Chapter 8 INSTRUMENT AND MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEMS (ILS AND MLS): FAN MARKERS ILS is a pilot-interpreted runway approach aid, developed during the Second World War and now in world-wide use. The system provides the pilot with visual instructions enabling the aircraft to be flown along a predetermined fight path to the threshold of the runway being served by the system. In practice, the pilot descends to his decision/critical height and then by visual reference makes his final decision to land or overshoot. With this system the ground transmissions are continuous and no assistance from the ground control is required. ‘The runway being served by the ILS or precision approach radar (PAR) is called a precision instrument runway. ‘The ILS ground installation consists of the following three components: (1) Localiser transmitter, together with its aerial system; this transmitter supplies approach guidance in azimuth along the extended runway centreline (2) Glidepath transmitter, together with its aerial system; this transmitter provides approach guidance in the vertical plane (3) Two or three marker beacons, each with its own aerial; they provide range check points A layout of the ground system is shown in Fig. 8.1. ‘The localiser transmitter The radio signals transmitted by the localiser antenna produce a composite field pattern along the approach direction, consisting of two overlapping lobes. The transmitter aerial is located in line with the runway centreline, approximately 300m from the upwind end of the runway. The two lobes are transmitted on a single ILS frequency in VHF and in order that the receiver can distinguish between them, they are differently modulated. That lobe on the right-hand side of the runway as seen by the pilot making an approach is modulated by a 150 Hz signal and the sector it forms is called the blue sector (see Fig. 8.2). The lobe on the left-hand side is modulated by a 90Hz note and the sector formed by it is called the yellow sector. An aircraft approaching the runway in the landing direction will detect more of the 90 HzWS and MLS 103 | locataer 1X cr} Fig.8. ILS ground system layout. Fig. 8.2. Blue and yellow sectors. modulation note and relatively less of the 150Hz modulation note if it is to the left of the centre line. This excess of 90Hz modulation (difference in depth of modulation (DDM)) will energise the vertical needle of the ILS meter (or VORIILS indicator) to indicate a right-hand turn. Similarly, an aircraft flying to the right-hand side of the centreline will have an excess of, the 150 Hz modulation note and the needle will indicate a left-hand turn. The line along which the DDM is 0 defines the runway centreline. When flying along this line there will be no deflection of the needle, indicating that the aircraft is on the centreline. Localiser coverage - category 1 ‘The localiser coverage extends from the transmitter to 25nm, 10° either side of the centreline. However, it widens to 35° from the centreline to a range of 17nm (see Fig. 8.3). These dimensions may be reduced where it is nec- essary for topographical reasons. The vertical coverage in the areas already described is 7°. In this volume of airspace the radiation field strength is104 Radio Aids ge in this sector BIW contre line Fig. 8.3 Localiser coverage. sufficient to permit satisfactory operational use of the localiser. (The minimum prescribed is 40 microvolts per metre.) Signal strength reduces rapidly outside this airspace where false localiser signals with reversed sense can occur: similarly, the maximum field strength is directed on the centreline, to a distance of 10 nm. If the localiser centreline is being used for navigational purposes (e.g. taking a position line) it should be noted that the localiser signals are protected from interference out to a range of 25nm at an altitude of 6250ft along the ‘on-course line. As for the accuracy, they are checked up to 10nm. ‘The glidepath transmitter Ideally this transmitter and its aerial should be located at the touchdown point on the runway. But in the early experimental days it was found that the personnel manning the transmitter did not run fast enough to get out of way and consequently kept damaging the landing aircraft. Hence it is located to one side of the runway, approximately 150m from the centreline, 300m upwind from the threshold. The transmission is beamed in the vertical plane in two lobes similar to the localiser transmission. The upper lobe has a 90Hz modulation, the lower lobe has a 150Hz modulation. The line along which the two