SENSOR TECHNOLOGY

Chapter 1
Introduction:

Sensors have a very wide range, and there are many types, but
fundamentally, sensors are devices that detect the feature quantity of a
measurement object and convert this quantity into a readable signal, which is
displayed on an instrument. And sensing technology, simply put, is a technology
that uses sensors to acquire information by detecting the physical, chemical, or
biological property quantities and convert them into readable signal.
There are a wide variety of sensors available for practically any industrial need.
For demanding, mission-critical industrial applications, sensors can help improve
processes, and offer unmatched asset protection.

These sensors offer real-time monitoring, including detection and reporting, as

needed by a process. Data monitored and collected by sensors is sent for control
and analysis, and any anomaly in a particular property is reported by emitting an
electrical signal by that sensor. This way, sensors enhance process efficiency and
product quality, while ensuring that processes comply with best practices.

However, there are many formats in existence, and there is nothing close to an
international standard for sensor specifications. The system designer will
encounter a variety of interpretations of sensor performance parameters, and it
can be confusing. It is important to realize that this confusion is not due to an
inability to explain the meaning of the terms rather it is a result of the fact that
different parts of the sensor community have grown comfortable using these
terms differently.

Fig:1.1 Sensor Block Diagram

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Chapter 2
What is a sensor?

A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the
physical environment. The input can be light, heat, motion, moisture, pressure or
any number of other environmental phenomena. The output is generally a signal
that is converted to a human-readable display at the sensor location or transmitted
electronically over a network for reading or further processing.

Sensors play a pivotal role in the internet of things (IoT). They make it possible
to create an ecosystem for collecting and processing data about a specific
environment so it can be monitored, managed and controlled more easily and
efficiently. IoT sensors are used in homes, out in the field, in automobiles, on
airplanes, in industrial settings and in other environments. Sensors bridge the gap
between the physical world and logical world, acting as the eyes and ears for a
computing infrastructure that analyzes and acts upon the data collected from the
sensors.

On the other hand, passive sensors do not require any external power and produce
an output response. GPS and radar are examples of active sensors that require an
external power source to operate. Active remote sensing techniques such as
RADAR and LiDAR measure the time delay between emission and return to
determine an object's location, speed, and direction. Passive sensors, also known
as self-generated sensors, produce their own electric signal and do not require
external power. Thermal sensors, electric field sensing, and metal detection are
examples of these. The sensor's detecting method is used in the other
categorisation method.

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Chapter 3

TYPES OF SENSORS:

Sensors can be categorized in multiple ways. One common approach is to

classify them as either active or passive. An active sensor is one that requires an
external power source to be able to respond to environmental input and generate
output. For example, sensors used in weather satellites often require some source
of energy to provide meteorological data about the Earth's atmosphere.

A passive sensor, on the other hand, doesn't require an external power source to
detect environmental input. It relies on the environment itself for its power, using
sources such as light or thermal energy. A good example is the mercury-based
glass thermometer. The mercury expands and contracts in response to fluctuating
temperatures, causing the level to be higher or lower in the glass tube. External
markings provide a human-readable gauge for viewing the temperature.

Some types of sensors, such as seismic and infrared light sensors, are available in
both active and passive forms. The environment in which the sensor is deployed
typically determines which type is best suited for the application.

Another way in which sensors can be classified is by whether they're analog or

digital, based on the type of output the sensors produce. Analog sensors convert
the environmental input into output analog signals, which are continuous and
varying. Thermocouples that are used in gas hot water heaters offer a good
example of analog sensors. The water heater's pilot light continuously heats the
thermocouple. If the pilot light goes out, the thermocouple cools, sending a
different analog signal that indicates the gas should be shut off.

In contrast to analog sensors, digital sensors convert the environmental input into
discrete digital signals that are transmitted in a binary format (1s and 0s). Digital
sensors have become quite common across all industries, replacing analog
sensors in many situations. For example, digital sensors are now used to measure
humidity, temperature, atmospheric pressure, air quality and many other types of
environmental phenomena.

As with active and passive sensors, some types of sensors -- such as thermal or
pressure sensors -- are available in both analog and digital forms. In this case, too,

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the environment in which the sensor will operate typically determines which is
the best option.

