Chapter Three

Geometric Design of Highways

Section 1: Vertical Alignment

Section 2: Horizontal Alignment

1
 Horizontal Alignment

• A horizontal curve provides a transition

between two straight (or tangent) sections of
roadway. A key concern is the ability of a
vehicle to negotiate a horizontal curve.

2
Vehicle cornering

: angle of incline
W: weight of the vehicle
Wn: weight normal to the roadway
Wp: weight parallel to the roadway
Ff: side frictional force
Fc: centrifugal force
Fcp: centrifugal force acting parallel to the roadway
Fcn: centrifugal force acting normal to the roadway
Rv: radius of the vehicle’s traveled path
fs : coefficient of side friction
g: gravitational constant
V: vehicle speed
3
𝑊𝑝 + 𝐹𝑓 = 𝐹𝑐𝑝
𝑊𝑉 2 𝑊𝑉 2
𝑊 sin 𝛼 + 𝑓𝑠 𝑊 cos 𝛼 + sin 𝛼 = cos 𝛼
𝑔𝑅𝑣 𝑔𝑅𝑣
simplifying:
𝑉2
tan 𝛼 + 𝑓𝑠 = 1 − 𝑓𝑠 tan 𝛼
𝑔𝑅𝑣
• tan 𝛼 is the super-elevation and is denoted by e, defined as
the number of vertical feet rise per 1 foot horizontal, with
unit ft/ft.
• Assuming 𝑓𝑠 tan 𝛼 = 0
𝑉2
𝑅𝑣 =
𝑔 𝑓𝑠 + 𝑒
4
• in design, the engineer selects the appropriate e and fs.
If e is too high, there may be vehicle steering problems
at exits from horizontal curve.
• e.g., the maximum side friction between new tires and
wet pavement ranges from about 0.5 at 25 mph to
approx. 0.35 at 60 mph.
• e.g., the common superelevation rate is 0.10 where
snow and ice are not prevalent. 0.08 may be used if
snow and ice are factors. A rate of 0.12 may be used on
low-volume gravel-surfaced roads to facilitate cross-
drainage. 5
 Example

• A roadway is being designed for a speed of 70 mph. At

one horizontal curve, it is known that the super-
elevation is 0.08 and the coefficient of side friction is
0.10. Determine the minimum radius of curvature
(measured to the traveled vehicle path) that will provide
for safe vehicle operation.

Solution:
𝑉2 70 × 1.47 2
𝑅𝑣 = = = 1826.85 𝑓𝑡
𝑔 𝑓𝑠 + 𝑒 32.2 0.08 + 0.1

6
 Horizontal curve fundamentals

• simple curve with a constant radius

• compound curve with two or more simple
curves
• curves in succession, such as spiral (with a
continuously changing radius) + simple curve

7
T: tangent length
PI: tangent intersection
: central angle of the curve
PT: ending point
PC: beginning point
M: middle ordinate
E: external distance
L: length of the curve

8
Measure of sharpness of degree of curve defined by the
angle subtended by a 100-ft arc along the horizontal
curve.
100 𝐷
=
2𝜋𝑅 360
5729.6
𝐷=
𝑅
From trigonometry: R in feet, D in degree

∆
𝑇 = 𝑅 tan
2
1
𝐸=𝑅 −1
cos ∆/2
𝑀 = 𝑅 1 − cos ∆/2
100∆
𝐿=
𝐷 9
• Note:
• R is measured w.r.t. the centerline of the road
• Rv is determined on the basis of vehicle forces
and is measured from the innermost vehicle
path, which is assumed to be the midpoint of
the innermost vehicle lane.
• a slight adjustment based on lane width is
required to relate R and Rv.

10
 Example

• A horizontal curve is designed with a 2000-ft

radius. The curve has a tangent length of T=400
ft and PI is at station 103+00. Determine the
stationing of PT.

11
 Solution

∆ ∆
Using 𝑇 = 𝑅 tan , 400 = 2000 tan
2 2
∆ = 22.62°
5729.6 100∆
Using 𝐷 = and 𝐿 = :
𝑅 𝐷
100∆ 100 × 22.62° × 2000
𝐿= = = 789.58 𝑓𝑡
5729.6/𝑅 5729.6
Given that the tangent is 400 ft, stationing of PC =
103+00-(4+00) = 99+00
Since horizontal curve stationing is measured along
the alignment of the road, stationing of PT =
stationing of PC + L = 99+00 + 7+89.58 = 106+89.58 12
Stopping-Sight Distance and Horizontal
Curve Design

