Militry Radar

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

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INTRODUCTION
RADAR is an acronym for Radio Detection And Ranging or Radio AngleDetection
And Ranging. It is a system used to detect, range (determine the distance of), and map objects
such as aircraft and rain. Strong radio waves are transmitted, and a receiver listens for any
echoes. By analysing the reflected signal, the reflector can be located, and sometimes identified.
Although the amount of signal returned is tiny, radio signals can easily be detected and
amplified.

Radar radio waves can be easily generated at any desired strength, detected at even tiny
powers, and then amplified many times. Thus radar is suited to detecting objects at very large
ranges where other reflections, like sound or visible light, would be too weak to detect.

Electromagnetic waves reflect (scatter) from any large change in the dielectric or
diamagnetic constants. This means that a solid object in air or vacuum, or other significant
change in atomic density between object and what's surrounding it, will usually scatter radar
(radio) waves. This is particularly true of electrically conductive materials such as metal and
carbon fiber, making radar particularly well suited to the detection of aircraft and ships. Radar
absorbing material, containing resistive and sometimes magnetic substances, is used on military
vehicles to reduce radar reflection. This is the radio equivalent of painting something a dark
color.

Radar waves scatter in a variety of ways depending on the size (wavelength) of the radio
wave and the shape of the target. If the wavelength is much shorter than the target's size, the
wave will bounce off in a way similar to the way light bounces from a mirror. If the wavelength
is much longer than the size of the target, the target is polarized, like a dipole antenna. This is
described by Rayleigh Scattering (like the blue sky). When the two length scales are comparable,
there may be resonances. Early radars used very long wavelengths that were larger than the
targets and received a vague signal, whereas some modern systems use shorter wavelengths (a
few centimeters or shorter) that can image objects as small as a loaf of bread or smaller.

Radio waves always reflect from curves and corners, in a way similar to glint from a
rounded piece of glass. The most reflective targets for short wavelengths have 90° angles

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between the reflective surfaces. A surface consisting of three flat surfaces meeting at a single
corner, like the corner on a block, will always reflect directly back at the source. These so-called
corner cubes are commonly used as radar reflectors to make otherwise difficult-to-detect objects
easier to detect, and are often found on boats in order to improve their detection in a rescue
situation and reduce collisions. For generally the same reasons objects attempting to avoid
detection will angle their surfaces in a way to eliminate inside corners and avoid surfaces and
edges perpendicular to likely detection directions, which leads to "odd" looking stealth aircraft.
These precautions do not completely eliminate reflection because of diffraction, especially at
longer wavelengths.

Electromagnetic waves do not travel well underwater; thus for underwater applications,
sonar, based on sound waves, has to be used instead of radar. RADAR (Radio Detection and
Ranging) is basically a means of gathering information about distant objects by transmitting
electromagnetic waves at them and analyzing the echoes. Radar has been employed on the
ground, in air, on the sea and in space. Radar finds a number of applications such as in airport
traffic control, military purposes, coastal navigation, meteorology and mapping etc. The
development of the radar technology took place during the World War II in which it was used for
detecting the approaching aircraft and then later for many other purposes which finally led to the
development of advanced military radars being used these days. Military radars have a highly
specialized design to be highly mobile and easily transportable, by air as well as ground. In this
paper we will discuss about the advanced features and benefits of military radar, system
configuration of a typical military radar, operating the radar, system functions, various terminal
equipments used along with their functions and some of the important parts of the radar such as
transmitter, receiver, antenna, AFC (Automatic Frequency Control) etc. A military radar can be
considered as a searchlight looking for enemy targets. Energy sent out by the radar would be
reflected by the target and processed. Military radars, whether land based, ship borne or air borne
have acted as a multiplier and sensor par excellence for over 60 years. For example, in the battle
in Britain where it enable a small overstretched force to beat off attacks from a larger opponent
and in the gulf war where ground surveillance radar enable monitoring of the opponent
deployment. However, with the proliferation of stealthy targets, which are difficult to see with

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radar, sensitive radar homing and warning systems, which allow targets to avoid radar systems,
the effectiveness and survivability of military radar have reduced.
Furthermore, there have been rapid development of sophisticated jamming systems and
anti-radiation missiles (ARMS) to suppress, identify and destroy radar systems. Like radar itself,
counter measures are a two-edged sword. Friend and enemy can use them effectively. However,
no matter how sophisticated one s counter- measures are, ways could be found around them and
no matter how ingenious the counter-counter – measure are ways can be found to defeat them,
and so no and so forth.

Although, little attention has been given to radar development in the Nigerian Armed
Forces, this piece of information could be handy for military hardware designer and war
planners. This paper will therefore discuss new trends in the use of radar in the battlefield .the
concept of low probability of interaction, millimetric wave and laser radar technology will be
examined. In addition, the potential application of radar in landmine detection will be
highlighted.

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CHAPTER 2
RADAR

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RADAR
2.1 MILITARY RADAR

Military radar should be an early warning, altering along with weapon control functions.
It is specially designed to be highly mobile and should be such that it can be deployed within
minutes. Military radar minimizes mutual interference of tasks of both air defenders and friendly
air space users. This will result in an increased effectiveness of the combined combat operations.
The command and control capabilities of the radar in combination with an effective ground
based air defence provide maximum operational effectiveness with a safe, efficient and flexible
use of the air space. The increased operational effectiveness is obtained by combining the
advantages of centralized air defence management with decentralized air defence control.
There is no radar system that can perform all of the radar functions required by the
military. Some newer systems have been developed that can combine several radar functions, but
no single system can fulfill all of the requirements of modern warfare. Different types of radars
are built for different types of functions. Search radar is designed to continuously scan a volume
of space to provide initial detection of all targets. Search radar is generally used to detect and
determine the position of new targets for later use by tracking radar. Tracking radar provides
continuous range, bearing, and elevation data on one or more targets. Most of the radar systems
used by the military are in one of these two categories, although some radar systems are designed
for specific functions that do not precisely fit into either of these categories. A surface-search
radar system’s primary function is the detection and determination of accurate ranges and
bearings of surface objects and low flying aircraft. A search pattern in a defined angular sector is
maintained to detect all objects within line-of-sight of the radar antenna. GSR systems are a type
of surface-search radar that detect and recognize moving targets including personnel, vehicles,
watercraft and low flying, rotary wing aircraft. Phased-array radars, based on electronically
scanning antennas populated with transmit/receive (T/R) modules that employ GaAs (Gallium
Arsenide, an important semiconductor used to make MW frequency integrated circuits ) MMIC
chips, are on the cutting edge of military radar technology. They provide numerous advantages
over conventional radars, particularly for fighter aircraft, including lower radar cross-section,
simultaneous multiple-target engagement capabilities, extended target-detection range, higher
survivability, greater reliability, and reduced weight and size. By 1990, however, a technology

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revolution appeared to be under way in the commercial sector regarding microwave and MMW
(millimetre wave) technologies. Many defence-critical RF microwave/ MMW technologies
directly relevant to military radars, CNI, EW, intelligence gathering, and other sensors appear
increasingly likely to be driven by civilian market demands.

