Alternating current

factor which is tne

The current varies in magnitude tne capacitor. The current in the capacitor is Here cos is called power
and changes its continuously ahead of voltage in phase by x/2 rad. ratio of true power (Pe)
to the apparent power

instantaneous value direction

is periodically. Its (msms
I-I sin ot I, sin 2ft
=

1/ oCX
1, is the peak value or
Power factor, cos 9 Z R+ (oL -
1/ oC
current
amplitude of a.c. E
The average
is zero.
Direct current
value ot a.c. over a
complete cycle 1/u2.0/6C)
Capacitance reactance
0 For a pure resistite circuit, o = 0,

It is the effective resistance or opposition otfered

The current which tlows with
magnitude in the same fixed direction. constant by a
capacitor to the flow of a.c. through t. i)For a pure inductive circuit, - Pa=0.
Average or mean value of a.c.

The value of d.c. which sends

the same (in) For apurecapacitivecircuit, d= -PaO0.
in a circuit in the same time as is sent bycharge For a.c., X
given
ac. in the same circuit in its half time period. * Wattless current
For d.c, f=0, so Xc = The current in an a.c. circuit is said to be wattless
0.6371 So
a capacitor allows a.c. to flow through it
it the average power consumed in the circuit is
Effective or rms or virtual value of a.c. easily but blocks d.c. zero. It is the component Fms
Sin Or he

alternating current. In an inductive or

The value of d.c. which produces the same
Impedance the d=
heating etfect in a given resistor as is
produced ne total opposition to the flow of current due between voltage circuit, capacitive a.c
and current, t n/difference
phase 2. Power
y the givena.c. when passed for the same time. esistance Ras
It is
well as reactance X in a circuit. factor cos - 0 and so the current is wattless.
Orf or 0707 given by Z= VR* +X2
Energy stored in an inductor
tan
Alternating voltage
The voltage whose magnitude varies continuously ocos u-u
nd direction reverses
periodically with time. Energy stored in a capacitor
nstantaneous value,=E sin wt, The series LCR-circuit Impedance triangle

E-0637 E, Applied voltage, E-E sin of

Instantaneous current
u-cv-ov-
LC. circuit
LC-oscillations
containing resistor only I - Isin (ot - 4)=sin(ot- 4) When
An alternating voltage, E sin øt
charged capacitor is allowed to
a

resistor R' drives

=

apPplied to z
Z is the
discharge through non-resistive inductor,
a
a current I sin of in the total effective resistance, called
=

I, electnical
oscillations of constant
amplitude and
a r Ihe current is in phase with the applied mpedance of the LCR-circuit. frequency are produced. These oscillations are
altage I,=&,/ R.
tan AAC and cos called LC-oscillations.
LC circuit containing inductor only R Frequency of free oscillations,
nalternating voltage, E= &, sin øt applied to voltage leads the current. 1
pure inductor L drives a current, IAL<Ac voltage lags behind the current.
Sin (ot-z/2) in the inductor. The Resonance condition of the LCR-circuit Transformer
rent in the inductor lags behind the voltage If X, =
X, the impedance of LCR circuit is A device used to convert a.c. at
phaseby x/2 rad. that at low voltage or vice versa.high voltage into
ak value, o Z-R(X -X -R It works on
principle of mutual induction i.e., whenthea
oL AL The
is
impedance
maximum. The circuit
is minimum and hence current
is
changing current is passed through one of the
purely resistive. twoinductively coupled coils, an induced emf is
Voltage and current are in same phase. This is set up in other coil. It consists of an iron
the resonance condition of LCR-circuit and is over core

Actance
2.oL satisfied at the resonant trequency, wnich are wound a
primary
turns and a secondary coil of
coil of N,

ideal transformer,
N, turns. For an
hon-resistive opposition to the t wof a.c. it
inductive
stance {Xc reactance (X,) or capaanve Q-Factor
auctive reactance Itgives a measure of the sharprness
current or
kis called
peak in the resonance condition of the transformation or turns ratio.
ducsstance
TOT to the
or
opposition offered by LCR-circuit. ) For a step up transformer, k>1 or N, >N,
flow of a.c.
through
it.
nE reguency o,L_1L V,<V, and 1, <
ac, X«X ol =2nfL Q-factor
=

