 0.2? The length of the inclined plane is 6 m and
its height is 2 m.
4. An aerial mast (Fig. 160) is fixed with the help of the
guiding rope A B forming an angle o f 30° with the mast.
The force with which the aerial acts on the mast at point
B (tension o f the aerial) is 1000 N. Find the elastic force in
the compressed mast and the force acting on the rope.

A 0 B

0.8 kg

Fig. 158 Fig. 159

166
 Fig. 160

Hometask
Give examples illustrating the practical use of a lever.

7.3. S ta b ility of Equilibrium of Bodies

If a body is in equilibrium, this means that the sum of forces
applied to it is equal to zero and the sum of the moments of
these forces about the rotational axis is also zero. However, the question that
arises now is whether the equilibrium is stable.
For example, it can be immediately seen that the equilibrium of a ball on
the top of a convex support (Fig. 161) is unstable; a slight deviation of the
ball from its equilibrium position leads to its rolling down. If, however, the
same ball is placed on a concave support (Fig. 162), it is not easy to make it
leave its place. In this case, the equilibrium o f the ball can be assumed stable.
WHAT IS THE SECRET OF STABILITY? In the examples considered
above, the ball is in equilibrium: its force of gravity Fg is equal and opposite
to the elastic force (normal reaction) N of the support (Figs. 163 and 164).
As a matter of fact, the slight deviation mentioned above plays a very
important role here. Upon a very small deviation, which always occurs due
to random vibrations, air flows and other reasons, the equilibrium of the ball
is violated. It can be seen from Fig. 163 that as soon as the ball on a convex
support leaves its initial position, the force of gravity Fg is no longer

Fig. 161 Fig. 162

167
Fig. 163 Fig. 164

balanced by the force N exerted by the support (the force N always acts
normally to the surface of contact between the ball and the support). The
resultant of the force of gravity Fg and the normal reaction N , viz. the force
F, is directed so that the ball moves still further from the equilibrium
position.
Quite a different situation is observed if we consider a concave support
(Fig. 164). Upon a small deviation from the initial position, equilibrium is
violated in this case also. The elastic force exerted by the support does not
balance the force of gravity in this case also. But the resultant F is now
directed so that the body returns to its initial position. This is the condition
of stable equilibrium.
Equilibrium o f a body is stable i f as a result o f a small deviation from an
equilibrium position the resultant o f the forces applied to the body returns it to
the equilibrium position.
Equilibrium is unstable if as a result o f a small deviation o f the body from an
equilibrium position the resultant o f forces applied to the body moves it away
from this position.
This is also valid for a body with a rotational axis. By way o f an example,
let us consider an ordinary ruler Fixed on a rod passing through the hole
near one o f its ends (Fig. 165a, b). It can be seen from the figures that the
position o f the rule in Fig. 165a is stable. On the other hand, it is almost
impossible to suspend the same ruler as shown in Fig. 166a. Any deviation
from the vertical position (Fig. 166b) makes the ruler turn so that it occupies
the position shown in Fig. 166c. Consequently, the equilibrium o f the ruler
corresponding to Fig. 166a is unstable.
Stable and unstable equilibrium also differ in the positions of the centre of
gravity of the body. When the ball is in an unstable equilibrium (see
Fig. 161), its centre of gravity is higher than in any neighbouring position.
On the contrary, the centre o f gravity o f the ball in a stable equilibrium on
the concave support (see Fig. 162) is lower than in any other neighbouring
position. Consequently, for a body to be in a stable equilibrium, its centre of
gravity must be at the lowest possible position.

168
 The equilibrium o f a body having a rotational axis is stable if its centre o f
gravity is below the axis o f rotation.
There exists one more type of equilibrium when a deviation from the
equilibrium position does not lead to any change in the state of the body.
Such is, for example, the position of a ball on a plane support (Fig. 167) or
the position of a ruler suspended from a rod passing through a hole at its
centre of gravity (Fig. 168). Obviously, upon any change in the position of
the body it remains in equilibrium. Such equilibrium is called neutral.
EQUILIBRIUM OF BODIES ON SUPPORTS. We considered above
the conditions o f stable and unstable equilibrium for bodies having a fulcrum
or rotational axis. The case when the contact between a support and a body
is not a point (axis) but a certain surface is also very important for practical
applications. A box on the floor, a glass on the table, various buildings and
chimneys have supporting surfaces. What are the conditions for stable
equilibrium of bodies in this case?
As before, the bodies with supporting surfaces experience the action of two
forces balancing each other, i.e. the force of gravity that can be assumed to
be applied at the centre of gravity, and the elastic force (normal reaction) of
the support normal to its surface. Just as in the cases considered above, an
equilibrium is stable if a deviation from the equilibrium position does not
give rise to a force moving the body away from this position. For example,
when a prism rests on a horizontal surface (Fig. 169), it is naturally in
equilibrium. This equilibrium is stable since upon a deviation by a small
angle, the line of the force of gravity o f the prism (which coincides with the
vertical) intersects the base o f the prism to the left o f the supporting points
(Fig. 170), and the force of gravity returns the prism to its original position.
If, however, the prism is inclined by a larger angle (Fig. 171), the result
will be different. The line of the force o f gravity (the vertical) now intersects
the base o f the prism on the right of the supporting points, and under the
action of this force the prism is inclined still further. Ultimately, it falls.

Fig. 169 Fig. 170

170
Fig. 171 Fig. 172

Figure 172 shows the limiting position of the prism before it falls down. In
this case, the line o f action of the force o f gravity crosses the line containing
the supporting points o f the prism.
Thus, for a body to be stable it is necessary that the vertical passing
through the centre of gravity of the body intersects the supporting surface.
Supporting surface which determines the equilibrium is not always the
surface that actually contacts the body. For example, a table contacts the
floor only through its legs. However, the supporting surface of the table is
the surface bounded by a contour which is formed by the straight lines
connecting the legs. The supporting surface of a tripod (Fig. 173) is the
triangle formed by the segments connecting its legs, etc.
 1. Determine the type o f equilibrium for the following cases:
(a) a gymnast is hand-standing on parallel bars; a gymnast
is hanging on rings, (b) a rope-walker is on a rope;
(c) a wheel is put on an axle; (d) a ball is suspended from
a thread; and (e) a ball is lying on a table.
2. In what way is a high stability o f the following objects
ensured: (a) a laboratory holder; (b) a tower crane;
(c) a table lamp?
3. A lorry transported the following loads o f the same mass:
steel sheets, cotton and wood. In which case was the lorry
more stable?

Summary
The question o f equilibrium o f a body acted upon by forces
is important in designing constructions that must be
permanently at rest.
There are two conditions necessary for equilibrium:
(1) the geometrical sum of the forces applied to a body must be zero;
(2) the algebraic sum of the moments o f applied forces about the rotational
axis must be zero.
The moment of force about an axis is the quantity characterizing the
rotational action o f the force about this axis. It is equal to the product of the
magnitude of force and its arm.
Not all types of equilibrium o f a body can be realized in practice. Only
stable and neutral equilibrium can be attained.
An equilibrium of a body is stable when upon a small deviation of the
body from the equilibrium position, forces acting on the body return it to
the original position.
 Conservation Laws in Mechanics

T H E LAW O F C O N S E R V A T I O N O F

8 MOMENTUM

P H Y S I C A L Q U A N T I T I E S T H A T ARE C O N S E R V E D

In the previous chapters it was demonstrated how Newton's

laws are used for solving problems on motion of bodies. It
may seem that the study of mechanics could be finished here. However, in
many cases it is very difficult to find the magnitudes of forces acting on
a body. When we consider the collision o f two bodies, say, two railway
carriages, we know that they interact through elastic force. But it is very
difficult, and sometimes even impossible to determine the magnitude of this
force due to the complexity o f deformations of the parts of the carriages in
contact. Even in a simple case of collision between two balls, the form of
deformation o f each ball is very complex, and the values of quantities x and
k which appear in Hooke’s law are unknown:
(F.l)x = ~ k x .
In such cases, problems in mechanics are solved with the help o f simple
corollaries o f the laws o f motion, which are modifications of Newton’s
second law. These expressions involve, instead of forces and accelerations,
new quantities. These quantities are momentum and energy. This part of the
book is devoted to them. Momentum and energy are peculiar quantities
possessing the property of being conserved. These quantities and their
conservation play an important role not only in mechanics but also in other
branches of physics. This explains a special attention paid to this quantities.

8 . 1. Force a n d M o m e n tu m
Formula
F = md, (8-1.1)
which expresses Newton’s second law, can be written in a different form if we
recall that acceleration is the rate of variation o f the velocity of a body. In

173
particular, for a uniformly accelerated motion, we have
_ v - Vo 8 12
( . . )
a = --------- .
t
Substituting this expression into (8.1), we obtain
- m ( v - v0 )
r = -----------

or
mv — mv0
F= (8.1.3)

This formula can also be written as

Ft = mv - mv0 . (8.1.4)

Formula (8.1.4) is another expression of Newton’s second law.

The right-hand side of this equation is the change in the product of the
mass of a body and its velocity. This product is a physical quantity called
the momentum o f a body.
The momentum o f a body is the product o f the mass o f the body and its
velocity.
Momentum is a vector quantity. The direction of the momentum vector
coincides with the direction of the velocity vector.
It is usually said that a body of mass m moving at a velocity v carries (or
has) the momentum mv.
Obviously, the SI unit o f momentum is the momentum o f a body having
a mass o f 1 kg and moving at a velocity o f 1 m/s. The unit o f momentum is
kilogram-metre per second (kg-m/s).
It can be seen from (8.1.4) that the change in momentum is equal to the
product of the force F and the time t of its action. The quantity Ft also has
a special name. It is called the impulse.
The change in the momentum o f a body is equal to the impulse.
When deriving formula (8.1.4), we assumed that the acceleration of the
body, and hence the force acting on it, are constant. If, however, the force
varies with time, the time interval during which this force is acting can be
divided into small intervals during which the force can be considered
constant. The change in momentum during each of small intervals can be
calculated by (8.1.4). Summing up the obtained increments of momentum, we
obtain the change in momentum over the entire time interval during which
this force is acting.
If the time of action of a force is very short as, for example, during
a collision of bodies or during an impact, we can use formula (8.1.4) directly,
assuming that F is the average force acting on the body.
A remarkable property of momentum is that under the action o f a given
force, it changes by the same value for all bodies if only the time of action of
the force is the same. The same force acting during a certain time supplies
the same momentum to a heavy barge as well as to a light boat

174
 1. What is the momentum of a body? What are the magni­
tude and direction of the momentum of a body?
2. What is the relation between the force acting on a body
and its momentum? Can we say that a body has
a momentum because a force is acting on it?
3. What is impulse? What are its magnitude and direction?
4. What is the relation between the impulse and the
momentum of a body?
5. Which units are used for measuring the impulse and
momentum of a body? Are they different?

Exercise 26
1. Find the momentum of a 5-kg body and moving at
a velocity of 2 m/s.
2. The 4-t tank of a street-sprinkling vehicle contains 2 m3 of
water. What is the momentum of the vehicle (a) when it
moves at a velocity of 18 km/hr loaded with water; (b)
when it moves at a velocity o f 54 km/hr after all the water
has run out?
3. A 20-g metallic ball falls at a velocity of 5 m/s on a steel
slab, collides with it (elastic collision) and rebounds
vertically upwards at the same initial velocity. Find the
change in the momentum of the ball and the average force
inducing the change, if the collision lasts for 0.1 s.
4. A driver puts the engine of his motorcar out of gear at
a velocity of 72 km/hr. In 3.4 s the car stops. The friction
of the wheels on the asphalt surface is 5880 N. What was
the momentum of the car when the engine was put out of
gear? What is the mass of the car?
5. A 2-t motorcar is moving at a velocity of 36 km/hr. What
time is required for the car to come to a halt after the
engine is put out of gear, if the friction of the wheels on
the road is 5880 N?

Hometask
Analyze the solutions of Problems 4 and 5 of Ex. 26 and find
out which quantity determines the braking time of a moving
body for a given magnitude of the decelerating force. Compare
the result o f the analysis with the formula given in Sec. 6.7.

8 . 2. T h e Law of C o n se rva tion of M o m e n tu m

Momentum possesses an interesting and important property
inherent in quite a few physical quantities. This is the
property o f being conserved. It consists in that the geometrical sum of
momenta of bodies which interact only with each other remains unchanged.

175
O f course, the momentu o f the bodies change since forces o f interaction act
on each body, but the sum of momenta remains constant. This statement is
called the law o f conservation o f momentum.
The law of conservation of momentum is one o f the fundamental laws of
nature. It can be proved quite easily when two bodies interact. Indeed, if the
first body acts on the second one with the force F, the second body acts on
the first one with the force which, according to Newton’s third law, is equal
to - F . Let us denote the masses of the bodies by m, and m 2 and their
velocities relative to a reference system by r, and v2. As a result of
interaction, the velocities o f the bodies will change in a certain time t and
become iT,' and v2.
According to (8.1.4), we have
Ft = m i v( - m i v l ,
— Ft = m 2 v2 - m 2 v2 .

Consequently,
m, i;/ —m, p, = —(m2v2 —m2 v2).
Having reversed the signs on both sides o f this equality, we write it as
follows:
y, + m2 v2 = m, v{ + m2 v2.

The left-hand side o f this equation contains the sum o f the initial momenta
of the two bodies, while the right-hand side is the sum o f the momenta of the
same bodies in time t. These sums are equal. Thus, although the momentum
of each body changes as a result o f interaction, their total momentum, i.e.
the sum o f the momenta of the two bodies, remains un­
changed, Q. E. D.
WHEN IS THE LAW OF CONSERVATION O F MOMENTUM
VALID? It can be proved (and confirmed in experiments) that if many
bodies interact, the geometrical sum o f the momenta o f these bodies or, as it
is said, o f a system o f bodies, remains unchanged. It is only important that
these bodies should interact only with one another and that other bodies,
which are not involved in the system, should not act on them (or that these
external forces should be balanced). Such a group o f bodies which do not
interact with other bodies outside this group is called a closed system. While
we were considering the interaction o f two bodies, we also assumed that
other bodies are not acting on them. The law o f conservation o f momentum is
valid just for closed systems.
The geometrical sum o f the momenta of bodies comprising a closed system
remains constant upon any interactions among the bodies o f this system.
Hence it follows that an interaction among bodies consists in that some
bodies impart a fraction o f their momentum to others.
Momentum is a vector quantity. Therefore, if the sum o f the momenta of
bodies remains constant, the sum o f projections o f these momenta onto the
coordinate axes also is conserved. For this reason, geometrical summation of
momenta can be replaced by algebraic summation o f their projections.

176
 The law of conservation o f momentum can be illustrated by the following
simple experiments.
1. Let us place two cars of the same mass m on rails. We attach to the end
face of one o f them a plasticine ball. Suppose that the cars move towards
each other with the same velocity v (Fig. 174). The cars stop when they meet.
The results o f the experiment can be easily explained. Before meeting, the
momentum o f the left car is mv and that o f the right car is - mv (the cars
were moving with opposite velocities). Therefore, the total momentum of the
cars before meeting was zero:
mu + ( — mv) = 0.

After the collision, the cars stopped. Consequently, the total momentum of
the cars remains zero.
2. We can turn the cars so that they are facing each other with spring
buffers (Fig. 175). Repeating the experiment, we see that after the collision
the cars will move apart. In this interaction, the velocities of the cars reverse
their directions while their magnitudes remain the same as before the
interaction. If before meeting the momenta of the left and right cars were mv
and —mv respectively, after their meeting the momenta will be —mv and mv
respectively. Therefore, the total momentum of the two cars is zero both
before and after the collision, in correspondence with the law of conservation
of momentum.

& TEL o g
F ig 175

177
12 376
 1. Formulate the law o f conservation o f momentum.
2. What is called a closed system of bodies?
3. A sailing boat has got into calm and came to a halt. Is it
possible to make it move by blowing up its sails with the
help of a pump or bellows mounted on board?
4. A gun shot was made from a moving tank. Does the shot
affect the velocity of the tank? Which bodies form a closed
system in this case?
5. Two balls of equal mass are rolling towards each other
over a very smooth surface at velocities of equal magni­
tude (hence the balls form a closed system). After collision
they move apart at the same velocities (in magnitude).
What is their total momentum before collision, at the
moment o f collision and after it?
6. Can the fragments o f an exploding grenade move in the
same direction if before the explosion the grenade was at
rest? And if it was moving?