2.2 Basics of Radar System

Radar measurement of range, or distance, is made possible because of the following properties of
radiated electromagnetic energy:-
(a) Reflection of electromagnetic waves. The electromagnetic waves are reflected if they meet an
electrically leading surface. If these reflected waves are received again at the place of their
origin, then that means an obstacle is in the propagation direction.

(b) Electromagnetic energy travels through air at a constant speed, at approximately the speed of
light.

(c) This energy normally travels through space in a straight line, and will vary only slightly
because of atmospheric and weather conditions. By using of special radar antennas this energy
can be focused into a desired direction.

Transmitter: The radar transmitter produces the short duration high-power RF pulses of energy
that are into space by the antenna.

 Duplexer: The duplexer alternately switches the antenna between the transmitter and receiver
so that only one antenna need be used. This switching is necessary because the high-power
pulses of the transmitter would destroy the receiver if energy were allowed to enter the receiver.

 Receiver: The receivers amplify and demodulate the received RF-signals. The receiver
provides video signals on the output.

 Radar Antenna: The Antenna transfers the transmitter energy to signals in space with the
required distribution and efficiency. This process is applied in an identical way on reception.

 Indicator: The indicator should present to the observer a continuous, easily understandable,
graphic picture of the relative position of radar targets.

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Figure 2.1 Basic Structure

2.3 Functional Description Of Radar Subsystem:

The detection of air targets is accomplished by the search radar, the video processor and the
colour PPI unit. The colour PPI unit provides the presentation of all moving targets down to very
low radial speeds on a PPI screen The search radar is pulse Doppler radar (also called MTI radar)
i.e. it is capable of distinguishing between the echo from a fixed target and that of a moving
target. The echoes from fixed target are eliminated, so that the echoes from the moving targets
are presented on the screen.
The great advantage of this is that it is possible to distinguish a moving target among a large
number of fixed targets, even when the echoes from these fixed targets are much stronger. To
achieve this the search radar makes use of the Doppler effect, if the target having a certain radial
speed with respect to the search antenna is hit by a series of transmitter pulses from the search
radar antenna, the change in range between this target and antenna is expressed by successive
echo pulses in phase shifts with respect to the phase of the transmitter pulses.
For moving targets the phase difference from echo pulse to echo pulse is continually subject to
change, whereas for fixed targets this is a constant. The distinction between the echo signals
from a fixed target and moving target is obtained by detecting the above phase differences.

Radio waves always reflect from curves and corners, in a way similar to glint from a rounded
piece of glass. The most reflective targets for short wavelengths have 90° angles between the
reflective surfaces. A surface consisting of three flat surfaces meeting at a single corner, like the
corner on a block, will always reflect directly back at the source. These so-called corner cubes

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are commonly used as radar reflectors to make otherwise difficult-to-detect objects easier to
detect, and are often found on boats in order to improve their detection in a rescue situation and
reduce collisions. For generally the same reasons objects attempting to avoid detection will angle
their surfaces in a way to eliminate inside corners and avoid surfaces and edges perpendicular to
likely detection directions, which leads to "odd" looking stealth aircraft. These precautions do
not completely eliminate reflection because of diffraction, especially at longer wavelengths.

Electromagnetic waves do not travel well underwater; thus for underwater applications, sonar,
based on sound waves, has to be used instead of radar.

Figure
2.2 Classification Of Radar

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2.4 The System Configuration

A typical military radar system can be split up into three parts:
1) Radargroup
The radargroup consists of antenna, mast unit, remote control, high tension unit, LO/AFC
(Local Oscillator/Automatic Frequency Control) unit, radar transmitter, radar receiver, video
processor, waveguide drier and IFF interrogator.
The transmitter and receiver forms the active part of the system. The integrated radar/IFF
antenna is fitted on the collapsible mast, mounted on the container. The container is connected
by cable to the operator/control shelter.
2) Shelter
Shelter contains display unit, processor unit, TV monitor, colour PPI (Plan Position
indicator), IFF control unit, air conditioner, battery charger with battery, Radio set with antenna
for data link, radio set with antenna for voice transmission i.e. communication, filter box for
radios.
3) Motor generator
The motor generator supplies the power to the whole radar system.
Generally, the transmitter and receiver share a common antenna, which is called a monostatic
radar system. Bistatic radar consists of separately located (by a considerable distance)
transmitting and receiving sites. Therefore, monostatic Doppler radar can be upgraded easily
with a bistatic receiver system or (by use of the same frequency) two monostatic radars are
working like bistatic radar. Bistatic radar makes use of the forward scattering of the transmitted
energy. By receiving the side lobes of the transmitting radars direct beam, the receiving sites
radar can be synchronized. If the main lobe is detected, azimuth information can be calculated
also. A number of specialized bistatic systems are in use, for example, where multiple receiving
sites are
used to correlate target position. A tactical idea in Kosovo war was possibly transmitting stations
radiated the airplane outside the (technical ) weapons range of activity and a second station could
command the air defense weapon system only by passive reception. VHF-radars like P-12 or P-
18 are particularly suitable for such bistatic arrangement.

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CHAPTER 3
SETS OF TERMINAL EQUIPMENT

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SETS OF TERMINAL EQUIPMENT

These are the sets of lightweight man portable units, which can be easily be stacked together and
consists of: -

3.1 TDR (Target Data Receiver)

The TDR is either connected to a VHF-FM radio receiver or to a LCA to receive
transmitted target data. The TDR itself is intelligent, it performs parallax correction, threat
evaluation and it displays the result in a threat sequence, enabling the weapon commander to
make the correct decision.