modulations are equal in depth defines the centre line of the glide slope. It is generally 3° from the horizontal but it could be adjusted to between 2° and 4° to suit the particular local conditions (see Fig. 8.4). Bide p, th duisignay ‘ground level Tonway Fig. 8.4 Glide slope patternILS and MLS 108 The glidepath (GP) coverage — category 1 ‘The coverage in azimuth extends 8° on either side of the GP centreline, to a distance of 10nm (see Fig. 8.5). In the vertical plane the coverage begins from 0.45 x GP angle (8) above the surface to 1.75 x GP angle (0) above the surface. This means that for a 3°GP angle the coverage is from 1.35° to 5.25° above the surface. (Note: The coverage and field strength data given above for localiser and glide path transmissions are appropriate for category 1, ILS.) AL azimuth coverage opr slevation coverage Fig. 8.5 Glidepath (GP) coverage. ILS indicator ILS uses the VOR’s L/R deviation indicator (OBS being inoperative), incor- porating an additional horizontal needle. This needle is inoperative when the indicator is displaying VOR information. ‘The indicator is also described as the VOR/ILS meter (Fig. 8.6). The indicator illustrated in Fig. 8.6 is a five- dot indicator, dot 1 being the outer edge of the centre circle. 1} dots five — Fig, 8.6 ILS indicator.106 Radio Aids ‘When used with ILS, the vertical pointer indicates the aircraft's deviations in azimuth, and the horizontal needle indicates its position with regard to the slide slope centreline. Both needles remain in the central position when © the receiver is switched off or no signals are being received, or © the aircraft is on the centre line of the localiser and the glide path. The bottom of the dial is coloured blue to the left and yellow to the right. This indicates to the pilot the localiser sector he is in, c.g. if the vertical needle has swung to the left, the aircraft is in the blue sector. All ILS indicators employ two failure warning flags; one operating in association with localiser signals (this flag also operates in association with VOR), the other with the glidepath signals. They fall into view in the windows and the needles return to the central position when: © ground or airborne equipment has failed or is switched off, and © out of the service area or the signals being received are too weak. (The signal strength falls off quickly once outside the service area.) Monitoring of ILS transmissions Both localiser and glidepath transmitters are automatically monitored by monitoring equipment located in an area of guaranteed reception within the normal service sector. It will act in one of the following circumstances: (1) a localiser shift of more than 35 ft from the centreline (2) a glide slope angle change of more than 0.075 x basic glidepath angle, eg. 3 x 0.075" = 0.225° (3) a reduction in power output of 50% or more of any of the transmitters In any of the above circumstances, the monitoring unit will provide warning to a designated control point and cause any of the following to occur before a standby transmitter is brought into use: (1) the cessation of all radiations (2) the removal of the ident signal and/or the navigational component (i.e. localiser and glide path) (3) if the ILS is category 2 or 3, the monitor may permit operation to a lower category, i.e. 1 or 2. (See later reference to ILS categories.) Localiser indications ‘The vertical pointer is used for localiser indications. The needle tells you which way to turn and the horizontal deflection scale gives you an estimate of the angular displacement from the centreline. The coloured sectors at the bottom tell you which sector you are in. Follow the illustration in Fig. 8.7. Aircraft A is in the blue sector, and the needle indicates left turn. Aircraft the blue sector, and the needle indicates left turn. Thus, the indication is given according to the sector the aircraft is in, not according to its heading.WS and MLS 107 Fig. 8.7 Localiser indications. In this case aircraft B is on the right-hand side of the centre line and on reciprocal heading, therefore it will have to reverse the indication. The same applies to aircraft D which is on the left-hand side (or yellow sector) with reciprocal heading. Its turn right indication is reversed if it wishes to regain the centreline. In all cases notice that the needle indicates the sector the aircraft is in and ‘follow the needle’ rule applies when making an approach. Reverse the indication if going away on the QDR. As for the deviation scale, presentation of the centreline beam is 5° wide, that is, 25° on cither side of the