Band width R RC()For astep down transformer, k<1 or

N, <N,
de, f=0, so Power in an a.c.-circuit V,<V, and 1,>1
Cuit containingX=u The average power in an ac. cireuit consumed Energy losses in a transformer
matCing voltage, capacitor only
onuy per cycle is given by ) Leakage of magnetic flux (i) Eddy currents
E=8,
drives current, sin applied r/ 2)
ot to a
(in) Copper loss (iv) Hysteresis loss
a
I=1,S (ot+ P =rm.cos cos
2
(437)
eming's right hand rule Self-inductance or oefficient of self
1s rule gives direction of induced emf. If we induction
(L)
etch the thumb and the first two fingers of Inductance is the rent,
ratio of flux-linkage
r
right hand mutually perpendicular to
ner if the forefinger points in the directioneach
of
=L/I.
agnetic field and central finger in the direction E - - 1 6--t
motion of the conductor, then
the central
ger points in the direction of current induced elf-inductance of a coil is the induced emf set
the conductor. it
up in it when the current passing through
changes at the unit rate.
elation between induced
charge and
ange in magnetic flux Self-inductance of a long soE
For a long solenoid of length , area of
Aa -A
Ag =- Net change in magnetic flux cross-section A and having N turns,
R Resistance
fethods of generating induced emf HolA, n=
s=BA cos 0, can be changed and hence emf
ot
De nauced by three methods (i by ror a solenoid wound over a
soft iron core
1A
the relative permeability u,,L=p,4o"
anging B, () by changing the area A of
p and (in) by changing relative orientation 0 Factors on whichL depends
the loop and the magnetic field.
coil on (9 its
Self-inductance of a
depends
number of turns, (i) area of cross-section A
nduced emf in a rotating coil
relative permeability of core material.
an N turn coil of area A is rotated with (un)
gular velocity o in a magnetic field B about an Mutual induction
1s perpendicular to B, then motional emf The production of induced emf in one coil due
TOSS the ends of the coil is to change of flux through the neighbouring coil.

E= NBA osin ot =
E, sin ot , = sin 2m ft Mutual-inductance or coefficient of mutual
here & = NBA o = peak value of E. induction
Flux linked with secondary coil Current in
and magnitude of E change sinu-
ne direction Ptay colr
1dally with time. Such
is an emf called
ternating emf. ccl or = MI

C. generator M
1dt E=-M
device which converts mechanical energy at at

to electrical energy of alternating form. Here a Mutual-inductance of two coils is the induced
il of N turns and area A rotates with angular emt set up in one coil when the current in the
locity o about an axis perpendicular to the neighbouring coil changes at the unit rate.
eld B of a permanent magnet.
Mutual-inductance of two long solenoids
ux = NBAcos ot linked with the coil changes. For two long co-axial solenoids wound over one
another,
duced emf, E=NBA»sin ot =
E, sin ot
NBA osin ot M-Ho N A_
I Sin ot
urrent, D
" '2 number of turns per unit length of
ddy currents the two solenoids,
ne currents induced in solid metallic masses = common length
hen the magnetic flux threading through them = j = Ccross-sectional area of the
anges. Eddy currents cause unnecessary
inner solenoid.
eating and
duced by
wastage of power. They can be
using laminated soft iron cores.
Factors on which M depends
useful in M depends on () number of turns and the
ney are

geometrical shape of two coils, (in) relative

() electric brakes,
orientation of two coils, (in) common
i) speedometers, cross-sectional area, and (io) relative orientation
i) induction furmaces, and of the two coils.
v) electromagnetic shielding.
SI unit of inductance henry (H)
elf induction Inductance is one
henry if an induced emf of 1 V
ne production of induced emf ina coil when a is set up when the current changes at the rate of
1 As.
nanging current passes through it.
1 henry (H) =1 VsA -1 Wb A
(383
 magnetic field
Magnetic field of bar a Earth behaves
Ata distarnce >>I from themagnet
r
resemble to that
as
of
a
huge magnet. Its field
centre of the a

magnet, dipole
located
of
at
magnetic (hypothetical)
moment magnetic
8.0x 10
the centre of the Am
earth.
Elements of
Three
earth's magnetic field
B
equatorial Ho parameters which are used to
describe earth's
4T completely
These are () magnetic field at given place. a
1orque on a magnet in a uniform :
Magnetic declination
If 0 the
magnetic field g Dtween the geographic meridian(a). The
is angle between m and B, then magnetiC meridian at the and the
given place. (i) Angle
of dip (8). The angle made
TmBsine by the earth's total
magnetic field with the horizontal
(ii) Horizontal direction.
Invector form, T mxB =
field. It is the magnetic component of earth's
component of the
earth's
This
torque tends to align the dipole parallel to magnetic field B in the horizontal direction.total
field B. B = Bcos8
At equator, B Bcos 0°= B =

