Chapter 1

Recall of basics in Thermodynamics:

Lebanese University
Petrochemical department
Tripoli campus
Fall 2019-2020
Dr. Elias AL SARRAF
References: 1)Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics, 7th ed., Moran et al. 2011.
2)Y.A. Cengel and M.A. Boles, Thermodynamics – An engineering
approach, 8th edition, McGraw Hill Education, New York, 2015.
1-Introductory concepts and
definitions
Review in thermodynamics

• Thermodynamics is the study of energy

• It covers a wide range of applications (ICE, Refrigeration,

Solar power….)

Work and Heat can

cross the boundaries of
the system

Mass may cross system

boundary (control
surface) of an open No mass can
system or control cross system
volume boundary for a
closed system
or control mass
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Describing systems and their behavior
Properties
• To describe a system and predict its behavior requires knowledge of its properties
and how those properties are related.
• A property is a characteristic of a system such as mass, volume, energy, pressure,
and temperature.
• Thermodynamic properties can be placed in two general classes: extensive and
intensive.
• A property is called extensive if its value for an overall system is the sum of its
value for the parts into which the system is divided.
• For example: to illustrate the difference between extensive and intensive properties,
consider an amount of matter that is uniform in temperature, and imagine that it is
composed of several parts, as illustrated in Fig. 1.4.
• The mass of the whole is the sum of the masses of the parts, and the overall volume
is the sum of the volumes of the parts.
• Mass and volume are extensive
• Extensive properties depend on the size of a system

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Describing systems and their behavior
Properties

• Intensive properties are not additive in the sense previously considered.

• Pressure & temperature
• Their values are independent of the size or extent of a system and may vary from
place to place within the system at any moment.
• Intensive properties may be functions of both position and time, whereas extensive
properties vary at most with time.

5
Describing systems and their behavior
• State: Condition of a system • Special Types of Processes:
as defined by its properties • Isothermal
• Isobaric
• Process:Change a system • Isometric (isochoric)
undergoes from one
equilibrium state to another • Isentropic
• Adiabatic
• Cycle: Series of processes
that return the system to its
initial state

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Describing systems and their behavior
Mass, Length, Time and Force
SI units
• The mass is in kilogram Kg
• The length is in meter (m)
• The unit of the time is the second (s).
• The unit of force is the Newton. It is a secondary unit.
• Because by using Newton second law, we can write F = m a
English Engineering Units
• The mass is in pound mass (lb)
• The length is in foot (ft)
• The unit of the time is the second (s).
• The unit of force is the pound force. It is a secondary unit.
• Because by using Newton second law, we can write F = m a

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Describing systems and their behavior
Specific volume
• The specific volume (v) is defined as the reciprocal of the density:𝜐 = 1/𝜌
• It is the volume per unit mass
• Unit: Specific volume is expressed in m3/kg or ft3/lb
• In certain applications it is convenient to express properties such as a specific
volume on a molar basis rather than on a mass basis.
• In this case we use the kilomole (kmol) or the pound mole (lbmol)

Where M is the molecular weight

Pressure
• This force is applied on the surface of the body is transformed in pressure.

• Pressure units

• In the English system: pounds force per foot square lbf/𝑓𝑡 2 Or pounds force per inch square
lbf/in2

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Describing systems and their behavior
Temperature
 The zeroth law of thermodynamics
when two objects are in thermal equilibrium with a third object, they are in thermal
equilibrium with one another.
A
TA = TB
IF and TB = TC
TA = TC
B C

The body “A” used to verify the thermal equilibrium is called thermometer
 The Celsius temperature scale uses the unit
degree Celsius (°C). It is based on :
 The triple point of water 0.01o C
 The boiling point of water 100o C

 The Kelvin scale, K, is an absolute

thermodynamic temperature scale

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Describing systems and their behavior
Other properties

• To apply the first law of thermodynamics, we need relations between properties.

• These relation are developed in this section

• The most important parameters are: T, p, v, u, h, cp, cv and k.

