Faculty of Engineering & Information Technology

Department of Engineering
(Renewable Energy Engineering)

Grid Integration of Renewable Energy

Variable Renewable Energy
Wind Power
Dr. Mohammed Mahdi
Wind Power
• Wind power systems convert the movement of air into electricity
by means of a rotating turbine and a generator.
• On- and offshore wind energy projects are now being built,
including the commercial development of very large single wind
turbines (up to 15 MW) and very large wind farms (up to several
GW).
Onshore &
Offshore
Generation
Technology
Onshore and Offshore Generation
Technology
• As wind speed increases, the amount of available energy increases,
following a cubic function.
• Therefore, capacity factors rise rapidly as the average mean wind speed
increases.
• A doubling of wind speed increases the power output of a wind turbine
by a factor of eight.
• There is thus a significant incentive to site wind farms in areas with
high average wind speeds.
• In addition, the wind generally blows more consistently at higher
speeds at greater heights.
• For instance, a fivefold increase in the height of a wind turbine above
the prevailing terrain can result in twice as much wind power.
Onshore and Offshore Generation
Technology, cont.
• Air temperature also has an effect, as denser (colder) air provides
more energy.
• The “smoothness” of the air is also important: turbulent air
reduces output and can increase the loads on the structure and
equipment, increasing materials fatigue, and hence O&M costs for
turbines.
• The maximum energy that can be harnessed by a wind turbine is
roughly proportionally to the swept area of the rotor.
• Blade design and technology developments are one of the keys to
increasing wind turbine capacity and output.
• By doubling the rotor diameter, the swept area and therefore
power output are increased by a factor of four.
Onshore and Offshore Generation
Technology, cont.
• Shifting offshore brings not only the advantage of higher average mean
wind speeds, but also the ability to build very large turbines with large
rotor diameters.
• Although this trend is not confined to offshore, the size of wind turbines
installed onshore has also continued to grow.
• The average wind turbine size is currently between 2 and 3 MW.
• Larger turbines provide greater efficiency and economy of scale, but
they are also more complex to build, transport and deploy.
• An additional consideration is the cost, as wind towers are usually
made of rolled steel plate.
• Rising commodity prices during the period 2006–08 drove increased
wind power costs, with the price of steel tripling between 2005 and its
peak in mid-2008.
Wind Turbine Main Components
Wind Turbine Main Components
• A wind turbine is a complex piece
of electromechanical equipment,
and the design details of wind
turbines are beyond the scope of
this course.
• However, a general arrangement of
wind turbine components is
presented.
Wind Turbine Generator Types
Wind Turbine Generator Types
• Wind turbine generator (WTG) technology has evolved from Type 1 and
2 induction-based generators to Type 3 doubly-fed induction
generators and Type 4 full-power, conversion-based generators.
• Because Type 1 and 2 generators consumed reactive power from the
grid, they were not “grid-friendly,” and by and large they are no longer
used in utility-scale turbines.
• By contrast, Type 3 and 4 WTGs are grid-friendly and can consume or
produce reactive power to support grid functions.
• These turbines provide active and reactive power control, low-voltage
ride-through (LVRT), and other features that can increase the stability
and reliability of the grid.
• We will here discuss each of the four WTG types in turn.
WT Generator Type 1
• Generator Types 1 and 2 are based on early WTG technologies and
represent the simplest types of modern wind turbines.
• Type 1 comprises a squirrel-cage induction generator (SCIG)
driven through a gearbox.
• It can operate only within a very narrow speed range dictated by
the speed-torque characteristics of the induction generator.
• It often uses passive stall (fixed pitch), which means that the wind
turbine will stop by itself when the wind speed is too high to avoid
any damage.
• Reactive compensation is generally used to maintain the WTG
power factor at unity since the induction generator consumes
reactive power.
WT Generator Type 2
• Type 2 is similar to type 1 in its design except that it is equipped
with a wound-rotor induction generator.