3.2 Radio Receiver or LCA (Line Connection Adapter)

A radio receiver or LCA (with standard 2 wire telephone line) can be used to receive
target data. In principle any VHF-FM radio receiver can be used as a part of the terminal
equipment set. In case line connection is applied, no radio receiver is required. An LCA connects
the 2-wire telephone line to the TDR cable.

Figure 3.1 Radar Antenna

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CHAPTER 4
WHAT IS THE NEED?

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WHAT IS NEED?
The United States Department of Defense defines intelligence as information and
knowledge obtained through observation, investigation, analysis, or understanding. Surveillance
and reconnaissance refer to the means by which the information is observed. Surveillance is
systematic observation to collect whatever data is available, whereas reconnaissance is a specific
mission performed to obtain specific data. The primary function of MI officers is the collection,
analysis, production, and dissemination of intelligence at both the tactical and strategic levels.
This is accomplished through the deployment of intelligence collection assets, the combination
and preparation of all-source intelligence estimates, preparation of intelligence plans in support
of combat operations, and the coordination of aerial and ground surveillance. Information
collected about the enemy or potential enemy is passed on to a decision-maker. The
decisionmaker could be a top general or a soldier on the ground facing an armed attacker.
4.1 Classification of Intelligence
The military services and the intelligence community classify intelligence based on the
source. Intelligence that comes from a person observing it is called Human Intelligence
(HUMINT). Intelligence derived from photographs and other imagery is called Imagery
Intelligence (IMINT). Intelligence obtained from electronic signals such as communications is
called Signals Intelligence (SIGINT). Finally, intelligence derived from other technically
measurable aspects of the target is named Measurement and Signatures Intelligence (MASINT).
SYRACUSE RESEARCH CORPORATION MASINT collection and analysis results in
intelligence that detects, tracks, identifies, or describes the signatures of fixed or dynamic target
sources. It is obtained by quantitative and qualitative analysis of data derived from specific
technical sensors for the purpose of identifying distinctive features. Metric data can provide
information on the dynamic capabilities of targets and the tactics for their use. Signature data
allows the unique identification of targets. MASINT includes many subfields, including Radar

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Intelligence (RADINT), Acoustic Intelligence (ACOUSTINT), Radio

Frequency/Electromagnetic Pulse Intelligence (RF/EMPINT), and Infrared Intelligence (IRINT).
There is no radar system that can perform all of the radar functions required by the
military. Some newer systems have been developed that can combine several radar functions, but
no single system can fulfill all of the requirements of modern warfare. Different types of radars
are built for different types of functions. Search radar is designed to continuously scan a volume
of space to provide initial detection of all targets. Search radar is generally used to detect and
determine the position of new targets for later use by tracking radar. Tracking radar provides
continuous range, bearing, and elevation data on one or more targets. Most of the radar systems
used by the military are in one of these two categories, although some radar systems are
designed for specific functions that do not precisely fit into either of these categories.
A surface-search radar system’s primary function is the detection and determination of
accurate ranges and bearings of surface objects and low flying aircraft. A search pattern in a
defined angular sector is maintained to detect all objects within line-of-sight of the radar antenna.
GSR systems are a type of surface-search radar that detect and recognize moving targets
including personnel, vehicles, watercraft and low flying, rotary wing aircraft. The United States
military uses a standardized classification scheme, called the jointservice standardized
classification system to identify particular radar systems.
4.2 AN/PPS Ground Surveillance Radar Systems
The AN/PPS-5 Ground Surveillance Radar is an American radar system that has been
around since the Vietnam War, having been designed with 1950's technology. Despite its old
technology, it has been the workhorse of MI Battalions in the U.S. Army since its original
production. The radar is a lightweight, man-portable, ground-to-ground surveillance radar set for
use by units such as infantry and tank battalions. The PPS-5 radar is a pulsed Doppler radar, and
is capable of detecting and locating moving personnel at ranges of 6000 meters and vehicles at
ranges of 10000 meters, under virtually all weather conditions.
The radar displays targets in a multimodal manner, both aurally and visually. The visual
display is a Plan Position Indicator (PPI), and the aural indicator produces tones corresponding to
target velocity. The system can operate in an automatic sector scanning mode or in a manual
searchlighting mode. The PPS-5 is rugged enough to withstand rough field handling, and when
packed in its watertight container, it can be parachute dropped and undergo repeated submersion.

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The radar can also be mounted in a jeep or humvee. New versions of this radar system are being
developed, which make use of modern computer and Digital Signal Processing (DSP)
technology.
The AN/PPS-4, the AN/PPS-6, and the AN/PPS-15 Radar systems are additional GSR
systems that are used by the U.S. Army. The AN/PPS-4 system is very small and portable. It is
approximately 4 feet high, and can be carried by a single person. This system also has aural and
visual indicators. The visual display is not a PPI, but a simple range indicator. The maximum
range for target detection of the PPS-4 is much less than the PPS-5. The AN/PPS-6 has a range
of approximately 1500 meters for personnel detection, and 3000 meters for vehicle detection.
Like the PPS-5, the PPS-6 has automatic and manual searching modes. The AN/PPS-15 is
another portable, ground-to-ground battlefield surveillance radar system. This radar is usually
operated on the ground, and is usually not mounted on vehicles. The maximum range for
personnel detection is 1500 meters, whereas the maximum range for vehicle detection is 3000
meters. All of the AN/PPS series radars can penetrate smoke, haze, fog, light rain, and snow, and
are equally effective in day or night.

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CHAPTER 5
FOREIGN GROUND SURVEILLANCE RADAR
SYSTEMS

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FOREIGN GROUND SURVEILLANCE RADAR SYSTEMS

The Russian military has historically used many different kinds of GSR systems. A
couple of examples include the SBR-3 short-range surveillance radar, and the PSNR-5 portable
ground surveillance radar. New radar systems have recently been developed which offer greater
target detection range and coordinate measuring accuracy; greater capacity due to automation of
target detection and coordinate measurement processes; and data transmission over
communication channels via standard interfaces. The FARA-1, for example, is lightweight, not
bulky, and can be carried by one man. It is multifunctional, and can be used as a radar sight for
automatic weapons, or as a reconnaissance tool. The PSNR-6 radar, a new version of the PSNR-
5, features a long operating range, using advanced signal processor technology. It also has a
portable computer control console, which presents targets on the background of a topographic
map.
The Australian Man-portable Surveillance and Target Acquisition Radar (AMSTAR)
system is able to detect and recognize moving targets including personnel, vehicles, watercraft
and low flying, rotary wing aircraft. It has target detection and classification capability at ranges
up to 35,000 meters. This radar system can also carried by a few men, or can be mounted on
Lightly Armed Vehicles (LAVs). A ruggedized laptop computer provides the Human Machine
Interface (HMI). There is also an aural indicator.list. Why? Well, consider that the entire list of
routes for a 20 city problem could theoretically take 45 million GBytes of memory (18! routes
with 7 byte words)! Also for a 100 MIPS computer, it would take two years just to generate all
paths (assuming one instruction cycle to generate each city in every path).

