Inorganic Chemistry Synopsis

1. H2SO4 is called king of chemicals.

2. The disadvantage of contact process is the usage of solid catalyst which is easily poisoned by Arsenic etc.
3. Conc. H2SO4 on careful warming with KClO3 gives ClO2 gas.
4. On heating with KMnO4 and K2Cr2O7 liberate Oxygen.
5. Sodium Thiosulphate :- Na2S2O3.5H2O (Hypo).
1. Prepared by boiling saturated sodium sulphite solution with Sulphur.
2. Prepared by boiling a solution of caustic soda with Sulphur.
3. Prepared by passing SO2 into the solution of Na2S.
6. Insoluble AgCl is solution of hypo by forming soluble complex of sodium silver thiosulphates. Na (AgS 2O3).
7. On oxidation with oxidizing agent hypo give sodium sulphate and Sulphur.
8. Hypo is used for ‘fixing’ negative in photography.
9. It is used as Anti-chlor.
10. The radioactive element in chalcogen family is Polonium.
11. The compound of these elements in their + 6 state are volatile because they are covalent (Ex : SF6).
12. The most stable allotropic form of Sulphur is Rhombic Sulphur in which its molecularity is 8.
13. The reducing power of hydrides of these elements increases from H2O to H2Po.
14. The acidity also increases from H2O to H2Po.
15. Caro’s acid is per mono sulphuric acid (H2SO5).
16. Marshall’s acid is per di-sulphuric acid (H2S2O8).
17. Bleaching action of SO2 is not permanent because is bleaches by reduction.
18. When ozone is heated, the volume is increased by 1½ times because O 3 is converted into O2.
19. Ozone is manufactured by Siemen-Halske Ozoniser.
20. Ozonisation process is carried out by silent electric discharge (Sparkless) because otherwise ozone is decomposed.
21. Mixture of O2 to N2O is used as anaesthesia.
22. The optimum temperature in contact process is 670 to 720K.
23. Liquid SO2 is used as an inorganic solvent.
24. Sulphates are generally soluble in water but sulphates of alkaline earth metals, lead and silver are insoluble.
25. Formulae of thionyl chloride and sulphuryl chloride are SOCl 2 and SO2Cl2 respectively.
26. Hypo is used in photography to wash the negative film to remove the unexposed sensitive emulsion.
27. When an aqueous solution of sulphide is oxidized colloidal Sulphur is precipitated.
28. TeO2 is an amphoteric oxide (only amphoteric oxide of these elements).
29. Vitriols are sulphates which crystallize out with a definite number of water molecules. Ex :- CuSO 4.5H2O (Blue vitriol)
FeSO4.7H2O (Green), ZnSO4.7H2 O(White)
30. Ferric sulphate Fe2 (SO4)3 on heating liberates SO3 gas.
31. Ozone turns tetramethyl base to violet and turns benzioline paper to brown.
32. Oxidation state of oxygen in super oxides (Ex : KO2) is -1/2.
33. With peroxides ozone acts as reducing agent.
34. Ozone is absorbed by turpentine, CS2 and other organic solvents. Electrolysis of acidified water with high current yields ozone.
35. The molecular formula of ozone is determined by Soret’s experiment and by Neoth’s experiment.
36. H2SO4 is dehydrated by P2O5.
37. Yellow ammonium sulphide is ammonium polysulphide (NH4)2 Sx.
38. Oil of Vitriol is H2SO4.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS SYNOPSIS.

1. Law of triads was proposed by Dobereigner. In these triads are atomic weight of the middle element is average of the atomic
weight of remaining two elements.
2. Law of Octaves was proposed by Newland.
3. Lother Mayer’s curve is plot between atomic volumes and atomic weight. The alkali metals are found at the creasts (maxima).
Halogens are found on the ascending part and alkaline earth metals on the descending part.
4. The alkali metal that is not found at the peak of Lother Mayer curve is Lithium.
5. The earlier names of gallium, germanium and scandium were Eka-aluminium, Eka-silicon and Eka-boron respectively.
6. Atomic number of Eka-mercury is 112.
7. In the long form of periodic table S and P block elements are called normal elements.
8. S-block and P-block elements excluding inertases are called Representative elements.
9. In transition elements two orbits are incomplete.
10. The general electronic configuration of transition elements is ns2(n - 1)d1-10 np°.
11. The inner transition elements (f-block) have three incomplete shells. (Outer, penultimate and anti-penultimate).
12. Electro Negativity, Electron affinity, oxidizing power (reducability) acid character of oxides and ionization energies increase
from left to right in a period and decreases from top to bottom in a group.
13. Electro Positively (metallic character), reducing power (oxidisibility) basis character of oxides and atomic radii decreases from
left to right increase from top to bottom.
14. Electronegativity and electron affinity, are zero for inert gases.
15. The element of highest ionization energy is Helium.
16. The element of lowest freezing point is Helium.
17. The element of highest density is Osmium.
18. The element of highest conductance is Silver.
19. The element of highest electron affinity is chlorine.
20. The element of highest Electronegativity is Fluorine.
21. The element of least Electronegativity (Highest Electropositivity) is Francium.
22. The element of the highest melting point of Tungsten (W) and the element of the highest boiling point is Rhenium (Re).
23. The lightest metal is Lithium.
24. The only liquid non-metal is Bromine.
25. Liquid metals are Mercury, Gallium, Cesium and Francium.
26. The total number of gaseous elements is 21.
27. The alkali metal ion of highest electrical conductance is Na+ and that of lowest electrical conductance is Li +.
28. The group number indicates the number of valence electrons (maximum valency) of all the elements of that groups.
29. In every period the elements of the lower atomic size is halogen.
30. The diagonal relationship is clearly seen among the elements of 2 nd and 3rd periods only.
31. In every group the last element is generally radio active.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY – NITROGEN FAMILY

1. These elements form hydrides of type XH3. The properties of hydrides change along with the groups as follows.
(a) STABILITY : NH3 > PH3 > ASH3 > SbH3 > BiH3
(b) BASIC CHARACTER : NH3 > PH3 > ASH3 > SbH3 > BiH3
(c) REDUCING POWER : NH3 < PH3 < ASH3 < SbH3 < BiH3
(c) POISONOUS NATURE : NH3 < PH3 < ASH3 < SbH3 < BiH3
2. These elements form trihalides and penta halides. But nitrogen does not form penta halides because of non-availability of d-
orbitals. Bismuth does not form penta halides because of inert pair effect.
3. The most stable halide of Nitrogen is NF3.
4. Very pure nitrogen gas evolved by heating sodium Azide (NaN3).
5. The only basic oxide of these elements is Bi2O3.
6. The only hydride of this family elements that can form stable ions in aqueous solution in NH3 (NH4+ ions).
7. The acidic hydride of nitrogen is N3H (Hydrazoic acid).
8. Red phosphorous is less reactive while white phosphorous is more reactive. Red phosphorous is insoluble in CS 2 while white
form is soluble.
9. Ammonia vapour is called alkaline air.
10. The most stable oxide of Nitrogen is NO.
11. The coloured oxide (brown) of nitrogen is NO2.
12. Tetra basic oxyacid of phosphorous is pyrophosphoric acid (H4P2O7).
13. P2O5 on reduction with carbon gives red phosphorous.
14. Thermally most stable oxyacid of phosphorous is meta phosphoric acid.
15. Yellow colour of conc. HNO3 is laboratory is due to the presence of dissolved NO2.
16. Fuming nitric acid contains N2O5 and NO2 fumes.
17. White phosphorous (Yellow) gives PH3 with alkalies.
18. Conc. HNO3 oxidies cane sugar to oxalic acid.
19. Bones glow in darkness because white phosphorous present in bones undergoes slow combustion.
20. As2O3, Sb2O3 are amphoteric oxides.
21. Conc. HNO3 is passive towards iron due to formation of protective layer of iron oxides (Ferrous Ferric Oxides).
22. P2O5 is good dehydrating agent. It can dehydrate HNO3 and H2SO4.
23. Ammonium nitrate on heating gives N2O and ammonium nitrite on heating gives N2 gas.
24. In the manufacture of safety matches red phosphorous is used.
25. In bones and teeth phosphorous is present in the form of calcium phosphate.
26. Nitric oxide is purified by absorption with FeSO4 solution.
27. Aquaregia is the mixture of conc. HNO3 and conc. HCl in 1 : 3 ratio.
28. In solid state, phosphorous penta chloride contains PCl4+ and PCl6-.
29. Ammonium dichromate on heating give N2 give (volcano experiment).
30. Red phosphorous is less reactive because it has polymeric structure.
31. NH4Cl is called chloroamine.
32. C2N2 is called cyanogens. The mixture of C2N2 and ozone is used in rocket fuels.
33. Calcium cyanamide (CaCN2) is also called as “Nitrolim”.
34. The common name of As4S4 is ‘Realgar’.
35. ‘Nitro chalk’ is a mixture of ammonium nitrate and calcium carbonate.
36. White phosphorous is used as a rat poison.
37. Black Phosphorous is good conductor of electricity.
38. The conversion of white phosphorous to red phosphorous is catalysted by Iodine.
39. The only oxide of nitrogen that cannot reduce of decolourise KmnO4 is N2O5.
40. Ammonia gas dried with quick lime (CaO). It cannot be dried by using conc. H 2SO4, CaCl2 or P2O5 because it reacts with them.
41. The solution (saturated) of ammonia gas in water is called liquor ammonia (ammonical liquor).
42. Ammonia reacts with CO2 to give urea (NH2 – CO – NH2).
43. Ammonia gives ammonium halide and nitrogen with halogen when ammonia is in excess. It halogen is in excess nitrogen
trihalides is formed along with HX.
44. Silver chloride is soluble is ammonium hydroxide because it forms a soluble complex with silver chloride.
45. Common name of KNO3 is Nitre.
46. 68% nitric acid in water is azotropic mixture boils at 121°C.
47. Iron, Chromium, Nickel and aluminium become passive, when dipped in conc. Nitric acid due to the formation of protective
layer of oxide.
48. More active metals react with very dilute nitric acid also to give ammonium nitrate.
49. T.N.T. is Trinitro toluene, an explosive.
50. Super phosphate of lime of calcium super phosphate is calcium di hydrogen phosphate (Ca (H 2PO4)2).
51. Phosphoric acid is syrupy and viscous liquid. This is due to hydrogen bonding.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY – OXYGEN – SULPHUR FAMILY SYNOPSIS

1. CATENATION :- Oxygen and Sulphur catanate to form poly oxides and poly sulphide Sulphur catenates to more extent.
H – O – O – H Poly sulphides are called sulphanes H2 S2 H2 S3, H2 S4.
2. Hexa Halides of S, Se and Te are formed only by fluorine. The reactivity of hexa fluorides increase from SF6 to TeF6.
3. Tetra halides are relatively more reactive than hexa fluorides in this group.
4. The stability of tetra halides increases from S to P0.
5. Only Te and P0 can form tetra iodides.
6. The stability of dihalides of these elements increase from S to Te. Di-iodides are not formed.
7. Stability of oxy-acids decreases from S to Te.
8. Acidity decreases from S to Te (H2SO4, H2 SeO4, H2 TeO4).
9. Oxidising power of oxy-acids increase from S to Te.
10. Oxygen is paramagnetic though is has even number of electrons. This is because of presence of 3-electron bonds in oxygen
molecule. This structure is suggested by pauling.
11. In Siemen’s Ozoniser, tin foils and in Brodie’s Ozoniser copper Sulphate solution are used are electrical contact
12. Green Potassium manganate is oxidized by ozone to purple potassium permanganate.
13. All three atoms in ozone molecule are utilized for oxidation is some reaction. Ex : - Oxidisation of SO 2 & SnCl2 with ozone.

14. MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID :

a. Lead chamber process : SO2 is obtained by burning iron pyrites. This SO2 is converted to SO3 by treating with NO2, SO3 is
dissolved in H2O to get H2SO4.
b. Contact process : SO2 is oxidized by oxygen to SO3 in the presence of V2O5 and platinated. Asbestos. This SO3 is dissolved
in water to give conc. H2S2O7, which on hydrolysis gives H2SO4.
15. The major advantage of contact process over lead Chamber process is production of more concentrated H 2SO4.
16. H2SO4 is called king of chemicals.
17. The disadvantage of contact process is the usage of solid catalyst which is easily poisoned by Arsenic etc.
18. Conc. H2SO4 on careful warming with KClO3 gives ClO2 gas.
19. On heating with KMnO4 and K2C r2O7 liberates oxygen.
20. Sodium Thiosulphate : Na2S2O3.5H2O (Hypo).

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY – HALOGENS SYNOPSIS

1. Radio active halogen is Astentine (At).
2. The oxidizing power of halogens decreases from fluorine to iodine.
3. Arrangement of the halogen hydrides in the increasing order of
a. DIPOLE MOMENT : HI < HBr < HCl < HF
b. REDUCING POWER : HF < HCl < HBr < HI
c. THERMAL STABILITY : HI < HBr < HCl < HF
d. BOND LENGTH : HF < HCl < HBr < HI
e. IONIC CHARACTER : HI < HCL < HBR < HI
f. ACIDIC CHARACTER : HF < HCL < HBR < HI
4. The only hydrogen halide in liquid state at room temperature if HF.
5. Except fluorine all the other halogens have positive oxidation states in their oxides.
6. Fluorine does not form oxy-acids because it is more electronegative than oxygen.
7. Halogen other than fluorine hypohalites and halates respectively with dilute and concentrated solutions of alkalies.
8. The stability of hypohalite ion decreases from chlorine to iodine but that of halite ion increases.
9. The most stable nitrogen trihalides is NF3.
10. The halogen having greatest affinity to hydrogen is fluorine.
11. Deacon’s process is for preparation of chlorine by oxidizing HCl with air in the presence of CuCl 2.
12. Chlorine is a strong bleaching agent, which bleaches by oxidation. Dry chlorine cannot bleach dry articles because nearest
oxygen in not produced without water.
13. In the presence of moisture chlorine, bromine and iodine turn blue litmus to red.
14. Chlorine, bromine and iodine give yellow, orange or brown and violet coloured solutions respectively in organic solvents.
15. Bromine and iodine give yellow and deep blue colours respectively with starch solution.
16. Sea weeds are best sources for iodine.
17. The halogen that oxidizes hypo to sodium tetrathionate is iodine.
18. AgCl is dissolved in NH4OH forming a complex Ag(NH3)2 Cl.
19. ‘Chromyl chloride test’ is a good test for chlorine.
20. HBr is prepared in laboratory by hydrolysis or PBr3.
21. HI gives scarlet precipitate of mercuric iodide, with mercuric chloride and it liberates iodine with copper sulphate. (These two are
special properties of HI. These are not shown by other hydrogen halides).
22. Hypo halous acids are formed by Cl2, Br2 and I2.
23. Halous acid is formed only by chlorine (HClO2).
24. Halic acid is formed by all the three, but perfelic acid is formed by chlorine and iodine only.
25. Bleaching power decomposes in the presence of cobalt chloride giving oxygen. And in the absence of cobalt chloride it gives
calcium chlorate on decomposition.
26. The available chlorine content of calcium hypochlorite is greater than that of bleaching on power.
27. The strength of oxyacids on halogens decreases from chlorine to iodine whereas the strength of hydrohalic acid increases from
chlorine to iodine.
28. HCl solution is called spirit of salt.
29. Bleaching power loses its bleaching property when kept in an open bottle for a long time. Reason :- due to reaction with CO 2 of
Air Cl2 is evolved.
30. Fluorine is prepared by electrolysis of KHF2.
31. The important methods of preparing fluorine are Moissan’s method. Dennin’s method and whatlaw-Gray’s method.
32. In Moissan’s method the electrodes are made up of platinum iridium alloy, in Dennin’s method, the electrodes are steel cathode
and graphite anode.
33. For the reactions of HF, glass apparatus cannot be used because it attacks glass. (Formation of silicon fluoride).
34. Copper apparatus are used for preparation and storage of fluorine because copper metal (nickel and iron also) is covered with
protective film of fluoride.
35. Phosgene (Carbonyl chlorine COCl2) Chloropicrin (tear gas Cl3 C-NO2) and mustard gas ((Cl2C2H4)S) are the poisonous gases
prepared from chlorine.
36. Sodium bromide and potassium bromide are used as sedative in medicine.
37. Bromine is used for detection of unsaturation in organic compound.
38. Tincture iodine is the solution of iodine, KI, water in spirit.
39. Teflon is polymer of tetrafluoro ethylene (C2F4).
40. Freon (CCl2F2) is a gas used a refrigerant.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY SYNOPSIS (d-BLOCK ELEMENTS)

1. General electronic configuration :- ns2 (n - 1)d1-10.
2. Metallic character : These are all good metals. They show high thermal & electrical conductivities.
3. Atomic volumes : These elements have relatively lower atomic volumes than Alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, because
thinner d-orbitals filled up with electrons and thus they are pulled by the nucleus to the greater extent. Due to this, these metals
have high density.
NOTE : In a period of d-block, the density increases from left to right at first and then decreases. This is due to increasing
screening effect.
4. Melting & Boiling points : These metals have relatively high melting & boiling points because, the atoms of these metals held
with covalent bonds formed by overlap of half filled d-orbitals besides the usual metallic bonding.
5. Ionisation energies : The ionisation energy increases in a period of d-block from left to right but the increase is very low,
because of two opposing factors (I) increasing nuclear charge and (ii) increasing shielding effect.
6. Variable valency : Most of these elements show more than one oxidation states.This is due to the availability of ‘ns’ and (n - 1)d
electrons for bond formation.
7. Magnetic properties : Most of these elements and their compounds are paramagnetic due to presence of unpaired electrons.
Ex. : Cr, Fe, Co, Fe2+, Fe3+ etc.
8. Alloy formation : The size of atoms of all the se elements are almost similar. Therefore, liquid state these are fairly miscible.
And thus they form alloys easily.
9. Catalytic properties : Many of these metals and their compounds are used as catalysts. This to the presence of vacant of
partially filled d-orbitals. These metals have active centres and thus provide better surface for the reaction at lower temperature.
10. Colour : Most of the compounds of d-block elements are coloured. This is due to low energy transition Among the degenerate
orbitals of d-subshell there is a split due to the electric field exerted by neighboring group. Thus the five orbitals form two sets
and electron transition from one set to the other. There is a low energy transition corresponding to the frequency of visible light.
11. Complex formation : This is the most important property of d-block metals. They form complexes readily for this reason.
(i) Small size of ions
(ii) Greater nuclear charge
(iii) Vacant d-orbitals
In a complex, the d-block metal ion forms co-ordinate covalent bonds with electron pair donating groups by accepting the
electron pairs. Such electron pair donating groups are called “Ligands” (The Ligands are either negative groups like CN: Cl etc.)
Ex. i) [Fe(CN)6]3-  Fe3+
ii) [Fe(CN)6]4-  Fe2+
iii) [Cr(NH3)63+  Cr3+
iv) [cr(CN)6]3-  Cr3+
v) [NiCl4]2  Ni+2
vi) [Ni(CO)4]  Ni
vii) [Cu(NH3)4]2+  Cr2+
Note : A complex compound splits up into ions in water in such a way that the complex ion is not separated.
Ex : i) K4 [Fe(CN)6] in 4K+ + [Fe(CN)6]4-
ii) [Co(NH3)6]Cl3 in [CO(NH3)6]3+ + 3Cl
water

The number of lone pairs accepted by central metal ion in a complex ion is called co-ordination number
Ex : i) K3[Fe(CN)6]  Co-ordination number is 6
ii) [CO(NH4)Cl2]C  Co-ordination number is 6

CHEMISTRY-METALLURGY-SYNOPSIS
The extraction of metals, and refining is called metallurgy. The metals that are associated with other elements in the earths crusts
are called minerals. A mineral from which a metal can be extracted easily and economically is called an ore.
METALLURGICAL processes essentially involves the following steps.

1. Concentration of the ores or ore dressing.

2. Calcination
3. Roasting
4. Reduction of free metallic state
5. Purification of the metal
6. Electrolysis
The process of concentrating the ore and extracting the metal from the concentrated ore is called winning.