• The relation may be given, graphically, with tables or analytically

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Describing systems and their behavior
Other properties
Approximations for incompressible substance model
• Solid and liquid (oil).
• The density is assumed constant.
• And the specific internal energy assumed to vary only with the temperature.
• So the specific heat is function of temperature

• So in this case
• However enthalpy vary with T and P
• We can deduce that

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Describing systems and their behavior
Other properties
Introducing the ideal gas model
• Or (The ideal gas equation of state)

• The specific internal energy depends on temperature only.

• This conclusion will be demonstrated in thermodynamics II.
• And the same for the specific heat.
• So we can deduce that specific enthalpy depends only on the temperature
P-v-T relation (Phase changes, liquid/vapor)

For each pressure

corresponds a unique
temperature of saturation

Water T-v
diagram

Water P-v
diagram 13
T-v diagram

Pure substance T-v diagram

Quality

• For Saturated Mixture

(Liquid-Vapor) Region
• Quality; x; an intensive
mg
property
x
• x gives fraction that is vapor
(gas) m f  mg
• (1-x) gives Moisture Content
(liquid)

0 ≤ x ≤ 1;
x = 0 → Saturated Liquid (subscript ‘f’)
x = 1 → Saturated Vapor (subscript ‘g’)
‘fg’ → ‘g’-’f’
Vapor and liquid tables
Vapor and liquid tables
Quality (vapor mass fraction) relations

LET b = ANY INTENSIVE PROPERTY

• (b = u, h, s, etc.)

b  bf b  bf
x 
bg  b f b fg
b  b f  x  b fg For use in Tables A-2 and A-3 for
water
b fg  bg  b f This relation is applicable only if the
b  x  bg  (1  x )  b f state is inside the dome
2-First law of thermodynamics
Closed system

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The Study of Energy in Closed Systems

Energy: The Property

1
KE   m(V2  V1 )
2 2
• Kinetic Energy 2

• Potential Energy

• Common Units
PE  m  g ( z2  z1 )
• J(N·m) or kJ
• ft·lbf
• Btu

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The Study of Energy in Closed Systems

Energy change

• Total Energy: An extensive property of a system

• Kinetic Energy (Mechanical)
• Potential Energy (Mechanical)
• Internal Energy: U or u
• Represents all other forms of energy
• Includes all microscopic forms of energy

E  KE  PE  U
The Study of Energy in Closed Systems

Work
• Expansion/Compression Work
(Moving Boundary Work)

• Elongation of a solid bar

• Stretching of a Liquid Film
• Rotating Shaft

• Electric

• Polarization/Magnetization

Work is process (path) dependent,

and is NOT a property of the system
The Study of Energy in Closed Systems

Heat transfer rate

• Three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection and
radiation

 dT
• Conduction: Fourier Law Q x   A dx
The Study of Energy in Closed Systems

Heat transfer rate

• Convection: Newton’s
law of cooling
The Study of Energy in Closed Systems

Heat transfer rate

• Radiation: Stefan-Boltzmann law

Q e   ATb4
The Study of Energy in Closed Systems

Conservation of Energy: The 1st Law of Thermodynamics

KE  PE  U  Q  W
Net amount of Net amount of
Change in
energy energy
amount of
= transferred in - transferred out
energy contained
across the across the
within the
system boundary system boundary
system during
by heat transfer by work during
some time
during the time the time interval
interval
interval
3-First law of thermodynamics
Control volume

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Conservation of Energy and mass for a Control Volume
Multiple inlets and exits of a control volume
Mass balance
dmcv  
  mi   me
dt i e

 time rate of change of   time rate of flow   time rate of flow 

 mass contained within    of mass in across   of mass out across
     
 the control volume at time t  inlet i at time t  exit e at time t 

Energy Rate Balance:

dEcv     Vi 2    Ve2 
 Qcv  Wcv   mi  hi   gzi    me  he   gze 
dt i  2  e  2 
 time rate of change   net rate at which   net rate at which   net rate of energy 
 of the energy   energy is being   energy is being   transfer into the 
       
 contained within    transferred in    transferred out    control volume 
       
 the control volume at   by heat transfer   by work   accompanying 
 time t   at time t   at time t   mass flow 
Conservation of Energy and mass for a Control Volume
One inlet one exit control volume