5.1Ground Surveillance Radar Applications

GSR systems can be used in a variety of applications, including urban warfare
maneuvers, covert stakeout surveillance, counterterrorism, maritime surveillance, border patrol
and security, observation and protection of remote areas, airport security, nuclear facility
security, and tactical battlefield applications.

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A battlefield commander requires much intelligence to command and control his assets
proficiently. For ground combat situations, information that is useful includes:
• Enemy Troop Concentrations,
• Enemy Vehicle Concentration,
• Enemy Vehicle Classification,
• Enemy Personnel & Vehicle Movement,
• Movement of a Possible Counterattack Force Conducting a Flanking Attack, and
• Information about Avenues of Approach and Infiltration Routes used by Enemy.
This information can be used as targeting data to support effective attacks, as early warning for
force protection, or simply as surveillance to find the enemy. In general, GSRs provide timely
surveillance and tactical near-real time data and are very versatile.
GSRs are used to search for enemy activity on critical chokepoints, mobility corridors, and likely
infiltration routes. They are used to observe point targets such as bridges, road junctions, or
narrow passages to detect movements. GSR systems can extend the surveillance capability of
patrols by surveying surrounding areas for enemy movement, and survey target areas
immediately after an attack to detect enemy activity and determine the effectiveness of the
attack. Radars can assist in visual observation of targets partially hidden by haze, smoke, fog, or
bright sunlight, and can confirm targets sensed by other types of sensors. GSR systems have a
few weaknesses that must be overcome by using other types of sensors in conjunction with the
radar. Radars require line-of-site to the target area, and their performance is degraded by heavy
rain, snow, dense foliage, and high winds. Also, they are active emitters, and are subject to
enemy detection and electronic countermeasures (ECM).
Finally, radars are unable to distinguish between friend and foe, only able to detect and
classify moving targets by type. The dominant U.S. Army ground maneuver in the Vietnam War
was the Fire Support Base (FSB), often referred to as firebase. Conceptually, the FSB functioned
to provide a secure but mobile artillery position capable of providing fire support to infantry
patrols operating in areas beyond the range of main base camp artillery. This concept gave
infantry a greater degree of flexibility without sacrificing artillery protection. FSBs were targets
for enemy counterattacks and bombardments, so defensive measures were also installed.
The typical cavalry FSB was a defensive area, about 250 meters in diameter, with an 800-
meter perimeter. It contained howitzers and enough equipment and supplies to support the

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infantry with artillery fire around the clock. The firebase also supplied logistics,
communications, medical, and rest facilities for the cavalrymen within its area. GSR
emplacements were constructed around the FSB to provide surveillance for force protection.
Intelligence derived from GSRs was also used to locate enemy positions to direct artillery fire
and infantry patrols. The life span of an FSB depended on the tactical situation in its area. Since
firebases were normally established to give a battalion and its direct support howitzer battery a
pivot of operations to patrol the immediate vicinity, the firebase was closed when the battalion
relocated. Finally, radars are unable to distinguish between friend and foe, only able to detect and
classify moving targets by type. The dominant U.S. Army ground maneuver in the Vietnam War
was the Fire Support Base (FSB), often referred to as firebase. Conceptually, the FSB functioned
to provide a secure but mobile artillery position capable of providing fire support to infantry
patrols operating in areas beyond the range of main base camp artillery. This concept gave
infantry a greater degree of flexibility without sacrificing artillery protection. FSBs were targets
for enemy counterattacks and bombardments, so defensive measures were also installed.
The typical cavalry FSB was a defensive area, about 250 meters in diameter, with an 800-
meter perimeter. It contained howitzers and enough equipment and supplies to support the
infantry with artillery fire around the clock. The firebase also supplied logistics. Radars require
line-of-site to the target area, and their performance is degraded by heavy rain, snow, dense
foliage, and high winds. Also, they are active emitters, and are subject to enemy detection and
electronic countermeasures (ECM).
Finally, radars are unable to distinguish between friend and foe, only able to detect and
classify moving targets by type. The dominant U.S. Army ground maneuver in the Vietnam War
was the Fire Support Base (FSB), often referred to as firebase. Conceptually, the FSB functioned
to provide a secure but mobile artillery position capable of providing fire support to infantry
patrols operating in areas beyond the range of main base camp artillery. This concept gave
infantry a greater degree of flexibility without sacrificing artillery protection. FSBs were targets
for enemy counterattacks and bombardments, so defensive measures were also installed

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CHAPTER 6

MULTI FUNCTION RADARS

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MULTI FUNCTION RADARS

Active array Multifunction Radars (MFRs) enable modern weapon systems to cope with
saturation attacks of very small radar cross-section missiles in a concentrated jamming
environment. Such MFRs have to provide a large number of fire-control channels, simultaneous
tracking of both hostile and defending missiles, and mid-course guidance commands. The active
phased-array antenna comprises flat sensor panels consisting of arrays of GaAs modules
transmitting variable pulse patterns and building up a detailed picture of the surveillance area. A
typical fixed array configuration system could consist of about 2,000 elements per panel, with
four fixed panels. Each array panel can cover 90° in both elevation and azimuth to provide
complete hemispherical coverage. The operational functions of a Multi Target Tracking Radar
(MTTR) include:
 Long-range search;

 Search information with high data rate for low-flying aircraft;

 Search information with high resolution of close in air targets;

 Automatic position and height information;

 Simultaneous tracking of a lot of aircraft targets;

 Target designation facilities for other systems.