1. Concentrating of the ore : This is physical process of removal of the impurities (Gangue Material). In the preliminary stages. It
is called concentration of the ore.

a. Gravitation Method : In this method the impurities can be removed by the advantages of the differences in the specific
gravitation (Relative Densities) of the metallic ore and water. Light impurities which that on water ore removed.
b. Froth Floatation process : It is particularly useful for sulphide ores. It is based on the principle of preferential wetting of
the solid surface by various liquids. Metallic sulphides are wetted by certain oils like pine oil or Eucalyptus oil and mixture
is treated with water. Usually Sodium Carbonate is added to get stable froth, and potassium ethyl xanthate is added to
collector.
c. Magnetic Concentration : Ore or Impurities should be magnetic. Two rolers are taken a powerful electromagnet is attached
to one of the roler belt is allowed to move over them non-magnetic ore through away tangently and magnetic particle fall
below magnetic Eg. Zn, Fe.
d. Hand Pocking
e. Leaching, dissolving the ore in suitable solvent and re-precipitating.
2. Calcination : Calcination is a process is which the ore heating in absence of air below the melting point of the metal to expel the
organic matter, free moisture as well as water from a hydrate or hydroxide ore or carbon dioxide from carbonate ore.
Finally metallic oxides are obtained. Calcination is generally done in a reverberatory furnace. It renders the ore porous and dry.
3. Roasting : Roasting is process in which the ores mostly sulphide ores either alone or with the addition of other materials are
subjected to the action of heat or heat and air at temperatures above the M.P. of the metal, in order in bring out oxidation. It is
generally carried out in reverberatory furnace. Finally metallic oxides are obtained.
4. Smelting : The roasted ore is mixed with carbon and flux (Coal or coke) and heated in a furnace carbon and carbon monoxide
(produced by the incomplete combustion of carbon) reduced the oxide to the metal. Separating the metal in fused state from the
ore is called smelting. Smelting is generally carried out is Blast Furnace.
 Fluxes : The substance added to remove gangue. Flux reacts chemically with gangue to form slag. The type of flux to be used
depends on the nature of the impurities present in the ore.

Acidic Flux : Used to remove basic impurities which have basic character. The substance added to remove gangue. Flux reacts
chemically with gangue to form slag. The type of flux to be used depends on the nature of the impurities present in the ore.

Basic Flux : If the ore is associated with acidic impurities such SO2 basic fluxes like MgO, CaO are used.

Reduction by Aluminium : Gold Schmidt thermite process : Certain oxides are not easily reduced by carbon. A mixture of the
metallic oxides and aluminium powder (Thermite) is ignited and aluminium acts a reducing agent. Eg, Cr., Mn.
5. Purification :
a. Liquation Process : This process is used when the impurity is less fusible than the metals Eg. Zu.
b. Distillation Process : This process is employed for purification of volatile melts like mercury, Zinc and Cadmium. The
impure metal is heated in a retort in which pure metal distile over, the non-volatile impurities are left behind in the retort.
c. Oxidation Process : Oxidation process is employed for refining when impurities present have a greater affinity for oxygen
and are oxidized more readily than the metal.
d. Poling : Stirring the liquid metal with green wood and separating the impurities like oxygen is called poling. Eg. Copper.
6. Electrolytic Refining : Here pure metal is taken at cathode and impure metal at anode and the metal salt solution at electrolyte.
When current is passed through, pure metal deposits on the cathode.
Iron : Haematite Fe2O3, Magnetite Fe3O4, Limonite 2 Fe2O3, 3H2O Siderite FeCO3, Iron pyrites FeS2 Cast Iron or Pig Iron
contains 1.5 to 4.5% carbon. Steel contains 0.1 to 1.5 %.
Wrought Iron contains carbon upto 0.1%.
Armco Iron is purest form of Iron.
Cast Iron is prepared from Haematite ore.
Wrought Iron is prepared from Cast Iron by pudding process.
Steel is prepared from cast iron by Bessemer process.
PREPARATING OF CAST IRON : Concentration of the ore is done by Levigation. And then the ore is subjected to
calcination or roasting by which CO2 and moisture are removed, FeO is oxidized at Fe2O3 and the ore becomes porous.
SMELTING : It takes place in Blast furnace, and the charge consists of ore, Code and Lime stone in the ratio of 8 : 4 : 1. In
Blast furnace Co acts as a reducing agent.
CaO acts as a flux and removes SIO2 (Gangue) forming calcium Silicate (Slag)
Formation of carbon dioxide is exothermic reaction and formation of carbon monoxide is endothermic reaction.
STEEL : It is prepared from Haematite ore by open hearth process. Producer gas (CO + N 2) is used as a fuel in open hearth
process.
Thomas Slag (Ca3(PO4)2) is formed in the preparation of steel. To maintain the percentage of carbon spieglsin, an alloy of
(Fe – C - MN) issued. Steel can also be prepared from Cast iron by Bessemer Process.
ALLUMINIUM : Chief Ores: Bauxite Al2O3, 2 H2O, Diaspore Al2 O3 H2O Corundum Al2O3, Cryolite Na3 AIF6.
PURIFICATION OF BAUXITE ORE :
a. Bayer’s Process : The ore is digested with caustic soda, FeO impurity is removed.
b. Hall’s Process : Bauxite is fused with Na2CO3 and Aluminium hydroxide is precipitated.
c. Serpeck’s Process : Bauxite ore is mixed with Code to 1800°C in presence of Nitrogen SIO 2 impurity is removed and
Aluminium form Aluminium Nitride. NH2 is formed as a by-product.
HALL AND HEROULTS PROCESS OR ELECTROLYTIC REDUCTION : Aluminium is reduced, Cathode is carbon
lining, Anode is graphite rods and electrolyte is a mixture of Al2O3 and Cryolite.
Cryolite is added to Al2O3 to reduce and the melting point of Al2O3 and favouring electrolysis.
COPPER
Copper pyrites Cu Fe S2 Cuprite Cu2 O
Copper Glance Cu2S ; Malachite CuCO3. CuO ,Azurite 2 CuCO3, Cu(OH)2.
Copper is extracted from copper pyrites
Concentrated by Froth Flotation Process and subjected to Roasting, which results in the formation of Cu 2S and FeS liberating
SO2.
Roasted Copper Pyrite is mixed Coke Silica and then subjected to smelting in Blast Furnace.
FeO impurity is removed by the flux SIO2 forming Slag FeSiO3.
Smelting results in the production of matter which is a mixture Cuprous sulphide and little Ferrous Sulphide. It is also called
Coarse Copper.
Bessemerisation results in the formation of Blister Copper (98% copper) or 1 % impure copper.
Refining of copper is done by poling and Electrolytic process.
In electrolytic refining impure copper is taken as anode and pure copper as cathode, in a solution of copper sulphate as
electrolyte.

MAGNESIUM
Magnesite MgCO3
Dolomite MgCO3. CaCO3
Carnalite MgCl2. KCl
Epsom salt MgSO4.7H2O

Magnesium is extracted by the electrolysis of anhydrous magnesium chloride and NaCl. The purpose of adding NaCl is to
increase the conductivity and to reduce the melting point of MgCl2. To prevent the oxidation of Magnesium with O2 and N2
present in the air, the air in the cell is replaced by hydrogen or coal gas.

ORES
SULPHIDES :
1. Copper Pyrites CuFeS2
2. Iron pyrites FeS
3. Zinc Blende ZnS
4. Cinna bar HgS
5. Galena PbS
6. Argentite Ag2S
7. Copper glance Cu2S
8. Stibnite Sb2S3
9. Pentalandite (CuFeNi)S
10. Millerite NiS

CARBONATES:
1. Magnesite MgCO3
2. Limestone CaCO3
3. Calamine ZnCO3
4. Malachite CuCO3Cu(OH)2
5. Dolamite CaCO3MgCO3
6. Cerussite PbCO3
7. Siderite FeCO3

OXIDES:
1. Bauxite Al2O3.2H2O
2. Corundum Al2O3
3. Cuprite Cu2O
4. Haematite Fe2O3
5. Magnetite Fe3O4
6. Zincite ZnO
7. Tinstone or Casseterite SnO2
8. Pyroluste MnO2
9. Pitchblende U 3O 8
10. Diaspore Al2O3 H2O
11. Borax Na2B4O7
12. Hausmanite MnO4

HALIDES:
1. Rock Salt NaCl
2. Carnalite KCl MgCl2 6H2O
3. Horn Silver AgCl
4. Flouraspar CaF2

SULPHATES :
1. Epson salt MgSO4 7H2O
2. Gypsum CaSO4 2H2O
3. Anglesite PbSO4
4. Barytes BaSO4

SILICATES :
1. Hemimorphite 2 ZnO. SiO2.H2O
2. Asbestos Ca Mg3 (SiO3)4
3. Felspar K2O.3Al2SiO3
4. Mica K2O.3Al2 O3 .6SiO2
5. Chile Salt Petre NaNO3
6. Phosphorite KNO3
ALLOYS
(No need to remember % Learn only composition)

Aluminium Bronze Cu – 90 % Golden Yellow Non-Corrodible

Al – 10 %
Monel Metal Cu – 30% Acid pump Ni – 67%
Fe + Mn – 3%
Bell-Metal Cu – 80 % Bells gongs
Sn – 20%
Gun Metal Cu, Sn, Zn
87%, 10%
25% Guns, Gears, castings
German silver Cu, Zn, Ni Utensils
50%, 25%
25% Resistance coil
Electron Mg – 95% Construction of aircraft
Zn – 5%
Magnalium Al – 85 to 99% Hard tough and light
Mg – 1 to 15%
Duralumin Mg – 0.5 %
Mn – 0.5 % Airship
Cu – 4%
Al – 95%
Yeg alloy Mg – 1.5 % Light touch and resistant to corrosion
Ni – 2%
Cu – 4%
Al – 92.5 %

ALCLAD : Duralumin covered with thin coating of aluminium is called “Alclad”. Chrome Vanadium 0.15 to 1% Cr springs
axiles. Manganese steel 1 – 2 to 15% Mn rail & road track.
85 – 90 % Fe
Tungston Steel 14 – 20% W
70 to 75% Fe For high speed tools 3 to 8% Cr
Invar 36 % - Ni Measuring instruments
64 % - Fe Pendulum Clocks
Stainless Steel 11.6 % - Cr Cycle & Automobile parts
90% - Fe
Nichrome 80% - Ni Heating coil
20% - Cr
Constantan 40% - Ni Electrical resistance
60% - Cu
Coinage Alloy 75% - Cu Coins
20% - Ni
Brass 60 – 80 % Cu Utensils, condenser tube
20 – 40% Sn
Bronze 75 – 90 % Cu Statues, Coins
10 – 25% Sn