If 90, Tmax mB At poles, BH= Bcos 90°= 0

P.E. of amagnetic dipole in magnetic field a Relation between the elements of earth's
PE. is magnetic field
taken zero when mL B. Then P.E. of the
BA Bcos 8, B, Bsin ð
dipole in any orientation i s
=

B, tan8,
U=-mB cos 0 -
m. B
B
=
B=B +B

) parallel B
to is the position of stable Magnetising field
equilibrium. The field that exists in vacuum and induces
0 , U=-mB= a minimnum
magnetism. in a solenoid, B, H%nl tesla.

) When 0 90, U =0 Magnetising field intensity or magnetic intensity

antiparallel to B is the position of un Thenumber of ampere-turns (nd) flowing round

the unit length of the solenoid required to
table equilibrium. 0 180, u + mB - a max:
produce given magnetising field.
a
Magnets a a magnetism

ce of material that has both attractive Current loop as a magnetic dipole H-nl, B -Ho nl=H,H
irective prOperties. Its propertactive
and A planar current loop of A and
pieces of iron, eLperty of area
carrying H-Am, H=[L'AL
agnetism.
nickel, cobalt, etc.,attracting
is called
current I acts as a
magnen dipole of dipole Ho
moment, m=ia =IA Magnetisation or intensity of magnetisation
sic properties or magnets
he direction of m is given by right hand thumb Magnetic moment developed per unit volume
tend to point in
north-south direction.
Doles repel and unlike
rule. when a material is placed in a magnetising field.
poles attract.
ct. Magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron M= Am or Nm2T
fagnetic poles always exist in
pairs. An electron revolving around the central
-Magnetic poles
nucleus has orbital
magnetic moment, Magnetic induction
he regions or apparently Total number of magnetic lines of force crossing
etic strength in a
concentrated
agnetic attraction is
magnet where
maximum. the per unit area through a magnetic material.
M) tesla
oulomb's law of magnetic force
where is the angular momentum or the B HoCH+
electron in rth orbit. Magnetic permeability
he force of attraction of repulsion between two 5ohr magnetu Ratio of magnetic induction to the magnetising
gnetic poles is directly proportional to the The field intensity
roduct of their pole magnetic moment associated with
strengthsor and inversely orbital motion of
the
roportional to the
square the
distance
an electron in first orbit ot HHTmA or Wbm A
etween them. hydrogen atom.
eh Relative permeability
F- HB( min 4e
Permeability of material
47 10 TmA-I Gauss's law in
magnetism
x
Permeability of frees pace Ho
permeability of free space. The net
magnetic flux through any closed Magnetic susceptibility
surface is zero.
lagnetic dipole Magnetisation induced
an arrangement of two equal and opposite B.d s =0. m
Magnetising field intensity H
poles separated by a small distance.
This law implies that isolated magnetic poles do H o1+ Zm), =1+ %m
Magnetic dipole moment not exist. Classification of magnetic materials
=Pole strength Magnetic length
x

I unit of m = Am or JT,
=
qm x2 Earth's magnetic field () Diamagnetic substances. Feebly repelled by
Earth magnets and develop feeble M in the opposite
behaves as a
huge magnet. Its
ield direction of B7 is
lagnetic field of a bar magnet resemble to that of small and negative (Bi, Cu,
tadistance r >>l from the centre of the dipole of magnetic
a
(hypothetical)
moment magnetic
8.0 x 10-Ams Pb, H,O, NaCl).
magnet located at the centre of the earth. (i) Paramagnetic substances. Feebly attracted
B Elements of earth's magnetic field by magnets and develop feeble M in the
aiam Three parameters which are used
direction of
Bo z is small and positive (Al, Na,
CuCl,). to completely Ca,
describe earth's magnetic field at
given place. () Ferromagnetic substances.
a
4T These are () Magnetic declination Strongly attracted
between
(a). The by magnets and strongly magnetised in the
ue on a
magnet in a uniform angle the geographic meridian and the direction of B,. H, is very large (10 to 10,000).
magnetic field
magnetic meridian at the given place. (i) Angle Strong magnetic regions
Sis the angle between mand B, then of dip (8). The angle made by the earth's total
present (Fe, Ni, Co, Gd).
called domains are