centreline. Maximum deflection of the needle occurs when the aircraft is 23° or more from the centreline. On a four-dot indicator, one dot represents a deviation of approximately 0.6°, on a five-dot indicator, 0.5°. (Remember that the same needle will give a full deflection when a 10° deviation from a VOR radial occurs.) Glidepath indications The horizontal needle is used in conjunction with the glidepath transmissions. If the aircraft is below the glidepath the needle moves upwards, indicating that the aircraft should fly up to regain the glideslope. This indication will ‘occur irrespective of the heading, that is, whether the aircraft is on QDM or QDR. Therefore, a departing aircraft wishing to climb along the glideslope will obey the needle. If an aircraft (approaching or departing) is above the glidepath the needle will move downward, indicating that the pilot should come down (see Fig. 8.8).QU / Ty reauired aise path full-scale two dots a flydown \___ deflection “> this afc must initiate an immediate climb / two dots fy up t« recommended max t Safe deviation Fig. 8.8 Glidepath indications, Full deflection of the needle occurs when the aircraft is 0.7° or more above or below the glidepath (1 dot = 0.14"). A two-dot fly-up indication out of four dots or 2} dots out of five dots (in other words, half full deflection) is to be regarded as the maximum safe deviation below the glidepath. On seeing any indications below this, an immediate climb must be instituted: remember this at all costs. In Fig. 8.6, the indicator gives the combined indications of localiser and glidepath deviations. The interpretation depends on whether you are ap- proaching the runway (on QDM) or going away from the runway (QDR): © if on QDM, the indications in Fig. 8.6 instruct you to turn left and climb © fon QDR, the instructions are to turn right and climb. Marker beacons Usually two, some times three marker beacons are installed along the extended centreline to give range indications on approach. This enables the pilot to check his height as he passes each marker. All markers transmit on a single frequency of 75MHz and radiate a fan pattern upward to a calibrated height of approximately 3000ft. The marker farthest from the touchdown point is placed approximately 3 to 6nm, average 4nm, from the touchdown point and is known as the outer marker (OM). It transmits a low-pitched 400Hz modulation signal and identifies itself in morse as well as visually. ‘When crossing the beacon, a series of dashes is heard in the earphone, theUS and MLS 109 rate being wo dashes per second. Simultaneously the blue marker light will flash dashes at the same rate. ‘The next marker on the approach path is called the middle marker (MM), placed approximately 3500 t (5000 + S00ft in the UK) from the touchdown point. It transmits a series of alternate dots and dashes at a higher pitch, 1300Hz, which are heard in the earphones and also seen flashing on the amber marker light. ‘The marker nearest to the beginning of the runway is called the inner marker (IM). It transmits six high-pitched (3000 Hz) dots per second and the white light flashes. When installed, it is located between 250 and 1500ft. ‘Summary of the markers associated with ILS Designation Distance from the RW touchdown Signal characteristics Outer marker 3-6nm, average 4nm. ‘Transmission modulated by 400 Hz, 2 low-pitched dashes per second — blue light flashes Middle marker 3500/t (5000 + SOOft in the UK) 1300 Hz signal keyed to form alternate dots and dashes = amber light flashes Inner marker 250-1500ft 3000 He signal, 6 high- pitched dots per second ~ white light flashes ‘Thus the markers are identified in three ways: by audio signals, visual signals and the transmission pitch. ‘One or two locators may be used to supplement the ILS. These locators are low-powered NDBs and share the sites of the OMs and MMs. If only one locator is used, it is usually installed on the site of the OM. The transmission frequencies of these locators (where two are being used) should not be closer than 15kHz, otherwise mutual interference may result. Also, they should not be further apart than 25 kHz to permit a quick tuning shift when operating on a single indicator. These locators serve a three-fold purpose: © they assist the pilot to home to the station and subsequently join the ILS pattern © they may be used for holding purposes © they provide a double check when passing over the markers. On approach charts they are indicated by a standard abbreviation LOM (locator, outer marker) and LMM (locator, middle marker). DME is used as an