ZINC – AT NO 29 DIAMAGNETIC
Ores : ZnO, ZnCO3, ZnS

General Method : 1. Gravity Process 2. Froth Flotation 3. Magnetic Separation

4. Calcination 5. Roasting
ZnS + 2O2  ZnSO4 ZnSO4


2 ZnSO4  2 ZnO + 2SO2  + O2 



Reduction to free metallic state : ZnO + C  Zn + CO

Belgium Process : Earthen retort is used

Prolong : Iron steal placed at the mouth of condenser to prevent loss of zinc
Vertical retort process : It is continuous process
Better Process Uses : 1. Galvenation 2. Extraction of silver and 3. In preparation of zinc alloys
 SILVER – AT NO. 47 (PARAMAGNETIC)
Ores : Ag2S, AgCl
1. Gravity Process 2. Froth Floatation 3. Magnetic Separation 4. Calcination

Cyanide Process :
Ag2S + 2NaCN  Na [Ag(CN)2] + Na2S
Na2S + 2O2  Na2SO4
Precipitation of silver
Na[Ag(CN)2] + Zn  Na2 [Zn (CN)4] + 2 Ag
Fusion : Ag  Ag(S)
Parke’s Process : Extraction of silver from lead
1. Zinc Combines with silver than lead in molten state.
2. On cooling zinc-silver alloy solids fast than lead.
3. On heating zinc-silver alloy zinc vaporize and collected in a condenser silver is left in container.
4. Purification of silver by cupellation, Cupel is made of bone-ash crucible.

CHEMISTRY – I, II, III, IV GROUP ELEMENTS

1. Chili salt petre (NaNO3) 2. Cryolite (Na3AIF6)
3. Felspar (Na2O.Al2O3, SiO2) 4. Magnesite (MgCO3)
5. Dolmite (MgCO3, CaCO3) 6. Carnalite (KCl – MgCl2, 6H2O)
7. Epsomite or Epsom salt (MgSO4, 7H2O) 8. Kasserite (MgSO4, H2O)
9. Asbestos (CaMg3(SlO3)4) 10. Corundum (Al2O3)
11. Diaspore (Al2O3.H2O) 12. Bauxite (Al2O3, 2H2O)

II. EXTRATIA
1. Castner’s Process : Sodium by electrolysis of fused NaOH. Cathode is iron rod and anode is a nickel cylinder.
2. Down’s Process : Sodium is extracted by electrolysis and fused NaCl. Fused CaCl2 etc. are added to lower M.P.A. carbon rod
acts as cathode.
3. Mg from MgCl2 : Magnesium is extracted from MgCl2 by electrolysis of fused MgCl2. Perforated graphite rod is anode. Iron
vessel itself is cathode. CaCl2 and NaCl are added to increase conductivity and to prevent, Hydrolysis of MgCl2 Inert atmosphere
is maintained (by passing inert gas) to prevent oxidation of molten magnesium.
4. Mg from MgO : Magnesium is extracted by electrolysis of MgO. Magnesium fluoride, sodium fluoride etc. are added to improve
conductance Cast iron rods serve as cathode and carbon rods are serve as anode.
5. Aluminium is mainly extracted from Bauxite. After purification, the pure Alumina (Al2O3) is electrolyzed to get Aluminium.
a. Bauxite is purified in Bayer’s Process by dissolving in NaOH (separated as soluble NaAlO 2).
b. Bauxite is purified in Hall’s Process by Dissolving Na2CO3 solution (separated as NaAlO2).
c. Bauxite is purified in serpeck’s process by reacting with N2 and code (separated as AlN stones).
Note : When Fe2O3 is major impurity Bayer’s Hall’s Process is used when silica is major impurity serpeck’s process is used.
6. Al2O3 is electrolyzed in Hareult and Hall’s cell. Cryolite is added to improve conductance and ease of electrolysis.

IV. PROPERTIES
1. White shining sodium metal gets tarnished when exposed to atmosphere due to formation of Na 2CO3 layers.
2. Magnesium metal litereter SO2 from conc. H2SO4 and H2 gas from diluted H2SO4 (and from other dil. acids).
3. Burning magnesium continues to burn in CO2 gas by taking oxygen from CO2 (by reducing carbon).
2Mg + CO2 2MgO + C.
4. Magnesium is tarnished in Moist air by forming MgO layer.
5. Aluminium is dissolved in NaOH and in Na2CO3 solution due to the formation of NaAlO2 (soluble complex).
6. Aluminium liberates SO2 from conc. H2O4 and H2 gas from dil. H2SO4.
7. Aluminium is used in thermite process (Goldschmidt Alumina thermite process) as reducing agent to reduce MnO, Cr 2O3 etc.
IV. USES
1. Lithium is used in television picture tubes.
2. Sodium metal is used in sodium vapour discharge lamps.
3. Na-Pb is the string material for the manufacture of tetraethyl lead (anti-knocking compound).
4. Potassium along with Cesium is used in photoelectric cells.

V. Compounds of these elements

1. Zinc, Stannum, Aluminium etc. metals are dissolved in NaOH by the formation of salts Sodium Zincate (Na 2AlO2) etc.
2. NaOH gives sodium formate with carbon monoxide.
3. Sodium carbonate is mainly manufacture in Solvay’s process (ammonia soda process).
4. In Solvay’s process if excess of CO2 is passed a white precipitate is formed. It is sodium bicarbonate.
5. In Solvay’s process ammonia is recovered with the help of Ca(OH)2.
6. Sodium Bicarbonate (backing soda) is mainly used in baking. Powder (mixture of NaHCO 3 and potassium hydrogen tartarate).
7. CaSO4, 2H2O is called Gypsum. It is prepared by the action of dil. H2SO4 on CaO, CaCO3 or CaCl2.
8. Plaster of Paris is CaSO4 1/2 H2O (or) 2CaSO4.H2O. It is prepared by partial dehydration of Gypsum. It is used in making moulds
in pottery work and also used in surgical bondages.
9. Quick lime is Cawhich is used as a drying agent of gasses and alcohol.
10. When a stick of lime is placed at the top of the oxy-hydrogen flame, it becomes incandescent and beginning to glow with an
intense white light called lime light.
11. Motor is a thick paste obtained by mixing slaked lime with sand and with water. It sets to a hard mass (CaCO 3) by absorbing CO2
from atmosphere.
12. Aluminium sulphate on heating decomposes to Al2O3 and SO3 gas.
13. Alumina (Al2O) is used as refractory material, in preparation of artificial gems, in chromatography and as abrasive.
14. Anhydrous AlCl3 is prepared by heating mixture of alumina with carbon & chlorine. Al2O3 + 3C + 3Cl2  2AlCl3 + 3CO.
15. AlCl3 is a solid and sublimes at 200°C. At sublimation point its vapour contains dimmers (Al 2Cl6).

IMPORTANT BITS (ALL GROUPS) V GROUP (N & P FAMILY)

1. NH3 gas is dried quick lime (CaO).
2. HNO3 is called aqua fortis (Strong water).
3. They yellow colour of HNO3 is due to the presence of NO2.
4. When phospharite rock is treated with H3PO4 gives Triple super phosphate Ca3(PO4)2 + 4H3PO4  3 Ca(H2PO4)2
5. Bones glow in dark due to slow oxidation or combustion of white phosphorus (i.e. phosphorescence).
6. In the manufacture of safety matches Red phosphorus is used.
7. The top of safety match stick is made up of White phosphorous.
8. White phosphorous may be removed from Red phosphorous by dissolving in CS 2.
9. N2O5 Nitrogen oxide is solid.
10. A lightning flash through air may results in the formation of HNO2.
11. NO Nitrogen oxide has three electron bond.
12. Ortho phosphoric acid is not prepared from (4)
1. Bone Ash 2. Phosphorite rock 3. P 4. Carbon Black
13. When Con. HNO3 falls on skin, it becomes yellow due to the conversion of proteins to Xantho proteins.
14. In bones & teeth calcium is in the form of Calcium phosphate.
15. The reddish brown coloured jar formed when Nitric oxide is oxidized by air is NO 2.
16. Liqour ammonia bottles are open after cooling them in ice for sometime. This is due to high vapour pressure.
17. Liquid NH3 is commonly used as refrigerators because it has high heat evaporation.
18. Nitrogen is an essential constituent of soil, plants & animals.
19. N2O & O2 mixture is used as anesthesia.
20. When a man inhales 300 cc of air, he inhales 240 cc of N2.
21. NO gives brown colour with FeSO4 solution.
22. During lightning storm the quantity of Nitrogen compounds in the atmosphere increases.
23. Oxide formed during raining day is NO.
24. NH4 NO3  N2O + H2O.


25. On heating Pb (NO3)2 gives NO reddish brown gas.

26. The reddish brown gas liberated from Con. HNO3 is NO2.
27. NH3 reacts with CuSO4 forming a complex. The formula is [Cu(NH3)4] SO4.
28. N2O oxide of Nitrogen is soluble in alcohol.
29. NO produces reddish brown fumes of NO2 in air.
30. NO is para magnetic.
31. The acids obtained due to lightning discharge followed by rain are HNO2 and HNO3.
32. Nitro chalk is a mixture of NH4NO3 & CaCO3.
33. When an excess NH3 gas is passed through the solution of AgNO3, the cation is converted to [Ag(NH3)2]+.
34. N2O is the only oxide of Nitrogen which does not decolorize aqueous KMnO4.
35. Ca3 P2 + 6HCl  2PH3 + 3CaCl2.
36. N2O Nitrogen oxide used in anesthetic.
37. (NH4)2 Cr2O7  N2 gas (Ammonium dichromate).


38. NH2CONH2 + 2HNO2  CO2 +3H2O + N2.

39. Fractional distillation of liquid air gives N2.
40. Pentoxides are more acidic than Trioxides of Vth group elements.
41. Micro cosmic salt on heating gives NH3 gas (Na(NH4)HPO4).
42. NH4 NO2  N2 + 2H2O.