EXAMPLE OF SOLVING A PROBLEM

A railway carriage whose mass is 30 000 kg is moving at a velocity of
1.5 m/s. It is clutched with a stationary carriage whose mass is 20 000 kg.
What is the velocity of the cars after clutching if the railroad segment where
this process occurs is straight?
Solution. Let us direct the coordinate axis along the velocity vector of the
first carriage. We denote the mass of the first (moving) carriage by m ,, the
mass of the second (stationary) carriage by m2, the velocity o f the first
carriage before clutching by vt and the common velocity o f the two carriages
after clutching by v. According to the law of conservation of momentum, the
total momentum of the two carriages before and after the clutch must be the
same.
Before the clutch, the projection o f the total momentum onto the
coordinate axis is positive and equal to the magnitude o f the momentum of
the first car, viz. After the clutch, the projection o f the total
momentum should remain positive and equal to the magnitude of the
momentum vector of clutched cars, viz. (m1 +m2)v.
In accordance with the law of conservation o f momentum, we write
ml vl = ( m j + m2)v.
Hence

m, + m2

3 x 104 kg x 1.5 m/s

v -----------5c—
x HinST--------=
r kg 0-9 m/s.
'

178
 In this problem, we have not calculated the magnitudes of the forces of
interaction between the carriages. However, using the momentum
conservation law, we determined the velocities of the bodies we are interested
in. Obviously, if the initial positions of the bodies are known, we can
determine the positions of these bodies at any instant of time from their
velocities. For this reason, the law of conservation of momentum is very
important. It allows us to solve the fundamental problem of mechanics.

Exercise 27
1. A man whose mass is 70 kg, running at a velocity of
7 m/s, catches up with a car which has a mass of 30 kg
and a velocity of 2 m/s and jumps onto it. What is the
velocity of the car after that?
2. In the formation of a train, three clutched wagons moving
at a velocity of 0.4 m/s collide with a stationary wagon.
After this the four wagons start moving in the same
direction with the same velocity. Calculate the velocity if
the masses of the wagons are equal.
3. An anti-aircraft shell shot in the vertical direction
exploded after having reached its maximum height and
splitted into three fragments. Two of them scattered at
right angles, their masses being 9 and 18 kg and the
velocities 60 and 40 m/s respectively. The third fragment
had the velocity of 200 m/s. Find graphically the direction
of flight of the third fragment. What is its mass?

8 .3. R eaction Propulsion

Reaction propulsion is an interesting and important case of
practical application of the law of conservation of
momentum. This term is applied to the motion of a body due to the
separation of its certain part with some velocity.
For example, the motion of rockets is a reaction propulsion. Any rocket is
a two-body system. It consists of a shell and a fuel contained in it. The shell
is made in the form o f a tube with one end closed and the other open and
supplied with a fitting having an opening of a special shape, called the
propelling nozzle.
During the firing of a rocket, the fuel is burnt and converted into a high-
pressure gas having a very high temperature. Due to high pressure, this gas
escapes from the nozzle at a high velocity. The rocket flies in the opposite
direction (Fig. 176).
Before launching, the total momentum o f the rocket (shell and fuel) in the
coordinate system fixed to the Earth is zero. As a result of interaction of the
gas and the shell, the ejected gas acquires a certain momentum. We assume
that the effect of the force o f gravity is negligibly small. Then the shell and

179
 !

Fig. 176

fuel can be considered as a closed system, and their total momentum must
also be zero after launching. Consequently, due to the interaction with the
gas, the shell acquires a momentum equal in magnitude to the momentum of
the gas and having the opposite direction. Hence, not only the gas but the
rocket shell is also set in motion. It may contain instruments for scientific
researches, communication equipment, etc. It may carry a spacecraft with
cosmonauts on board.
The law o f momentum conservation allows us to determine the velocity of
the rocket (shell).
Indeed, let us first suppose that all the gas formed upon combustion of the
fuel is ejected from the rocket at once and not flows out gradually.
We denote the entire mass o f the gas obtained from the rocket fuel by mg
and its flow velocity by vg. The mass and velocity o f the shell are denoted
by msh and ush. According to the law of momentum conservation, the sum of
the momenta of the shell and gas after launching and before it must be the
same, i.e. it must be equal to zero. Consequently,
mg(t>g)j, + msh (t>sh )y = 0

or
^sh ush — m g vg

(the Y-axis is chosen in the direction of motion of the shell). Hence we can
find the shell velocity:

(8.3.1)

This formula shows that the velocity of the rocket shell is the higher, the
larger the velocity o f the ejected gas and the larger the ratio o f the mass of
the fuel to the mass of the shell. Therefore, the shell will acquire

180
 Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky
(1857-1935) was the Russian scientist
and inventor, the founder of
cosmonautics. Since 1880th, he was en­
gaged in designing airships, aeroplanes
and rockets. Tsiolkovsky put forward the
idea of using rockets in space flights. In
this field, he obtained the results that
remain important even today. His ideas
about rockets, reaction propulsion
engines and space flights had a strong
effect on the development o f rocketry
and space engineering in the Soviet
Union and abroad.

a considerable velocity if the mass of the fuel is much larger than the mass of
the shell. For example, in order that the shell velocity be four times as large
as the velocity of the ejected gas, the mass of the fuel must be four times
larger than that of the shell, i.e. the shell mass must amount to one fifth of
the mass of the rocket at the start. Unfortunately, the “useful” part of the
rocket is just the shell.
We assumed that all the gas is ejected from the rocket at once. In actual
practice, it flows out not immediately, although quite rapidly. This means
that as the fuel is consumed and the rocket velocity increases, the velocity of
the ejected gas relative to the Earth becomes smaller. Hence the momentum
acquired by the rocket due to the gas ejection also decreases. As a result, the
velocity t?sh of the rocket turns out to be lower than the one calculated from
(8.3.1).
This circumstance explains why the mass of fuel required for attaining
a given velocity should be considerably larger than it follows from our
calculations. High-accuracy calculations show that for the shell velocity to be
four times higher than the gas velocity, the mass of the fuel at the start must
be not four but dozens of times larger than the mass of the shell. Moreover,
if we take into account the drag force of the air through which the rocket
must fly after being launched from the Earth and the attraction to the Earth,
we may draw the conclusion that this ratio must be still higher.
In contrast to other transport facilities, the rocket can move without
interacting with any other bodies besides the combustion products of the fuel
contained in the rocket itself.
That is why rockets are used for launching artificial satellites of the Earth
and spacecraft to the space. In the space, they have no support or anything
from which they could push off like terrestrial transport facilities.
If necessary, a rocket can be decelerated. It is just what cosmonauts do at
the end of a space flight, when they must reduce the velocity of their
spacecraft to return to the Earth. It is clear that a rocket reduces its velocity
if the gas is ejected from the nozzle in the direction of motion of the rocket.

181
 The idea of using rockets for space flights was put forward as early as at
the beginning of the 20th century by the famous Russian scientist
K. E. TSIOLKOVSKY. This idea was realized by Soviet scientists and
engineers headed by the remarkable Soviet scientist S. P. KOROLEV.
Hundreds of artificial Earth’s satellites and spacecraft are launched to space
by rockets. Thanks to rockets, human beings visited the Moon. With the
help of rockets, space laboratories were brought to the Moon and artificial
Moon satellites were launched.
The first artificial satellite o f the Earth was launched with the help of
a rocket on October 4, 1957, in the Soviet Union.
The first man who appeared in the space on the artificial satellite of the
Earth was the Soviet citizen YURI GAGARIN. On April 12, 1961, he
orbited the Earth on the Vostok spacecraft.
Soviet rockets were the first to reach the Moon, fly it around and pho­
tograph its invisible “rear” side. It was the Soviet rocket that reached the
Venus for the first time. The USSR occupies the leading position in the
exploration of cosmic space.

1. It is known that a rocket can acquire an acceleration in

space where there are no bodies around. On the other
hand, an acceleration can be only imparted by a force,
which is a result of action of one body on another. Then
why is the rocket accelerated?
2. What determines the velocity of a rocket?
3. How can a spacecraft be decelerated?
4. Which of the three types of forces described in Chapter
5 does the force imparting an acceleration to a rocket
belong to?

182
Yuri Alekseevich Gagarin (1934-1968)

Summary
One o f the most important characteristics of motion of
a body is its momentum. It is a vector quantity defined as the product of the
mass of a body and its velocity.
The same force F acting during a certain time t imparts the same
momentum to all bodies, which is equal to the impulse Ft.
Momentum obeys the law o f conservation. The total momentum of bodies
constituting a closed system remains unchanged upon any interactions and
any motions of the bodies in this system.
 T H E LAW O F C O N S E R V A T I O N O F ENERGY

O N E OF TH E M O S T IM POR TA N T Q UAN TITIES IN

SC IE NC E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G

It was shown in the previous chapter that the quantity (called

momentum) for which the law of conservation is valid plays
a very important role. There is another, not less important, quantity which
also remains constant (is conserved) for a closed system. This is energy which
is delt with not only in mechanics but also in other branches o f physics, as
well as in natural sciences and engineering. However, before studying the
concept of energy and the energy conservation law, we should get acquainted
with the quantity called mechanical work (or simply work). This quantity is
closely related to energy. It is also important in itself since the operation of
various machines and mechanisms, as well as the working activity of people,
is often reduced to mechanical work. What is work?

9.1. Mechanical W ork

The quantity which is now called mechanical work appeared
in mechanics only in the 19th century (almost 150 years after
Newton has discovered his laws of motion), when power tools and engines
were employed more widely. An engine in operation is said to be “working".
The concept of mechanical work has been introduced in the introductory
course o f physics (see Junior Physics, Sec. 59). It was found that when
a constant force F acts on a body and the body is displaced in the direction of
force by s, the work done in this case is equal to the product o f the magnitudes
o f the force and the displacement:
A = Fs.
The unit o f work, a joule (J), was also introduced. It should be recalled that
the unit o f work in SI (joule) is the work done by a force o f 1 N upon
a displacement o f the point o f its application by 1 m:
1 J = 1 N-m.
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE WORK. In the introductory course of
physics, we considered the work done by a force whose direction coincides
with the direction of motion o f a body. In this case, the body moves with an
acceleration. However, the body is often acted upon not by one but by
several forces. How can the work o f these forces be calculated?
Let us first consider the case when a body moves uniformly in a straight
line. In this case, the vector sum of the forces acting on the body is zero. For

184
example, when a load is being lifted uniformly by a crane, the load
experiences the action of the tension of the rope, which is directed along the
displacement (upwards), and the force of gravity which is directed against the
motion (downwards). When a man moves a safe over the floor, it is acted
upon by the muscular force, with which the man pulls or pushes it, and by
the sliding friction directed oppositely to its motion.
Do forces directed oppositely to the displacement perform work? In order
to answer this question, let us recall that if the vector sum of the forces
applied to a body is zero, the situation should be the same as if no forces
acted on the body. Then the total work o f all the forces applied to the body
should also be zero. For this, the work of some forces should be positive
while the work o f other forces should be negative. Otherwise, their sum
could not be zero. A positive work is done by forces that have the same
direction of the displacement, while forces directed oppositely to the
displacement do a negative work.
GENERAL EXPRESSION FOR THE WORK DONE BY A FORCE.
Forces applied to a moving body often form an angle with the direction of
the displacement, which is neither 0 nor 180°. For example, a force applied
to a sledge sliding along a horizontal road (Fig. 177u and b) forms an angle
a with the horizontal. In the first case (Fig. 177a), the angle a is acute, while
in the second case, it is obtuse (Fig. 177b). In order to calculate the work in
all the cases, the formula for work should be written as
A = Fs cos a. (9.1.1)

Here a is the angle between the force and displacement vectors.

Indeed, if vectors F and s have the same direction, the angle a between
them is zero. We know that cos0° = 1. In this case, the work A = Fs. If the
vectors F and s have opposite directions, a = 180’, cos 180 = — 1, and the
work A = - Fs. When the angle a is acute (see Fig. 177a), its cosine is
positive, and hence the work done by such a force is also positive. If,
however, the angle a is obtuse (Fig. 177b), its cosine is negative and the
work done by such a force is also negative.
The work done b \ a constant force is equal to the product o f the magnitudes
o f the force anil the displacement multiplied by the cosine o f the angle formed
by the vectors o f force and displacement.
It should be emphasized that, as can be seen from Fig. 177a and b, the
quantity F cosot is the projection of the force onto the direction of

185
displacement. Hence, the work done by a force can be defined as the product
of the magnitude of the displacement of a body and the projection of the
force onto the direction of displacement.
Formula (9.1.1) shows that work is a scalar, although both force and
displacement are vectors. We cannot assign any direction to work.
WHEN IS THE WORK DONE BY A FORCE EQUAL TO ZERO? The
direction of a force can be at right angles to the displacement of a body. In
this case, a = 90°, cos a = 0 and >1 = 0. For example, when a load is moved
in a horizontal direction, the force o f gravity acting on it is normal to the
direction o f the displacement. Therefore, when a body moves over
a horizontal plane, the work done by the force of gravity is zero. The force
that makes the body move uniformly in a circle also does no work since, as
is well known, it is directed along the radius towards the centre o f the circle
and thus is normal to the direction o f displacement at any point. For
example, the tension of a thread attached to a body moving uniformly in
a circle does no work like the force of universal gravitation which makes
artificial Earth’s satellites move in circular orbits.

1. When a force can be said to do work?

2. When a force does a positive work? When its work is
negative?
3. Write the expression for the work done by a force directed
at an angle to the displacement of the body.
4. Under which condition does a force applied to a moving
body perform no work?
5. A motorcar moves along a smooth horizontal road. Does
the force of gravity acting on the car perform any work?
6. Does the force of attraction of the Moon by the Earth
perform any work in the orbital motion around the Earth?

Fig. 178 Fig. 179

186
 (Assume that the orbit of the Moon is circular.)
7. Figure 178 shows a body to which several forces are
applied. Which of them perform a positive work and
perform a negative work?
8. A body is thrown vertically upwards. Does the force of
gravity perform positive work or negative work when the
body is (a) ascending; (b) falling down?

Exercise 28
1. A load sliding with friction over a flat horizontal surface is
acted upon by a force of 200 N directed at 60° to the
horizontal. What is the work done by this force in
displacing the load by 5 m, if the motion occurs at
a constant velocity? What is the coefficient of friction
between the load and the surface of the plane, if the mass
o f the load is 31 kg?
2. A mountain skier whose mass is 70 kg is lifted by an
elevator along a slope 180 m long, forming an angle of 60°
with the horizontal. Calculate the work done by the force
of gravity acting on the skier. What is the sign of this
work? What is the work done by the elevator on the skier,
if it is ascending at a constant velocity?

Hometask
Analyze Fig. 179 and find out (a) in which case the elastic
force Fe| does a positive work and when its work is negative;
(b) when the force of gravity Fg does a positive work and
when it does a negative work.