6.1 Phased Array Antenna

11. A phased array antenna is composed of lots of radiating elements each with a phase shifter.
Beams are formed by shifting the phase of the signal emitted from each radiating element, to
provide constructive/destructive interference so as to steer the beams in the desired direction.
The signal is amplified by constructive interference in the main direction. The beam sharpness is
improved by the destructive interference. The main beam always points in the direction of the
increasing phase shift. If the signal to be radiated is delivered through an electronic phase shifter
giving a continuous phase shift, the beam direction will be electronically adjustable. However,
this cannot be extended unlimitedly. The highest value, which can be achieved for the Field of
View (FOV) of a phased array antenna, is 120° (60° left and 60° right).

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Table 1 Advantage vs disadvantage

The typical cavalry FSB was a defensive area, about 250 meters in diameter, with an 800- meter
perimeter. It contained howitzers and enough equipment and supplies to support the infantry with
artillery fire around the clock. The firebase also supplied logistics. Radars require line-of-site to
the target area, and their performance is degraded by heavy rain, snow, dense foliage, and high
winds. Also, they are active emitters, and are subject to enemy detection and electronic
countermeasures (ECM).
Finally, radars are unable to distinguish between friend and foe, only able to detect and classify
moving targets by type. The dominant U.S. Army ground maneuver in the Vietnam War was the
Fire Support Base (FSB), often referred to as firebase. Conceptually, the FSB functioned to
provide a secure but mobile artillery position capable of providing fire support to infantry patrols
operating in areas beyond the range of main base camp artillery. This concept gave infantry a
greater degree of flexibility without sacrificing artillery protection. FSBs were targets for enemy
counterattacks and bombardments, so defensive measures were also installed

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CHAPTER 7
ADVANCED FEATURES AND BENEFITS

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ADVANCED FEATURES AND BENEFITS

7.1 Features and benefits

Typical military radar has the following advanced features and benefits: -
 All-weather day and night capability.
 Multiple target handling and engagement capability.
 Short and fast reaction time between target detection and ready to fire moment.
 Easy to operate and hence low manning requirements and stress reduction under
severe conditions.
 Highly mobile system, to be used in all kind of terrain
 Flexible weapon integration, and unlimited number of single air defence weapons can be
provided with target data.
 High resolution, which gives excellent target discrimination and accurate tracking.

The identification of the targets as friend or hostile is supported by IFF, which is an

integral part of the system. During the short time when the targets are exposed accurate data
must be obtained. A high antenna rotational speed assures early target detection and a high data
update rate required for track accuracy. The radar can use linear (horizontal) polarization in clear
weather. During rains, to improve the suppression of rain clutter, provision exists to change to
circular polarization at the touch of the button from the display console. The main advantage of
RADAR, is that it provide superior penetration capability through any type of weather condition,
and can be used in the day or night time.

Radar uses electromagnetic wave that does not require a medium like Sonar (that uses water) so
can be used in space and air. Radar can be long range and the wave propagate at the speed of
light rather then sound (like with sonar). It is less susceptible to weather conditions compared
with Lasers.And be used at night unlike passive cameras. It does not require target cooperation to
emit any signals or emission.

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7.2 Operations of radar

The simplest mode of radar operation is range-finding, performed by time-of-flight

calculation. The unit transmits a radar signal, i.e., sends radar waves out toward the target. The
waves hit the target and are reflected back in the same way that water waves are reflected from
the end of a bathtub. The returning wave is received by the radar unit, and the travel time is
registered. Basic physics tells us that distance is equal to rate of travel multiplied by the time of
travel. Now all electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed in a vacuum—the speed of light,
which is 3.0 × 108 m/s. This speed is reduced by some small amount when the waves are
traveling in a medium such as air, but this can be calculated. If the radar system sends a pulse out
toward a target and records the amount of time until the return pulse is received, the target
distance can be determined by the simple equation d = vt, where d is distance, v is velocity, and t
is time.

A basic radar unit consists of: a frequency generator and timing control unit; a
transmitter with a modulator to generate a signal; an antenna with a parabolic reflector to
transmit the signal; a duplexer to switch between transmission and reception mode; an antenna to
gather the reflected signal; a receiver to detect and amplify this return; and signal processing,
data processing, and data display units. If the transmitter and receiver are connected to the same
antenna or to antennas in the same location, the unit is called monostatic. If the transmitter and
receiver antennas are in very different locations, the unit is known as bistatic.

The frequency generator/timing unit is the master coordinator of the radar unit. In a
monostatic system, the unit must switch between sending out a signal and listening for the return
reflected from the target; the timing unit controls the duplexer that performs the switching. The
transmitter generates a radio signal that is modulated, or varied, to form either a series of pulses
or a continuously varying signal. This signal is reflected from the target, gathered by the antenna,
and amplified and filtered by the receiver. The signal processing unit further cleans up the signal,
and the data processing unit decodes it. Finally, the data is presented to the user on the display.
Before target range can be determined, the target must be detected, an operation more
complicated than it would seem. Consider radar operation again. A pulse is transmitted in the

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direction that the antenna is facing. When it encounters a material that is different from the
surrounding medium (e.g., fish in water or an airplane in the air), a portion of the pulse will be
reflected back toward the receiver antenna. This antenna in turn collects only part of the reflected
pulse and sends it to the receiver and the processing units where the most critical operations take
place. Because only a small amount of the transmitted pulse is ever detected by the receiving
antenna, the signal amplitude is dramatically reduced from its initial value.

At the same time, spurious reflections from non-target surfaces or electronic noise from
the radar system itself act to clutter up the signal, making it difficult to isolate. Various filtering
and amplification operations help to increase the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), making it easier to
lock on to the actual signal. If the noise is too high, the processing parameters incorrect, or the
reflected signal amplitude too small, it is difficult for the system to determine whether a target
exists or not. Real signals of very low amplitude can be swamped by interference, or "lost in the
noise." In military applications, interference can also be generated by reflections from friendly
radar systems, or from enemy electronic countermeasures that make the radar system detect high
levels of noise, false targets, or clones of the legitimate target. No matter what the source,
interference and signal quality are serious concerns for radar system designers and operators.