43. 2 AgNO3  2 Ag + 2NO2 + O2.



44. Phosphate ion ma be detected by molybdate test (Gives canary yellow precipitate with ammonium molybdate).
45. Formula of Nessler’s reagent is K2 Hg I4 +KOH
46. The brown precipitate formed by adding nesslers reagent to ammonium salt is called Iodide of millions base (Hg 2O.NH2I).
47. The fertilizer containing the highest percentage of Nitrogen is Urea.
48. The anhydride of Nitrous acid is N2O3.
49. The anhydride of Nitric acid is N2O5.
50. The anhydride of mixture of Nitrous acid & Nitric acid is N2O4 or NO2.

VI GROUP OXYGEN & SULPHUR FAMILY

1. The important constituents of air for human beings is O2.
2. O2 & O3 are Allotropes.
3. The compound of Sulphur used as refrigerant is SO2.
4. The gas which turns K2Cr2O7 paper green is SO2.
5. Sodium thiosulphate is used in photography because of its complex forming behavior.
6. Con. H2SO4 and Cu chips are heated together the pungent smelling gas readily turns dichromate paper green.
7. O3 acts as bleaching agent due to its oxidizing nature.
8. N2O + O2 mixture is used on anesthesia.
9. Aqueous solution of SO2 contains SO3 ions.
10. O2 is absorbed by an alkaline solution of pyrogallol.
11. In the presence of MnO2 the decomposition of ozone increases.
12. Formation of ozonide is addition reaction.
13. Electric discharge is passed through oxygen ozonised oxygen is formed.
14. The hydride of Sulphur is more volatile tan water.
15. Sulphur is also called Brimstone.
16. The drying agent that can be used to remove moisture from H2S is CaCl2 or P4O10.
17. Con. H2SO4 is not used as dehydrating agent for H2S. This is because H2S reduces H2SO4 to SO2
H2S + H2SO4  SO2 + 2H2O + S.
18. 2HNO3 + H2S  2NO2 + 2H2O + S.
19. SO2 + 2 H2S  2 NO2 + 2H2O + S.
20. SO2 gas is absorbed by KOH solution.
21. Bleaching action of SO2 is due to Reduction.
22. When a filter paper dipped in lead acetate is exposed to H2S then the colour of the paper turned to Black.
23. Oxygen molecule in para magnetic.
24. Fe2 (SO4)3 on dry distillation gives SO3.
25. Colloidal Sulphur is obtained by the action of HNO3 over H2S.
26. When ozone is passed through starch Iodide paper, the colour will be blue.
27. The gases liberated with conc. H2SO4 react with KBr is HBr, Br2, SO2.
28. Pb3O4 is mixed oxide.
29. Bisulphate salts are produced by the partial neutralization of H2SO4.
30. The gas with rotten egg smell is H2S.
31. Oxidation state of oxygen is per chloric acid is -2.
32. The oxidation state of carbon is CH2O is 0.
33. Oxidation state of Sulphur in Sodium tetra thionate is 2.5.
34. The anhydride of sulphurous acid is SO2.
35. The anhydride of sulphuric acid is SO3.
36. When SO2 is passed through acidified K2Cr2O7 solution green Cr2(SO4)3 is formed.
37. KO2, RbO2, CsO2 are examples of super oxides.
38. N2O, C3 O2 are examples of sub oxides.
39. Gun powder is a mixture of Sulphur charcoal and potassium Nitrate.
40. Sulphur burns in air to produce SO2.
41. When pure H2SO4 is electrolyzed the product at anode is H2S2O4.
42. 2 KMnO4  K2 MnO4 + MnO2 + O2.


43. 2 K2 Cr2 O7  2K2 CrO4 + Cr2 O3 + 3O.

44. Paramagnetic property of oxygen is explained by the unpaired electrons in the anti-bonding molecular orbitals.
45. CO is neutral oxide. O2 molecule is paramagnetic (M.O.T)
46. Ozone is present in upper layer of air.
47. Al2O3 is Amphoteric oxide.
48. The oxidation state of Sulphur in caro’s acid H2SO5 is + 6.
49. The oxidation state of Sulphur in Marshall’s ( H2S2O8 )acid is + 6.
50. POO2 is Basic oxide.

VII GROUP (HALOGENS)

1. Cl2 gas is dried over Conc. H2SO4.
2. The Hydrogen fluorides is liquid unlike the hydrogen halides because HF molecules are associated due to hydrogen bonding.
3. Cl2 bleach substance by oxidation.
4. Iodide ion differs from Iodine atom in the number of electrons.
5. Photographic plate is coated with a film of AgBr.
6. HF is not placed in glass because it reacts with SiO2 of the glass.
7. Teflon is plastic.
8. Cl2O6  2ClO3 so ClO3 is diamagnetic & Cl2O6 is para magnetic.
9. Among halogens I2 sow greater inert pair effect.
10. Tincture of Iodine is I2, Kl & C2H5OH.
11. The disinfecting action of Cl2 is due to oxidation.
12. Bromine changes starch Iodine paper to yellow.
13. Bromine reacts with moist Sulphur dioxide to give H2 SO4 & HBr.
14. Unstable halogen acid is HI.
15. The stable halogen acid is HF due to Hydrogen bonding.
16. Bleaching powder react with excess of dil. H2SO4 to form Cl2 gas.
17. Hypo is used in photography to dissolve out unchanged AgBr.
18. The halogen that form halide with an inert gas is Fluorine.
19. In Halogen acids, the one with the highest degree of Ionisation is HI.
20. BHC common name is Gamaxene.
21. I2 gives blue colour with starch.
22. The strength of oxy acids decreases with the order HOCl < HClO2 > HClO4.
23. The basic strength and stability of ions of the oxy acids is ClO - > ClO2- > ClO3- > ClO4-.
24. Pseudo halogen is Cyanogen (CN)2.
25. Pseudo halide is CN-.
26. F2 gas was first prepared by Moissan.
27. In deacon’s method Cl2 is obtained as followed 4HCl + O2  2H2O + 2Cl2.
28. CIF sp3 Linear.
29. I Cl3 sp3d T-shape.
30. Cl F3 sp3d T-shape.
31. I Cl5 sp3d2 square pyramidal.
32. I Br5 sp3 d2 square pyramidal.
33. IF7 sp3 d3 pentagonal bi pyramidal.
34. Halogen atom without positive oxidation state is F.
35. F2 & Cl2 react with starch to form no colour.
36. ClO2 is an example of three electron bond.
37. Sea weeds are important source of iodine.
38. Bleaching powder is an example of mixed salt.
39. Azotropic mixture of HCl water contains 36% HCl.
40. The solubility of the following in water is more (1)
1. CaF2 2. CaCl2 3. Cal2 4. CaBr2
41. The solubility of the following in water is more (4)
1. AgCl 2. Agl 3. AgBr 4. AgF
42. AgCl on fusion with Na2CO3 give Ag.
43. The valency of halogen with respect to Hydrogen is 1.
44. Which of the following is least stable (1)
1. ClO 2. ClO2 3. ClO3 4. ClO4
45. Which of the following is powerful oxidant (1)
1. OCl- 2. CIO2- 3. ClO3- 4. ClO-4
46. Which of the following has least B.P. (4)
1. HF 2. HCl 3. HBr 4. HI
47. The halogen that give dark brown precipitate when treated with Ammonia is I2.
48. The maximum percentage of available chlorine from bleaching powder 49%.
49. The actual percentage of available Cl2 in the commercial sample of Cl2 is 35 to 38%.
50. The most powerful halide ion is I-.

IA & IIA GROUPS (ALKALI METALS & ALKALINE EARTH METALS)