9.2. W o r k D one by Forces Applied t o a Body and

t h e C h a n g e in Its Velocity
Let us consider a constant force F acting on a body (it can
be the resultant of several forces). It can be said about the
force F that, firstly, it imparts an acceleration to the body, due to which its
velocity varies, and, secondly, the force F does a work since the body is
moving. We can expect that there is a certain relation between the work
done by the force and the change in the velocity o f the body. Let us establish
this relation.
We consider a simple case when the force and displacement vectors are in
one direction along the same straight line (Fig. 180). Let us choose the
coordinate axis in the same direction. Then the projections of the force F,
displacement s, acceleration a and velocity v are equal to the magnitudes of
the vectors.
187
Fig. 180

The work done by the force in this case is

A = Fs. (9.2.1)
According to Newton’s second law, we have
F = ma. (9.2.2)
It was shown in Chapter 2 that in a uniformly accelerated rectilinear
motion, the velocity and displacement are connected through the following
relation:

2a ’
where u, and v2 are the magnitudes of the initial and final velocity vectors
on the segment o f the path under consideration.
Substituting into formula (9.2.1) expressions (9.2.2) and (9.2.3) for F and s,
we obtain

mv 2 mv\
A = Fs = ma (9.2.4)
~2 2~ '
We obtained the formula relating the work done by the force F to the change
in the velocity of the body (to be more precise, the square of its velocity).
KINETIC ENERGY. The expression on the right-hand side o f formula
(9.2.4) is the change in the quantity mv2 / 2, i.e. half the product of the mass
of a body and the square of its velocity.
This quantity is called the kinetic energy o f a body and is denoted by E *.
Then formula (9.2.4) can be written as
' T ^ E ^ - ~ E k~. (9.2.5)

The work done by the resultant of forces applied to a body is equal to the
change in its kinetic energy.
This statement is called the kinetic energy theorem.
When a force acting on a body is directed along its trajectory o f motion,
and hence does a positive work, then m v \/2 — m v \jl > 0. This means that
mvj/2 > mv2/2, i.e. the kinetic energy o f the body increases. This is what
should be expected, since the force directed along the displacement of the
body increases the magnitude of its velocity. It can be easily seen that when
the force is directed against the displacement, and hence does a negative
work, the kinetic energy o f the body decreases.
It follows from formula (9.25) that kinetic energy is expressed in the same
units as work, i.e. in joules.

188
 We proved the theorem on kinetic energy with the help of Newton's
second law. Therefore, it is valid irrespective o f the kind o f forces acting on
a body: elastic forces, friction or the force o f universal gravitation, and in
particular, the force o f gravity.
It can also be shown that the theorem on kinetic energy is valid as well
when the force is not constant and when its direction does not coincide with
that o f the displacement.
The physical meaning of kinetic energy is easy to grasp.
Let us suppose that a body of mass m at rest (u0 = 0) has to be imparted
a velocity v. For example, the velocity t; should be imparted to a shell which
is at rest in the barrel of a gun. A certain work A should be done for that.
What is this work?
It follows from the theorem on kinetic energy that
mv2 mv2

Consequently, the kinetic energy o f a body o f mass m. moving at a velocity v.

is equal to the work that must be done by a force acting on the body at rest in
order to impart this velocity to it. The work of the same magnitude is
required to stop the body.
The kinetic energy theorem also implies that kinetic energy is a physical
quantity characterizing a moving body. Its change is equal to the work done by
the force acting on the body.

? 1. Define the kinetic energy of a body. Is it a scalar or

a vector?
2. Formulate the kinetic energy theorem.
3. How does the kinetic energy of a body vary if the force
applied to it does a positive work?
4. What is the variation of the kinetic energy of a body if the
force applied to it does a negative work?
5. Does the kinetic energy of a moving body change upon
a variation of the direction of its velocity vector?
6. Two balls of the same mass roll towards each other with
the same velocity over a very smooth surface. The balls
collide and then move in the opposite directions with
equal velocities. What is their total kinetic energy before
collision, at the moment of the collision and after that?

EXAMPLE OF SOLVING A PROBLEM

What is the work that must be done to increase the velocity of a train
from vx = 72 km/hr to v2 = 108 km/hr, if the mass m of the train is 1000 t .
What force must be applied to the train to attain this increase in velocity
over a distance of 2000 m? Assume that the motion is uniformly accelerated.
Solution. The work A can be obtained from the formula
mv\ mv\
2 -

189
Substituting into this formula the data of the problem, we get
106 kg (30 m/s)2 106 kg (20 m/s)r
A= = 250 x 106 J

=250000 kJ.

By definition, the work A = Fs. Consequently,

A 250 x 106 J
— , F = ----------------- = 125 000 N = 125 kN.
s 2000 m

Exercise 29
1. The force of 40 N is applied to a 3.0-kg body at rest. After
this, the body covers a distance o f 3.0 m on a smooth
horizontal surface without friction. Then the force is
reduced to 20 N, and the body covers another 3.0 m. Find
the kinetic energy o f the body and its velocity at the end
of the second segment.
2. What is the work that must be done to stop a 1000-t train
moving at a velocity o f 108 km/hr?
3. Calculate the kinetic energy of an artificial satellite of the
Earth having the mass of 1300 kg and moving in a circular
orbit at a height of 100 km above the surface of the Earth.
4. A body having a kinetic energy of 10 J moves uniformly in
a circle of radius 0.5 m. What is the force acting on the
body? What is its direction? What is the work done by
this force?
5. The driver o f a motorcar put the engine out of gear at
a velocity of 72 km/hr. Having passed 34.0 m, the car
stopped. What was the kinetic energy o f the car at the
moment of disengagement, if the friction o f the wheels on
the surface of the road is 5880 N? What is the mass of the
car?
6. A 4-t motorcar moves at a speed o f 36 km/hr. What
distance does it cover before coming to a halt, if the
friction of the wheels on the surface of the road is 5880 N?

Hometask
Analyze solutions of Problems 5 <fnd 6, Ex. 29, and find the
quantity which determines the braking distance of a moving
body for a given magnitude of the decelerating force.
Compare the result of the analysis with the formula given in
Sec. 6.7.

190
9.3 W ork D one by th e F orce of G ra v ity
It was mentioned above that the kinetic energy theorem is
valid for any forces since this theorem is a direct consequence
of Newton’s second law. However, the work done by each of the mechanical
forces known to us can be calculated using the formulas obtained for these
forces in Chapter 5 instead of the kinetic energy theorem.
Let us start with the force of gravity, viz. the force with which the Earth
acts on a body near its surface, where this force can be assumed constant
and equal to mg (m is the mass of the body and g is the free-fall
acceleration).
When a body moves vertically downwards the direction of the force of
gravity coincides with that o f the displacement. When the body moves from
the height hx above a certain level (taken as the reference level) to the height
h2 above the same level (Fig. 181), the magnitude of its displacement is /i, -
h2. Since the directions of the displacement and force coincide, the work
done by the force o f gravity is positive:
A = m g(hl — h2). (9.3.1)
Theheights hx and h2 need not bemeasured fromthe surface of the Earth.
Any level can be taken as the reference level. It canbe the floor of the room,
a table or a chair, the bottom of a hole in the ground and so on, since the
formula for work involves only the difference in elevations, which is
independent of the reference level. It is only necessary to determine the
elevation of the body for different positions relative to the same level. This
level can be taken as the zero level.
For example, we could take the level B (Fig. 181) as the zero level. Then
the work would be given by the following expression:
A = mgh, <9-3-2)
where h is the vertical distance between the levels A and B.
If a body moves upwards, the force of gravity is directed against the
displacement, and the work done by this force is negative. If a body rises
from the zero level to a height h, the force of gravity does the work
A = - mgh.

h; — £ B

h- 0

Fig. 181

191
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in height” not only in the case of an inclined plane. This is true for the
motion along any trajectory. Indeed, suppose that a body moves along an
arbitrary path, like, for example, the one shown in Fig. 186. This trajectory
can be divided into a number o f small segments A A X, A l A 2> A 2A 3, etc. Each
segment can be treated as a small inclined plane, and the entire motion of
the body along the path AB can be represented as the motion along the set
of inclined planes following one another. The work done by the force of
gravity on each inclined plane is the product of mg and the change in the
height o f the body over this segment. If the changes in heights on individual
segments are hlt h2, h3, ...» then the magnitudes o f the work done by the
force o f gravity over these segments are mghlt mgh2 , mgh3, etc. The total
work over the entire path can be found by summing up these works:
A = mghy + mgh2 + mgh3 + . . . = mg(hl + h2 + h3 + ...).
But
h1 + h2 + h3 + ... = h.
Consequently,
A = mgh.
Thus, the work done by the force o f gravity does not depend on the path of
a body and is always equal to the product o f the magnitude o f the force of
gravity and the difference in heights o f the initial and final positions. When
a body moves downwards, the work is positive, while for the upward motion
the work is negative.
If after rising to a certain height a body returns to the initial position, the
work done for such a closed path is zero. This is a peculiar feature of the
force o f gravity: the work done by it over a closed path is equal to zero.

1. Does the work done by the force of gravity depend on the

length of the distance covered by a body and on its mass?
2. A body thrown at a certain angle to the horizontal
describes a parabola and falls to the Earth. What is the
work done by the force o f gravity, if the initial and final
points of the path lie on the same horizontal line?
3. What is the force that does work when a body moves
without friction over an inclined plane? D oes this work
depend on the length o f the inclined plane?

P o te n tia l E n erg y o f a Body A c te d U p o n by th e

F o rce of G ra v ity
The formula
A = mg(hl —h2\ (9.4.1)
expressing the work done by the force o f gravity applied to a body can be
represented in a different form. Opening the brackets and transposing the

194
terms, we get
A - - (mgh2 - mght). (9.4.2)
The right-hand side of this formula contains the expression which is the
change in the quantity mghX). The work done by the force of gravity is equal
to this change, taken with the minus sign.
In Sec. 9.2, we called the quantity mv2/2, whose change is equal to the
work done by the force, the kinetic energy o f a moving body. We now
encounter another quantity whose change (but with the opposite sign) is also
equal to the work done by the force (now the force of gravity). For this
reason, the quantity mgh is also called energy, albeit potential and not
kinetic. The quantity mgh is the potential energy of a body at a height
h above the zero level.
Consequently, the work done by the force o f gravity is equal to the change in
the potential energy, taken with the opposite sign.
The minus sign in front o f the change in the potential energy indicates that
when the work done by the force of gravity is positive, the potential energy
of the body decreases. On the contrary, when the force of gravity does
a negative work i. e. when a body is thrown upwards, the potential energy of
the body increases. The kinetic energy “behaves” in the opposite way.
Let us denote the potential energy mgh by Ep. Then we can write
A = - ( E P l- E Pi). (9.4.3)

Let us assume that the height h2 in (9.4.2) corresponds to the zero level.
We denote by h the height of the body above the zero level. Then Ep2 =
mgh2 = 0, and formula (9.4.3) becomes
Ep = A.

Hence it follows that the potential energy o f a body acted upon by the force o f
gravity is equal to the work done by this force when the body descends to the
zero level.
It should be recalled that similar definitions were given on p. 189 for
kinetic energy, the zero level for which is the velocity v = 0.
Unlike kinetic energy, which depends on the velocity of motion of a body,
potential energy does not depend on velocity. Hence, a body at rest can have
a potential energy. The potential energy depends on the position o f the body
relative to the zero level, i.e. on the coordinates o f the body, since the height
h is just the coordinate of the body.
It was shown above that the zero level can be chosen arbitrarily. It may
turn out that the body is below the zero level and has a negative coordinate.
In this case, the potential energy of the body is also negative. The sign and
magnitude o f the potential energy depends on the choice o f the zero level. On
the other hand, the work done upon a displacement of a body is determined
by the change in its potential energy and does not depend on the zero level.

n It should be recalled that the change in some quantity is the

difference between the subsequent and the previous values and not vice versa.

195
Fig. 187

THE POTENTIAL ENERGY OF AN ELEVATED BODY IS THE

ENERGY OF INTERACTION. While considering the potential energy of
a body at a height h above the zero level, we “forgot” about the fact that the
body possesses this energy due to its interaction with the Earth. In the
absence o f the Earth, there would be no force of gravity with which the
Earth acts on the body and no potential energy Ep = mgh. Hence, the
potential energy is said to be the energy o f interaction. In this respect, it
differs from the kinetic energy which can be called the energy o f motion.
Strictly speaking, the potential energy pertains to a system of bodies rather
than to a single body. In the case under consideration, this system consists of
the Earth and the body lifted above it. Therefore, the potential energy is the
higher, the “stronger” the interaction between bodies, i.e. the stronger the
force with which one body acts on the other.
POTENTIAL ENERGY AND STABILITY OF EQUILIBRIUM. There
exists an interesting relation between the potential energy o f a body (or
a system of bodies) and the equilibrium o f this body. This relation can be
easily traced by using the example we have already considered in Sec. 7.3. In
this section, it was shown that the ball on a concave support (see Fig. 164) is
in a stable equilibrium. The equilibrium is stable since any small deviation
from the position on the “bottom” gives rise to a force returning the ball to
its original position.
Let us now find out what is the potential energy of the ball in different
positions. In the lowest position (on the “bottom”), the potential energy of
the ball is lower than in any o f neighbouring positions (Fig. 187). This
allows us to formulate the condition o f equilibrium: in a stable equilibrium,
the potential energy is at the minimum. The term “equilibrium” refers here to
the body-Earth system.

1. Give the definition of the potential energy o f a body.

2. What is the relation between the work done by the force
of gravity and the potential energy o f a body?
3. How does the potential energy of a body moving upwards
change?
4. What happens to the potential energy o f a freely falling
body?
5. What is the difference between the potential energy of an
elevated body and its kinetic energy?
6. What can be said about the potential energy of a body in
a stable equilibrium?

196
 Exercise 30
1. A 2.5-kg load falls from a height o f 10 m. What will be the
change in its potential energy a second after the beginning
o f motion (the initial velocity o f the load is zero)?
2. What is the work done by the force of gravity when a 'man
having a mass of 75 kg climbs to the fifth floor, if the
height o f each storey is 3.0 m?
3. The difference in heights o f the start and finish o f the rout
at slalom competitions is 400 m. A slalomist takes off and
successfully reaches the finish. What is the work done by
the force of gravity acting on him if his weight at the start
is 686 N?
4. The finishing post of a slalom rout is 2000 m above the
sea level, while the starting post is 400 m above the finish.
What is the potential energy of the slalomist at the start
relative to the finish and relative to the sea level? The
mass of the slalomist is 70 kg.

Hometask
Analyze Fig. 161 (p. 167) (a ball in an unstable equilibrium on
the top o f a convex support) and compare the potential
energy o f the ball at this and neighbouring positions. For­
mulate the condition of an unstable equilibrium.

9*5* W ork D one by an E lastic Force. P o te n tia l

E nergy o f a Body S u b ject to E lastic D e fo rm a tio n
It is well known that elastic force emerges upon deformation
of bodies. Its magnitude is proportional to the deformation
(elongation), while its direction is opposite to that of the displacements of
points of the body under deformation.
Figure 188a shows a spring in its natural, undeformed state. The right end
of the spring is fixed, while the left end is connected to a body. We direct the
.Y-axis as shown in the figure. If we compress the spring by displacing its left
end by the hand by x, (Fig. 1886), this gives rise to an elastic force exerted
by the spring on the body. The projection o f this force onto the X-axis is
(F eli ) x = - k x i ,
where k is the rigidity o f the spring.
Let us now leave the spring alone. Then its free end will shift to the left.
During the displacement o f the turns of the spring, the elastic force does
a work. Let us calculate this work.
Let us suppose that the left end of the spring moves from position A to
position B (Fig. 188c). In this position, the spring deformation is x 2 and not
x , . The magnitude o f the displacement of the end of the spring is equal to

197
Fig. 188

the difference x, —x 2 in the coordinates of its end. It can be seen that the
directions of the force and displacement coincide. Therefore, to calculate the
work done by the elastic force, we must multiply the magnitudes of the
elastic force and displacement. But the elastic force varies as the body moves
from point to point. At point A, the magnitude of the force is k x t , while at
point B it becomes kx2.
To calculate the work done by the elastic force, we must multiply the
average value of the magnitude o f the force by - x2:
A = ^clav(x1 - x 2).