alternative to the markers. Its radiation is then so adjusted as to give zero range at or near the touchdown point. It may be frequency-paired with the ILS localiser so that when the ILS is switched ‘on, the DME automatically starts functioning. One DME may serve both approaches to a runway.Radio Aids Airborne equipment ‘The airborne equipment consists of: © channel control box VHF localiser receiver UHF glidepath receiver 75MHz marker beacon receiver ILS meter or VOR/ILS indicator three separate aerials for the three receivers. A block schematic diagram of the airborne equipment is shown in Fig. 8.9 90 & 150 Hz signals + ident (AF)_ TES > ooo Y 208 150M =a ( ILS indicator ly MRR RK Hy fees AB ou yu 0 Fig. 8.9 Airborne equipment. Frequencies Localiser. Frequencies allocated to ILS in the VHF band are: 108 to 112MHz at odd ‘first’ decimals. e.g. 108.10, 108.15. In the UK the military uses some even decimals as well. Future ILS frequency assignments will be on frequencies ending in odd tenths plus a twentieth of a MHz. Glidepath. ‘Transmission takes place in the UHF band on 20 spot frequencies from 329.3 MHz to 335 MHz at 300 kHz spacing, e.g. 329.3, 329.6, 329.9, etc. The use of UHF is to produce more accurate beams. In the future, glidepath channel spacing will be reduced from 300kHz to 150kHz.WS and MLS AL Frequency pairing. Localiser and glidepath transmissions are frequency- paired. This means that for each one of the twenty localiser spot frequencies there is one glidepath frequency allocated to it. For example, frequency of 109.3 is paired with 332.0 and 111.5 is paired with 332.9. (You need not ‘memorise these paired figures ~ they are for illustration only.) ‘The advantages of frequency pairing are as follows: (1) By means of one switch, two receivers are activated - this reduces the workload, (2) Frequency selection is quicker and easier. There is no need to look up the glidepath frequency in the fight information documents. (3) A potential error in frequency selection is prevented. (4) Separate identifications are not necessary. ‘Type of emission The type of emission is A8W for localiser, glidepath and marker transmissions. Identification As localiser and glidepath frequencies are paired, whenever the localiser frequency is selected, the glidepath receiver circuits corresponding to the Paired frequency are automatically energised. Therefore, if you are sub- sequently receiving glidepath signals, they can only be from the correct transmitter. Hence it is unnecessary for both localiser and glidepath trans- mitters to identify themselves separately. The ident takes place on the localiser transmission. Its carrier is amplitude modulated by a horizontally-polarised 1020Hz tone to give the ident. The ident itself is by two, three or more letters in morse, seven words per minute. Where it is necessary to distinguish an ILS quickly from other facilities, the ident may be preceded by the letter I. And since the localiser carries the ident, if it becomes unserviceable or it is withdrawn from service for any reason, the ident will be automatically suppressed. Ground-to-air voice communication may be conducted on category 1 and category 2 ILS localiser cartiers provided it does not interfere in any way with the navigational or ident function of the localiser. ILS reference datum This is defined as a point at a specified height (usually around SOft) located vertically above the intersection of the runway centreline and the ILS landing threshold through which the downward extended path portion of the ILS slidepath extends.112 Radio Aids ILS categ Background. The ILS project, originally conceived to develop a blind landing system, did not quite reach its objective and turned out to be an instrument ‘approach to landing’ aid. But still it was a great step forward in those days: its faults were forgiven by the operators and it received ICAO’s blessing in 1946. As civil aviation developed, the operators became increasingly more weather-conscious. They disliked the thought of delaying a fight or wasting time and fuel while holding overhead an aerodrome waiting for the weather to clear. The ILS had its faults, the main one being production of bends in the beam. These were produced by reflections from obstacles on and around the acrodrome, ¢.g. airport structures, vehicles, aircraft flying overhead the localiser aerial, and so forth. The airborne equipment, similarly, was just adequate to handle the existing system. In 1958 British Airways (then BOAC) announced its intention to go for all- weather-operation and a positive move in that