1. Sodium can’t exhibit +2 Oxidation state because its I2 > I1.
2. A solution of sodium metal in liquid ammonia is strongly reducing due to the presence of solvated electrons.
3. Excess NaOH reacts with Zn to form Na2ZnO2.
4. Which of the following solubility is more in water (4)
1. BeSO4 2. MgSO4 3. CaSO4 4. BaSO4
5. Kalkali metal is required for the plant growth.
6. A atom containing odd number of electrons show paramagnetic.
7. A2 reacts with KOH to form H2 gas.
8. NaOH alkali metal compound is used in the preparation of soap.
9. The metal which is extracted from sea water is Magnesium.
10. When Mg reacts with steam the substance formed is MgO, H2.
11. NaH has NaCl type of structure.
12. Ingredient of baking powder is NaHCO3.
13. Sodium is used as coolant in Nuclear reactor.
14. Formula of Glauber’s salt is Na2SO4.10 H2O.
15. Compound formed when excess of CO2 is passed through lime water is Ca(HCO3)2.
16. Chemical name of hydrolith is Calcium Hydride.
17. White phosphorous reacts with caustic soda to form phosphine gas.
18. A standard solution of sodium hydroxide cant be prepared by direct weighting of cold NaOH because NaOH is deliquescent
substance.
19. Hemi hydrate of CaSO4 is called as plaster of paris. CaSO4.1/2H2O
20. K2CO3 can’t be prepared by solvay’s process because KHCO3 is highly soluble in water.
21. Formula of Asbestos Ca Mg (SiO3)4.
22. Formula of Microcosmic salts is Na(NH4) HPO4 4 H2O.
23. The nature of Aqueous solution of sodium carbonate Basic.
24. The nature of Aqueous solution of sodium Bi carbonate is Basic.
25. Basic nature of the oxidises increases from BeO to BaO.
III A GROUP
1. Li+ does’t form alum due to small size.
2. Aluminium may be converted in to anhydrous AlCl3 by mixing it with carbon and heating the mixture in a current of Cl 2.
3. Aqueous solution of potash alum is Acidic.
4. Chemical name of red liquor is Aluminium Acetate.
5. The mineral of Aluminium which does’t contain oxygen is Cryolite.
6. Potash alum is used to stop bleeding.
7. Aqueous solution of Borax is Alkaline.
8. The mixture of Aluminium & NH4NO3 is called ammonal.
9. Banana Bond is present in B2H6.
10. In the formation of Al2O3 the heat liberated can be utilized in Thermite welding.
11. The colour developed during borax bead test is due to the formation of meta bornates.
12. The catalyst used in Friedal crafts reactions is an Hydrous AlCl 3.
13. The silica impurity present in Bauxite can be removed by serpeck’s process.
14. In the purification of Red Bauxite by Baeyer’s process Roasted Red Bauxite is heated with NaOH.
15. AIF3 is Ionic compound AlCl3 is covalent compound.
16. Thalium shows +1 oxidation state due to inert pair effect.
17. AlCl3, NH4Cl, dry ice undergo sublimation.
18. The formula of the soluble compound formed by boiling red bauxite with caustic soda is NaAlO 2.
19. In the dimer of AlCl3, the entities are bonded by coordinate bond.
20. Sodium tetra Borate is also known as Borax. Na2B4O7.10H2O
21. Feldspar is a silicate of Aluminium and Potassium.
22. When borax is heated with Conc. HCl ,H3BO3 & NaCl are formed.
23. The acidic nature of Al2O3 can be explained by the formation of NaAlO2salt.
24. The metal used in electric cables in place of copper is Aluminium.
25. The chemical name of Borax is Hydrated sodium Tetra Borate.
IV GROUP
1. Which of the following compound is not hydrolysed by water (1)
1. CCl4 2. SiCl4 3. SnCl4 4. Mg Cl2
2. One carat = 200 mg.
3. Graphite is used in nuclear reactors as for reducing the velocity of neutrons.
4. Dry ice carbon compound is used as refrigerant.
5. The reducing agent used in metallurgy of Iron of Coke.
6. Wood charcoal is obtained by heating the wood in absence of air.
7. Charcoal carbon allotrope floats in water.
8. Animal charcoal is used to decolourise sugar.
9. Graphite carbon form is used as Lubricant.
10. When excess CO2 is passed through lime water, the compound obtained is Ca(HCO3)2.
11. Semi water gas is a mixture of water gas & producer gas.
12. Water gas blue colour.
13. When glass is treated with HF, H2SiF6 is produced.
14. The colour of blue glass is due to the presence of cobalt.
15. Crookes glass cuts off the ultraviolet rays.
16. Water glass used in fire proofing of wood.
17. Anthracite is a superior quality of coal.
18. Silica is soluble in HF & H3PO4.
19. CO burns with blue flames. Red lead is Pb3O4
20. Oil gas is a mixture of CH4, C2H6, C2H4 Cl2 etc.
21. Oil gas is obtained by cracking of Kerosene.
22. Crooke’s glass contains cerium oxide.
23. SnO2 is Amphoteric oxide.
24. Methyl alcohol is obtained from water gas.
25. Chemically Litharge is PbO.
CHEMISTRY – IV GROUP ELEMENTS
1. Diamond is the hardest substance known due to presence of tetrahedral crystals. Carbon undergoes sp3 hybridisation in diamond.
Diamond is a covalent crystal (the biding force are covalent bonds).
2. Artificial diamonds were prepared first by MOISSAN.
3. Graphite is a good conductor. It is used in electro-typing.
4. Graphite is soft due to the presence of hexagonal layers. Carbon undergoes sp 2 hybridization in graphite. Graphite is also called
as black lead or Plumbago.
5. Wood Charcoal (any other vegetables etc., also) floats on the surface of water due to the adsorbed air.
6. Lamp black has highest carbon content (after diamond). It is mainly used in making Indian ink, paints, carbo paper etc.
7. Gas carbon is good conductor of electricity (like graphite) and it is used in making carbon electrodes.
8. Formic acid on dehydration with conc. H2SO4 liberates CO.
9. K4Fe (CN)6 , K3 Fe (CN)6) on treatment with conc. H2SO4 liberate CO. It is not absorbed by KOH ,because it is neutral.
10. CO is poisonous because it combines with haemoglobin and forms carboxy-haemoglobin (a cherry red compound) which is not
oxygen carrying.
11. CO is a reducing agent. Burns with blue flame.
12. Solid carbondioxide is called ‘dry ice’.
13. When passed into lime water CO(OH)2, it is turned milky (CaCO3 precipitate) and when CO2 is passed, it is disappeared (due to
formation of calcium bicarbonate) Ca(HCO3)2.
14. 95% O2 and 5% CO2 mixture is employed for artificial respiration.
15. SiO2 is hard solid because of tetrahedrally arranged three dimensional crystal structure.
16. Silicon dioxide (silica) occurs in three important crystalline forms Quartz. Tridymite and Cristobalite.
17. The heat contents of fuels is measured in two units.
1. Calorie 2. British thermal units (B th. U)
18. Water (H2 + CO) is prepared by blowing steam through incandescent (preheated) coke layers. It is called ‘blue gas” because
both H2 and CO are burnt with blue flame.
19. Water is used for manufacture of synthetic petrol.
20. Producer gas (N2 + CO) is prepared by blowing air through incandescent coke. It calorific value is very much less than that of
water gas due to the presence of large proportion of N2.
21. During II world war, producer gas was used as substitute to petrol.
22. Glass is essentially a mixture of metal silicates.
23. Potassium oxide is added for hard glass. An barium oxide is added for high refractive index.
24. Colours are obtained by the addition of suitable metal oxides. Ex : - Red Cu 2O, purple-MnO2, peacock blue-CuSO4 etc.
25. Cement is essentially a mixture of calcium & Aluminium silicates.
26. Excess silica makes cement contains slow setting and excess alumina makes it quick setting.
27. A good quality of cement contains silica and alumina is the ratio in between 2.5 and 4.
28. Silicon carbide is used as abressive under the name carborandum.
29. Tailing of mercury is the reaction of mercury with ozone due to which mercury loses its meniscus and it starts sticking to
the walls of test tube due to the formation of mercurous oxide. The meniscus can be restored by shaking it with water.
The reaction can be shown as

ORES & METALLURGY

Introduction
The biggest source of metals is earth’s crust. Metals are also found in rocks, sea water, some impurities, etc depending upon
their chemical nature. Less electropositive metals have less affinity for oxygen, moisture and hence occur in free or native or
uncombined state, e.g. Au, Pt, Ag, etc. While the metals with higher electropositive character occurs in combined state as
compounds.

The naturally occurring chemical substances in the earth’s crust which are obtained by mining are known as minerals.
Minerals which can be used as a source for commercial recovery of a desired substance are termed as ores. Earthy substance
associated with ores are called gangue.
Sixteen most abundant elements in the earth’s crust are given as:
Atomic Element Percentage Atomic Element Percent (by
Number (by weight) Number weight)
8 Oxygen 49.5 1 Hydrogen 0.9
14 Silicon 25.7 22 Titanium 0.6
13 Aluminium 7.5 17 Chlorine 0.2
26 Iron 4.7 15 Phosphorus 0.1
20 Calcium 3.4 25 Manganese 0.09
11 Sodium 2.6 6 Carbon 0.08
19 Potassium 2.4 16 Sulphur 0.06
12 Magnesium 1.9 56 Barium 0.04
(Total percentage weight of these elements = 99.77)
Ores can be divided into the various categories according to table.
Important types of Ores
Ore Type Examples
Native Cu, Ag, Au, Hg, As, Bi, Sb, Pd, Pt
Silicates Be3 Al2Si6 O18 ,Zn2SiO 4 ,Sc 2Si2 O7 ,NiSiO3 ,MgSiO 3
Carbonates CaCO3 .MgCO3 , CaCO3 , FeCO3 , PbCO3 , BaCO3 , SrCO3 , ZnCO 3 , MnCO3
CuCO3 .Cu(OH)2
Sulphides Ag2 S,Cu2S,PbS,ZnS,HgS,FeS,Bi2S3 ,NiS,CaS,MoS 2
Halides NaCl, KCl, AgCl, MgCl2 .6H2O;NaCl and MgCl2 (in sea water)
Sulphates BaSO 4 ,SrSO 4 ,PbSO 4 ,CaSO 4 .2H2O,CuSO 4 .2Cu(OH)2
Phosphates CePO4 ,LaPO4 ,Th3 (PO 4 )4 ,LiF.AlPO 4
Oxides Al2O3 ,Fe2 O3 ,Fe3 O 4 ,SnO2 ,MnO2 ,TiO 2 ,FeCr2 O 4 , WO3 ,Cu2O,ZnO
Some important compounds
1. MgCO3 Magnesite 2. MgCO3 .CaCO3 Dolomite
3. MgSO4 .7H2 O Epsom salt 4. KCl.MgCl2 6H2 O Carnalite
5. MgAl2 O 4 Spinal 6. H2MgSiO3 Talc
7. Ca2Mg5 Si8 O22 (OH)2 Asbestos 8. KAISi3 O8 Feldspar
9. Cu(OH)2 CuCO3 Malachite 10. Cu(OH)2 .2CuCO3 Azurite
11. PbS Galena 12. Fe3 O4 Magnetite
13. Fe2 O3 .3H2O Cimonite 14. AgNO3 Lunar Caustic
15. ZnSO 4 .7H2O White Vitriol 16. SnCl2 .5H2 O Butter of Iron
17. CaO Quick lime 18. Na2 SO 4 .10H2 O Glauber’s salt
19. Pb3 O 4 Red lead 20. Pb(OH)2 .2PbCO3 White lead
21. Na2 CO3 Soda ash 22. NaOH Caustic Soda
23. KOH Caustic potash 24. Ca(OH)2 Slaked lime
25. CaSO 4 .2H2O Gypsum 26. (CaSO4 )2 H2O Plaster of Paris
27. FeSO 4 .7H2O Green Vitriol 28. Hg2 Cl2 Calomel
29. HgCl2 Corrosive 30. PbSO 4 Anglesite
Sublimute
31. PbO litharge 32. ZnO Philosopher’s
wool
33. HgS Cinnabar 34. BaSO 4 Baryte or heavy
spar
35. ZnS Zinc blende
Some important alloys and their uses are as follows:
Brass Cu (60 – 80), Zn (40 – 20) Utensils
Bell metal Cu (80), Zn (20) Bells
Bronze Cu (70 – 90), Zn (10 – 30) Statues, coins
German silver (Cu – 50, Zn – 25, Ni – 57) Resistance coils, ornaments
Monel metal (Cu – 30, Fe, Mn – 3, Ni – 57) Acid containers
Aluminium Bronze (Cu – 90, Al –10) Ornaments
Gun metal (Cu – 87, Sn – 19, Zn – 3) Gears
Duralumin (Al – 95, Cu – 4, Mg – 5, An – 5) Automobile parts
Magnalium (Al – 98, Mg – 2) Aeronatical materials
Type metal (Pb – 75, Sb – 20, Zn – 5) Printer
Common solder (Pb – 50, Sn – 50) Soldering
Stainless steel Cr (14 – 18), N (7 – 9), Fe (73 – 79) Utensils
Electron (Mg – 95, Zn – 4.5, Cu – 0.5) Automobile parts
Constantine (Cu – 60, Ni – 40) Electrical apparatus
Pewter (Pb – 25, Sn – 75) Water reservoir