The elastic force is proportional to the deformation of the spring. There­

fore, the average value of the magnitude of the elastic force can be defined as
the arithmetic mean o f its initial and final values:

It should be recalled that the average velocity in uniformly accelerated

motion is defined in a similar way (see Hometask on p. 54), the dependence of
the instantaneous velocity on time is also linear.
In order to obtain the work done by the elastic force, we must multiply
the value of this force by the magnitude x , —x2 o f the displacement:

Since (xj + x 2)(x1 —x 2) = x l —x 2, the formula for work becomes

This formula can also be written in the form

(9.5.1)

198
The right-hand side of this expression contains the change in the quantity
k x *23/2 with the minus sign.
In Sec. 9.4, the quantity mgh whose change with the minus sign is equal to
the work done by the force of gravity, was called the potential energy of an
elevated body. Similarly, the quantity kx2/2 is called the potential energy of
a body subject to elastic deformation (e.g., a spring).
Thus, formula (9.5.1) indicates that the work done by an elastic force is
equal to the change in the potential energy o f the spring with the minus sign.
If we denote, as before, the potential energy k x 2/2 by Ep, we can write
again ________________
A = —(EPl — EPl). (9.5.2)
Just like the value of mgh, the potential energy of a body subject to an
elastic deformation depends on coordinates, since x t and x 2 in (9.5.1) are not
only the elongations of the spring but also the coordinates of its end.
Formula (9.5.1) shows that the work done by the elastic force depends
only on the initial and final coordinates. Therefore, we can repeat for the
work done by the elastic force what has been said above about the work
done by the force of gravity: it does not depend on the shape of the path,
and if a body moves under the action of an elastic force along a closed path,
the work done by this force is zero.
Let us assume that the coordinate of the end of the undeformed spring in
formula (9.5.1) is zero (x2 = 0) and denote its elongation by x. Then Ep2 =
k x 2/ 2 = 0, and (9.5.2) becomes
Ep = A.
Hence it follows that the potential energy o f a body subject to elastic
deformation is equal to the work done by the elastic force when the body goes
over to a state in which its deformation is zero.
THE POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A BODY SUBJECT TO ELASTIC
DEFORMATION IS THE ENERGY OF INTERACTION. It was
mentioned in Sec. 9.4 that the potential energy mgh is the energy
characterizing the interaction between the lifted body and the Earth. The
potential energy o f a body subject to elastic deformation, say, a spring, is
also an interaction energy. But now we mean the interaction between
individual particles constituting the body. If the elastic body is a spring,
there is an interaction between its turns (the particles of the material of
which the spring is made). The expression mgh for potential energy includes
the force of gravity mg. The expression k x 2/2 for the potential energy of
a body subject to elastic deformation includes the elastic force kx. Therefore,
potential energy is generally an interaction energy.

? 1. In what way is the average elastic force defined?

2. In which respect are the works done by elastic force and
by the force of gravity similar?
3. What is the work done by an elastic force if a body on
which it acts returns to the original position after covering
a certain distance?

199
4. What is the value o f the potential energy o f a body subject
to elastic deformation?
5. What do the potential energies o f a body acted upon by
the force o f gravity and a body subject to elastic
deformation have in common? 12345

Exercise 31
1. The maximum force with which a boy can stretch
a dynamometer is 400 N. What is the work done by this
force in stretching, if the rigidity o f the dynamometer
spring is 10000 N/m?
2. An 18-kg body is suspended from a spring with a fixed
upper end. The length o f the stretched spring is 10 cm.
When a 30-kg body is suspended from it, its length
becomes 12 cm. Calculate the work done by the external
force in stretching the spring from 10 to 15 cm. What is
the work done by the elastic force in this case?
3. Figure 189 shows the dependence o f the elastic force
emerging upon compression of the spring o f a toy-pistol
on its deformation. Calculate the work done by an
external force upon a compression o f the spring by 2 cm.
Prove that this work is equal in magnitude to the area of
the triangle AOB.
4. Two springs have the same rigidity. One o f them is
compressed by 5 cm, while the other is stretched by 5 cm.
What are the differences in the elongations o f the springs
and in their potential energies?
5. A load is attached to a spring balance. When released, the
load went down so that the pointer stopped against figure
3. What is the increase in the potential energy of the
spring of the balance if the spring balance is graduated in
newtons and the distance between two adjacent divisions
on the scale is 5 mm.

200
 6. A compressed spring whose rigidity k - 10000 N/m acts
on a body attached to it with a force of 400 N. What is
the potential energy of the spring? What is the work done
by an external force for its compression? What is the work
done by the elastic force o f the spring when it is released?

9 .6 . T h e Law of C o n se rv a tio n o f T o ta l M ech an ical

E nergy
At the beginning of the chapter it was mentioned that the
energy obeys the law of conservation. Let us elucidate the
meaning of this law.
Lc*t us consider how the energy of bodies interacting only with one another
changes. It should be recalled that such bodies form a closed system (sec
Chapter 8).
Interacting bodies may have kinetic and potential energy simultaneously.
For example, an artificial satellite of the Barth has a kinetic energy as
a moving body. Besides, the satellite-Earth system has a potential energy
since the satellite and the Earth interact through the force o f universal
gravitation. Colliding balls simultaneously have kinetic energy due to their
motion and potential energy since they arc subject to clastic deformation.
If bodies forming a closed system interact they move relative to one
another. In this motion, both their velocities and coordinates may change.
Consequently, the kinetic energy of the bodies, as well as their potential
energy, may change.
Let us denote by EPi the potential energy o f interacting bodies at a certain
instant of time and by £*( their total kinetic energy at the same instant. The
potential and kinetic energies of the same bodies at some other instant of
time will be respectively £r, and £*,.
In Secs. 9.4 and 9.5 it was established that when bodies interact through an
elastic force or a force o f gravity, the work A done by these forces is equal to
the change in the potential energy of the bodies with the opposite sign

On ihe other hand, according to the kinetic energy theorem, the work
done by the same force is equal to the change in the kinetic energy:
A - E i, - £ t , . <9 6 2»
Comparing (9.6.1) and (9.6.2), we sec that the change in the kinetic energy
is equal in magnitude to the change in the potential energy, but they have
opposite signs:
£*,-£*,- |963)
If the potential energy o f bodies increases, their kinetic energy decreases by

201
the same value, and vice versa. Hence it is clear that one type o f energy is
converted into the other.
Obviously, formula (9.6.3) can be written in a different form:

+ Ep2 — £fc| + Ep{ • (9.6.4)

Thus, the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of bodies constituting
a closed system and interacting through forces of universal gravitation or
elastic forces remains constant. This is the essence of the law o f conservation
o f energy.
The sum of the kinetic and potential energies of a system of bodies is
usually called the total mechanical energy.
The total mechanical energy of a closed system of bodies interacting
through the forces of gravity or elastic forces remains unchanged.
The conversion of potential energy into kinetic energy and vice versa is
one of the most remarkable phenomena in nature. This is the main feature of
energy.
The law of conservation and transformation of energy allows us to
understand better the physical meaning of work. The fact that the same work
leads to an increase in kinetic energy and to the same decrease in potential
energy implies that the work is the energy transformed from one form to
another.
In Chapter 8, we considered the law o f conservation o f momentum in
a closed system. Now, we obtained the second conservation law, viz. the law
of conservation of energy. These two laws are o f the most general nature and
perfectly true even when the laws o f Newtonian mechanics become invalid.
The law of conservation of energy can be used for solving many problems
in mechanics. It allows one to solve problems easier than with the help of
Newton’s laws.*2345

? 1. What is called the total mechanical energy of a body?

2. What is the essence o f the law o f conservation o f the total
mechanical energy of a body moving under the action of
the force o f gravity?
3. What is the essence o f the law o f conservation o f the total
mechanical energy of a body moving under the action of
an elastic force?
4. Is the law o f conservation of the total energy of a body (or
a system of bodies) observed if the force o f gravity and the
elastic force act simultaneously?
5. A satellite moves in a circular orbit around the Earth.
Using a rocket engine, it was transferred to another orbit.
Has its total energy changed?

EXAMPLES OF SOLVING PROBLEMS

1. Which height h will be attained by a body thrown upwards at an initial
velocity v0 ?

202
 Solution. Let us take the zero level at the point from which the body was
thrown. At this point, the potential energy o f the body is zero, while its
kinetic energy is mv2J 2. Hence the total energy of the body is 0 + mv%/2 =
m v\/2. At the uppermost point, i.e. at the height h, the potential energy of
the body is mgh, while its kinetic energy is zero. Consequently, the total
energy of the body at the uppermost point is mgh. According to the law of
conservation of the total energy, we have

whence

The same result has been obtained by us earlier in a more intricate way (see
p. 124).
2. A ball whose mass m = 3 kg was at a height h = 3 m above a platform
fixed on a spring (Fig. 190a). Determine the maximum compression / of the
spring caused by the falling o f the ball on the platform (Fig. 190h), if the
rigidity k of the spring is 700 N/m. The masses of the spring and platform
can be neglected.
Solution. We shall assume that the potential energy of the ball lying on the
platform at the maximum compression of the spring (zero level) is zero. Then
the potential energy o f the ball at the initial instant is
£„, = mg (h +1).
The kinetic energy of the ball and the spring at this instant is zero.
Consequently, the total energy £ , of the ball-spring system at the initial
instant is determined by the potential energy o f the ball:
£ , = Ep> = mg(h + 1).
When the compression o f the spring is maximum, the kinetic energy of the
ball is zero, and the spring has the potential energy of k l 1/ 2. Hence, the total
energy E 2 of the same system at the moment when compression is maximum
is
According to the energy conservation law, we have
E x = E 2,
or

m g(h+ 1) = — -

Solving the obtained quadratic equation and substituting the data of the
problem, we obtain I a 0.5 m.*1234567

Exercise 32
1. A body falls from a certain height above the ground. At
the moment it strikes the ground, its velocity is 30 m/s.
From what height does the body fall?
2. A shell that has acquired at the shot from the gun the
initial velocity of 280 m/s flies vertically upwards. At what
height above the place o f the shot will its kinetic energy be
equal to the potential energy?
3. A 2.0-kg body falls from the height of 30 m above the
ground. Calculate the kinetic energy o f the body at the
moment when it is 15m above the ground and at the
moment it hits the ground.
4. The beetle-head o f a pile-driver, falling from the height of
8 m, has a kinetic energy o f 18 000 J at the moment of
impact. What is its mass?
5. A stretched spring, while contracting, entrains a 50-g body
over a horizontal plane without friction. When the spring
deformation becomes zero, the velocity of the body is
5 m/s. What is the elongation o f the spring, if its rigidity is
10000 N/m?
6. A 400-g body is attached to a compressed spring whose
rigidity is 100 N/m. When the spring is released, the body
vibrates so that the maximum elongation o f the spring is
10 cm. What is the maximum velocity o f the vibrating
body? (The spring mass should be neglected.)
7. A 50-g ball is moving at a velocity o f 10.0 m/s and collides
with a ball at rist whose mass is 110 g. What are the
velocities o f the balls after the collision? Assume that they
move along the straight line connecting their centres.
Hint. Use the laws of conservation o f energy and
momentum for solving this problem. The sums of the
kinetic energies and o f the projections o f momenta onto
the axis passing through the centres o f the balls must be
the same before and after the collision.

204
 9.7 F ric tio n W o rk a n d M e c h an ica l E nergy

We are left now with the third mechanical force whose work
has to be considered, viz. sliding friction. Friction is
manifested to a certain extent in any motion occurring on the Earth. What is
the difference between the friction work and the work done by other forces
in mechanics?
Friction appears only during relative motion o f bodies in contact. If one of
them is assumed to be fixed, the direction of the force acting on the other
body is always opposite to the direction o f its velocity. Friction does not
depend on coordinates, i.e. on the mutual arrangement o f the bodies.
Therefore, the work o f friction cannot be represented as a change in
a certain potential energy. However, it can be calculated on the basis of the
theorem on kinetic energy:

Since friction is directed against the velocity vector, v2 < a, and the work
A is negative.
When the force o f gravity or an elastic force acts on a body, it can move
opposite to the direction o f the force (for example, a body thrown upwards)
as well as in the direction o f the force (a freely falling body). In the former
case, the work done by the force is negative, while in the latter case
it is positive. If a body moves “back and forth”, the total work is
zero.
The situation for the work of friction is different. Friction is directed
against the relative velocity o f interacting bodies. For this reason, the work
done by friction during the motion o f a body over a closed path differs from
zero.
A body thrown upwards starts to move against the force o f gravity which
in this case does a negative work. Therefore, its kinetic energy decreases.
Having reached the uppermost point o f the trajectory, the body stops for
a moment and starts moving downwards. -
If we push a body lying on a horizontal surface, it starts to move against
the emerging friction which, like the force o f gravity in the above example,
does a negative work. The kinetic energy o f the body decreases. After
covering a certain distance, the body stops in this case too, but not “for
a moment” as in the example with the body thrown upwards. It will stop
forever and will not move back.
As a matter o f fact, in the former example the kinetic energy gradually
decreases, being converted into potential energy which is then again
transformed into kinetic energy. On the other hand, when a body moves
over a horizontal surface under the action o f friction, its kinetic energy
decreases but is not converted into potential energy. For this reason, the
body does not move in the opposite direction after coming to a halt, since
there is no energy at the expense o f which the work could be done in such
105
 a motion. The mechanical energy o f the moving body was not transformed
into some other kind of mechanical energy, it just “vanished”.
MECHANICAL ENERGY IS NOT ALWAYS CONSERVED. It turns
out that when friction (alone or together with other forces) acts on a body
the law o f conservation of mechanical energy is violated: the kinetic energy
decreases while no potential energy appears instead. Thus, the total
mechanical energy decreases.
Such a decrease in the total mechanical energy is observed even when
a body falls to the ground in air and not in vacuum. During this motion, the
potential energy of the body decreases by nigh, just as in vacuum. However,
the velocity o f the body at the moment it reaches the Earth surface is lower
than for a free fall in vacuum. Its kinetic energy will also be lower. It will not
be equal to the decrease in the potential energy. The work against the
resistance of air is done at the expense o f the lost energy. Although we know
where the mechanical energy has been lost, it has still vanished, and the
energy conservation law seems to have been violated.
However, the violation of the law o f conservation o f energy is only
apparent here. As a matter o f fact, friction of a body against another body
leads to heating o f the two bodies i.e. to an increase in their temperatures. It
was mentioned in Junior Physics that the temperature o f bodies is
determined by the velocity of molecules constituting them, and hence by
their kinetic energy. Therefore, the energy o f motion o f molecules o f bodies
being heated due to friction or the internal energy of the bodies increases. Is
this increase in the internal energy just due to the lost kinetic energy of the
entire body? Thorough measurements revealed that when the kinetic energy
of moving bodies decreases due to friction, their internal energy (the energy
of motion of molecules in a body) actually increases by just the same value.
Consequently, although the mechanical energy decreases, it is not lost
completely but only transforms to the energy o f moving molecules.
Thus, we arrive at a very important conclusion that not only the mutual
conversion of potential and kinetic energies is possible. Mechanical energy
can be converted into a nonmechanical form o f energy, viz. the internal energy
o f moving particles constituting the body. The remarkable feature of energy is
that it may have different forms (kinetic, potential, internal and many others)
that will be considered later. The law o f conservation of energy just states
that in a closed system, the sum of all kinds of energy is conserved. Each
time when a loss o f energy is observed in any process or phenomenon, we
can be sure that some other kind of energy has appeared in the process.
FRICTION IN ENGINEERING. It should be recalled that the work
done by forces applied to a body is always equal to the change in its kinetic
energy (see Sec. 9.3). When friction is present, a fraction o f the mechanical
energy o f the body is transformed into nonmechanical, internal energy, which
leads to the heating of rubbing bodies. This energy is lost when useful work
is considered. For this reason, friction always has to be reduced in any
device (machine) designed for doing mechanical work. The designers and
users o f these machines should bear this circumstance in mind. If a machine,
an engine or an apparatus are heated too much during operation, this is
a sure sign that the friction is too strong and that measures should be taken

206
to decrease it. It was mentioned in Sec. 5.7 that lubrication is used for this
purpose. We speak about excessive heating since friction in mechanical
equipment cannot be completely eliminated. A certain heating, and hence
some loss of energy is unavoidable. However, it must be made as small as
possible.