• In addition, simple power electronics are used to control the rotor
current and allow operation in a larger speed range (± 10
percent), a feature known as “variable-slip′′.
• The Type 2 WTG is normally equipped with an active blade-pitch
control system to limit the output power generated and the stress
imposed on the mechanical components.
• Both types of wind turbine have limited performance capability.
• Additional equipment, such as a static VAR compensator (SVC)
(ESMAP 2019a), is needed to enhance the fault ride-through
capability and voltage-control support of the wind power plant.
WT Generator Type 3
• The technical evolution of the previous designs led to the doubly-
fed induction generator (DFIG) wind turbine, or so-called Type 3
wind turbine.
• The use of an electronic AC-DC-AC power converter connected
between the wound rotor and the grid allows control of the
magnitude and frequency of the rotor current; by allowing the
wind turbine to operate at variable speeds, this optimizes power
conversion from the wind.
• Only a fraction (typically 30 percent) of the power will flow
through the power converter.
• In addition, fast and dynamic voltage control (i.e., reactive power
control) can be performed for the Type 3 to the same degree as for
conventional hydro or thermal power plants.
WT Generator Type 3, cont.
• Because these turbines are
decoupled from the grid, they
naturally will not provide
inertia to it.
• Pitch control is commonly
used in Type 3 wind turbines
to set aside some reserve
power that can be delivered to
the grid (on demand) to
provide a degree of frequency
control.
• The design of a Type 3 DFIG
wind turbine is shown.
WT Generator Type 3, cont.
• The main advantages of Type 3 generators are that decoupled control of
active/reactive power is possible (i.e., they can be controlled
separately) and they can support ancillary services (voltage/frequency
regulation) through the convertor.
• The main disadvantages are the limited fault ride-through and voltage
regulation capability even though it is possible, regular maintenance
requirements, large short circuit contribution, power system-turbine
interactions that could result in sub-synchronous resonance issues and
damage that could result from improper synchronization requiring the
need for compensation devices.
• Sub-synchronous resonance is a condition that can exist in the power
system, especially for long distances, where the interaction between the
power system and the wind turbines can result in power oscillations
that can potentially damage equipment.
WT Generator Type 4
• In Type 4 wind turbines, a full-power AC-DC-AC converter is used
to connect the stator of the generator to the grid.
• Thus, all the power flows through the converter, allowing for large,
variable-speed operation as well as reactive power and voltage
control capability.
• Either asynchronous or synchronous generators may be used.
• There is a complete decoupling from the grid, and, similar to the
Type 3 design, the response to grid frequency variation is not
inherent to Type 4 wind turbines.
• Thus, the electric characteristics of Type 4 wind turbines are fairly
similar to those of Type 3.
WT Generator Type 4, cont.
• One distinctive feature of
the Type 4 is that the
current may be
electronically modulated
to zero, thereby limiting
the short-circuit
contribution to the grid
during large voltage
disturbances.
• The design of a full-
converter wind turbine
(Type 4) is shown.
WT Generator Type 4, cont.
• The main advantage of the Type 4 generators is the maximum flexibility
and reactive power capability – which derives from a fully controllable
converter interface, lack of power system-wind turbine interactions,
controllable short-circuit contribution, low-voltage ride-through
capability, and lack of exposure to system faults.
• This type is more expensive than the Type 3 due its larger converter,
which must accommodate the full rating of the wind turbine.
• The main difference between Type 3 and 4 is that Type 3 provides
partial ancillary service support (through a converter that covers 30
percent of the rated power from the wind turbine) while the Type 4
provides more flexibility since its converter size is larger in capacity.
Essential
Considerations
for Technical
Specification of
Wind Plants
Essential Considerations for Technical
Specification
• A key characteristic of wind power is its longer-term ramping attribute,
which can be much different than its variability in the shorter term.
• In terms of short-term variability, there is considerable diversity in the
output from wind turbines within a single wind plant, and an even
larger diversity among wind plants dispersed over a wider geographic
area.
• Such spatial variation in wind speed makes the combined output from
many turbines significantly less variable than that of a single turbine.