Metallurgy

The whole process of obtaining a pure metal and its alloy of desired property from one of its ores is known as metallurgy. In
order to extract the metal from ores several physical and chemical methods are employed depending upon the nature,
availability and properties of metals.
The following flow sheet shows general metallurgical operations. Function of processes are given on the right side whereas
methods employed are indicated on the left of the flow sheet.
Ore
Methods employed : Functions :
Hydraulic washing, magnetic Removal of gangue and
separation, froth floatation method concentration of desired ore

Partly concentrated ore

Leaching and any Separation of other minerals

other operation

Concentrated ore
Roasting, calcination, smelting Removal of other metals to
Reduction : Chemical, obtain desired metal
electrochemical

Impure metal
Electrorefining, zone refining Removal of other elements
or any other technique

Pure metal
Metallurgical Processes
The various metallurgical operations in the extraction of pure metals from their respective ores are given below:
(i) Concentration of the ore: Removal of gangue or matrix from the powdered ore is known as concentration or dressing of
the ore. It can be carried out in the following ways:
(a) Levigation: Also called gravity separation or hydraulic washing where the lighter gangue particles are removed from
heavier ore particles by washing in a current of water. It is generally used for oxide ores and carbonate ores. It is based
on difference in densities of the ore particles and impurities.
 (b) Froth – floatation: It is used for concentration of sulphide ores. Foaming agent like pine oil is added which raises the
lighter ore particles to the top in the form of froth while the heavier gangue particles settle down.
Adsorption phenomenon is involved in this method.
(c) Electromagnetic separation: This method is used when either the ore or the impurities are magnetic in nature e.g.
chromite (FeCr2 O 4 ), magnetite (Fe3 O 4 ) and pyrolusite (MnO 2 ) are all magnetic ores and are separated from their
non – magnetic gangue by this process.
(d) Chemical method-leaching: This is a chemical method of concentration of ore. A suitable reagent is added which
dissolves the ore but not the impurities.
e.g. Noble metals (Ag and Au) are leached with dilute aqueous solution of NaCN or KCN in presence of air, while
other impurities remain undissolved.
Ag2 S  4NaCN  2Na[Ag(CN)2 ]  Na2 S
Argentite Sodium argentocyanide
(ii) Roasting: The ore is heated strongly below its melting point in presence of excess of air which removes impurities of non
– metals at their volatile oxides. This process is used for the conversion of sulphide ores to their respective oxides (de –
electronation of ores)
2ZnS  3O2  2ZnO  2SO2
ZnS  2O2  ZnSO 4
(iii) Calcination: Ore is heated strongly in absence or limited supply of air (air is used here as carrier of heat and moisture).
Carbonates and hydrated oxide ores are converted to their respective oxides.
CaCO3  CaO  CO 2
Al2O3 .2H2 O  Al2 O3  2H2O
(iv) Reduction of the metal oxide to free metal: The roasted ore is reduced to metallic state by the following methods:
(a) Reduction by carbon – smelting: Metal is extracted by heating calcined or roasted ore with powdered coke in
presence of a flux.
PbO  C  Pb  CO
Fe2 O3  3CO  2Fe  3CO2
(b) Reduction by aluminium – Goldschmidt aluminothermic process:
Fe2 O3  2Al  Al2O3  2Fe
Cr2 O3  2Al  Al2 O3  2Cr
3Mn3 O 4  8Al  4Al2O3  9Mn
Mixture of metallic oxide such as Fe2 O3 and aluminium powder in 3:1 ratio by mass is known as thermite.

(c) Reduction by precipitation (hydrometallurgy):

By this technique at normal temperature the metal can be extracted.
For example : Ag, Au are precipitated by this preparation.
2Na[Ag(CN)2 ](aq)  Zn(s)  Na2 [Zn(CN)4 ]  2Ag 
2Na[Au(CN)2 ](aq)  Zn(s)  Na2 [Zn(CN)4 ]  2Au 
(d) Electrolytic Reduction:
This is applied for the active metal chloride or Al2O3
MX  M  X 
At cathode: M  e  M
At anode: X   e  X
2X  X2
(e) Reduction by magnesium (Kroll’s process) :
This method is applicable for the reduction of TiCl4 . TiCl4  2Mg  2MgCl2  Ti

(f) Auto reduction:

2HgS  3O2  2HgO  2SO 2 , 2HgO  HgS  3Hg  SO2
 In this sulphides of Hg, Cu, Pb etc. are oxidized to their respective oxides which further react with sulphides to yield
the metal.
(v) Refining or purification of crude metal:
(a) Liquation: This method is used for those metals which are readily fusible (i.e. having low melting points) such as
Pb, Sn, Bi and Hg as compared to impurities. The metal melts and flows down the sloping hearth leaving behind
infusible material called dross on the hearth.
(b) Distillation: This method is used for the refining of such metals which have low boiling points such as Hg, Zn,
Cd, etc.
(c) Poling: This method is used when impure metal has impurities of its own oxide. The molten impure metal is
stirred with green wood poles. Gases such as CH4 are liberated which reduce any oxide present in the metal.
(d) Cupellation: The impure metal is heated in a cupel or oval shaped crucible made of bone ash or cement and a
blast of air is passed over the molten mass. The impurities get oxidised and removed with the blast of air. For
example the impurity of lead present in silver is removed by cupellation process.
(e) Bessemerisation: The impure metal is heated in a furnace and a blast of compressed air is blown through the
molten mass. The impurities get oxidised. For example, the molten pig iron is taken in a Bessemer converter and
compressed air is passed which oxidises the impurities.
2Mn  O2  2MnO
Si  O2  SiO2
2C  O2  2CO
MnO  SiO 2  MnSiO3
Slag
(f) Van Arkel process: This method is generally applied for obtaining ultrapure metals. The impure metal is
converted into a volatile compound while the impurities are not affected. The volatile compound is then
decomposed electrically to get the pure metal.
Ti, Zr, Hf etc., have been refined by this method.
Impure metal  I2  Metal iodide  Heating
Tungsten filament
 Metal  I2
vapours pure

Ti(s)  2I2 (g) 

523 K
 TiI4 (g)
Impure
TiI4 (g) 
1700 K
 Ti  2I2 (g)
(g) Zone refining or Fractional crystallisation: Elements such as Si, Ge, Ga, etc., which are used as semiconductors
are refined by this method. Highly pure metals are obtained. The method is based on the difference in solubility
of impurities in molten and solid state of the metal.
Summary of the Extraction of Metals
Metal Main Occurrence Main method of Extraction
Iron Haematite, Fe2 O3 Reduction of oxide with carbon monoxide
Magnetite, Fe3 O4 Fe2 O3  3CO  2Fe  3CO2
Lead Galena, PbS Reduction of PbO with carbon
PbO  C  Pb  CO
Copper Copper pyrites, CuFeS 2 Partial oxidation of sulphide ore
Cuprite, Cu2 O (2Cu2 O  Cu2S  6Cu  SO2 )
Calcium Lime stone, CaCO3 Electrolysis of fused CaCl2 and CaF2
Gypsum, CaSO 4 .2H2O
Sodium Common salt, NaCl Electrolysis of fused NaCl with CaCl2
Magnesium Carnallite, Electrolysis of fused MgCl2 with KCl
KCl. MgCl2 .6H2 O
Magnesite, MgCO3
Zinc Zinc blende, ZnS Reduction of ZnO with carbon or electrolysis of ZnSO 4
 Calamine, ZnCO3 ZnO  C  Zn  CO
Silver Argentite, Ag2 S Hydrometallurgy
Native silver Ag2 S  4NaCN  2NaAg(CN)2  Na2 S
2NaAg(CN)2  Zn  Na2 Zn(CN)4  2Ag
Aluminium Bauxite, Al2O3 .2H2 O Electrolysis of Al2O3 in molten Na3 AlF6 (cryolite)
Tin Cassiterite, SnO2 Reduction of SnO2 with carbon
SnO2  2C  Sn  2CO
Nickel Millerite, NiS Reduction of NiO with CO
NiO  5CO  Ni(CO)4  CO2 ;Ni(CO)4  Ni  4CO

Chromium Chromite, FeO. Cr2O3 Reduction of Cr2O3 with Al

Cr2 O3  2Al  2Cr  Al2O3
Mercury Cinnabar, HgS Direct reduction of HgS by heat alone
HgS  O2  Hg  SO2
Gold Native. Small amount in Cyanide process, same as in case of silver
many ores such as those
of copper and silver
Lithium Spodumene, Electrolysis of fused
LiAlSi2O 6 , Lepidolite (Li, LiCl / HCl
Na, K)
Al2 (SiO3 )3 .F(OH)2

Extraction of Aluminium
Important ores of Aluminium
Aluminium: [13 Al27 ,electronegativity 1.5, 1s2 ,2s2 ,2p6 ,3s2 ,3p1 ]
Ores:
 Corundum (Al2 O3 )
 Bauxite (Al2 O3 .2H2O),Gibbsite(Al2O3 .3H2O) Diaspore(Al2O3 .H2O)
 Cryolite (AlF3 .3NaF) or Na3AlF6
 Alunite [K 2 SO 4 .Al2 (SO 4 )3 .4Al(OH)3 ]
 Spinel (MgO.Al2 O3 )
 Felspar (K 2 O.Al2 O3 .6SiO3 ) or KAlSi3O8
 China Clay or Kaoline [Al2 O3 .2SiO2 .2H2 O]
Extraction of aluminium is shown stepwise in the following flow sheet:
Purification of Bauxite:
By Bayer’s process commercially it is being carried out (for red bauxite not for the white bauxite). In other words this process
is applied to the bauxite ore containing ferric oxide as chief impurity.
Flow sheet of Bayer’s process for the preparation of pure Al2O3 :
 Finely powdered bauxite
containing Fe 2O3 ,TiO2 .SiO 2
as impurities