1. Friction acts on a body. Can the work done by this force

be zero?
2. If a body acted upon by friction returns to the initial point
after covering a certain distance, is the work of friction
equal to zero?
3. How does the mechanical energy o f a body which is acted
upon sliding friction only change?
Exercise 33
1. A 60-kg sledge, after sliding down the hill, covered
a distance o f 20 m over the horizontal part of the road.
Find the work done by friction over this distance, if the
coefficient o f friction between the sledge runners and the
snow is 0.020.
2. A part being sharpened is pressed with the force of 20 N
to a whetstone whose radius is 20 cm. Calculate the work
done by the motor during 2 min, if the whetstone speed of
rotation is 180 rpm, and the coefficient o f friction between
the part and the whetstone is 0.30.
3. The driver of a motorcar puts the engine out of gear and
applies the brakes at 20 m to a traffic light (the road is
horizontal). Find the maximum velocity at which the car
has enough time to come to a halt, if the mass of the car is
1.6 t and the force of friction is 4000 N.
4. A body moving over a horizontal plane experiences
a friction o f 100 N over a distance o f 15 m. What is the
change in its mechanical energy? Which energy (kinetic or
potential) has changed?
5. A parachutist whose mass is 70 kg moves after a jump
from a plane first with an acceleration and then, starting
from the height h = 1000 m and till landing, uniformly.
What is the work done by the resistance o f air during the
uniform motion?
6. A 2-kg body falls from a height of 240 m and penetrates
the ground to a depth of 0.2 m. The friction of the body
against the ground is 10000 N. Was the motion o f the
body in air a free fall?
7. A 10-g bullet flying horizontally at a velocity of 600 m/s
strikes a wooden block whose mass is 2.0 kg and sticks in
it. As a result, both the bullet and the block are heated.
Which part o f energy is being converted into heat? The air
drag should be neglected.

207
 Hint. While solving this problem, make use o f the laws
o f conservation o f momentum and energy.

Hometask
Give one o f many examples of a situation when the total
mechanical energy o f a body or a system o f bodies is not
conserved.

9 .8 . P ow er
It should be recalled (see Junior Physics) that an engine
producing work is characterized by a special quantity called
power.
The power o f an engine or a mechanism is the ratio o f the work done to the
time interval over which this occurred.
If we denote power by N , it is given by

(9.8.1)
t

This formula shows that the unit o f power in SI is 1 J/s (joule per second).
This unit is called a watt (W):
1 W = 1 J/s.
This is a comparatively small unit. In engineering, a 1000 times larger unit
is often used. This is a kilowatt (kW). Sometimes, a unit that is million times
larger than the watt is used, called a megawatt (MW).
Let us consider an example. At Krasnoyarsk hydroelectric station,
a 5000-m3 water flow (whose mass is 5 x 106 kg) falls from the 100-m dam
every second. Obviously, the power o f the station is equal to the work done
by the force o f gravity on this mass o f water per second:
mgh m
N =- gh.
t t
Taking into account that m /t = 5 x 106 kg/s, we get
m
N =5 x I06 — x 9.1 100 m 5 x 109 J/s

= 5 x 106 kW.

If the power N is known, the work A done in time t is given by

A = N t.

Hence it follows that we can take the work done per second at a power of
1 W as the unit o f work. This unit of work is called a watt-second ( Ws ) :
1 W s = I J.

208
 However, a joule, and hence a watt-second, are too small units Larger
“n"s, are commonly used, e.g. a kilowatt-hour (kW-hr) or a megawatt-hour
(MW hr):

1 kW-hr = 1000 W x 3600s = 3.6 x 106 W s = 3.6 x 106 J.

1 M W h r = I 000000 W x 3600s = 3.6 x 10’ W-s

= 3.6 x 10’ J.
Aeroplanes, ships, rockets, motorcars and other transport facilities often
move at a constant velocity. This means that forces developed by their
engines are equal and opposite to drag forces. What determines the velocity
of motion of these bodies?
We shall show that the velocity is determined by the engine power.
Indeed, N — A/t. But A = Fs, where F is the magnitude o f the resistance
force.
Consequently,

The ratio s/t is equal to n, where v is the magnitude of the velocity of

motion o f the body. Therefore,
N = Fb (9.8.2)
or
N

This formula shows that at a constant resistance, the velocity o f a body is

proportional to the engine power. For this reason, high-speed trains and
motorcars require high-power engines. In many cases, however, the drag
force is actually not constant but increases with velocity.
It was shown in Sec. 5.7 that when ships or aeroplanes move at high
velocities, the resistance o f air and water (fluid friction) is proportional to the
square o f velocity. This can be expressed by the formula F = pe2, where p is
the proportionality factor.
Substituting into formula (9.8.2) the quantity Pc2 for F, we obtain the
following expression for power:
JV = Pd3.
Consequently, the power of aeroplane and ship engines is proportional to the
third power of velocity. If, for example, the velocity o f a plane has to be
doubled, the power o f its engines should be increased by a factor o f eight.
For this reason, each time when designers succeed in increasing the velocity
of a new plane, this costs them a lot o f efforts.
The formula F = N /v also shows that when the power N of an engine is
constant, the force applied to a moving body due to the engine operation is
stronger at low velocities than at high velocities. This is why the driver of
a car shifts a lower gear while moving up the hill, where the maximum
tractive force is required.

209
I4-17S
? 1. What is power?
2. Is power a scalar or a vector quantity?
3. What determines the velocity of a uniformly moving body
driven by an engine?
4. Which units o f power are used in engineering and in
every-day life? What is the relation between them?
5. Which physical quantity is expressed in kilowatt-hours?

EXAMPLES OF SOLVING PROBLEMS

1. What average power can be developed by a man having a mass of
70 kg when he runs upstairs to the height o f 10 m in 15 s?
Solution. When the man goes upstairs, he does the following work against
force o f gravity:
A = mgh.

Consequently, the power developed by the man is

Substituting into this formula the values o f the quantities from the condition
of the problem, we get

70 kg x 9.8 x 10 m
N = --------------— ------------- - 4 6 0 W.
15s

2. A crane with a 12-kW engine lifts a load at a constant velocity of

90 m/min. What is the mass o f the load?
Solution. Using the formula
N = Fv
for power, we can express the force exerted by the crane on the load being
lifted:

When the motion o f the load is uniform, the magnitude o f this force is mg.
Therefore,
N
mg = —
v
or
N
m=— .
vg

210
 Substituting into this formula the values of the quantities from the condition
of the problem, we obtain
12000 W
m= ~ 820 kg.

Exercise 34
1. An aeroplane uniformly flies along the straight line at
a velocity of 900 km/hr. What is the drag force if the
engines of the plane develop a power of 1800 kW?
2. A crane with an 8-kW engine lifts a load at a constant
velocity o f 6 m/min. What is the mass o f the load?
3. A shaft is processed on a lathe. The power developed by
the engine is 3 kW. What amount o f work is done if the
shaft is processed for 2 min?
4. What is the work done by a hydroelectric station during
one year if the power o f its generators is 2.5 MW?
5. A 2000-kg motorcar moves along a horizontal road at
a velocity o f 72 km/hr. The resistance to its motion is
equal to 0.05 of its weight. Calculate the power developed
by the engine.

9.9 . E nergy T ra n s fo rm a tio n . U tiliz a tio n of M a c h in e ry

About two hundred years have passed since various machines
began to be widely used by people. These machines are
driven by engines which, in turn, receive energy from some sources.
From the point of view o f mechanics, machines are used as an aid to do
work by some forces. However, to do work means to spend energy equal at
least to this work. Nowadays, the main types of energy due to which work is
done are the energy liberated upon combustion o f fuel (coal, oil or gas), the
energy o f falling water and the so-called nuclear energy released in nuclear
reactors. None of these types o f energy is directly supplied to machines.
On its way to the machines where work is done, energy undergoes
transformation from one type to another. For example, the energy of
interaction among particles o f fuel and oxygen (potential energy) is first
transformed into the internal energy o f the particles formed during the
burning of fuel. Then, this energy is supplied by heat transfer to steam in
a steam turbine which drives an electric generator where the mechanical
energy o f rotation is transformed into electric energy. This is the principle of
operation o f a thermal power plant. The energy is transmitted by cables from
the generator to electric motors installed on various lathes and other
mechanisms. In motors, electric energy is again converted into mechanical
energy and is supplied to lathes and other machines with the help o f various
transmissions like levers, inclined planes, screws and pulleys.

211
 We have considered a chain o f transformations o f energy “on its way”
from the furnace o f a thermal power plant to a machine. It should be also
noted that fuel itself has appeared on the Earth as a result o f a complex
chain o f energy transformations. The origin of this chain is the Sun which is
the source of life on the globe.
It should be emphasized that these transformations (we have listed just
a few of them) obey the law o f energy conservation which implies that upon
any transformation, it is impossible to receive more energy o f one type than
the consumed amount of energy o f another type. No engine can give more
mechanical energy than the electric or internal energy supplied to it. There is
no engine which can do more work than the amount o f energy spent.
On the contrary, a part of energy is inevitably lost in real engines due to
friction. It is lost in the sense that it is transformed due to friction into
internal energy, thus causing the engine heating. Similarly, the work done by
forces operating in a machine is always somewhat smaller than the energy
spent.
ON PERPETUAL MOTION MACHINES. All what has been said above
became known only after the law o f energy conservation had been
discovered in the middle of the 19th century. Before that, efforts were made
for centuries to design a machine which would give more work than the
energy spent. It was even called beforehand a perpetual motion machine
(perpetuum mobile). However, such a machine could not be created.
Moreover, it cannot be made even in principle.
Figure 191 shows a diagram o f one of the numerous projects of
a perpetual motion machine. It consists of two wheels (pulleys) located in the
upper and lower parts of a tower Filled with water. The pulleys are connected
by an endless rope with light empty boxes fixed to it at certain intervals. It
can be seen that at each instant some o f the boxes are submerged into water

Fig. 191

212
while the others are in air. The author of the project was sure that the right-
hand (in the figure) boxes would make the pulley rotate as they float up to
the surface under the action of buoyancy. The boxes that float up are
replaced by others, and “perpetual” motion is sustained. Rotating wheels
could drive electric generators, thus producing energy “free of charge” and in
unlimited amounts, since the device operates “perpetually”.
Actually, however, the design has some faults, and such an engine cannot
work. Indeed, while some boxes are floating up, the others, on the contrary,
sink. The boxes must move against the buoyancy force. Besides, as they enter
water from below, they are acted upon by the entire water column. The force
of pressure of this column is stronger than the buoyancy force.
Similar errors can be found in any design of a perpetual motion machine.
Attempts to create such a device are doomed to failure because the energy
conservation law “prohibits” the performance o f more work than the energy
spent.
It is interesting to note that even at present there are “inventors” who do
not give up fruitless attempts to create a perpetual motion machine.
The goal o f engineering consists not in circumventing the energy
conservation law but in decreasing energy losses in machines, engines and
generators.

1. What are generators, engines and machines intended for?

2. What is the essence of the idea behind a perpetual motion
machine? Why is this idea impracticable?
3. Which energy transformations take place when a rifle is
fired or when a rocket is launched?

y . i u Efficiency
When work is done in a machine due to expenditure of
energy, one should distinguish between the useful work and
the total work done.
Useful work is the work for which a machine is designed and used. For
example, the useful work o f a crane is the work done to lift a load. For
a lathe, it is the work done to overcome the friction between the job and the
cutting tool, and so on.
However, the useful work in any engine is always less than the total work
since there always exists friction whose negative work leads to the heating of
different parts o f the machine or engine. Heating cannot be considered as
a useful result of the machine operation, since it cannot be used for doing
mechanical work. As a result o f heating, a fraction of energy supplied to the
engine is transformed not into mechanical energy but into internal energy
and hence is not used for doing work. . .
Therefore, every machine, engine or mechanism is characterized by a specia
quantity, determining the efficiency of utilization of the energy supplied to it
It should be recalled that (see Junior Physics, Sec. 66) this quantity is called
the efficiency.

213
 We can also speak about the efficiency o f a generator in which one type of
energy is transformed into another. For example, mechanical energy is
transformed in an electric generator into work by an electric current. Due to
friction and other reasons, the work o f electric current is always somewhat
smaller than the mechanical energy spent by the turbine.
The generator efficiency is the ratio o f the useful work to the energy spent.
The efficiency o f a machine can never be greater than unity. In real
machines, engines and generators, it is always less than unity due to
inevitable energy losses caused above all by the negative work of friction.
However, there are some other, non-mechanical causes of energy losses.
It should be emphasized once again that the word “loss” does not mean
that energy vanishes completely. It only means that a fraction of energy is
transformed into some type of energy which is not the required one and is
no longer available for utilization.
Efficiency is expressed as a percentage. If we denote efficiency by r| (the
Greek letter “eta”), the useful work (or energy) by Au and the total work
done (energy spent) by A s, we have

1. What is the chain of energy transformations that leads to

an increase in the internal energy o f the heating element in
an electric stove if electric power is supplied to the circuit
from a hydroelectric station? Start with the Sun.
2. A body has fallen to the ground from a certain height.
Where has its potential energy gone?
3. A blacksmith raised a hammer and struck an ingot on the
anvil. Which energy transformations occur in this case?
4. A deformed metallic spring is immersed into an acid
dissolving the metal of which the spring is made. What
happens to the potential energy of the spring after its
dissolution?

EXAMPLES OF SOLVING PROBLEMS

1. A crane is driven by an engine whose power is 10 kW. What time does it
75°C ^ 3 ^oa<^ a ° f 50 m, if the efficiency of the engine is

Solution. The crane does the useful work given by

A m = mgh.
th e total work done As is expressed by the formula
As = N t,

where N is the engine power and t is the time of operation of the crane.
According to the condition of the problem, the useful work amounts to

214
only 75% of the work done by the engine. Therefore,
A u = 0.75 Nt.
Hence
Au nigh
~ 0.75 N ~ 0.75 N ’

2000 kg x 9.8 x 50 m
t = ---------------------------------- « 130 s.
0.75 x 104 —
s
2. A 2-t motor car with the brakes applied descends at a constant velocity
down a mountain road and reaches a point whose altitude is 80 m lower
than that of the starting point. What amount of energy Q has been liberated
in the brakes?
Solution. If the brakes were not applied, the decrease in the potential
energy would be equal to the increase in the kinetic energy. But since the car
was moving at a constant velocity, the kinetic energy did not increase during
the descent. Consequently, the entire potential energy lost was transformed
into the internal energy, i.e.
Q = mg(hl - h2).
Substituting the numerical data, we get
m
Q = 2000 kg x 9.8 —=- x 80 m ~ 1.6 x 106 J.
s

Exercise 35
1. A crane is driven by an engine whose power is 7.36 kW.
Find the mass of the load lifted by the crane at a velocity
o f 6 m/min, if the engine efficiency is 80%.
2. An aeroplane is flying in a straight line at a uniform
velocity of 800 km/hr. Find the tracing force of its motors
if their power is 1800 kW. Assume that the efficiency is
70%.
3. A pump with a 3 kW motor lifts water from a 20 m-deep
well. Find the mass of the water lifted in two hours if the
efficiency of the pump is 70%.
4. Every second, 170 t o f water fall from the 30-m dam of
a hydroelectric station. The electric power generated by
the station is 10 MW. What is the efficiency of converting
the energy of falling water into electric energy?