Mass balance

Energy Rate Balance:

Steady State Flow:

Steady Flow Devices
Nozzles and Diffusers

 V12  V22 
0   h1  h2    
 2 

Pumps/compressors


W  V 2  V22 
  h1  h2    1  g  z1  z2 

m  2 
Steady Flow Devices
Heat Exchangers Throttling Devices
Tube-in-tube
Direct Contact
counterflow

hi  he
Tube-in-tube Cross-flow
parallel flow

  Vi 2    Ve2 
i i  i 2 i  e e  e 2 e 
m h   gz  m h   gz
   
4- Second Law of thermodynamics

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Introduction
•Until now, we studied thermodynamics using conservation of mass, conservation of energy and
properties relations.
•These relations are not suffice, and second law of thermodynamics is often required for
thermodynamics analysis.
We cannot determine if the process is possible
First law, u given we
can calculate Q and W We cannot determine if the process is reversible or irreversible
- reversible: No loss
- irreversible: with loss

Using second law we will be able to determine

So we have to use the second different idea
law of thermodynamics But we are interested in two points:
-The process is reversible or not
- The maximal efficiency of a cycle

However, we will see that in the second law

we have the entropy

So first of all we will see the definition of the entropy and how the
entropy can be calculated
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 Entropy definition
• Entropy is an extensive property as the internal energy, the enthalpy and others.
• Entropy is represented by S.
• The SI unit of entropy is J/K.
• In this work we will use KJ/K
• The specific entropy is represented by s and the unit is KJ/Kg.K

Retrieving Data of Entropy

Value of entropy Using tables and diagrams Pure substance

Using Tds equations Pure substance

And Tables
Ideal gas
Entropy variation
Using Tds equations Incompressible system

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Using tables and diagrams

(Mixture)
(Liquid Approximation)
Tds equation

• The change in entropy between two states are generally conducted using the TdS
equations

• The TdS equations are developed by considering a pure, simple compressible

system undergoing an internally reversible process. In the absence of overall
system motion and the effects of gravity, an energy balance in differential form is
Reversible & closed system
Tds equation example
Example 1
Consider a phase change of R134a at 0C from saturated liquid to saturated vapor. The process
occurs at constant pressure. Calculate the change in entropy between the two sate

T= cst
P= cst
Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas

du  Cv (T )
For an Ideal Gas:
dh  C p (T )
Pv  RT

Using these relations with the Tds equations yields:

By introducing

Table A-22 and A-23

Assuming constant
specific heats
Tables A-20 and A-21
Entropy Change for incompressible system
For an incompressible flow (liquid or gas with Ma<0,3) we have:

Incompressible system = constant density (volume)

Entropy Balance for Closed Systems

 Q 
2
S2  S1     
1
T b
Entropy Entropy Entropy
Change Transfer Production

Since σ measures the effect of irreversibilities present within the system during a
process, its value depends on the nature of the process, and thus is NOT a property

Other common forms of the entropy balance:


dS Qj 
   Rate basis
dt j Tj

Q
S2  S1   Uniform Boundary Temperature
Tb
Entropy Rate Balance for Control Volumes

At Steady-State:


Qj   
0   mi si   me se   CV
j Tj i e
Example 2

Example 3
Efficiency of process and cycles
Isentropic Process

43
Cp/cv=k

44
Isentropic Efficiencies

Isentropic Turbine Efficiency

• Heat transfer between the turbine and its surroundings is ignored, as are kinetic
and potential energy effects
1st Law: 2nd Law:


 cv
Wcv
 h1  h2 
 s2  s1  0

m m

Isentropic Turbine Efficiency:

45
Isentropic Efficiencies

Isentropic Compressor and Pump Efficiencies

Both the numerator and denominator of this

expression are evaluated for the same inlet state and
the same exit pressure.
The ηc is typically 75 to 85% for compressors.
An isentropic pump efficiency, ηc, is defined
similarly.

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The complete system
Power cycle

47
The complete system
Refrigeration / heat pump cycle

Performance Refrigeration Heat pump

Actual

Maximum
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Example 4
Example 5
Problem 1
Problem 2
Problem 3
Problem 4