• In fact, the aggregate energy output from wind plants spread over a
reasonably large area tends to remain relatively constant on a minute-
to-minute time frame, with changes in output tending to occur
gradually over an hour or more.
Essential Considerations for Technical
Specification, cont.
• These longer-term changes are associated with wind ramping
characteristics, which can present operating challenges.
• Because of the rapid growth of variable generation and the
resulting impacts on power system performance, variable
generation must actively participate in maintaining system
reliability along with their conventional generation.
• In combination with advanced forecasting techniques, it is now
possible to design variable generators with a full range of
performance capability that is comparable, and in some cases
superior, to conventional synchronous generators.
Essential Considerations for Technical
Specification, cont.
• The major functional control capabilities of modern wind turbine
generation are as follows:
1. Reactive support and power factor control can be provided either
through built-in capability (available for wind turbine generators
Types 3 and 4) or through a combination of switched capacitor banks
and/or power electronic transmission technologies such as
SVC/STATCOM (applicable for all wind generator types).
2. Voltage ride-through can be achieved with all modern wind turbine
generators, mainly by modifying the turbine generator controls. In
some cases, with older Type 1 or 2 wind turbine-generators at weak
short-circuit nodes in the transmission system, there may be a need
for additional transmission equipment.
Essential Considerations for Technical
Specification, cont.
3. Power curtailment and ramping can be achieved using a unit
control mechanism for units with active-stall or pitch control,
and/or discrete tripping of units.
4. Primary frequency regulation can be supplied by all turbines
that are equipped with some form of pitch regulation (i.e., active-
stall or pitch control).
5. Inertial response is inherent in Type 1 and 2 units and can be
achieved through supplemental controls in the converter to
emulate inertial behavior for Type 3 and 4 units.
Essential Considerations for Technical
Specification, cont.
• Modern wind turbine generators can meet equivalent technical-
performance requirements provided by conventional generation
technologies with proper control strategies, system design, and
implementation.
• Technical specifications for wind power plant construction and
commissioning address many aspects of the contractor’s work that
include both civil and electrical works as well as supply and
installation of equipment.
• The following list provides the items that are usually covered in
the specification of a utility-scale wind power plant:
The Specification of a Utility-Scale Wind
Power Plant
1. Project Objectives and General 13. Transportation and Delivery
Requirements 14. Offloading
2. General Services 15. Coordination
3. Project Site Conditions 16. Geotechnical Services
4. Construction Management 17. Field Investigations
5. Health, Safety, Security, and 18. Lab Testing
Environment
6. Project Schedule 19. Civil and Structural Services
7. Project Documentation 20. Site Preparation
8. Signage 21. Rock Excavation and Removal
9. Permits 22. Laydown Yard
10. Training 23. Roads
11. Temporary Facilities 24. Turbine Foundations and Turbine
Pads
12. Logistics Services
The Specification of a Utility-Scale Wind
Power Plant, cont.
25. Other Site Works 37. Turbine Supply and Delivery
26. Drainage and Erosion Control 38. Equipment Supply and Delivery
27. Dust Control 39. Freewheeling
28. Debris 40. Testing and Commissioning
29. Site Closeout and Restitution 41. Turbine Erection
30. Electrical Services 42. Meteorological Towers
31. Collection System Circuits 43. Power Curve Testing
32. Project Substation 44. Existing Meteorological Towers
33. Interconnection Line 45. Permanent Meteorological Towers
34. SCADA System 46. Temporary Meteorological Towers
35. Turbine Wiring 47. Maintenance Building
36. Interconnection 48. Service and Maintenance
Substation/Switchyard
Wind Turbine Specification
• The technical specification must stipulate that the contractor furnishes
and delivers to the project site complete, fully-functional turbines to
comprise the project capacity, including, but not limited to, the nacelle,
blade set, hub tower, power converter, SCADA system, condition
monitoring system, medium-voltage transformer (if nacelle-mounted),
internal tower wiring and cabling, controllers, control panels, medium-
voltage switchgear, anemometers, wind vanes, lightning protection
devices, fall arrest system, rescue / emergency descent equipment,
tower stairs, spare parts, appurtenances, consumables, and other
similar items for each unit and other parts shipped loose, which must
conform to these component’s specifications.