 Stopping-sight distance is measured

along the horizontal curve from the
center of the traveled lane (the assumed
location of the driver’s eyes).
 Ms (the middle ordinate) must be visually
clear so that the line of sight is such that
sufficient stopping-sight distance is
available.
 SSD can be computed by first deriving
the central angle  s for an arc equal to
the required SSD. (Note that  s is usually
not the same as  .
13
– Assuming that the length of the horizontal
curve exceeds the required SSD,
100∆𝑠
𝑆𝑆𝐷 =
𝐷
57.296 × 𝑆𝑆𝐷
∆𝑠 =
𝑅𝑣

– Rv is the radius of the vehicle’s traveled path,

taken as the middle of the innermost lane.
28.65 × 𝑆𝑆𝐷
𝑀𝑠 = 𝑅𝑣 1 − cos
𝑅𝑣
𝑅𝑣 −1
𝑅𝑣 − 𝑀𝑠
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = cos
28.65 𝑅𝑣
14
 Example

• A horizontal curve on a two-lane highway is

designed with a 2000-ft radius, 12-ft lanes, and
a 60-mph design speed. Determine the distance
that must be cleared from the inside edge of the
inside lane to provide sufficient sight distance
for minimum SSD and desirable SSD.

15
 Solution

The curve radius is the centerline of the roadway.

Therefore, 6 feet is subtracted from the radius to give
the driver’s location for the critical inside lane, i.e.
2000 - 6 = 1994.

From Table 1, the min SSD is 525 ft.

L F I O =×17.26
28.65
28 .65  525 525ft.
M𝑀 1994 MN 1 H− cos
𝑠 = 1994
s
1  cos
1994 PQ
K 1994
Therefore, 17.26𝑓𝑡ft must be cleared, as measured from
= 17.26
the center of the inside lane, or 11.26 from the inside
edge of the inside lane.

For desirable SSD of 650 ft (Table 1) Ms = 26.43 ft.

20.43 ft must be cleared from the inside edge of the
inside lane. 16
 Example

• A two-lane highway (two 12-ft lane) has a

proposed speed limit of 50 mph (assume the
max side friction coeff for 50 mph is 0.14) and,
on the section, has both horizontal and vertical
curves. A recent daytime accident (driver
traveling eastbound and striking a stationary
roadway object) resulted in a fatality and a law
suit alleging that the 50-mph posted speed limit
was an unsafe speed for the curves in question
and a major cause of the accident. Evaluate and
comment on the roadway design.
17
18
 Solution

Two concerns: adequacy of curve radius and super-

elevation, and adequacy of the sight distance on the
inside lane.
L=32+75-(16+00) =16+75=1675 ft
D𝐷=
0  1100
1 0100∆
=
a f
0 0 8×080
 =4 .4.78°
78
o

L𝐿 1 1675
675
5 75729.6
2 9 .5 8
R𝑅=  11198.65
= ft
1 9 8 .6 5 𝑓𝑡
44.78
.7 8
Using the posted speed limit of 50 mph with e = 0.08,
and Rv = R - half the lane width = 1198.65 - 6 = 1192.65
ft.

𝑓f =
V 𝑉2
2

 e−
𝑒=
a 50 50
1.47 f
× 1.47
2

 0 .08
2
 0 .061
− 0.08 = 0.061
32 .2 a1192 .65 f
𝑠s
𝑔𝑅
gR
𝑣v+𝑒 32.2 × 1192.65 19
Since 0.061 does not exceed the maximum fs=0.14 for
50 mph. The radius and super-elevation are sufficient
for 50 mph.

For sight distance, Ms = 18 ft plus the 6-ft distance to

the center of the inside lane = 24 ft.

Rv = R - half the lane width = 1198.65 - 6 = 1192.65 ft

L𝑅𝑣 F IO
𝑅𝑣 − 𝑀𝑠
R
MN
SSD  𝑆𝑆𝐷v = 28.65
cos cosv
 1 R
GH
−1 M s
JK P
𝑅𝑣
28 .64 Rv Q
1192.65 L F
1 1192 .65  24
1192 .65 −1 1192.65 − 24 IO
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 
28.65
28 .65 MN
coscos
H
1192.65
1192 .65 K PQ
=479.3
= 479.3 𝑓𝑡 ft

From Table 3.1, SSD=475 at 50 mph, so the 479.3 ft of

SSD provided is sufficient. Table 3.1 20
Considering the sag vertical curve, the length of the
curve is:
L  18  80  (14  00 )  4  80  480 ft
With A = 6, K=L/A=480/6=80. For the 50-mph speed,
Table 3.3 indicates a necessary K-value of 110
desirable and 90 minimum. Thus, the K-value is
under-designed for the 50 mph design speed.
However, since the accident occurred in daylight and
sight distance on sag vertical curves are governed by
nighttime conditions, this design flaw is not likely to
have contributed to the accident.
Table 3.3
21