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CHAPTER 8
CIRCUIT STAGES FOR PROCESSING RADAR
SIGNALS

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8.1 CIRCUIT STAGES FOR PROCESSING RADAR SIGNALS

Mixers are used to generate an output signal from two signals of different frequencies
with the appropriate differential frequency. Multiplying two sine functions together produces
sinusoidal signals with the differential and the cumulative frequency. The latter is generally
eliminated by frequency filtering. Mixers can be made e.g. with the aid of transistors in various
circuit configurations (as multipliers or non-linear amplifiers) or with diodes using their non-
linear characteristic.
FMCW systems generally feature two mixers:
one to allow measurement of the VCO transmitted frequency after mixing with the DRO
frequency (e.g. VCO = 10 GHz and DRO = 9 GHz, giving a mixture frequency of 1 GHz, which
is easier to process metrologically than the considerably higher VCO frequency by the direct
method); another to mix the signal received by the antenna with the transmission signal; the
differential The information is rather qualitative such as degree of condition, insufficient to
calculate the optimal route and hence used mainly for display on the map. To realize the second
phase only a one-way communication link from the ground to the vehicle is required. The third
phase (Advanced Dynamic Navigation System) is to make the communications link bilateral.
The on-board equipment transmits to the ground, traffic information such as
travel time measure on each road segment. Roadside equipment provides the vehicle with
valuable and quantitative information such as process travel time which is collected and
predicted using both onboard and control center data. The on-board equipment calculates an
optimal route based on the traffic information and driver’s pre-entered route finding criterion,
and then carries out route guidance.

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8.2 RECEIVER NOISE

Natural thermal noise is calculated according to: Pnoise = k · T · B, where k is the Boltzmann
constant, T the absolute temperature, and B the receiving bandwidth. For a receiver, the input-
related noise is increased by the noise figure F:
P’noise = F · k · T · B.
The signal-to-noise ratio should be as high as possible in order to obtain high detection reliability
and a low error rate.
The required transmission power is determined from this, taking into account the total transfer
function .With the relatively short ranges (up to some 10s of metres or
100s of feet) that are relevant for level measurements, powers of less than 1 mW to a few mW
are sufficient to obtain a sufficiently large signal-to-noise ratio. etc.

Various forms of interference can falsify the received radar signal in relation to the ideal
reflection pattern. They need to be given consideration and if necessary included in the signal
evaluation in order to avoid misinterpretation.
In regard to level measurement, significant interference factors are :
● Atmospheric effects:
Heavy damping or scattering from particles in the atmosphere (dust, vapour, foam, etc.)
→ If the surface of the medium is no longer detectable, no significant value can be
determined for the level; an appropriate (error) message must be available.
● Interference reflections
Various internals (pipes, filling nozzles, agitator blades, other sensors, etc.) or mediuminduced
interference (e.g. condensation or deposits on the antenna) can also produce reflection signals.
→If reproducible, they may be included in the signal evaluation ( “empty-tank spectrum”).
However, if the surface of the medium is at times obscured (e.g. level below agitator),
measurements must be blanked out for such times.

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35

Figure 8.1 radar interferenc

Multiple reflections:
These occur, for example, when the signal is reflected from the surface of the medium,
then strikes the tank cover or some other “good” reflector, and is again reflected from the
medium before being received by the antenna → Since multiple reflections occur at periodic
intervals, they can be detected and taken into account in the signal processing. A better solution
is to change the mounting position so as to eliminate multiple reflections altogether.
● Multipath propagation:
If, for example, a signal is deflected from the tank wall, its propagation path is
lengthened; the reflection signal is thus broadened in time and the measuring accuracy
reduced →The antenna should be moved further away from the wall.
● Other microwave transmitters:
Several radar systems that are installed in one tank can mutually influence one other.
With FMCW radar, however, this probability is normally very low because the systems would
have to operate in synchronism down to fractions of μs in order to generate an additional
differential frequency portion within the processing bandwidth of a few kHz. In pulse radar with
a high pulse repetition rate, an interference can however easily occur when the signals from
several transmitters are interpreted as being the total reflection

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Part I: Tracking
The objective of this method is to determine the frequency of a digitized signal. It is
carried out in four steps: first the frequency is estimated, for which e.g. the FFT analysis can be
used; in the second step, a signal is synthetized from the frequency and, in the third step,
compared with the measuring signal. This comparison supplies an error value, from which in the
fourth step the deviation of the estimated from the real value is calculated. The corrected
frequency can then be used as the starting value for the next measurement. If the frequency value
has not changed by too much between two measurements, the change in frequency – and thus the
change in level – can be very accurately tracked. Hence the term “tracking”. Appropriately,
tracking is also carried out by means of digital signal processing, but the computational effort is
substantially higher than when using the FFT.
Part II: Signal filtering
Since in FMCW radar the information on the target distance is to be found in the
frequency of the down-converted received signal is possible by appropriately filtering
the frequency to considerably increase the effective dynamic performance of measurement and
thus improve signal quality. Owing to the low signal frequencies involved, such electronic filters
are easy to set up and reproduce. shows, by way of example, the circuit arrangement of a second-
order high-pass filter with an operational amplifier. A point worth noting for all practical filters
is that the signals cannot be completely suppressed in the rejection band, but that a finitely steep
filter slope is obtained,
Due to time-discrete analog/digital conversion of the signal and because of Shannon’s
sampling theorem, the frequency spectrum f has to be limited to half the sampling frequency fA :
f < fA / 2. If this is ignored, the higher signal frequencies will be reflected from half the sampling
frequency and will produce spurious frequency contents after conversion and Fourier transform :
f’ = fA – f.
Part III: RADAR RANGE
The non-ambiguous range provides only indication about the maximum range at which
the target range information can be extracted unambiguously, and does not give any information
about the maximum range at which a target can be detected. To derive the real detection range,
the link budget shall be taken into account for the two paths radar-target and target-radar,
together with the target characteristics. For the purpose of this introduction, the minimum Signal-

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to-Noise (S/N) ratio required for proper target detection will be considered as an input, and its
determination will not be treated here. NOTE: it is anyway important to remark that the radar
detection is always a statistic process. The problem is to detect a signal within a gaussian noise:
indipendently on how we can decide to position the decision threshold ("everything above the
threshold is signal, everything below is noise") there is always a defined probability that: 1) the
noise will exceed the threshold or 2) the signal + noise will be below the threshold (even if the
signal itself would have been above the threshold). For a given S/N it is possible, changing the
threshold, to reduce the probability of false alarm at the expense of the probability of detection. It
is therefore uncorrect to say "this radar has a x km range on the target y" without adding "with
90% of probability of detection, and probability of false alarm 10^-6).

We will derive here the basics of the radar equation.