• For large turbines and tall towers, it is recommended to have a climb-
assist and/or service-lift system to facilitate turbine maintenance and
regular inspections.
Wind Turbine Specification
• The technical specification for just the wind turbine may include the
following possible subsections:
1. Mechanical and structural components – including rotor and blades,
hub, gearbox, pitch system, lubrication system, yaw, bearing system,
nacelle, tower, climb assist, and service lift;
2. Main electrical components – including generator, power converter,
switchgear, tower wiring and cabling, obstruction lighting;
3. Monitoring systems, including condition monitoring system,
meteorological equipment, and extreme weather packages (including
equipment);
4. Protection systems – including lightning protection, corrosion
protection, fire protection, emergency protection, and extreme
weather package;
5. Testing and quality control; and
6. Interconnection requirements (grid compliance).
Wind Turbine Specification
• Certainly, all items in the above list are important to ensure
reliable operation of the wind turbine.
• However, in the following we will briefly discuss only those items
that are most relevant to this course’s focus, which is the VRE
interconnection to the grid.
• The grid compliance of wind turbines is of utmost importance for
successful operations of VRE in general, and wind turbines in
particular, because modern turbines (type 3 and 4) can effectively
contribute to grid regulation.
Wind Turbine Specification
• The generator type (e.g., induction or permanent-magnet) chosen
for installation in the turbine can vary and largely depends on a
combination of the manufacturer’s offering and the utility’s
specific needs, such as the need to standardize with other
turbines.
• Usually, the generator is a three-phase, variable-speed AC
generator, with a rated frequency of 50 or 60 Hz and operating at
the manufacturer’s standard voltage level.
Wind Turbine Specification
• The generator’s rated power (generally between 1,000 and 4,000
kW) must take into account the project site’s air density to ensure
that the generator output will meet the specified energy
requirement when installed at the particular location.
• The local air density is a very important factor in determining
wind turbine performance and power output.
• A variety of factors – altitude above sea level, air temperature,
humidity, and even barometric pressure due to local weather
systems – can significantly affect local air density.
Wind Turbine Specification
• It is recommended to specify the generator‘s minimum protection class
and insulation class for internal components (e.g., NEMA Class H
insulation).
• The generator is usually enclosed in a weatherproof nacelle.
• The generator windings should be either copper or all-welded
aluminum.
• The technical specification must stipulate the comprehensive testing,
commission, start-up, and placing into successful operation of all the
power plant’s turbines.
• At a minimum, the testing must include all requirements set forth in the
applicable standards and all testing that is reasonably recommended or
required by the applicable equipment suppliers, which includes
collection system specifications and wind turbine specifications.
Wind Turbine Specification
• The technical specification usually stipulates that the contractor is
responsible for start-up, testing, commissioning, and successfully
completion of commissioning of all turbines and other turbine
equipment – including the SCADA system and service lifts (if
applicable) – as well as all reliability tests.
• A list of important standards for the design, testing, and
implementation of wind power plants is enclosed in the document
“Applicable Standards for the interconnection of the VRE sources”.
Wind Power
Plant Testing
Wind Power Plant Testing
• The testing of wind energy systems encompasses many electrical,
mechanical, safety, and other test procedures designed to verify that
individual pieces of equipment as well as the overall wind power plant
are in compliance with known international standards.
• The tests are performed at the component, turbine, and wind plant
levels.
• There are roughly 8,000 component parts in a utility-scale wind
turbine, including the blades, rotors, generator, or other parts located
inside the nacelle.
• The comprehensive coverage of all wind turbine components and wind
energy plant components is certainly beyond the scope of this course
and is better addressed through analysis of the applicable standards.
Wind Power Plant Testing, cont.