There are many different types of sensors, the main categories are;

• Light Sensor
➢ IR Sensor (IR Transmitter / IR LED)
➢ Photodiode (IR Receiver)
➢ Light Dependent Resistor
• Temperature Sensor
➢ Thermistor
➢ Thermocouple
• Pressure/Force/Weight Sensor
➢ Strain Gauge (Pressure Sensor)
➢ Load Cells (Weight Sensor)
• Position Sensor
➢ Potentiometer
➢ Encoder
• Hall Sensor (Detect Magnetic Field)
• Flex Sensor
• Sound Sensor
➢ Microphone
• Ultrasonic Sensor
• Touch Sensor
• PIR Sensor
• Tilt Sensor
➢ Accelerometer
• Gas Sensor

IR LED:
It is also called as IR Transmitter. It is used to emit Infrared rays. The
range of these frequencies are greater than the microwave frequencies
(i.e >300GHz to few hundreds of THz). The rays generated by an

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infrared LED can be sensed by Photodiode explained below. The pair

of IR LED and photodiode is called IR Sensor.

Fig:3.1 IR LED sensor

Photo Diode (Light Sensor):

It is a semiconductor device which is used to detect the light rays and mostly used
as IR Receiver. Its construction is similar to the normal PN junction diode but the
working principle differs from it. As we know a PN junction allows small leakage
currents when it is reverse biased so, this property is used to detect the light rays.
A photodiode is constructed such that light rays should fall on the PN junction
which makes the leakage current increase based on the intensity of the light that
we have applied. So, in this way, a photodiode can be used to sense the light
rays and maintain the current through the circuit.

Fig:3.2Photo Diode (Light sensor)

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LDR (Light Dependent Resistor):

As the name itself specifies that the resistor that depends upon the light intensity.
It works on the principle of photoconductivity which means the conduction due
to the light. It is generally made up of Cadmium sulfide. When light falls on the
LDR, its resistance decreases and acts similar to a conductor and when no light
falls on it, its resistance is almost in the range of MΩ or ideally it acts as an open
circuit. One note should be considered with LDR is that it won’t respond if the
light is not exactly focused on its surface.

Fig:3.3 Light dependent resistor

Thermistor (Temperature Sensor):

A thermistor can be used to detect the variation in temperature. It has a negative
temperature coefficient that means when the temperature increases the resistance
decreases. So, the thermistor’s resistance can be varied with the rise in
temperature which causes more current flow through it. This change in current
flow can be used to determine the amount of change in temperature. An
application for thermistor is, it is used to detect the rise in temperature and control
the leakage current in a transistor circuit which helps in maintaining its stability.

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Fig:3.4 Thermistor

Thermocouple (Temperature Sensor):

Another component that can detect the variation in temperature is a
thermocouple. In its construction, two different metals are joined together to form
a junction. Its main principle is when the junction of two different metals are
heated or exposed to high temperatures a potential across their terminals varies.
So, the varying potential can be further used to measure the amount of change in
temperature.

Fig:3.5 Thermocouple

Strain Gauge (Pressure/Force Sensor):

A strain gauge is used to detect pressure when a load is applied. It works on the
principle of resistance, we know that the resistance is directly proportional to the
length of the wire and is inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area
(R=ρl/a). The same principle can be used here to measure the load. On a flexible
board, a wire is arranged in a zig-zag manner as shown in the figure below. So,
when the pressure is applied to that particular board, it bends in a direction
causing the change in overall length and cross-sectional area of the wire. This
leads to change in resistance of the wire. The resistance thus obtained is very

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minute (few ohms) which can be determined with the help of the Wheatstone
bridge. The strain gauge is placed in one of the four arms in a bridge with the
remaining values unchanged. Therefore, when the pressure is applied to it as the
resistance changes the current passing through the bridge varies and pressure can
be calculate.

Fig:3.6 Strain guage

Load Cell (Weight Sensor):

Load cells are similar to strain gauges which measure the physical quantity like
force and give the output in form of electrical signals. When some tension is
applied on the load cell it structure varies causing the change in resistance and
finally, its value can be calibrated using a Wheatstone bridge.

Fig:3.7 Load cell

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Potentiometer:
A potentiometer is used to detect the position. It generally has various ranges of
resistors connected to different poles of the switch. A potentiometer can be either
rotary or linear type. In rotary type, a wiper is connected to a long shaft which
can be rotated. When the shaft has rotated the position of the wiper alters such
that the resultant resistance varies causing the change in the output voltage. Thus
the output can be calibrated to detect the change its position.