t mBsin 8 magnetic field with the horizontal direction. Curie's Law

(i) Horizontal component of earth's magnetic
vector
form, 7= m xB field. It is thecomponent of the earth's total
magnetic field B in the horizontal direction.
m
(Paramagnetic) o or
mT
s torque tends to align the dipole parallel to Curie Temperature (T)
eld B. B Bcos The
At equator, B, Bcos0°=B
= temperature above which a ferromagnetic
-90, mB substance becomes paramagnetic.
E.of aT max Bcos 90°=0
At poles,
a magnetic dipole in magnetic field a Relation between the elements of earth's m erromagnetic)
=TT>T)
magnetic field
taken zero when m B. Then P.E. of the Hysteresis
pole any B Bcos6, By = Bsin
orientation 0 isS The phenomenon of lagging of B behind H in a

U-mBcos m.B tan8, B=+ B ferromagnetic material. Area of B- H loop

parallel to Bis the position of stable

BH gives energy wasted in a sample in one cycle of

qilibrisum. Magnetising field is magnetic induction

magnetisation. Retentivity
left in the sample after the magnetising field is
The field that exists in vacuum and induces
WhenU-mB= aminimum removed. Coercivity is the reverse magnetising
4-90, U=0 magnetism. In a solenoid, B, =Honl tesla. field required to make the residual magnetism
Magnetising tield intensity or magnetic intensity a sample equal
ofPermanent to zero.
aparallel
emulbrio to B is the magnets
position of The number of
m 180, U+
un ampere-turns(nl)
flowing round
the unit length of the solenoid required to Substances which at room temperature retain
mB= a maxX
produce a given magnetising field. their ferromagnetism for a long duration.
 GLIMPSES
and
of electric charges in motion. Both electric
Current electricity is the study
magnetic fields are associated with moving charges.

in series
Two cells connected
(Scalar :
SI unit A)
A) Temperature coefficient of resistance
E E + E and
current
area change in resistance per unit original
Electric
of charge flowing
across a given he
resistance per degree rise in temperature. connected in parallel
Two cells
Amour
per unit time

For steady
tiow of charge,
aR44
a c or K Cs and
flow of charge,
1= " For 4-Ch=PC, and
For
variable dt
a e or R,= R,(1+ a )
IA =1Cs aR xt Joule's law of heating
Stunitofcurrent Effect of temperature
O r t e m p e r a t u r e on resistance o
H-VIt joule-1Rt joule-joule
Ohm's law
proportional to
conductor
is insulators and -ve for
Currentthrough
a
temperature
netals, like
ends, provided semiconductors and very small for alloys
the p.d.across its Electric powe 2
constantan and manganin.
remains constant.

Vl or V= RI
Mobility of a charge carrier
P
W.Vi-PR-R i VA
carrier =1 W = 1 Js
Drift velocity acquired by charge a per SI unit of power
Resistance combination of
unit electric field. series
which a conductor Power consumed bya
ot
The property by virtue it.
through
flow of charges
opposes the resistances

R SI unit of u m Vs
current and mobility combination
1 0 1 VA Relation between electric Power consumed by a parallel
S unit of resistance For a conductor, I= en Ap E
resistance of resistances
Kesistivity or specific +
unit cube of the For a semiconductor, e AE ("P, PH) P-R+ P+ P t .
The resistance offered by a
G=e(np, + PH)
material of a conductor. and Kirchhoff's laws
h hole density.
free electron density and
=

n= First law or junction rule. In an electric circuit,

m is
Ohmic conductors the algebraic sum of currents at any junction
Ohm's law. V-l
Current density The conductors which obey Their zero.

origin. EI=0 or Incoming current= Outgoing current

normal graph is a
straight Iine passing through
t o charge flowing per unit area

eg, a metallic conductor for small

curents.