215
9. 11. Flow o f F luid in P ipes. B e rn o u lli’s L aw
In this section, we shall apply the energy conservation law to
the flow o f fluid in pipes. This type o f motion is often
encountered in everyday life. Water is fed to consumers through the pipes of
a water-supply system. Pipes are used for supplying lubricating oil to
machines and fuel to engines. Flow o f fluid in pipes also occurs in nature. It
is sufficient to say that the blood circulation o f animals and human beings is
the flow o f blood in pipes, viz. blood vessels. To a certain extent, the flow of
water in rivers is also a modification of the fluid flow in pipes. A river bed
serves as a pipe for flowing water.
It is well known that in accordance with Pascal’s law, a fluid at rest in
a vessel transmits an external pressure to all points o f the fluid without any
change. If, however, a fluid flows without friction through a pipe with
a variable cross-sectional area, experiments show that the pressure turns out
to be different along the pipe. Let us now find out why the pressure in
a fluid flow depends on the cross-sectional area o f the pipe. But first let us
consider an important feature o f any fluid flow.
VELOCITY OF A FLU ID A N D CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA O F THE
PIPE. Let us suppose that a fluid flows in a horizontal pipe with a varying
cross-sectional area, for example, in the pipe a part o f which is shown in
Fig. 192.
If wc mentally draw several cross sections o f areas S , , S 2 and S3 along the
pipe, and measure the volume o f fluid flowing through each section in
a certain time t, we find that the same volume o f fluid passes through every
cross section. This means that all the fluid that passes in time t through the
first cross section passes through the third cross section over the same time,
although the area o f this cross section is considerably smaller than that of
the first. If this were not the case and, for example, a smaller amount o f fluid
passed through the cross-sectional area S3 than through S , over the time t,
an excess o f fluid would be accumulated somewhere. But the fluid fills the
entire pipe and has no place to be accumulated. Here we assume that a given
mass of the fluid always has the same volume; it cannot be compressed and
hence decrease in volume (the fluid is said to be incompressible).
But how can a fluid that has passed through a wide section “squeeze”
through a narrow cross section in the same time? Obviously, in order to be
able to do that, the velocity o f the fluid must be higher in the narrow parts o f
the pipe than in the wide parts. It is well known, for example, that in the
narrow parts o f a river bed the fluid velocity is higher than in the wide parts.
VELOCITY A N D PRESSURE. Since the velocity o f a fluid flow through
a pipe increases as it passes from a larger cross-sectional area to a smaller
one, fluid moves with an acceleration. In accordance with Newton’s second

Fig. 192

216
Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) was
a specialist in mathematics and
mechanics. From 1725 to 1733, he
worked in the Russian Academy of
Sciences where he was engaged in
research in the fields of mathematics,
mechanics, as well as physiology. It was
here that he wrote the book
“Hydrodynamics” which contains the
derivation of the equation describing the
flow of an ideal fluid and known as
Bernoulli’s law.

law, this means that a force acts on the fluid. What kind of force is it?
This can be only the difference between the forces of pressure in the wide
and narrow sections of the pipe. Thus, the pressure in the wide section of
a pipe should be higher than in the narrow one.
This conclusion can also be drawn from the energy conservation law.
Indeed, if the velocity o f a flow increases in narrow sections, its kinetic
energy also increases. Since we assume that the fluid flows without friction,
this increase in the kinetic energy must be balanced by a decrease in the
potential energy because the total energy must remain constant. What sort of
potential energy is meant here? If the pipe is horizontal, the potential energy
of interaction with the Earth is the same in all sections o f the pipe and it
cannot change. Consequently, only the energy o f elastic interaction is left.
The force o f pressure that makes the fluid flow through the pipe is just the
elastic force o f the compressed fluid. When a fluid is said to be
incompressible, it only means that it cannot be compressed so that its
volume noticeably changes, but a very small compression causing the elastic
forces inevitably occurs. These forces are responsible for creating a pressure
in a fluid. It is this compression of the fluid that decreases in narrow parts of
the pipe. Therefore, the pressure in narrow cross sections o f pipes should be
lower than in wide sections.
This is the essence of the law discovered by the Petersburg Academician
DANIEL BERNOULLI.
The pressure o f a fluid flow is higher in sections where the fluid velocity is
lower. On the contrary, the pressure is lower in sections where the velocity is
higher.
The above reasoning refers to the case when a fluid in a pipe can be
considered as a closed system. The energy conservation law is valid only for
such a system. In reality, a fluid flows in a pipe due to a pressure drop under

217
15-376
 Nikolai Egorovich Zhukovskii
(1847-1921) was a Russian scientist
specializing in the field of mechanics. He
was the founder of modern
aerohydrodynamics whose growth is
inseparably linked with the progress in
the construction o f aircraft. In 1918, he
founded the Central Aerohydrodynamic
Institute (TsAGI) and became its first
Director. Zhukovskii carried out
numerous fundamental investigations in
the fields o f mechanics o f rigid bodies,
astronomy, mathematics, hydrodynamics,
etc. He also wrote several textbooks on
theoretical mechanics.

the action o f an external force. In this case, the energy changes and, as
a rule, its change is equal to the work done by the external force. However,
the Bernoulli law remains valid in this case as well.
If a pipe through which a fluid is flowing is fitted with open
tubes-manometers (Fig. 193), it is possible to observe the pressure
distribution along the pipe. In narrow sections, the height o f the liquid
column in a manometer is lower than in wide sections. This means that the
pressure is lower here.
The smaller the pipe cross section, the higher the flow velocity in it and
the lower the pressure. Obviously, it is possible to select a cross section
where the pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure (in this case, the
height of the liquid column in the manometer is zero). If we take a still

Fig. 193 Fig. 194

218
 smaller cross section, the pressure of the liquid in it will be lower than the
atmospheric pressure.
Such a flow o f liquid can be used for pumping air out of a vessel. A jet
pump operates on this principle (its schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 194).
A jet of water flows through a pipe A with a spout. The pressure o f water at
the spout is lower than the atmospheric pressure. For this reason, the air
being pumped out of the vessel is drawn in through the pipe B to the end of
the pipe A and is removed together with the water.
All that was said above about flows o f liquid in pipes is applicable to
a gas flow. If the velocity of a gas flow is not very high (lower than the
velocity o f sound in the gas), the gas is not compressed so that its volume
changes and if, besides, we ignore friction, then Bernoulli’s law is also valid
for gas flows. In narrow sections of the pipes, where a gas moves faster, its
pressure is lower than in wide sections and may become lower than the
atmospheric pressure. In some cases, even a pipe is not required for this.
We can make a simple experiment. If we blow on a sheet of paper along
its surface as is shown in Fig. 195, the paper will be lifted. This is due to
a drop in pressure in the air jet over the paper.
The same phenomenon takes place in the flight o f an aeroplane.
A head-on air flow past the convex upper surface of the wing of the
aeroplane causes a decrease in the pressure. The pressure over the wing turns
out to be lower than the pressure under it (Fig. 196). It is due to this that
a lifting force emerges. The theory of wings was developed by the
outstanding Russian scientist N. E. ZHUKOVSKII, the “father of the
Russian aviation”, as Lenin called him.

1. Why is the velocity of a fluid higher in narrow parts of

a pipeline than in wide sections?
2. What is the essence of Bernoulli’s law?
3. Which force causes an increase in the velocity of a fluid,
and hence in its kinetic energy as the fluid flows from
a wide to a narrow section of a pipeline?
4. Can we assume that Bernoulli’s law is a corollary of the
energy conservation law?
 Sum m ary
The work done by a force is a scalar quantity equal to the
product o f the magnitudes of the force and displacement by
the cosine of the angle between their direction vectors. The work is
positive if the angle is acute and negative if the angle is obtuse.
A force does work only if it is applied to a moving body. If several forces
are applied to a moving body and their vector sum is zero (hence the body is
in uniform motion), the algebraic sum of the works done by all the forces is
zero while the work done by each of the forces differs from zero (except for
the forces directed at right angles to the displacement).
If forces whose resultant differs from zero act on a body, the quantity
mv2/2, which characterizes the motion of the body and is called its kinetic
energy, changes. Its change is equal to the work done by the resultant force.
If the force of gravity (in general, the force of universal gravitation) or an
elastic force acts on a body, the change in the kinetic energy is accompanied
by an equal and opposite change in the potential energy. If we are dealing
with the force of gravity, the potential energy relative to the conventional
zero level is mgh, where h is the height of the body above this level. In the
case of an elastic force, the potential energy is k x 2/2.
When bodies interact through gravitational or elastic forces, the changes in
kinetic and potential energy are equal and opposite. Therefore, for a closed
system of interacting bodies, the law of conservation of total mechanical
energy is observed.
If friction is also present in addition to elastic forces and forces of gravity,
the total mechanical energy is not conserved. A certain fraction of this
energy is transformed into the internal energy o f the bodies between which
friction exists.

O N THE IMPORTANCE O F CONSERVATION LAWS

The laws of conservation of momentum and energy considered in the last
two chapters have not only a deep physical meaning but also a philosophical
significance. They indicate that the motion of matter can neither be
exterminated nor created anew.
Indeed, when a moving body comes to a halt, it seems that the motion has
vanished. When a body that has been at rest begins to move, it seems that
a new motion which did not exist has been set in. However, the momentum
and energy conservation laws indicate that this is not so. If a moving body
has come to a halt, there is some reason behind that. It stopped under the
action of some other body, i. e. due to the action of some force. If this is the
force of friction, it means that the disappearance of the mechanical motion
has led to the creation of another type of motion, viz. the motion of particles
inside the body. If the body was made to stop by gravitational or elastic
forces, then instead of one type of mechanical motion another type appears,
viz. the motion of another body to which the body has transferred its
momentum and energy, or the motion of the same body in the opposite
direction.

220
 Thus, motion may change its form or be transferred from one body to
another, but the laws of conservation of energy and momentum are observed
during any change. There is no phenomenon or process in nature in which
energy and momentum emerge or vanish without any compensation. This
just means that the motion o f matter is conserved.
It was shown above that the momentum and energy conservation laws
make it possible to solve problems in mechanics when for some reason or
other the forces acting on a body are unknown. But the importance of the
laws of conservation is not limited to this. As far as is known at the moment,
the energy and momentum conservation laws are absolutely accurate. This
does not apply, for example, to Newton’s second and third laws. When
particles move at velocities close to the speed of light, Newton’s laws are
known to have a different form. In this sense, Newton’s laws are
approximate, while the energy and momentum conservation laws have no
exceptions. If somebody declares that he has discovered a phenomenon or
a process in which the conservation laws are violated, it can be said with
confidence that the statement is erroneous.
The conservation laws serve as a guiding star while considering any
problem associated with a natural phenomenon. It is a sort of a primary
verification of the correctness of any statement. We shall often use the
conservation laws in all branches of physics.
 CONCLUSION

Mechanics is an extensive science constituting one o f the most

important branches of physics which is an even more extensive science. We
have discussed only some of its elements. Many sections o f mechanics, such
as the rotational motion of rigid bodies or vibrational motion, are beyond
the scope of this course. Some problems in mechanics remain unsolved so fa-
r. Nevertheless, the course of mechanics presented in this book makes it
possible to outline the typical features o f this branch of science. To be more
precise, we deal with the so-called classical, or Newtonian mechanics since it
is based on Newton’s laws. It has been shown that these laws are expressed
in the form of mathematical relationships between a number of quantities

Harvesting o f silage crop by harvester-shredders “Yaroslavets”.

(momentum, acceleration, mass, force, and so on). The extent to which

Newton’s laws are exact remains to be determined.
THE LIMITS OF APPLICABILITY OF NEW TONIAN MECHANICS.
Till the end o f the 19th century, nobody doubted that these laws are
perfectly correct In the 20th century, however, it was found that Newton’s
laws are still not absolute. They cannot be used when bodies move at very
high velocities comparable to the speed of light A. EINSTEIN, who is called
Newton of the 20th century, succeeded in formulating more general laws of
motion which are valid for velocities close to the speed o f light as well. These
laws form the basis of the relativistic mechanics, or the theory o f relativity.

222
Excavation for the railroad bed by dipper-excavator.

Newton’s laws are corollaries of these laws in the case when velocities of
bodies are small in comparison with the speed of light.
Newton’s laws “fail” when the motion of intra-atomic particles is
considered. There exists another “code o f laws” quantum mechanics for the

Coal mining with the help o f high-output wheel excavators.

223
Earth-movers at work.

motion of intra-atomic particles. Classical mechanics is also derived from it as

a particular case. It is remarkable that the momentum and energy
conservation laws derived from Newton’s laws are valid both in quantum
mechanics and in the theory o f relativity.
Thus, mechanics forms the basis of natural science. We have considered
only a small part o f classical mechanics. However, we shall use it while
studying the entire course o f physics.
MECHANICS A N D MECHANIZATION. Newton’s laws were
established when various machines and devices for replacing manual labour
began to be used. The process o f supplanting hard manual labour by
appropriate mechanisms is continuing till our time. Mechanization has
become a part of our life. Young people would, probably, not know that
several decades ago construction workers carried bricks and other materials
on their shoulders, climbing up the supporting structures.
Now this work is done by cranes mounted at each construction site. We
know about the trade of barge haulers only from books and paintings, since
this profession has vanished. The same is the case with the trade of
stevedores, stokers, porters, etc. Their job is now done by appropriate
mechanical devices.
We also know from literature about exhaustive labour o f railroad builders.
Nowadays, various machines such as excavators, bulldozers and track layers
are used for constructing railroads.
Of great importance are various agricultural machines that have
transformed farming, one of the basic branches o f economy. A special branch
of industry deals with the production o f such machines.
We are witnessing an industrial revolution in machine building itself. The
work which was formerly done by many skilled workers is now done by
automatic machines that do not involve manual labour.

224
Gantry cranes are the helpmates o f modern stevedores.

All the variety o f m achines-from very simple to extremely complicated

on es-a re based on Newton’s laws. The proper maintenance o f these
machines also requires the knowledge o f these laws. There is no chance that
these laws would “misfire”. This explains their practical importance.

Railroad track laying on a subgrade ground work.

I
(a) The path o f a body thrown at an angle a to the horizontal. If the air resistance
were absent, the shell fired by a gun would fly in a parabola. The maximum range
would correspond to an angle o f 45° between the initial velocity and the horizontal.
At the angles o f 4 5 °- a and 45° + a, the range o f the shell would be the same.
(b) The drawings are made from stroboscopic photographs o f the motion o f metallic
balls under the action of the force o f gravity: ball 1 is thrown along the horizontal;
balls 2 and 3 fall freely, while ball 4 is thrown at an angle to the horizontal.

226
II
(a) An X-ray plate o f a footballist’s leg at the moment it kicks the ball. The
deformations o f the bones and o f the ball are clearly seen. The elastic force acting on
the ball emerges as a result of the deformation o f the boot.
(b) Drawn from the photograph o f a racket and a tennis ball at the moment of
impact.
(c) Elastic forces emerging during a collision o f two bodies lead to a change in the
velocities o f the bodies.
(d) A motorcar m oves on the rounding o f a highway with a centripetal accele­
ration. This acceleration is due to the friction force Ffr o f the tyres on the
surface of the road.

227
Ill
(a) Space velocities. If the velocity x 7.9 km/s of the spacecraft is parallel to the
surface of the Earth, it becomes satellite o f the Earth and m oves in a circular orbit at
a comparatively small height. If the velocity o f the spacecraft is between 7.9 and
11.1 km/s, the orbit is elliptical. At a velocity o f 11.2 km /s, the spacecraft moves in
a parabola, and at a still higher v e lo city -in a hyperbola.
(b) Launching of a rocket.

228
IV
Above: a photograph of a modern hydroelectric station. Below: a schematic diagram
of a hydroelectric station. The potential energy o f water is transformed into the
kinetic energy as water falls from the upper to lower reach of the dam. As water flows
through the turbine, its kinetic energy is transferred to the turbine-wheel and the
generator coupled with it: 1-turbine chamber, 2-hydroturbine, 3 - water-wheel
generator, 4 -draught tube, 5 -(electrical) switch-gears, 6 -transformer, 7 -gantry
cranes.

229
 PRA CTICA L W O R K 0

1. D e te rm in a tio n of th e A c c e le ra tio n of a Body

in U n ifo rm ly A c c e le ra te d M otion
THE AIM O F TH E W ORK: calculate the acceleration o f a ball
rolling down an inclined trough. For this purpose, the length o f the displacement s of
the ball is measured for a known time t. Since s = a t 2/ 2 for a uniformly accelerated
m otion with zero initial velocity, wc can find the acceleration a = 2 s / t 2 o f the ball by
measuring s and t.
N o measurement can be made with perfect accuracy. There is always a certain
error due to the imperfection o f measuring instruments and other reasons. However,
even in spite o f errors, there are several methods o f making reliable measurements.
The simplest of them is to calculate the arithmetic mean o f the results o f several
independent measurements of the same quantity under constant experimental
conditions. This method is used in this work.
M EASURING INSTRUM ENTS: (1) a measuring tape; (2) a metronome.
MATERIAL: (1) a trough; (2) a ball; (3) a holder with clutches and
a tang; (3) a metallic cylinder.
P ro ced u re
1. Fix the trough with the help o f the holder in an inclined position at a small
angle to the horizontal (Fig. 197). Place the metallic cylinder into the trough at the
lower end.
2. Releasing the ball (simultaneously with a metronome stroke) from the upper
end of the trough, count the number o f metronome strokes before the ball strikes the
cylinder. It is convenient to carry out the experiment at 120 strokes per minute.
3. Changing the slope o f the trough and slightly displacing the metallic cylinder,
get four metronome strokes between the instant the ball is released and the instant it
strikes the cylinder (three intervals between the strokes).
4. Calculate the time o f m otion o f the ball.