Let's have a transmitting antenna, isotropic, i.e. which radiates homogeneously in all directions.
The transmitted power Pt, at a range R from the transmitter, is homogeneously spread over the
surface of a sphere of radius R, with a power density:

Real antennas provide directivity: the antenna gain (G) is the measure of the antenna
effectiveness in concentrating the radiated energy in the direction of interest. Then:

For a single-point target (a single-point target is a target having small dimensions compared to
the angular and range resolution of the radar. For instance, for a typical search radar, a Boeing
747 is a single-point target), the target characteristics are accounted for through a parameter
called cross-section (sigma, measured in m^2). A target having 1m^2 cross-section reflects
toward the radar a power equivalent to all the power impinging on a surface of 1m^2 radiated
isotropically (the physical area of the target may be smaller than its cross-section if it re-radiates
preferentially toward the radar).

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NOTE: for extended targets (like land or ocean surfaces) the target characteristics are accounted
for through the reflectivity (sigma-0), a pure number having as reference a surface of the same
area re-radiating isotropically all the impinging energy.

For the target-to-radar path, the same approach of the radar-target applies: the reflected power is
spread on a spherical surface. The power density at the radar will then be:

The signal is collected by the receiving antenna proportionally to its effective area. If the same
antenna is used for both transmit and receive, we can apply the formula relating the effective
area to the gain:

The echo power returning at the receiver will then be:

The above formula does not take into account for simplicity the losses due to atmospheric
attenuation and to the system non-idealities.

It must be noted that the received power decreases with the fourth power of the range: to double
the radar range, the transmitting power must be increased by a factor of 16 ! (This applies for a
single point target: if the target is a large surface, we shall take into account that the antenna
beam becomes wider for increasing ranges, increasing the illuminated area and consequently the
reflected power. Depending on the radar-surface geometry, the echo strength can be proportional
to 1/R^3 or to 1/R^2.)

The echo signal shall be compared with the thermal noise. The noise equivalent power at the
receiver input is given by:

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Pn = kT B F

where :

k = Boltzmann's constant

T = receiver temperature (in degrees Kelvin)

B = Receiver noise bandwidth (can be roughly considered equal to the signal bandwidth)

F = Noise Figure, a term greater than 1, indicating how much the receiver is 'noisy' compared to
the ideal case (F=1).

It is then possible to compute the S/N ratio.

It is important to remark that the receiver noise is proportionally to its bandwidth: this is
also intuitive, being the thermal noise "white", i.e. homogeneously spread over the whole
frequency spectrum. Increasing the receiver bandwidth will then increase the amount of noise
energy developed inside the receiver. It is therefore important to keep the receiver bandwidth
narrow, at the minimum level allowed by the need to provide proper amplification of the signal.
For a simple pulse on a carrier, the optimum bandwidth is about B = 1/T (T = pulse length).

From a range point of view, it is therefore convenient, for the same peak power, to
increase the pulse width (and therefore, its energy). Unfortunately, this requirement is in conflict
with the range resolution requirement, as discussed later.

As a general rule, applicable to any radar waveform, it is possible to show that the range
performance is relate only to the pulse energy, i.e. to the P x T product, at the condition that the
receiver uses an "optimum" filter (called matched filter), having a frequency response complex
conjugate of the signal spectrum (i.e., same amplitude response of the signal spectrum, and
opposite phase response)

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Part IV: Angular resolution and range resolution

For a conventional radar, the angular resolution is equal to the aperture of the antenna beam,
which, in turn, is related to the antenna linear dimension and to the signal wavelenght. For an
antenna having linear dimension l, and for an operating wavelenght lambda, the beam aperture
(in radiants) can be approximated by the formula:

The use of higher operating frequencies (shorter wavelenght) allows then to use smaller
antennas for the same angular resolution.Concerning the range resolution, it is possible to
discriminate between separate echoes only if the difference in their delays is greater than the
pulse width T. The range resolution is then T c/2.

The most straightforward way to improve the range resolution is then to use shorter
pulses, i.e. larger pulse bandwidths (it can be demonstrated that the information content - the
range resolution in our case - is proportional to the signal bandwidth): the drawback is that in this
way the pulse energy is also reduced, degrading the performance in range if the other parameters
are left unchanged.

The above constraints create severe problems in the design of high resolution radars: the
transmitter technological limitations affects more the peak power than the average power or the
energy of the single pulse. In other words, it is much easier to develop a transmitter capable of
2kW peak for 10 microsec than one providing 20kW peak for 1 microsec, even if the pulse
energy is the same in both cases.

In order to achieve the advantage of both the "wide bandwidth" pulses in term of range
resolution, and the use of "long" pulses with limited peak power, a technique called pulse coding
is often used. In this technique, a form of modulation is superimposed to the long pulse,
increasing its bandwidth. This modulation allows to discriminate between two pulses even if they
are partially overlapped.

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The range resolution of such a system can be approximated as T'=1/B (for an

unmodulated pulse of duration T and bandwidth 1/T, it reduces to T'=T).The two types of
modulation most widely used in radar systems are the so-called chirp and the Barker Code: the
former is a linear frequency modulation, the latter is a discrete (bi-phase) phase modulation.

In the receiver, the return signal is correlated with a stored replica of the transmit signal.
For the chirp, it can be done applying the signal (normally in the Intermediate Frequency section
of the receiver) to a dispersive delay line (i.e., having a delay which is linear function of the
frequency), in order to concentrate all the pulse energy in a pulse shorter than the original one. It
is also possible, taking advantage of the modern digital signal processing techniques, to perform,
after analog-to-digital conversion, the convolution of the echo with a ideal single-point-target
response (this is normally performed in the frequency domain, following a Fast Furier Transform
of the signal, to improve the computational efficiency).

For the Barker Code, tapped delay lines with a summing/weigthing network are generally
used. They can be implemented both in digital or in analog form (at intermediate frequency)
using a (non-dispersive) delay line. Many radars use the Doppler effect to extract information on
targets radial velocity (almost all radars designed to detect aerial targets use the doppler effect to
discriminate moving objects from the undesired fixed echoes). A signal having wavelenght
lambda is received by an observer in relative motion at radial velocity v with respect to the
source as having a frequency shifted by an amount v/lambda from the transmitted frequency. In
the case of a radar, this effect occurs twice, on the radar-target and target-radar paths: the total
Doppler shift is then:

At the normal radar frequencies, and for relative speeds in the order of tens or few
hundreds m/sec (typical of aircrafts), the doppler shift is in the kHz range, the same order of
magnitude of the PRF, and a period much shorter than the pulse width. This makes impossible to
discriminate the frequency shift within the pulse.