Second law
or loop rule.
Around any current
tlow of charge. It isa vector in
On ot
#the direction Non-ohmic conductors loop of network, the sum of changes in potential
of motion of +ve
chargBe Ohm's law. 1s zero.
A conductor which doesVnot obey 2E=XIR
j1Am Ohm's law fails if )
linearly (in) V depends on sign
depends
or
tor
on I
sameV
non-
EAV 0
Potentiometer
or

Conductancee and (n) VI relationship

is non-unique.
A device used to compare emfs of two cells.It
rl
onductance Resistance or G- Resistances in Series
works on
the principle that V or V= kt,
when a constant current flows through a wire of
unit of G= ohm = mho = siemen ) R =R +
R, +
R^+.. uniform cross-sectional area and
Resistances in parallel
composition.
Lonductivity or specific nductance
LOnductivity -
(0 To compare emfs of two cells:=2
or d
Resistivity P (i) Internal resistance of a cell
unit of a =ohm m resistance of a cell E-V
rft
velocity and relaxation time
Sm Internal

The resistance offered by the electrolyte of a cell R=2xR

or etween its electo
current between
electrodes. It
the fr velocity acquired by to the tiowon and concentration of the Wheatstone bridge
di etone age depends nature
conductor in the opposite An arrangement of
o n of a
Relaxation electrolyte and on separdnon and common area
tances used to
me
is the mal electric field. of electrodes
in the electrolyte.
dipped determine quickly and accurately one resistance
that elapses between in terms of other three resistances.
wO
SUCCes8
CeSsive
ime Relations between emt C, ternunat p.a. V and bridge is balanced, When the
collisions of an
electro internal r e s i s t a n c e r

R= R APnd m
(when R = 0)
R+ Metre bridge or slide wire bridge
e AD j=enva
etor forms V-E-Ir, V=lkR+T
An application of Wheatstone bridge used
to
of Ohm's law measure an unknown resistance. If the
point is obtained at length 1, then
balance
j noE oF
E-pi
Q100- S=100-
(151)
 perpendicular to both v and B.No work e Stretch the thumb and the first two fingers otte
left hand mutually perpendicular to each other.
s done on the charge by this force. direction of the
in the
It the forefinger points
When o|| B, 8-0 F-0-a maximum. magnetic field, central finger
in he direction of
or
then the thumb gives the direction
Current,
When D L B,6-90, F= qvB = a minimum. the force on the charged particle.
current
Lorentz fore Force between two parallel long
carrying conductorTS
rotal force on a charge q moving with velocity
Force per unit length between two long parallel
n field E and feld B is F =q(E + DxB) conductors carrying currents
and 12 and

r,
SI unit of magnetic field is tesla separated by distance
Ihe magnetic field in which a charge of 1c Ho
2 r
moving with a speed of 1ms perpendicular to For currents in same direction, F is attracave
he field experiences a force of 1 N.
For currents in opposite directions, Fis repulsive.
1 tesia (T) 1NA "m,1
=

gauss(G) 10 T
Motion of a charge in a uniform magnetic field
=

Sl unit of current is ampere

One ampere is that curent when flowing

which,
) When initial velocity 11B, F=0 and the in two parallel infinitely long conductors o
at a
harge follows a straight path. negligible cross-section
placed in vacuum
distance of 1 m from each other, produces
) When initial velocity LB, F=qoB = a between them a force of 2 x10 N per metre
naximum force. F acts perpendicular to v andB length.
nd provides centripetal force to make the Torque on a current-carrying col in a

article move in a circle normal to B. magnetic field

)) When D makes angle 8 with B, the perpen- A rectangular coil of area A, number of turns N,
1icular component v sin makes the charge carrying current I in a field B experiences a
nove along a circular path of radius r and the torque about a perpendicular axis,
arallel component v sin 0 moves it along B. T NIBAsin 0 = mBsin 0 or T= m x B

he net effect is a helical motion of pitch h.

angle between normal to the plane of
mosin B h2mvcosB coil and field B

m= NIA = magnetic dipole moment

yclotron NIBA
hen B=90,
=

magnetic field, charged a ax

n a perpendicular
executes uniform circular motion OVing c01l galvanometer
article
ormal to B with a
frequency, A device used to detect current in a circuit. It
works on the principle that a current-carrying
S2o
his frequency, called cyclotron frequency, is
coil placed in a magnetic field experiences a
current dependent torque, which produces
ndependent of both v and r. This fact is used in angular deflection. In a radial field B, plane of
cyclotron to accelerate charged particles by
Iternating electric field of frequency fe coil | B. In equilibrium position,
Maximum K.E. gained by positive
ions Restoring torque Deflecting torque
NBA
ka =NIBA = arl
muoqoo Conversion ot a galvanometer into an ammeter
A galvanometer can be converted into an
ammeter by
2m connecting a shunt, a small
orce on a current-carrying conductor in a resistance S in parallel with it
nagnetic field

I I
or a conductor of length carrying current
An ammeter is connected in series in a
eld in field B at an angle with it,
a
8 circuit.
F- llBsin 0 Conversion of a galvanometer into a voltmeter
A galvanometer can be converted into a
vector form, F = I(lxB) voltmeter by connecting a
large resistance R in
series with it.
Fmax1B, when 0= 90
-G
leming's left hand rule
gives direction of force on a current-carrying A voltmeter is connected in parallel with the
onductor in a perpendicular magnetic field. conductor across which p.d. is to be measured. (245
 uLMEE
Electrostatics is the study of electric charges at rest.
Only electric field is associated with stationary charges.