Fig:3.8 Potentiometer

Encoder:
To detect the change in the position an encoder can also be used. It has a circular
rotatable disk-like structure with specific openings in between such that when the
IR rays or light rays pass through it only a few light rays get detected. Further,
these rays are encoded into a digital data (in terms of binary) which represents
the specific position

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Fig:3.9 Encoder

Hall Sensor:
The name itself states that it is the sensor which works on the Hall Effect. It can
be defined as when a magnetic field is brought close to the current carrying
conductor (perpendicular to the direction of the electric field) then a potential
difference is developed across the given conductor. Using this property a Hall
sensor is used to detect the magnetic field and gives output in terms of voltage.
Care should be taken that the Hall sensor can detect only one pole of the magnet.

Fig:3.10 Hall Sensor

The hall sensor is used in few smartphones which are helpful in turning off the
screen when the flap cover (which has a magnet in it) is closed onto the screen.

Flex Sensor:
A FLEX sensor is a transducer which changes its resistance when its shape is
changed or when it is bent. A FLEX sensor is 2.2 inches long or of finger length.
It is shown in the figure. Simply speaking the sensor terminal resistance increases

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when it’s bent. This change in resistance can do no good unless we can read them.
The controller at hand can only read the changes in voltage and nothing less, for
this, we are going to use voltage divider circuit, with that we can derive the
resistance change as a voltage change.

Fig:3.11Flex Sensor

Microphone (Sound Sensor):

Microphone can be seen on all the smartphones or mobiles. It can detect the audio
signal and convert them into small voltage (mV) electrical signals. A microphone
can be of many types like condenser microphone, crystal microphone, carbon
microphone etc. each type of microphone work on the properties like capacitance,
piezoelectric effect, resistance respectively. Let us see the operation of a crystal
microphone which works on the piezoelectric effect. A bimorph crystal is used
which under pressure or vibrations produces proportional alternating voltage. A
diaphragm is connected to the crystal through a drive pin such that when the
sound signal hits the diaphragm it moves to and fro, this movement changes the
position of the drive pin which causes vibrations in the crystal thus an alternating
voltage is generated with respect to the applied sound signal. The obtained
voltage is fed to an amplifier in order to increase the overall strength of the signal.
Here are various circuits based on Microphone. Sound sensor is used to receive
acoustic wave and display the vibration image of sound. It has a build-in
capacitively electret microphone that is sensitive to sound. The electret fil min
microphone vibrates with the acoustic wave resulting in the change of capacitance
and the subsequent micro voltage. Then the micro voltage is sent to LM393
comparator on the module before being compared with the threshold set by the
blue potentiometer. When the sound intensity in the surroundings doesn’t reach
the threshold, OUT interface outputs high level signals; otherwise, outputs low
level signals.

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Fig:3.12 Microphone(Sound sensor)

Ultrasonic sensor:
Ultrasonic means nothing but the range of the frequencies. Its range is greater
than audible range (>20 kHz) so even it is switched on we can’t sense these sound
signals. Only specific speakers and receivers can sense those ultrasonic waves.
This ultrasonic sensor is used to calculate the distance between the ultrasonic
transmitter and the target and also used to measure the velocity of the target.

Ultrasonic sensor HC-SR04 can be used to measure distance in the range of

2cm-400cm with an accuracy of 3mm. Let’s see how this module works. The
HCSR04 module generates a sound vibration in ultrasonic range when we make
the ‘Trigger’ pin high for about 10us which will send an 8 cycle sonic burst at the
speed of sound and after striking the object, it will be received by the Echo pin.
Depending on the time taken by sound vibration to get back, it provides the
appropriate pulse output. We can calculate the distance of the object based on the
time taken by the ultrasonic wave to return back to the sensor.

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Fig:3.13 Ultrasonic Sensor

PIR sensor:
PIR sensor stands for Passive Infrared sensor. These are used to detect the
motion of humans, animals or things. We know that infrared rays have a property
of reflection. When an infrared ray hits an object, depending upon the temperature
of the target the infrared ray properties changes, this received signal determines
the motion of the objects or the living beings. Even if the shape of the object
alters, the properties of the reflected infrared rays can differentiate the objects
precisely.