Fig. 197

u The instructions to practical work were written with the assistance

o f Yu. I. Dik and G .G . Nikiphorov.

230
 5. Using the measuring tape, determine the displacement s o f the ball. Without
altering the slope o f the trough (experimental conditions should remain unchanged),
repeat the experiment five times, each time getting the coincidence between the fourth
metronome stroke and the collision o f the ball with the cylinder (the cylinder can be
slightly shifted for this purpose).
6. Using the formula sm = (s , + s 2 + s 3 + s 4 + ss )/5, find the arithmetic mean of
the magnitude o f the displacement and then calculate the mean value o f the magni­
tude of the acceleration: a m = 2 s m / t 2 .
7. Compile the results of measurements and calculations in tabular form:

No. of experiment s, m s m, m Number of metro­ t, s a m, m/s2

nome strokes

2. M e a su re m e n t of th e Rigidity of a S pring
THE AIM O F THE W ORK: find the rigidity o f a spring by
measuring elongation o f the spring for different values of the external force, which
balances the elastic force, using H ooke’s law: k = F e j / |x | . In each experiment, the
rigidity is determined at different values o f the elastic force and elongation. In other
words, experimental conditions are changed. Therefore, the mean value o f the rigidity
cannot be determined as the arithmetic mean o f the results o f several measurements.
Let us employ the graphical method for determining the mean value, which can be
applied in such cases. U sing the results o f several experiments, we plot the dependence
of the elastic force F e\ = m g on the magnitude o f elongation | x | . While plotting the
graph, we can find that the experimental points are not on the straight line
corresponding to the formula F e\ = k \ x \ . This is due to measurement errors. In this
case, the graph should be drawn so that approximately the same number o f points is
on both sides of the straight line. After the graph has been plotted, a point is taken on
the straight line (in the middle o f the graph), the values of the elastic force and
elongation corresponding to this point are determined, and the rigidity k is calculated.
This will be just the required mean value km o f the rigidity o f the spring. The result of
measurements is usually written as k = km ± Ak, where Ak is the maximum absolute
error in the measurement of rigidity. It is known from the introductory course of
algebra that the relative error (ek) is the ratio o f the absolute error (A k ) to the value of
k:ek = Ak/k, whence Ak = ekk. There exists a rule for calculating the relative error: if
the quantity being determined in an experiment is found as a result o f multiplication
or division o f approximate values appearing in computational formula, the relative
errors are added. Here
Ek =Em+Eg + ex. 0)
M EA SUR IN G INSTRU M ENTS: (1) set of weights with mass m 0 =
0.100 kg each, the absolute error Am 0 = 0.002 kg; (2) millimetre ruler.
MATERIAL: (1) holder with clutches and tang; (2) spiral spring.
Procedure
1. Fix the end o f the spiral spring on the holder (the other end o f the spring is
supplied with the pointer and the hook, Fig. 198).

231
 -Q .

2. Arrange and fix the millimetre ruler near the spring or behind it.
3. Mark and write down the division against which the pointer stands.
4. Suspend the load of a known mass from a spring and measure the spring
elongation caused by it.
5. Add the second, third, etc. loads to the first one, each time writing down the
elongation |x | of the spring. Write the results of measurements in the following table:

No. of experiment m, kg F„ - mg." N 1*1. m

6. Using the results of measurements, plot the elastic force versus elongation. With
the help of this graph, determine the mean value km of the rigidity of the spring.
7. Calculate the maximum relative error in determining the value of km (from the
experiment with one load). In formula (1), we have
Am 0.002 kg
Em
m 0.1 kg
0.02 m/s2
E ^
10 m/s2
Ax 1 mm
X 25 mm
8. Find Ak - ek/cm and write the answer in the form
* = ± A*.

11 Assume that g ~ 10 m/s2.

232
 3 D e te r m in a tio n of th e C o e ffic ie n t o f S lid in g
F ric tio n
TH E A IM O F TH E W O R K : U sing the formula F fr = \ i P determ ine
the coefficient o f friction for a wooden block sliding over a w ooden ruler. F o r this
purpose, measure by a dynam om eter the force which should be applied to the block
with loads to m ake it m ove uniformly over the horizontal surface. T h is force is equal
in magnitude to the friction Ffr acting o n the block. U sing the sam e dynam om eter,
the weight o f the block with loads can be determ ined. This weight is equal to the
normal pressure o f the block on the surface over which it is sliding. H aving
determined in this way the values o f friction for different values o f the force o f norm al
pressure, plot F fr versus P and then find the m ean value o f the coefficient o f friction
(see work N o. 2).
In this work, the dynam om eter is the main m easuring instrument. Its error Ag =
0.05 N. It is equal to the measurement error if the pointer coincides with a scale
division. If, however, the pointer does not coin cide with a scale divison in the
measuring process (or oscillates), the measurem ent error for the force is A F = 0 .l N.
M E A SU R IN G IN ST R U M E N T S: dynamometer.
M ATERIA L: (1) a w ooden block; (2) a w ooden ruler; (3) a set o f loads.
P ro ced u re
1. Put the block on the horizontal w ooden ruler. Place the load on the block.
2. Having attached the dynam om eter to the block, pull the latter alo n g the ruler
as uniformly as possible. Mark the reading o f the dynamometer.
3. Weigh the block and the load.
4. Add the second and third loads to the first one, each time weighing the block
and the loads and measuring the friction.
Using the results o f measurement, fill in the follow ing table:

No. of experiment P, N AP, N Ffr. N AFfr. N

5. From the results o f measurement, plot the friction versus the force o f pressure.
U sing this graph, find the mean value o f the coefficient o f friction ^ (see work
N o. 2).
6. Calculate the m axim um relative error in the measurement o f the friction
coefficient. Since
M= f , r/P. = e, fr + eP = Af,r/ f fr + & P /P ( I)
(see work N o. 2).
It follows from formula (1) that the largest error was made while measuring the
coefficient o f friction in the experiment with a single load (since in this case the
denom inators have the minimum value).
7. Find the absolute error Ap = e^p^ and write the result in the form
P = Pn, ± Ap.

233
4 A nalysis of M otion of a B ody A long
a P a ra b o la
THE AIM OF THE WORK: measure the initial velocity imparted
to a body in the horizontal direction, if the body subsequently moves under the
force of gravity.
If a ball is thrown in the horizontal direction, it moves along a parabola. For the
coordinate origin, we take the initial position of the ball. We direct the X-axis
horizontally and the T-axis, vertically downwards. Then at any instant r, x = v0 t and
y = g t2/2. The horizontal range / of the flight is the value of the coordinate x obtained
by substituting for t the time in which the body falls from the height h. Hence we can
write I = v0 t and h = g t2/2 . Hence we can easily find the time t of falling and the
initial velocity o0:

If the ball is thrown several times under the same experimental conditions, the
values of the horizontal range will be spread to a certain extent due to various
reasons whose effect cannot be taken into account. In such a case, the value of the
quantity being measured is taken equal to the arithmetic mean of the results obtained
in several experiments (see work No. 1).
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS: a millimetre ruler.
MATERIAL: (1) a holder with clutches and a tang; (2) a chute for
guiding the ball; (3) a plywood board; (4) a ball; (5) a sheet of paper; (6) drawing
pins; (7) carbon paper.

Fig. 199

234
 P rocedure
1. Using the holder, fix the plywood board in the vertical position. Fix the ridge
of the chute with the same clutch. The bent end of the chute should be horizontal
(Fig. 199).
2. Fix the sheet of paper whose width should not be less than 20 cm to the
plywood by drawing pins. At the base of the set-up, put the carbon paper on a white
paper strip.
3. Set the ball rolling five times from the same point of the chute and remove the
carbon paper.
4. Measure the height h and the horizontal range / of the ball flight. Compile the
results of measurement in tabular form.
5. Calculate the mean value of the initial velocity from the formula

No. of experiment h, m /, m lm, m «W m/s

6. Using the formulas x = vmt and y = g t 2/2 , find the coordinate x of the body (the
y-coordinate has already been calculated) in every 0.05 s and plot the trajectory of
motion on the sheet of paper pinned to the plywood board.

t, s 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20

x, m 0
y, m 0 0.012 0.049 0.110 0.190

7. Let the ball move along the chute and make sure that its trajectory is close to
the parabola plotted.

5. A nalysis of M otion o f a Body in a C irc le

THE AIM OF THE WORK: prove that when a body moves in
a circle under the action of several forces, their resultant is equal to the product of the
mass of the body and its acceleration: F = ma. For this a conical pendulum is used
(Fig. 200u). A body fixed to a thread is acted upon by the force of gravity F , and the
elastic force F2. Their resultant F = F , 4- F2.
The force F imparts to the body the centripetal acceleration
4n 2r

(r is the radius of the circle in which the load moves and T is the period of
revolution).

235
16*
 According to Newton’s second law, F = m a. Consequently.

In order to find the period, it is convenient to measure the time t of a certain

number N of revolutions. Then T = t / N and
4 n 2N 2
F = m ---- *— (1)

The magnitude of the resultant F of the forces F , and F 2 can ^ measured by

compensating it by the elastic force of the dynamometer spring as shown in Fig. 200b.
In accordance with Newton’s second law, F /m a = 1. Substituting into this formula
the experimental values of F, m, N , tm and r, we may obtain a quotient differing from
unity. This allows us to estimate the relative experimental error by the formula

II Fma
1

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS: (1) a millimeter ruler; (2) a

timepiece with a second hand; (3) a dynamometer.
MATERIAL: (1) a holder with clutches and a tang; (2) a strong
thread; (3) sheet of paper with a 15-cm circle drawn on it; (4) load.
P rocedure
1. Attach the load to the thread about 45 cm long and suspend it from the ring of
a holder.
2. One of the students must take the thread at the point of suspension by two
fingers and set the pendulum in rotation.
3. The second student should measure with the tape the radius r of the circle
described by the load. (The circle can be drawn on the paper in advance and the load
can be made move in this circle.)
4. Determine the period T of revolution of the pendulum with the help of
a timepiece.
For this purpose, an ordinary watch with the second hand can be used. In this
case, the student rotating the pendulum says aloud in phase with its turns: “zero,

236
zero”, etc. The second student with the watch in his hand says “zero” when the
second hand is in a position convenient to be used as the reference point. After this,
the first student counts aloud the number of turns. Having counted 30-40 turns (N ),
the time interval t is fixed. The experiment is repeated five times.
5. Calculate the mean value of the force from formula (1), taking into account that
n 2 = 10 with the relative error below 0.015.
6. Measure the magnitude of the resultant F by balancing it with the elastic force
of the dynamometer spring (see Fig. 2006).
7. Compile the results of measurement in a tabular form:

4 n 2N 2
N o . o f e x p e r im e n t t, s 'm . s N m, kg r, m ma = - - - - - - 5— r, N F, N
tm

8. Compare the ratio F /m a with unity and draw the conclusion about the error in
the experimental verification of the fact that the centripetal acceleration is imparted to
a body by the vector sum of the forces acting on it.

O* E qu ilib riu m C o n d itio n s fo r a L ever

THE AIM OF THE WORK: establish the relation between the
moments of forces applied to the arms of a lever in equilibrium. For this
purpose, one or several loads are suspended from the lever arm, and to the other
arm, the dynamometer is attached (Fig. 201). Using this dynamometer, we can
measure the magnitude of the force F required for the lever to be in equilibrium.
Then, using the same dynamometer, the magnitudes of the weight P of the loads are
measured. The lengths of the lever arms are measured with a ru[er. After this, the
magnitudes of the moments M, and M 2 of the forces P and F are determined:
M l = P l l and M 2 = F l2 .
 We can draw a conclusion about the error in the experimental verification of the
rule of moments by comparing the ratio M l / M 2 with unity (see work No. 5).
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS: (1) a ruler; (2) a dynamometer,
Ag = 0.05.
MATERIAL: (1) a holder with a clutch; (2) a lever; (3) a set of
loads.
P rocedure
1. Fix the lever on the holder and balance it in the horizontal position with the
help of movable nuts at its ends.
2. Suspend a load from a certain point of a lever arm.
3. Attach the dynamometer to the other arm of the lever and find the force which
should be applied so that the lever is in equilibrium.
4. Measure the lengths of the lever arms with the help of the ruler.
5. Measure the weight P of the load with the help of the dynamometer.
6. Find the magnitudes of the moments of the forces P and F.
7. Compile the obtained values in a tabular form:

f i, m lj, m P, N F, N M i = P it, N -m A /j = F l 2, N -m

8. Compare the ratio M J M 2 with unity and draw the conclusion about the
relative error of the experimental verification of the rule of moments.

7. D e te rm in a tio n of th e C e n tr e of G ra v ity of a
Flat P la te
THE AIM OF THE WORK: find the centre of gravity of the plate.
If a fiat plate is suspended from some point, it turns so that the vertical drawn
through the point of suspension (Fig. 202) passes through the centre of gravity of the

Fig. 202

238
plate. This allows us to find the centre o f gravity o f a plane plate experimentally. For
this purpose, we must suspend a plate from a certain point and draw the vertical
through the point of suspension. Then the experiment must be repeated for another
point of suspension. The point o f intersection o f the straight lines drawn on the plate
is the centre of gravity of the plate.
In order to make sure that this is so, we must suspend the plate from a third
point. The vertical passing through the point o f suspension must pass through the
point o f intersection of the first two straight lines.
We can also balance the plate on the pin. The plate is in equilibrium if the point
of support coincides with the centre o f gravity.
MATERIAL: (1) a ruler; (2) a flat plate o f arbitrary shape;
(3) a plumb-line; (4) a pin; (5) a holder with a tang and a clutch; (6) a cork.
P ro ced u re
1. Fix the cork in the holder in the horizontal position.
2. Using the pin suspend the plate and the plumb-line.
3. Mark the vertical with a sharp pencil on the lower and upper edges o f the
plate.
4. Take the plate off the holder and draw the line connecting the marking points.
5. Repeat the experiment, suspending the plate from another point
6. M ake sure that the point o f intersection o f the straight lines drawn on the plate
is its centre of mass.

E x p e rim e n ta l In v e stig a tio n of th e Law of

C o n se rv a tio n of M echanical E nergy
TH E AIM OF THE WORK: compare two quantities, viz. the
decrease in the potential energy o f a body attached to a spring during its fall and the
increase in the potential energy of the stretched spring.
M EASURING INSTRU M ENTS: (1) a dynamometer whose spring
has a rigidity of (40 ± 4 ) N /m ; (2) a measuring ruler; (3) a load; the mass o f the load
is (0.100 ± 0 .002 ) kg.
MATERIAL: (1) an index pin; (2) a holder with a clutch and
a tang.
Use the set-up shown in Fig. 203. It consists of a dynamometer with the
index pin 1 , fixed on the holder. The dynamometer spring has a wire rod with
a hook at its end. The index pin (it is shown separately on a magnified scale and
marked by 2 ) is a light cork plate ( 5 x 7 x 1.5 mm in size) cut with a knife up to its
centre. It is pinned onto the wire rod o f the dynamometer. The index pin must slide
along the rod with a small friction, which is, however, sufficient for balancing the
force of gravity acting on the cork plate. This should be checked before starting. For
this purpose, the index pin is placed at the lower end of the scale on the limiting
cramp. Then the spring is stretched and released.
The index pin must go up together with the wire rod, thus marking the maximum
elongation of the spring, which is equal to the distance between the prop and the
index pin.
If the load suspended from the dynamometer hook is lifted so that the spring is
not stretched, the potential energy o f the load relative to, for example, the surface of
the table is m g h . When the load falls (is lowered by a distance x = h ) , its potential
energy decreases by £ , = m g h , while the potential energy of the spring increases upon
deformation by E 2 = k x 2/ 1

239
Fig. 203

P ro ced u re
1. Fix the load tightly on the dynam om eter hook.
2. Lift the load by the hand, unloading the spring, and place the index pin in the
lower position at the prop.
3. Release the load. W hile falling down, it stretches the spring. Take the load off
and measure by the ruler the m axim um elongation x o f the spring using the position
of the index pin.
4. Repeat the experiment five times.
5. Calculate E ,m = m g h m and E 2m = k x & / 2.
6. Com pile the results in a tabular form:

No. of experiment Xnu„ m x m = hm Elm. J E i.. J E , J E 2m

7. Com pare the ratio E ^ / E ^ with unity and estim ate the error with which the
law of energy conservation was verified.
 A n s w e r s t o E x e rc ise s

Ex. 1. 1. sx = 4 m, sy = - 3 m. 2. x = 2.2 m, y = 4 m, ~ 6 m. 3. 13 km.