SI unit Nm'C)
Electric field (Vector: SI unit NC) Electric flux (Vector:
Electric charge (Scalar: SI Unit C) lines of force passing
unit test Total number of electric
Electrostatic force acting per charge. area. If 8 is
the angle
fntrinsic property of elementary particles which normally through
a given
provide_ electric force between objects. element AS, then
E and normal to
E=Forcee
area
between
Basic properties of charges Charge a0=E.aS
1.Addivity:q=4t42 Electric field of a point charge
2. Quantisation:q= ne, n= 0, + 1,t 2, At distance r from charge Gaussian surface

3. Conservation: Total charge of an isolated surface enclosing a charge

system remains constant.
E= (spherically symmetric) Any hypothetical
4. Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.
Gauss's theorem
for electric fields through closed surface S is
Total electric flux
a
5. Speed has no effect on the charge of a
body. Superposition principle
Electric field due to group of point charges is the equal to 1/ E, times the charge q enclosed by the
Basic quantum of charge vector sum of the electric fields produced by
It is the charge on an electron or proton. Surface S.
each charge individually at the given point.
e= 1.602182 x10 CC
E-E+Ez E -fE.d-
Coulomb's law
The force of attraction
or
repulsion between two
separated by distancer
- 4To i-1 |P-7
r-n Electric field of a line charge
distancer from a long
stationary point charges At a perpendicular
a linear density
charge ,
in tree space straight wire of
1s
F= , 2 Electric dipole E
A pair of equal and opposite charges +q and -q
4TE
separated by some distance 2
2T
of free space
o permittivity Electric field of an infinite plane sheet of charge
Electric dipole moment
-8.854 x1 0 c N m
ector drawn from-q to+4
E- G surface charge density.
Permittivity
P= Either charge
x a
2
the -qx27 For a >0, the field is directed away from the sheet
of medium which determines
Property a

electric force between charges Situated n hat pDirection of dipole moment is from -4 to +4 For a<0, the field is directed towards the sheet
SI unit of dipole moment - Cm
medium Electric field of two positively charged plates
Relative permittivity Electric field at an axial point of a dipole For o, 0 ,
Ratio of the force between two charges placed in At distance
[Outside the plates]
freespace to the force
between the same two
in a Direction along P)
E -+(G,+o2)
charges placed the same
distance apart aal 4r E
[Inside the plates]
nealum
, =K=
med
Electric field at an equatorial point of a dipole E20( 2 )
At distance r>>a, Electric field of two equally and oppositely
of superposition of forces p) charged parallel plates
Principle Direction antiparallel
is the vector of equ E = 0 [Outside the plates]
The net force on a given charge
the forces exerted on it due to all other charges.
Torque o n a dipole
ina uniform
electric field E- [Inside the plates]
F
-F2+Ft FiN If0is the angle
between and E,

F Total force on charge q due to Electric field of a thin spherical shell

T pE sin or r-PxE
many point chargesg E=4 E [Outside points, r>R]
Electric lines of force
E=0 [Inside points, r<R]
-2 A curve along which a small positive charge
to move in a n electric tield and the tan- E
tends
the direction of R [At the surface, r =

R
gent to which at point gives
electric field at that point.
o all point -rl Electric field of a
charge
lines of force
uniformly charged solid sphere
Properties of electric
Continuous charge distribution
the quantum nature of 1
Continuous curves any wvithout breaks. E-4 Outside points, r>R]
For q>>e we can ignore distributed 2. They start
from +ve charges and end on
charge and assume that the charge is

in a continuous manner negative charges.

3. No two lines of force can intersect each other.
4 ,R Inside points, r<R]
Volume charge density, p
dV
Cm
4. They do not form closed loops.
4 [At the surface, r=
R]
Surface charge density, a=Cm 5. Normal to the surface of a conductor.

Linear charge density, =Cm

6. Their relative closenessmeasures strength of
electric field.
where q-R° p (1)
dL