Fig:3.14 PIR Sensor

Gas sensor:
In industrial applications gas sensors plays a major role in detecting the gas
leakage. If no such device is installed in such areas it ultimately leads to an
unbelievable disaster. These gas sensors are classified into various types based
on the type of gas that to be detected. Let’s see how this sensor works. Underneath
a metal sheet there exists a sensing element which is connected to the terminals
where a current is applied to it. When the gas particles hit the sensing element, it

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leads to a chemical reaction such that the resistance of the elements varies and
current through it also alters which finally can detect the gas.

Fig:3.15 Gas Sensor

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Chapter 4
WORKING OF SENSOR:
Sensors react to changing physical conditions by altering their electrical
properties. Thus, most artificial sensors rely on electronic systems to capture,
analyse and relay information about the environment. These electronic systems
rely on the same principles as electrical circuits to work, so the ability
to control the flow of electrical energy is very important.

Put simply, a sensor converts stimuli such as heat, light, sound and motion into
electrical signals. These signals are passed through an interface that converts
them into a binary code and passes this on to a computer to be processed.

Many sensors act as a switch, controlling the flow of electric charges through the
circuit. Switches are an important part of electronics as they change the state of
the circuit. Components of sensors such as integrated circuits (chips), transistors
and diodes all contain semiconducting material and are included in the sensor
circuits so that they act as switches. For example, a transistor works by using a
small electrical current in one part of the circuit to switch on a large electrical
current in another part of the circuit.

You first start with something that you want to sense — the quantity you’re
measuring. The human body, for instance, is great at sensing light (with our eyes),
smells (with our nose), and tastes (with our mouth). In essence, our body is
equipped with a set of sensors, but each carries out a specific task.

Similarly, if you want to build an electronic sensor, you first think about
what you want to measure, or sense. Let’s say you want to build a light sensor.
You need an instrument to transform light into an electrical signal. That
instrument is called a photodiode, and it does just what you want it to do: it
converts light energy into electrical current. But let’s dig a bit deeper: how does
the photodiode do this?
Without going into too many technicalities, photodiodes are built from specific
materials and when photons hit the surface of these materials, they create
something called the photoelectric effect, which disrupts the previously stable
energy configuration of the material. This can generate an electric signal which
is then picked up (and sometimes amplified) so it can be read by the system.
If you want to build a motion sensor, you need different types of materials, that
can produce small amounts of current when they are moved or distorted. The rest
of the mechanism is the same

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So in essence, sensors generally work in a similar fashion: you need

something (like a photodiode) that can transform your desired input into an
electric current. You then pick up that electric current, amplify it if necessary, and
pass it on to your computer.

A good sensor must have the ability to tell current very precisely. For instance, if
the light increases slightly, so too will the current produced by the photodiode,
and the sensor must be able to tell this. The better the ability, the better the
sensitivity. But sensors also need to be able to withstand vibrations and
temperature changes, which often affect the quality of the output.

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Chapter 5
Sensor Performance Characteristics:
The following are some of the more important sensor characteristics:

5.1 Transfer Function:

The transfer function shows the functional relationship between physical input
signal and electrical output signal. Usually, this relationship is represented as a
graph showing the relationship between the input and output signal, and the
details of this relationship may constitute a complete description of the sensor
characteristics. For expensive sensors that are individually calibrated, this might
take the form of the certified calibration curve.

5.2 Sensitivity:

The sensitivity is defined in terms of the relationship between input physical

signal and output electrical signal. It is generally the ratio between a small change
in electrical signal to a small change in physical signal. As such, it may be
expressed as the derivative of the transfer function with respect to physical signal.
Typical units are volts/kelvin, millivolts/kilopascal, etc.. A thermometer would
have “high sensitivity” if a small temperature change resulted in a large voltage
change.

5.3 Span or Dynamic Range:

The range of input physical signals that may be converted to electrical signals by
the sensor is the dynamic range or span. Signals outside of this range are expected
to cause unacceptably large inaccuracy. This span or dynamic range is usually
specified by the sensor supplier as the range over which other performance
characteristics described in the data sheets are expected to apply. Typical units
are kelvin, pascal, newtons, etc.