• The following two topics have been selected for discussion here
because they constitute an important part of the design-quality
validation, long-term availability of the wind turbines, and
performance of wind power plant implementation:
1. Commissioning and maintenance
2. Power performance testing (PPT)

• These topics are discussed further in next slides and should be

included in the checklist of wind plant contract implementation.
Commissioning and Maintenance
• Commissioning usually involves standard tests for the electrical
infrastructure as well as the turbine, and inspection of routine civil
engineering quality records.
• A wind turbine’s “availability” (that is, the degree to which it is in a
specified operable state) is a fairly important parameter, because if a
turbine is subjected to maintenance and repairs, then the energy
production from the wind plant maybe substantially reduced.
• The long-term availability of a commercial wind turbine is usually in
excess of 97 percent, which is usually higher than that of a conventional
power station.
• However, it may take a period of about six months for the wind farm to
reach full, mature, commercial operation.
• During that period of early operations, the availability will increase
from about 80–90 percent immediately after commissioning to the
long-term level of 97 percent or higher.
Commissioning and Maintenance, cont.
• It is normal practice for wind farm suppliers to provide a warranty
lasting between two and five years.
• This warranty will often cover lost revenue, including downtime to
correct faults, and a test of the turbine’s power curve.
• For modern wind farms, there is rarely any problem in meeting the
warranted power curves; in the early years of operation, however,
availability can be lower than expected, particularly for new models.
• During the first year of operation some “teething” problems are usually
experienced.
• For a new model, this effect is more pronounced.
• As model use increases, these problems are gradually resolved, and
availability rises.
Commissioning and Maintenance, cont.
• After commissioning, the wind farm will be handed over to the
operations and maintenance (O&M) crew.
• A typical crew will consist of two people for every 20 to 30
turbines in a wind farm.
• For smaller wind farms, there may not be a dedicated O&M crew,
but some arrangements are usually made for regular visits and
inspections from a regional team.
• Typical routine maintenance time for a modern wind turbine is 40
hours per year.
Power Performance Testing
• After a wind farm is built, the power performance of each wind turbine
must be verified in accordance with international standards.
• The IEC has bundled together under the number 61400 several
standards for different sectors of the wind energy industry.
• The following five of these standards are of significant importance:
1. IEC 61400-1 Design Requirements
2. IEC 61400-2 Design Requirements of Small Wind Turbines
3. IEC 61400-3 Design Requirements for Offshore Wind Turbines
4. IEC 61400-11 Acoustic Noise Measurements Techniques
5. IEC 61400-12-1 Power Performance Measurements of Electricity
Producing Wind Turbines
Power Performance Testing, cont.
• Overall, IEC 61400-12-1 encompasses the procedures for
assessing the power performance of wind turbines, including
measurement instrumentation and data analysis.
• IEC 61400-12-1:2005 specifies a procedure for measuring the
power performance characteristics of a single wind turbine and
applies it to the testing of wind turbines of all types and sizes
connected to the electrical power network.
• It also describes a procedure to be used to determine the power
performance characteristics of small wind turbines when
connected to either the electric power network or a battery bank.
Power Performance Testing, cont.
• New versions such as IEC 61400-12-2:2013 specify a procedure
for verifying the power performance characteristics of a single
electricity-producing, horizontal-axis wind turbine, which is not
considered to be a small wind turbine per IEC 61400-2.
• This standard is intended to be used when the specific operational
or contractual specifications may not comply with the
requirements set forth in IEC 61400-12-1:2005.
Power Performance Testing, cont.
• The parameters that are taken into consideration for the
assessment of the power curve of the wind turbine are the
following:
1. Test site calibration
2. Test equipment
3. Measurement procedure
4. Derived results
Power Performance Testing, cont.
• This process of site calibration requires the installation of a
meteorological mast, anemometers, wind direction sensors, and a
data acquisition system along with a data logger.
• A site calibration may not always be required and is dependent on
the complexity of the wind farm site in terms of topography.