direction began. Improvement had to come to both the ground and the airborne equipment. As for the ground equipment, it was decided to develop an entirely new landing system based on modern technology, but in the meantime to retain and improve the system. For an improvement, new transmission data were prescribed, course structures and course bends were tightly defined, the forward beam was narrowed down to reduce the reflections and, to assist in the overall advancement, the airport and environment needed to be ‘cleaned up’ from interference. As the improvement progressed, a system of categories was established to define the capability of a particular ILS. As a matter of interest in the UK, ILS serving runway 10L (now 09L) at London Heathrow was the first one to be upgraded to category 2. These categories are called ILS facility performance categories, and they are defined as follows. ILS facility performance categories Category 1 - an ILS capable of providing accurate guidance from the coverage limit down to a height of 200ft above the ILS reference point Category 2~ an ILS capable of providing accurate guidance from the coverage limit down to a height of 50ft above the ILS reference point Category 3 ~ an ILS capable of providing accurate guidance from the coverage limit down to the surface of the runway. Operational performance categories We saw from the above that with an improved ground equipment, guidance down to the surface became possible. The operational objective of estab- lishing the above categories is defined by ICAO in terms of operational performance categories (also known as operational approach categories or weather categories). The criterion here is the corresponding improvement in the airborne equipment.US and MLS 113 Although the transmitted signals might be absolutely correct, a receiver with out-of-balance components can produce an indication of false centreline, both in elevation and in the azimuth. Consequently, a pilot descending with his ILS needles perfectly centralised, on being visual, may find himself displaced to one side or the other or too high/too low. The improvement had to start from here; the search for the components that would reproduce information faithfully and reliably was on. In fact, the improvement in airborne equipment went ahead side by side with ground equipment and full ‘hands off” landing tests were being carried out as far back as 1961. Now with super, complex, computer-controlled equipment on board, an aircraft may be certificated to an appropriate category from the following classification. Category 1 — A precision instrument approach and landing with a DH not lower than 60m (200ft) with RVR 550m Category 2 - A precision instrument approach and landing with a DH lower than 60m (200ft) but not lower than 30m (100ft) with RVR 300m Category 3 ~ A precision instrument approach and landing with a DH, if any, lower than 30m (100‘t) and an appropriate RVR where RVR is Runway Visual Range and a Precision Approach is an Instru- ment Approach to landing using ILS, microwave landing system (MLS) or PAR for guidance in both azimuth and elevation. Back beam The localiser transmission is normally directed in the direction of the ap- proach area to provide azimuth guidance to the approaching aircraft. But usually there is a certain amount of overspill of radiation behind the localiser aerial and the signals would be received when fiying in this area. This beam is not to be used. Some transmitters are, however, designed to radiate a back beam. Where this facility exists, it can be used when overshooting the precision runway. It can also provide a back course approach to the reciprocal runway. It must be noted that when using a back course there is no benefit of a glidepath. Usually, they are less accurate than the front beams, there are no range-check markers and they are not checked for accuracy. The needle sense is reversed. ILS offset localiser signals Occasionally for technical reasons a localiser aerial has to be temporarily offset to one side of the centreline. On these occasions the relevant infor- mation is published in NOTAMS. If the need for an offset aerial is to extend over a period, the information is published in the RAC section of the UKAIP. Under the early system, with an offset localiser the DH occurred at that height at which an aircraft on the glide path would transit the middle marker. Under the present system, when the offset does not exceed 2°, the DH is114 Radio Aids calculated from the published obstacle clearance limit (OCL) or 200 ft above the runway threshold, whichever