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All radars exploiting the doppler information use the same reference oscillators
(characterised by high short-term frequency stability) in both the transmit and receive chains (see
fig. 2). The local oscillator LO1 is the same for both chains. The received signal, instead of being
demodulated using an envelope detector, is compared (normally using two channel having a 90
deg relative phase shift to extract the sin and cosin components of the signal) with the
transmission reference frequency LO2 - the same used to generate the intermediate frequency
transmit pulse - in a phase detector (a balanced mixer characterised by low offset voltage). The
amplitude of the detected signal is proportional not only to the input signal amplitude, but also to
the relative phase between the received signal and the reference (having used the same oscillators
for both transmit and receive, the remaining frequency at the output is just the one due to the
doppler shift).

A return echo from a fixed target will have a zero doppler shift, and then a constant
phase: all the return pulses from it will have the same amplitude after demodulation. If there is a
doppler shift, the phase will change from pulse to pulse, and the amplitude of the demodulated
signal will also change.Using a two channels, sin-cosin demodulator, it is possible to
unambiguously recover the phase of the return echo.

In other words, it is like as the envelope of the doppler frequency is sampled at the pulse
repetition frequency. This is shown in fig. 3, which depicts the echoes of the same target in
different PRIs at the output of the phase detector, together with the envelope of the doppler
frequency. According to the sampling theorem, to avoid ambiguities in the measurement of the
doppler frequency, the PRF must be, at least, twice the doppler frequency. This calls for the use
of high PRFs, in conflict with the unambiguous range requirement discussed above. Ambiguities
resolution techniques using staggered PRFs partially allow to conciliate this two requirements.
(It must also be noted that, in many cases, the doppler ambiguity is not of concern, being the
doppler shift used only to discriminate - and to cancel - all targets below a certain doppler shift,
i.e. the fixed targets. For these systems, the only problem related to the doppler ambiguity
occours when a target has a doppler shift which is an integer multiple of the PRF: it will be
detected as a constant amplitude - zero doppler - return and then cancelled like a fixed echo.)

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Where an accurate measurement of the doppler frequency is needed, continuous wave

(CW) radars are used. Such radars do not provide any information about target range. Radars of
this class, but with a moderate range resolution capability thanks to a frequency modulation of
the signal carrier (FM-CW radars) are used for special applications (illuminating radars for
missile guidance).

8.3 MTI RADAR

In the early years of Radar, the only available microwave power device was the
Magnetron (yes, the same used in your microwave oven), which was not an amplifier, but an
high power oscillator: in pulsed applications- typical of radar - RF energy is generated for the
duration of the high-voltage pulse applied at the cathode. But - as in any self-oscillating device -
there is no way to predict the phase of the microwave pulse so generated: the oscillation starts,
for each pulse, in an absolutely random.

While this is not an issue in applications where only amplitude information is of interest
(e.g., ground mapping radars) it becomes a serious problem in MTI applications.
How to solve this problem? The solution was found by reverting the approach: instead of
transmitting a signal derived from a reference of known phase, the (random) phase of each
transmitted pulse is memorised by the system and corrected for in the receiver.
This approach is known as "coherent-on-receive" (as opposed to the "coherent-on-
transmit" scheme which uses an amplifier) and its classic implementation is depicted below.
Here, the microwave local oscillator (LO1 in classic MTI scheme) is used for the receiver only,
and is generally referred to as "STALO" (Stable Local Oscillator). Considering that the
oscillation frequency of the magnetron is not quite accurate nor stable, the frequency of the
STALO is locked to the magnetron frequency by means of an automatic frequency control circuit
(AFC) which uses a frequency discriminator, to ensure that their difference provides the correct
Intermediate Frequency.

The Tx pulse is coupled into the Rx chain, and at IF is used to phase-lock the COHO
(Coherent Oscillator) which is an oscillator, capable of being initialised to the phase of the
coupled pulse, delay line: the coupled IF signal is injected in a loop with a delay line (often, a
long cable) with delay equal to the pulse length. The output was fed back to the delay line input

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(recovering the losses with an amplifier), thus recirculating it for the whole duration of a PRI. -
locked oscillator: the oscillator loop gain was reduced below the unit (stopping oscillation), then
the oscillation conditions was restored while the reference pulse was applied. In this way, the
oscillation started with the same phase of the reference pulse. Another possible approach to
coherency recovery makes use of a normal oscillator as COHO.

The phase of the Tx pulse is "memorised" by sampling the I and Q components of the
coupled pulse, and this information is used to adjust the phase of the COHO signal sent to the
One big limitation of the coherent-on-receive technique is that the memory of transmit phase last
only the duration of a PRI. With a new transmit pulse, starting at a random phase, the system
locks on this new phase and memory of the former one is lost.

As a result, the phase of second-time-around echoes at the output of the receiver remains
Another possible approach to use power-oscillator devices in MTI application is to "prime"
them: practically, as done for the COHO in the classic coherent-on-receive, the oscillation of the
magnetron (or whatever microwave power oscillator is used) is initialised on the phase of a
reference pulse injected in it while it is turned up, allowing to implement a coherent-on-transmit
system.

This anyway requires the capability to amplify microwave signals at medium power
(generally, in the order of some Watts) in order to achieve proper locking, capability which
wasn't available in the early times. And when it become possible, also high-power amplifier
tubes such as klystrons and, later, TWTs started to be available, making all the above phase-
locking techniques obsolete for most applications.

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Figure 8.2 MTI RADAR

REFERENCES:-
1) Skolnik ‘Introduction to Radar Systems’ McGraw Hill
2) ‘Electronic Communication Systems’ by Kennedy, Davis Fourth Edition
3) Bharat Electronics Limited website www.bel-india.com
4) Various other internet sites and journals
[1] AN/PPS-6, STANO Components. [Online]. Available: http://www.stano.nightvision.
com/html/pps6.html.
[2] Army Branch Information, University of Wisconsin Oshkosh, 1997. [Online]. Available:
http://www.uwosh.edu/departments/military_science/spring/ra8.htm.
[3] Chizek, Judy G, Military Transformation: Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance,
Report for Congress, 2001. [Online]. Available: http://www.fas.org/irp/crs/RL31425.pdf.
[4] Fire Support Bases, Grunt! The Online Vietnam Resource. [Online]. Available:
http://www.soft.net.uk/entrinet/arty9.htm

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