• If a site calibration is required, it will involve the installation of
two hub-height meteorological masts, one near the wind turbine
(the “turbine mast”) and the other at a reference location (the
“reference mast”) a number of rotor diameters away from the
turbine location and generally in the prevailing wind direction.
• These meteorological masts will measure wind speed and
direction.
Power Performance Testing, cont.
• Test equipment is needed for carrying out the following
measurements: electric power, wind speed, wind direction, air
density, rotational speed and pitch angle, blade condition, and
wind turbine control system.
• It is important for accurate and representative testing to ensure
that all PPT equipment is properly calibrated and is documented
in the test report.
• The table in next slide shows a sample list of equipment used
during typical PPT for Scaled Wind Farm Technology (SWiFT), in
Texas, turbines of relatively small size connected to low voltage.
• This is to simplify the example; large-scale wind turbines
connected at medium voltage will have a more elaborate list of
equipment.
Sample of Test Equipment for PPT
Calibration
Instrument Make and Model Serial Number
Due Date
Power transducer Secondwind Phaser 5FM-4A20
Primary anemometer Thies, First Class
Reference anemometer Met One, 010
Wind vane Met One, 020C with aluminum vane
Pressure sensor Vaisala, PTB101B
Tempreature sensor Met One, T-200
Preciptation sensor Campbell Scientific, 237
Data acquisition system Compact DAQ w/LabView-based data
acquisition
cDAQ-
9172 NI
9229
NI 9217
NI9205
Power Performance Testing, cont.
• Taking into consideration the information given in the standard,
test technicians usually know the variables that must be
measured, the sampling frequency for each type of measurement,
the number of measurement points for each type of measurement,
the type of statistical analysis to be applied to the collected data,
and the type of data that must be rejected.
• In addition to specifying the reporting format, the standard
defines clearly how the data must be normalized, how the power
curve must be determined, how the annual energy production
must be determined, and how the power coefficient must be
determined.
Power Performance Testing, cont.
• Using the results of the site calibration phase, the actual testing
will collect the required wind data and power output data from an
independent power measurement panel (PMP) in the wind
turbine; these data are then combined to create a power curve.
• This power curve can then be compared with the turbine
manufacturer’s warranted power curve and any discrepancies
reported and investigated further.
• After completion of the power curve test, a full power-curve test
report is prepared and the reference mast and PMP are
decommissioned.
A Sample List of Test Result Items for The
SWiFT Turbine in Texas
1. Tabular:
a)Site assessment results, which may include maximum slope of best-fit plane less
than threshold, maximum variation from best-fit plant less than threshold, lack
of obstacles
b)Measured power curve. Performance at sea-level air density (reference air
density in kg/m3) showing normalized wind speed in m/s, power output in kW,
number of one-minute data sets, standard uncertainty
c)Measured power curve. Performance at site-average air density (reference air
density in kg/m3) showing normalized wind speed in m/s, power output in kW,
number of one-minute data sets, standard uncertainty
d)Estimated annual energy production (AEP) at sea-level air density (reference air
density in kg/m3), showing annual average wind speed in m/s, AEP-measured in
kWh, standard uncertainty in AEP-measured
e)Estimated annual energy production (AEP) at the site-average air density
(reference air density in kg/m3), showing annual average wind speed in m/s,
AEP-measured in kWh, standard uncertainty in AEP-measured
A Sample List of Test Result Items for The
SWiFT Turbine in Texas, cont.
2. Graphical:
a)Power in kW, normalized to sea-level air density as a function of wind
speed in m/s
b)Power in kW, normalized to the site-specific air density as a function of
wind speed in m/s
c)Advanced additional plots – e.g., mean and standard deviation power data,
coefficient of performance expressed (as a percentage) as a function of
average wind speed in m/s and a function of wind direction in degrees;
wind turbulence at the test site; rotor speed (in RPM) as a function of
wind speed in meters per second; etc.
3. Photographic: Site photographs are usually included in test and
inspection reports but are not mandatory if no structural issues
or damages need to be reported.