is higher. False glidepaths ‘These are defined as those loci of points in the vertical plane containing the Tunway centreline at which the DDM is zero, other than that locus of points forming the ILS glidepath. What all this means is that, in the process of producing the glidepath, due to the inherent metallic structures at the point of transmission, and the aerial’s propagation characteristics, the radiated twin lobes are repeated several times above the true centreline. These produce several other equi- signals (see Fig. 8.10). The number of such false glidepaths produced at any ILS site depends on several factors such as the design of the transmitting aerials, obstructions around the transmitter, transmission power and such like. These false glidepaths, however, are not a danger to the pilot for the following reasons: Fig. 8.10 False glidepath. (1) The first false glidepath does not occur until above 6°. Thus, if you caught it, you would soon appreciate the mistake (2) False glidepaths always occur above the true glidepath, and therefore cannot bring the aircraft dangerously low. (3) It is a normal practice, when intending to carry out an ILS approach, to establish on the localiser first and then to meet the glideslope from underneath. It is most unlikely that a pilot would miss the true glidestope and continue flying level until the next equisignal is reached. (4) With the recommended localiser coverage in elevation of 7° and the glidepath coverage of 1.75 x GP angle, the signals being received on the false glidepath will be weak and the warning flags may operate. (5) It is a recommended practice that establishment on the promulgated slidepath be confirmed by the relationship between aircraft height and the distance to the runway threshold. Pilot’s serviceability checks During an approach the localiser and glidepath serviceability may be checked by the pilot in two ways:ILS and MLS 115 (1) The failure warning flags should remain clear of the window. The warning flags are actuated by the sum of the two modulation depths, and as we saw earlier, in the case of total unserviceability, the monitor removes a navigational component. As soon as this happens, the flag will appear in the window. (2) A pilot monitoring the identification signals will soon be warned if the ident signals stop coming. As a further precaution, where a ground precision approach radar is avail- able, it is mandatory for the radar to monitor ILS approaches in certain weather conditions. ROD and other calculations While carrying out an ILS let-down, it will be necessary to calculate the ROD for the glidepath angle. This is calculated in ft/min from the following formula: Gs0ks) ROD = GP angle x “7 00 Example: calculate the rate of descent (in ft/min) for a glidepath angle of 2.9° and a ground speed of 112kt 112 ROD = 2.9 x —* x 100 D = 2.9 x Fx = 541 ft/min With ILS, the aircraft height, the ground distance to go and the glideslope angle make a right-angled triangle. Consequently, if two of the above factors are known, the third one can be calculated. In the absence of maths tables, and in any case for the practical usage, the 1 in 60 rule may be used to solve the problems. Examples (1) What is the approximate height of an aircraft at 2nm range on slideslope of 2.7°? 60 x h(t) dist to go (ft) _ x hi(ft) "2x 6080 = 27x 2 x 6080, 0 TE (track error is our GP angle) = 27 Ht = sa7e116 Radio Aids (2) Ata distance of 3nm from the threshold a pilot receives a full deflection on the glidepath pointer, indicating fly up. Approximately how many feet below the glidepath is the aircraft at this time? ‘The maximum deflection occurs when the pilot is 0.7° below the glidepath. Therefore, 0.7 x 6080 x 3 60 = U3 ft vertical distance from the centreline = (3) An aircraft on an ILS approach indicates half full-scale deflection on the glideslope pointer, giving fly-up indication. At 2.2nm range from the threshold there is an obstruction, 285ft above threshold level. What will be the vertical clearance from the obstacle when the aircraft passes over it on a 3° glideslope? Half full-scale deflection occurs when the aircraft is 0.35° below the slidepath. Thus, the aircraft is (3° ~ 0.35°) = 2.65° above the surface at 2.2nm range. At this point The vertical clearance of the aircraft from the obstacle = (590.8 — 285) ft =305.8ft Limitations of ILS. TLS has the following limitatio (J) Signal corruption causes unpredictable bends in localiser and glideslope beams. The pilot must always remain on the alert and particularly so when making a fully automatic landing. 