Ex. 1 1 . — 3.5 km South-East, 42 min. 2. 90 km/hr. 3. 3.4 km.
Ex. 3. 1. 7.5 m. 2. 0.1 m/s.
Ex. 4. 1. 950 km/hr, 850 km/hr. 2. 225 s.
3. x = 72 km, y = 1440 km, z = 8 km. The A--ax is is directed from W est to
East, the Y-axis, from South to North, and the Z-axis vertically upwards. 4.
N o. Yes, the time required to cross the river along the shortest path is longer
than in still water.
Ex. 5. 1. 70 km/hr. 2 . — 55 km/hr.
Ex. 6. 1. 10 s. 2. 2.5 m /s2. 3. - 6 . 3 s. 4. 6 4 8 0 0 km/hr.
Ex. 7. 1. 27 m, 4 s, 8 m. 2. The first body m oves uniformly w hile the second and
third bodies are in uniformly accelerated m otion. At the m oment
corresponding to point A we have: v i x = V & = 2 m /s, v # = 0 . 5 m /s, at point
B: v l x = V & = 2 m /s, v v = 8 m /s, a l x = 0, a2x = l m /s2, = 0.5 m /s2. 3. (a)
aix = 1 m/s2, = 0.4 m /s2, = — 0.5 m /s2. 4 . (a) OA = 9 m /s, OB = 3 m/s,
OC = 4.5 m /s. (b) a,* = = 1 m /s2, = — 2 m /s2. 5. — 6.7 m /s2, 750 m. 6 .
0.6 m. 7 . 2.4 km. 8. 1.6 x 104 km. 9 . ~ 3.8 m /s2. 10. 500 m.11. - 7 0 0 m.
Ex. 8. 1. - 3 . 1 m /s. 2. - 2 . 3 m /s2. 3. - 7 .8 k m / s . 4 . - 1 9 m /s. 5. - 2 . 7 x 1 0 “ 3
m /s2.
Ex. 9. 1. 6 m /s. 2. 2 cm, 6 cm. 3. 12 cm.
Ex. 10. 1. 1. 2. 30 cm/s.
Ex. 11. 1. 9.8 N . 2. 4 kN . 3. 2400 N . 4 . The statement is false: the time is shorter by
a factor of J/ 2 and not 2.
Ex. 12. 1. N o. 2. 0.25 m /s2, 0.2 m /s2.
Ex. 13. 1. 49 N /m . 2. 8 cm.
Ex. 14. 1. 0.7 mg. 2. - 0 .1 7 N. 3. - 2 x 10 20 N . 4. - 5 6 0 times.
Ex. 15. 1. 5 kg. 2. — 2600 km. 3. — 1.6 N , - 6 . 3 times smaller. 4. - 3 . 7 m /s2.
Ex. 16. 1. 49 N. 2. - 1100 kg. 3. 75 N.
Ex. 17. 1. — 78 m. 2 . — 10.5 s, — 103 m /s. 3. 1 s, 9.8 m/s. 4. — 11 m /s. 5. — 20 m/s,
15 m/s. 7. —46 m. 8. —78 m, - 3 9 m/s. 9. - 3 .3 m, 8.1 m /s, —1.3 s,
— 0.8 m. 10. 75 m, 10 m /s, 10 m /s. 11. Two times. 12. 12 m/s.
Ex. 18. 1. 1.3 m, — 1.0 s, - 8.8 m. 2. — 2.8 m.
Ex. 19. 1. 4900 N in all cases. 2. (a) 1010 N , (b) 980 N , (c) 940 N , (d) 0. 3. It will
decrease by 5600 N. 4 . 9.8 N , - 9.77 N.
Ex. 20. 1. - 9 0 min. 2. 5.59 km/s. 3. 4700 km. 4. 3 6 0 0 0 km.
Ex. 21. 1. — 10 m /s. 2. — 3.4 s, — 34 m.
Ex. 2 2 2 . - 2 m /s. 3. 30°. 4 . - 10 m /s2. 5. - 5.5 m /s2. 6. - 16 N.
Ex. 23. 1. N o , — 50 km/hr. 2. — 71 km/hr.
Ex. 24. 1. 866 N , 1000 N , - 7 0 7 N , 500 N . 2. - 3 0 N , 7.9 N . 3. - 3 4 0 0 N .
Ex. 25. 1. 0.1 kg. 2 . 0.2 kg. 3. Yes. 4. - 1730 N , 2000 N.
Ex. 26. 1. 10 kg m /s. 2. (a) 3 x 104 kg m /s, (b) 6 x 104 kg m/s. 3. 0.2 kg m /s, 2 N.
4. - 2 0 000 kg m /s, 1000 kg. 5. - 3 . 4 s.

2 41
Ex. 27. 1. 5.5 m/s. 2. 0.3 m /s. 3. 4.5 kg.
Ex. 28. 1. 500 J,—0.66. 2. ~ - 1.1 x 105 J.
Ex. 29. 1. 180 J, ~ 11 m/s. 2. - 4 . 5 x 10 8 J. 3. - 4 . 0 x 10 10 J. 4. 40 N. along the
radius, A = 0 . 5. — 200 000 J, 1000 kg. 6. ~ 34 m.
Ex. 30. 1. - 120 J. 2 . ---1.1 x 10 - 4 J. 3. 2.7 x 10s J, - 1.6 x 106 J.
Ex. 31. 1. 8 J. 2. ~ 16 J. 3. 0.085 J. 4. Elongations differ in sign, while the potential
energies are equal. 5. - 0.02 J. 6 . 8 J.
Ex. 32. 1. ~ 4 6 m. 2. - 2 0 0 0 m. 3. - 2 9 0 J, - 5 9 0 J. 4. - 230 kg. 5. ~0.01 m. 6.
— 1.6 m/s. 7. 3.75 m/s, 6.25 m/s.
Ex. 33. 1 . ----- 240 J. 2. — 2.7 x 10 3 J. 3. 36 km/hr. 4. The kinetic energy decreased
by 1500 J. 5. - 700 kJ. 6 . It moved in air. 7. — 1800J.
Ex. 34. 1. 7200 N . 2. 8 t. 3. 360 kJ. 4. - 7 . 9 x 10‘3 J. 5. 20 kW.
Ex. 35. 1. 6 t. 2. — 5700 N. 3. 77 t. 4. - 2 0 % .
 Index

Acceleration, 42fT, 55, 68, 70, 76, 82, 84fT, Efficiency, 213ff
89f, 93f, 98, 120, 123, 145, 147, 149, Electric charge(s), 99
152, 216, 222, 230 Electron(s), 99
centripetal, 62ff, 75, 81, 137, 152 Energy, 173
in curvilinear motion, 61 o f interaction, 196
due to gravity (of free fall), 55fT, 109f, internal, 206
112, 191 kinetic, 188f, 195, 202, 205, 217, 220
instantaneous, 43, 63 mechanical, 205ff
measurement of, 54 potential, 194, 196ff, 200f, 211, 217, 220
as a result o f interaction, 73f transformation of, 21 If, 214
in uniform m otion in a circle, 62, 64 Engine, reaction propulsion, 181
Action, 94 Equilibrium, 161f, 172
Arm o f force, 162 o f body,
Artificial Earth’s satellite(s), 140, 181 with fixed rotational axis, 161ff
Atom(s), 99 on support, 169f
Equilibrium,
conditions of, 160, 163
Balance neutral, 172
beam, 111
stability of, 196
spring, 111, 121 stable, 168, 172
Bernoulli D., 217 types of, 172
Braking distance, 142 unstable, 168

Centre o f gravity, 152, 154, 238

Fluid flow, 216ff
Centre o f mass, 152ff, 157
Force(s), 82ff, 87f, 90, 98, 129, 144, 184,
Coefficient o f friction, 115fT, 149, 233
187, 189, 222
Condition(s), equilibrium, for lever, 237
Archimedean, 145
Constant, gravitational, 106ff
drag, 117, 144f, 181
Coordinate^), 13, 21, 38
elastic, 82, 91, 94, 98fT, 119ff, 132, 150,
160, 197, 220, 227
Deformation(s), 99f, 104, 119 electric, 98f
elastic, 197, 199f electromagnetic, 98
types of, 99 o f fluid friction, 144
Displacement, 15f, 42, 47, 49, 69, 77, 184f, o f friction, 98, 119f, 129, 144, 147
187, 189, 198 gravitational, 98, 107, 122, 133
average, 39 o f gravity, 83, 91, 109, 111, 120, 122C
in curvilinear m otion, 59 1331T, 144, 146, 170, 179, 185, 189,
projections of, 21 f 192ff, 200, 220
summation of, 33 magnetic, 98
in uniformly accelerated motion, 46 measurement of, 90f
Dynamics, 69fT normal reaction, 150
Dynamometer, 92, 113 o f pressure, 114

243
 Manometer, 218
Force(sX
Mass, 78ff, 95, 105, 109, 222
pulling, 150
unit of, 79
resultant, 88
Material point, 12, 15, 21, 38, 57, 67
o f sliding friction, 145, 152
Matter, 9
types of, 98
Method,
o f universal gravitation, 220 graphic, 46
Free fall, 55, 57, 123 stroboscopic, 54
Frequerity, rotational, 65f Moleculefs), 99
Friction, 98, 112f, 115, 205, 207 M oment o f force (torque), 162, 165
dry, 117f Momentum, 173ft 222
fluid, 117 unit of, 174
sliding, 116ff, 119, 205 M otion, m echanical lOff, 38, 42f, 50
static, 112ff, 119 under action o f elastic force, 120
under action o f force o f gravity, 121,
126
Gagarin Yu. A., 182f under action o f friction, 142
Galilei G., 55f, 72, 109, 126 as a cause o f deformation, 102
Graph,
in a circle, 235
velocity, 49
curvilinear, 59f
o f velocity projection, 46
uniform, 61
decelerated, 44
graphic representation of, 28
Impulse, 174f
Inertia, 72, 76ff nonuniform, 39, 42, 44
Interaction(s), 73f along a parabola, 234
electromagnetic, 119 rectilinear,
gravitational, 119 accelerated, 44
decelerated, 44
uniform, 24f, 38, 46
Kilogram, 79 relative nature of, 31 f
Kinematics, l l f l 69 o f rotating body, 66f
Korolev S. P., 182 rotational 158
translational (translate ry), 7 If, 152, 157
accelerated, 155
Lawfs), uniform, 41, 49f, 127, 149
Bernoulli, 219 in a circle, 62, 64, 67, 69
o f conservation, 184 uniformly accelerated, 230,
o f momentum, 173fl 175fl 120, 183, rectilinear, 49f, 57, 122
220 vibrational 120f, 222
o f total mechanical energy, 201 212, M otion plot, 28
217, 220, 239
of dynamics, application of, 120ff Natural phenomenon(a), 9
Hooke, 11 Of, 119 Newton, 89
of inertia, 72 Newton I., 84
New ton, 95, 122, 126, 157, 173, 202, Newtonian m echanics, 222
222, 225 limits o f applicability, 222
first, 69ft 73, 891 96f Nucleus(i), 99
second, 84, 87ff, 96, 1091 120, 135,
140, 145f, 148, 150, 156, 158£, 174,
188f, 191, 216, 221 Overload, 136
third, 93ff, 96, 105, 114, 137, 156, 221
Pascal, 216 Period of revolution, 65f, 142
o f universal gravitation, 106f Perpetual m otion machine, 212f

244
Power, 208 System, closed, 176, 178
of engine, 209 System o f units, 36ff, 51
units of, 208
Pressure, 216, 218
atmospheric, 217 Theorem, kinetic energy, 1881T, 205
Principle, Galilei relativity, 156 Theory, Einstein, o f relativity, 34, 80, 223
Projection(s), Trajectory, 15
of acceleration, 43 Tsiolkovskii K. E., 181
of displacement, 25, 38, 48f
of sum and difference, 21
Vectors), 16, 25, 41, 83, 189
of vector onto coordinate axes, 19f
addition of, 17
of velocity, 25, 57
collinear, 18
multiplication by scalar, 19
Reaction, 94 operation on, 17
of support, 103 subtraction of, 18
Reaction propulsion, 179 Velocity, 24f, 39, 67, 93, 157
Reference body, 13 average, 39, 42
Reference system, 13f in curvilinear m otion, 59
inertial, 72 o f fluid flow, 216, 218
movable, 32 graph of; 29
noninertial, 157 instantaneous, 401T, 57, 59ff
Rigidity, 100, 231 orbital, 141f
Rocket(s), 181 f o f sound, 219
Rule, space, 228
lever, 164 unit of, 37
of moments, 163, 165
parallelogram, 18
Watt, 208
triangle, 17
Weighing, 79, 111
Weight, 132, 135
Scalarfs), 17, 189 Weightlessness, 132f, 141
Standard, Work, 184f, 187ff, 191fT, 197
of length, 37 negative, 184, 186
of time, 37 positive, 184, 186
Statics, 158ff total, 213
Streamline shape, 117 useful, 213
Stroboscope, 54
Zhukovskii, N.E., 218f
TO THE READER

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Also from Mir Publishers

JU N IO R PHYSICS

A. Peryshkin
a n d R. R odina

The authors of this textbook were awarded the USSR State

Prize for 1978. The book contains a preliminary course in
physics, introducing to the basic ideas of the science, viz.
the structure of matter, mechanical motion and forces, heat
phenomena, electricity and magnetism. The chief methodological
idea is to identify theoretical propositions by generalizing
empirical facts. The textbook has a great deal of material
illustrating the relationship between physics and life. It provides
questions and assignments for the students and describes
laboratory work.
F o r t h c o m i n g T i t l e s f r o m M ir P u b l i s h e r s

S E N IO R PH Y SIC S . P a r t II

B. B u k h o v tse v

This is a continuation o f Senior Physics, Part I, by A. Kikoin

and I. Kikoin dealing with basic concepts o f Mechanics. This
book aims at acquainting the reader with the fundamentals of
thermal phenomena and molecular physics. The description has
been confined to the grass-root level and does not involve
higher mathematics. The authors have been teaching physics at
the M oscow State University for many years.
Contents. Molecular-kinetic Theory. G as Laws. Ideal Gas. The
First Law o f Thermodynamics. Phase Transform ations in Liquids
and Gases. Surface Tension o f Liquids. Solids. Fundamentals of
Electrodynamics. Electrostatics. Direct Current. Electric Current
in Various Media. Magnetic Field o f Currents. Electromagnetic
Induction.
Derived SI Units
Quantity Units

Velocity metre pi

Angular velocity radian p

Acceleration metre p<

Force newton

Moment newton-

Rigidity newton

Momentum kilograr

Impulse newton

Work, energy joule

Power watt

Largest and J
Distance
1026 m is the distance from the most remote
object to the Earth that can be observed
with a modern telescope
10 “ 15 m is the diameter of an atomic nucleus
 Notation

r second m/s

;r second rad/s

rsecond m/s2

netre N*m

)er metre N/m

i-metre per second kg. m/s

>er second N/s

nallest Quantities
Velocity
3X 108m/s is the maximum possible velocity
and is the speed of light in vacuum
 Acceleration
1023 m /s2is the acceleration experienced by an
electron in a hydrogen atom
Time
1018 s is the age of the Earth
10 ~24 s is the time it takes light to travel the
diameter of a hydrogen nucleus
Mass
1030 kg is the mass of the Sun
10 “ 30 kg is the mass of an electron

Density
4 x 1017 kg/m3 is the density of nuclear matter
1 0 '2Tkg/m3is the average density of
interstellar matter
Power
6 x 106kW is the power of the Krasnoyarsk
hydroelectric plant which is one of the largest
in the world