5.4 Accuracy or Uncertainty:

Uncertainty is generally defined as the largest expected error between actual and
ideal output signals. Typical units are kelvin. Sometimes this is quoted as a
fraction of the full-scale output or a fraction of the reading. For example, a
thermometer might be guaranteed accurate to within 5% of FSO (Full Scale
Output). “Accuracy” is generally considered by metrologists to be a qualitative
term, while “uncertainty” is quantitative. For example one sensor might have

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better accuracy than another if its uncertainty is 1% compared to the other with
an uncertainty of 3%.

5.5 Noise:

All sensors produce some output noise in addition to the output signal. In some
cases, the noise of the sensor is less than the noise of the next element in the
electronics, or less than the fluctuations in the physical signal, in which case it is
not important. Many other cases exist in which the noise of the sensor limits the
performance of the system based on the sensor. Noise is generally distributed
across the frequency spectrum. Many common noise sources produce a white
noise distribution, which is to say that the spectral noise density is the same at all
frequencies. Johnson noise in a resistor is a good example of such a noise
distribution. For white noise, the spectral noise density is characterized in units
of volts/Root (Hz). A distribution of this nature adds noise to a measurement with
amplitude proportional to the square root of the measurement bandwidth. Since
there is an inverse relationship between the bandwidth and measurement time, it
can be said that the noise decreases with the square root of the measurement time.

5.6 Bandwidth:

All sensors have finite response times to an instantaneous change in physical

signal. In addition, many sensors have decay times, which would represent the
time after a step change in physical signal for the sensor output to decay to its
original value. The reciprocal of these times correspond to the upper and lower
cut off frequencies, respectively. The bandwidth of a sensor is the frequency
range between these two frequencies.

5.7 Nonlinearity:

The maximum deviation from a linear transfer function over the specified
dynamic range. There are several measures of this error. The most common
compares the actual transfer function with the “best straight line,” which lies
midway between the two parallel lines that encompass the entire transfer function
over the specified dynamic range of the device. This choice of comparison
method is popular because it makes most sensors look the best. Other reference
lines may be used, so the user should be careful to compare using the same
reference.

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Chapter 6
Applications of Sensors:
Managing day to day activities:

There are many specialised applications of sensors devices in day-to-day

activities. These are used to manage key processes in the chemical, oil, gas, and
nuclear energy sectors. Here, sensors are required to control geographically vast
power transmission and distribution systems in the electric energy business as
well. Standards for communication, interoperability, dependability, calibrating,
safety, and accuracy for intelligent sensors have been created for such sorts of
vital infrastructure.

Safety:

Devices can also be networked in conjunction with the Internet and can be
used for enhanced safety and convenience through intelligent home solutions.
These solutions involve networks of data collection, cloud, and machine-to-
machine communication. The sensor offers more data about the path of glucose
than previously. With distance sensors and a processing unit, the warning system
incorporated into the shoe delivers audio, haptic, or visual input. It permits free
and ambient events on natural auditory channels. It is revolutionary for the
standard fall mats to be supplemented with fall mat sensors that rapidly record
load changes and ask for assistance via the call system.

Cleaning:

Sensors guarantee that the flat is cleaned at every aspect and vacuum
cleaners can avoid physical barriers. In the future, water sensors can also prevent
damage to the house caused by washing machines or dishwashers. Smart sensor
systems are everywhere in our daily lives. They offer safety, save lives and
enhance living quality. More and more automated and networked living sectors
will raise the necessity of novel sensor technology.

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Fig:6.1 cleaning

Emergency:

Driver assistance systems like autonomous emergency braking systems or

parking devices facilitate daily life and boost road safety via cameras, infrared
and ultrasonic sensors, and radar sensors. This offered automatic parking aids
using ultrasonic front and rear sensors to support the guides during parking. These
help to identify parking spaces available and relay information. Free parking
places can be accessed immediately by drivers. The automobile lacks the parking
area, the wheel locks itself, and only the throttle and brake have to be operated
by the driver. Innovative, self-sufficient energy parking sensors facilitate daily
living to locate a place in urban areas.

Boilers and washing machines:

Some household appliance applications using sensors are the boiler, washing
machines and dishwashers for heating systems, and other white products. Many
vehicles, including automobiles, trains, buses, etc., employ sensors to monitor
petroleum temperature and pressure, jets and steering systems, and so many more.
Magnetic sensors are used to detect movement by the use of the magnetic field of
the earth. It has several uses, such as portable navigation, product promotion,
indoor and urban navigation, etc.