Calcination (FeO   Fe2O3)

Organic matters are removed

Calcined ore (Digested with 45%, NaOH with

at 150 C under 80 lb pr. Filtered)
o

Re sidue Filtrate
(Fe2O3 ) (NaAlO2  Na2SiO3 )
Freshly prepared Al(OH)3 as seeding agent filtered

Pr ecipitate Filtrate
[Al(OH)3 ] (NaOH,Na2 SiO3 )

1000o C
Al2O3 Pure
Alumin a

Reaction of the above flow chart are as follows:

Crude bauxite is heated at 1100o C with Na2CO3 ,

Al2O3  Na2 CO3  2NaAlO2  CO2 

Fe2 O3  Na2 CO3  2NaFeO 2  CO2 

SiO2  Na2 CO3  Na2 SiO3  CO2 

CaO  SiO2  CaSiO3

Then at 50o  60o C CO2 is formed through NaAlO2 solution and produces thereby Al(OH)3

2NaAlO2  CO 2  2H2 O  2Al(OH)3  Na 2CO3

Al(OH)3 
100 C
Al2O3  3H2 O 
o

Electrolytic reduction of Al2 O3

Electrolysis of molten mixture:

Cathode : Carbon
Anode : Graphite rods
Electrolyte : 60 parts cryolite + 20 parts fluorspar + 20 parts pure Al2O3
Temperature : 900o C

Reactions:
According to the 1st theory the following reaction occurs, Al2O3    2Al3  3O2 
3
At cathode: 2Al3  6e  2Al , At anode : 3O 2  6e  O2 
2
As cryolite has greater electrochemical stability it does not dissociate. It only increases the dissociation of Al2O3 . But the
second theory states that, cryolite undergoes electrolytic dissociation first then Al3 goes to the cathode, produced F2 at anode
then reacts with Al2O3 produces AlF3 . AlF3 .3NaF    Al3  3Na   6F 

At cathode: Al3  3e  Al

At anode: 6F  6e  3F2 , 2Al2 O3  6F2  4AlF3  3O2 
Extraction of Copper
Important Ores of Copper
 Copper glance (chalcocite) Cu2S Copper pyrites (Chalopyrites) CuFeS 2
 Malachite Cu(OH)2 .CuCO3 Cuprite or Ruby copper Cu2 O
 Azurite Cu(OH)2 .2CuCO3
Metallurgy of Copper
Copper is extracted mainly from copper pyrites. The various steps involved are
Copper Pyrites
(CuFeS2 )

Crushed and Sieved

Concentration by froth floatation

Powder ore  water  pine oil  air  sulphide ore in the froth

Roasting
Rosting in reverberatory furnace in presence of air
S  O2  SO2 ; 4As  3O2  2As2O3
2CuFeS2  O2  Cu2S  2FeS  SO2

Sand + Coke

Smelting in blast furnace in presence of air

2FeS  3O2  2FeO  2SO2 ;FeO  SiO2  FeSiO3 (slag)
Lo
we
r la
r
ye

ye
la

r
r
pe
Up

Slag Cu2O  FeS

(Matte)

Bassemerisation in bassemer converter in presence of air

2FeS  3O2  2FeO  2SO2 ;FeO  SiO2  FeSiO3 (slag)
2Cu2S  3O2  2Cu2O  2SO2 
2Cu2O  Cu2S 
Auto
reduction
6Cu  SO2

Blister copper (98% Cu  2% impurities)

* Electrolytic refining, Anode  impure copper plates

Cathode  pure copper plates, Electrolyte  CuSO 4  H2SO4
15% 15%
Re actions:
At anode: Cu  2e  Cu2
At cathode: Cu2  2e  Cu
Pure copper at cathode(99.9% pure)
Extraction of Silver
Important Ores of Silver:
 Argentite or silver glance, Ag2 S
 Horn Silver AgCl
  Pyragyrite (Ruby Silver), 3Ag2 S,Sb2 S3

Metallurgy of Silver:
Silver is mainly extracted from argentite (Ag2S) by Cyanide Process

Silver Ore (Argentite)

Concentration by froth floatation

Powder ore  water  pine oil  air  sulphide ore in the froth

CYANIDATION
Concentrated ore  NaCN solution (0.4  0.6%)  Air
Ag2 S  4NaCN    2NaAg(CN)2  Na2 S
4Na2S  5O2  2H2O  2Na2SO4  4NaOH  2S
Filtrate

Pr ecipitation of silver with zinc

2NaAg(CN)2  Zn  2Ag  Na2 Zn(CN)4
Black ppt.
Black ppt. of Ag  KNO3 
fuse
 compact mass silver metal

Electrolytic refining
Anode  impure silver plates
Cathode  pure silver plates,
Electrolyte  AgNO3 solution  HNO3

Pure silver at cathode

Extraction of Lead
Ores:
Galena PbS
Anglesite PbSO 4
Cerussite PbCO3
Lanerkite PbO, PbSO 4
Croeoisite PbCrO 4
Extraction: Steps of extraction are shown in the following flow sheet:
Ore
Concentration by
froth floatation

Concentrated Ore

PbO  PbSO 4

Lead (Pb)
Reactions involved:
PbO  C  Pb  CO
PbO  CO  Pb  CO 2
PbS  2PbO  3Pb  SO2 
PbS  PbSO 4  2Pb  2SO 2 
CaO  SiO2  CaSiO3 (slag)
Fe2 O3  CO  2FeO  CO2
FeO  SiO2  FeSiO3 (slag)
Lead thus obtained contains other metals like Cu, Sb, Sn, Ag, Au, etc. and these make lead hard. In reverberatory furnace,
impurities are oxidized and removed and this makes lead soft.
Extraction of Magnesium
Magnesium from sea – water is obtained by the Dow’s process. It consists of electrolysis of molten magnesium chloride using
an iron cathode and a graphite anode. Following are the steps that involved during the process.
 Mg2 is precipitated as magnesium hydroxide by the addition of slaked lime, Ca(OH)2 to the sea water.
Mg2  Ca(OH)2  Mg(OH)2  Ca 2
 Magnesium hydroxide on treatment with hydrochloric acid is converted to chloride which is crystallized as
MgCl2 .6H2 O
Mg(OH)2  2HCl  MgCl2  2H2 O
 Now for electrolysis, magnesium chloride is fused as follows :
On passing a current of dry HCl gas it get partially dehydrated and the chloride thus obtained is added to a molten
mix. of sodium chloride and calcium chloride (temperature range 973 – 1023 K). Under this condition
MgCl2 melt with the loss of water.
If hydrated magnesium chloride is heated strongly, it hydrolyses to yield magnesia (magnesium oxide) which is a
refractory.
MgCl2 .6H2 O  MgO  2HCl  5H2 O
 Molten mixture of MgCl2 .NaCl and CaCl2 is electrolysed. Magnesium is deposited at the cathode and chlorine
is evolved at the anode. The chlorine is used to make HCl acid which in turn is required for making magnesium
chloride.
Cathode: Mg2   2e   Mg
Anode: 2Cl  Cl2  2e 
Extraction of Iron
Ores
Magnetite Fe3 O4
Red Haematite Fe2 O3
Limonite Fe2 O3 .3H2O
Iron pyrites FeS2
Copper pyrites CuFeS 2
Siderite FeCO3
Extraction of iron

Dressing of the ore: Iron ore is first broken into small pieces of 3 – 5 cm in size.
Roasting and calcination: During roasting S, As, etc. are oxidized to the respective oxides.
S  O2  SO2 
4As  3O2  2As2 O3 
FeCO3 decomposes as
FeCO3  FeO  CO 2 
Fe2 O3 .3H2 O Loses water
Fe2 O3 .3H2O  Fe2 O3  3H2O
Fe3 O4 is decomposed to ferrous oxide and ferric oxide.
Fe3 O 4  FeO  Fe2 O3
Ferrous oxide reacts with silica to form ferrous silicate at high temperature.
FeO  SiO2  FeSiO3
The conversion of FeO into Fe2 O3 will prevent the formation of FeSiO3 . Thus mass of the ore becomes porous causing the
increase in the effective surface area.
Smelting in the Blast furnace
Reactions:
(i) Zone of combustion
C  O2  CO2 (1500-1600C)
(coke)
(ii) Zone of reduction
Fe2 O3  3CO  2Fe  3CO2 (300-700C)
FeO  CO  Fe  CO 2
(iii) Zone of slag formation
CaCO3  CaO  CO 2 (800-1000C)
(limestone)
CaO  SiO2  CaSiO3
fusible slag
(iv) Zone of fusion (lower part of furnace)
Molten iron is heavier than molten slag. The two liquids are periodically tapped off and solidified into blocks called pigs.
Preparation of wrought iron:
This is done by heating cast iron with haematite (Fe 2O3 ) which oxidises C to CO, S to SO2 , Si to SiO2 ,P to P4 O10 & Mn to
MnO
Fe2 O3  3C  2Fe  3CO
Where CO & SO2 escapes, manganous oxide (MnO) and Silica (SiO2 ) combine to form slag.
MnO  SiO 2  MnSiO3
Similarly phosphorus pentoxide combines with haematite to form ferric phosphate slag.
2Fe2O3  P4 O10  4FePO4
Manufacturing Process:
Casts iron takes in piddling furnace and melted by hot blast of air. The chemical reactions which occur are:-
S  O2  SO2 
3S  2Fe2 O3  4Fe  3SO2 
3Si  2Fe2 O3  4Fe  3SiO 2
Mn  Fe2O3  2Fe  3MnO
MnO  Fe2 O3  MnSiO3 (slag)
3C  Fe 2O3  2Fe  3CO
4P  5O2  2P2 O5
Fe2 O3  P2 O5  2FePO 4 (slag)
On removing impurities, the melting point rises and it becomes a semi solid mass. The metal is taken out of the furnace in the
form of balls which are then beaten under hammer to separate out the slag. The product thus formed is thus called wrought
iron.