2) Ground effects restrict its use particularly in mountainous and other difficult areas. (3) Ttentails too large permanent fixtures for each runway. (4) For reasons of minimising interference, the landing rate is kept low, and there may also be restrictions of vehicle movement on the ground. (5) Only a limited number of channels (40) are available and the effectiveness of even these may be reduced in future by interference from FM broadcasts. The CAA normally has a pink AIC current on the use of ILS in the UK. Microwave landing systems Because of the limitations above, and also because helicopters and short take-off and landing (STOL) aircraft using ILS have to conform to the patterns flown by large fixed-wing aircraft, a more readily usable system has been developed. Originally a world-wide standard MLS was planned to be progressivelyILS and MLS implemented so as to become the primary approach and landing aid from the year 2000 onwards. However, the subsequent development of DGPS has led certain countries (in particular the USA and Canada) to abandon MLS in favour ‘of DGPS as the landing aid of the future (see Chapter 20). In contrast to the ILS principle, which embodies a localiser and a glideslope providing a clearly defined approach path above the runway's extended centreline, MLS allows approaches anywhere within its horizontal and vertical fan-shaped coverage area. See Fig. 8.11. (0) elevation ( ‘approach coverage volume Fig. 8.11 Microwave landing system (MLS) The system has an azimuth transmitter (corresponding to ILS’s localiser) which provides a fan-shaped horizontal approach zone, usually +40° of the runway centre-line. Similarly the MLS elevation transmitter (corresponding to the glide slope on ILS) produces a fan-shaped vertical approach zone usually ranging from 0.9° to 20°. It is possible to provide even steeper approach angles but because of aircraft handling problems it is not envisaged that even the upper part of the 20° sector will be used. ‘There will be a DME facility (corresponding to the marker beacons on an ILS approach) and sometimes a back azimuth. With MLS, a time reference scan beam system (TRSB) is used to determine the aircraft's position. Its transmitters produce narrow-width beams which sweep to and fro through the 80° azimuth and 19° vertical ranges. The aircraft receiver measures the time interval between sweeps to determine position and the pilot can select an appropriate approach path. The receiver then creates an ILS-like localiser for the chosen approach.M8 Radio Aids By this means a helicopter can make an approach from, say, 35° to the runway on a 6° elevation immediately after a conventional big jet has ap- proached along a standard 0° azimuth 3° elevation approach. MLS also requires less space for the ground equipment, has 200 channels available and does not suffer from ground effects, as it operates in the gigahertz (or radar) frequency. Advantages Compared to ILS, MLS have the advantages of: © Greater accuracy and reliability due to less signal corruption from interference ‘* Extremely good guidance capacity © _Insensitivity to geographical site, which enables it to be established where an ILS installation cannot be accommodated ‘© More channels available (200) Very wide three-dimensional coverage, allowing curved flight path captures and final approaches on different glide slopes © Better means of controlling and expediting aircraft movements in terminal areas. Fan markers Fan markers transmit a narrow vertical fan-shaped beam of horizontally polarised radiation. All markers operate on a single frequency, 75MHz. Because of the shape of the transmission, they cannot be heard unless the aircraft is in the fan, and therefore, they cannot be used as directional aids. Fan markers have two main uses: they are used to mark reporting points and they are also used in conjunction with ILS to provide a precision approach facility. Ata reporting point, a fan marker is identified by a high-pitched (3000 Hz) audio signal giving out identification in morse, 6 to 10 words per minute A2A emission. Further, the white light in the airborne installation flashes to identify visually. The vertical coverage of the fan is limited to the operational requirements: there are low power fan marker beacons and high power beacons. Because in the horizontal plane the area of coverage increases with height, if accurate navigation is required, the time of entering and | fan should be noted and the mean time taken for the fix. On some equipment a high/low switch is fitted which may be used to reduce the coverage area inside the fan.