Measure distance:

Sensors are commonly employed in all forms of portable and handheld devices.
They are utilised in fitness applications to measure the distance of each step and
the incremental steps that a person has taken. These are also used to detect the
usker's motion, such as rotating and tilting, providing them with an incredible
gaming experience. Motion sensors also have a wide range of home and personal

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safety applications. However, without a motion sensor, it is difficult to establish

a safety system. They are particularly successful because during peak night hours;
they offer clear views.

Fig:6.2 measuring

Doorbells:

Sensors play a significant role in wireless doorbells. It may dispose of typical

entrance cells employing motion sensors, as movement sensors can inform guests
when they reach the door. Motion sensors detect motion using optical, vibration,
radiofrequency, sound, and warmth, essentially using electronic chips. The centre
of our new safety systems is movement sensors. They are utilised for the detection
and understanding of location, speed, and acceleration.

Automating lighting operations:

The primary operation of light sensors is tuning light on the day. In addition to
facilitating human-centric lighting, daylight harvesting, and lighting planning for
energy savings, efficiency, and the environment, it automates lighting operations
in smart buildings. Thermal sensors are required to automate room temperature
in smart buildings and businesses. The temperature is continuously inside,
regardless of how the temperature swings externally. These sensors also conserve
energy by regulating the temperature with the climatic environment.

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Fig:6.3 Automatic light operation

Gas detection and surveillance:

Gas detection and surveillance are always strongly related to the safety of people
in difficult circumstances when the presence of toxic gases is identified. Sensors
can easily monitor and measure the amount of gas frequently to be greater than
usual and ensure the safety of persons operating in and near dangerous gases.
Indoor air quality is another significant business that employs gas sensor
technology to monitor.

Fig:6.4 Gas Sensor

Detect level of liquid and other quantities:

Sensors are used to detect items such as liquids, powders, and granular solids.
Many sectors, including oil, water and drinks processing, and food production,
employ high-level sensors. Trash management systems are typical because level
sensors can monitor waste levels in waste containers or dumpsters. These sensors
measure the presence of fuel or hazardous gases and detect changes in air quality.
Mining, oil and gas.

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Chapter 7

Advantages and Disadvantages of Sensors:

7.1 Advantages:

• Accelerate processes and make them more accurate

• Collect process and asset data in real time

• Monitor processes and assets accurately, reliably, and continuously

• Increase productivity and reduce total cost of ownership

• Lower energy wastage

• Readings taken using sensors are more accurate than a human

interpreting data

• Low cost and power consumption.

• They are useful and can help with many security problems

• High speed and High switching rate.

7.2 Disadvantages:

• They can be affected by environmental changes and contamination.

• Sensing Range Affected by Colour and Reflectivity target.

• Distance Limitations

• Radio frequency at high power is harmful for humans (active type).

• Passive sensor type works in LOS (Line of Sight) and does not work
in non-LOS regions.

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Chapter 8
Conclusion:
In business and our everyday life, sensors are everywhere. In
industrial systems, process variables like temperature, pressure, level,
flow rate, and turbidity are measured accurately. The electrical
variables like the voltage, current, and frequency; mechanical variables
like revolution, cycle number, positioning, the direction of movement,
static and dynamic pressures, proximity; environmental variables, such
as humidity, vibration, wind velocity, and direction are also measured
by using these technologies. In various areas, advanced sensor
networks are employed and are being developed constantly. Through
AI technology, sensor-based gadgets have become more innovative;
these gadgets can interact and generate independent behaviour. They
are used for receiving information, data such as temperature, pressure,
picture, etc. Remote sensing is when the information is obtained,
detected, analysed, the physical parameters of an area are monitored,
and radiated energy is recorded and released without physical contact
with the studied subject. Sensors create a digital representation of the
world in which they work by gathering data from houses, buildings,
and vehicles. These can monitor and inform about the drug level in
humans and detect any anomalies in the body. Sensors can assist in
preventing symptoms and offering early warning of illness.

Dept of ECE(2019-2023) SPHOORTHY ENGINNERING COLLEGE 24

SENSOR TECHNOLOGY

Dept of ECE(2019-2023) SPHOORTHY ENGINNERING COLLEGE 25